IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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PhotDgraphic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)872-4593 


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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICiVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  tnstitute  for  Historical  IMicroreproductions  /  institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiquas 


Tachnical  and  Bibliographic  Notas/Notas  tachniquaa  at  bibliographiquaa 


■.*:. 


Tha  Instituta  has  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  bast 
original  copy  availabia  for  filming.  Faaturas  of  this 
copy  which  may  ba  bibliographically  uniqua. 
wMch  may  altar  any  of  tha  imagas  in  tha 
raproduction.  or  which  may  significantly  changa 
tha  usual  mathod  of  filming,  ara  chackad  balow. 


nColourad  covars/ 
Couvartura  da  coulaur 


□   Covars  damagod/ 
C< 


□ 


n 


n 


0 


n 


Q 


Couvartura  andommagta 


Covars  rastorad  and/or  laminatad/ 
Couvartura  rastaurio  at/ou  pallicul4a 


r~~1    Covar  titia  missing/ 


La  titra  da  couvartura  manqua 


Coloured  maps/ 

Cartas  gAographiquas  •n  coulaur 


Coloured  ink  (i.a.  othar  than  blua  or  black)/ 
Encra  da  coulaur  (i.a.  autra  qua  blaua  ou  noire) 


I      I    Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 


Planches  at/ou  illustrations  un  couleur 


Bound  with  other  material/ 
Rail*  avac  d'autres  documents 


. .    Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
^ '    along  interior  margin/ 

La  re  liura  serrie  peut  causer  da  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distorsion  le  long  d«  la  marge  IntArleura 


Blank  leaves  udded  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  tha  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  eertainea  pages  blanches  ajoutias 
iors  d'une  restauration  apparaissent  dans  la  texte, 
mais.  lorsque  cela  Atait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  its  filmtes. 


L'Institut  a  microfilm*  la  mailleur  examplaira 
qu'il  lui  a  M  possible  de  se  procurer.  Las  details 
de  cet  exemplaira  qui  sent  peut-Atre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique,  qui  peuvant  modifier 
una  image  raproduite.  ou  qui  pauvent  axigar  una 
modification  dana  la  mAthode  normala  da  filmage 
sont  indiqute  ci-dessous. 


r~~|   Coloured  pages/ 


D 


Pagea  de  cotleur 

Pagea  damaged/ 
Pages  endommag4ss 

Pages  restored  and/oi 

Pages  restwurtet;  et/ou  pelliculAes 


r~n    Pagea  damaged/ 

r*n    Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 


Pagea  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  dicolorias,  tachatAes  ou  piquies 

□Pages  dc  ached/ 
Pages  ditachias 

EShowthrough/ 
Trarwparance 

0    Quality  of  print  varies/ 
Qualiti  inigale  de  {'impression 

□   Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprand  du  matirial  supplimentcire 


r~n    Only  edition  available/ 


Seule  Mition  disponible 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refllmed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Les  pages  totalement  ou  partiallemant 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'arrata,  una  peluro, 
etc.,  ont  iti  filmies  A  nouveau  de  fapon  i 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


to 


Th 
po 
of 
filr 


on 
bm 
th4 
sio 
oti 
fin 
sio 
or 


Thi 
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Til 
wh 

Ml 
dif 
eni 
be] 
rigl 
rei^ 
ma 


Additional  comments:/ 
Commentairas  supplimentairas: 


Wrinkled  pages  may  film  slightly  out  of  focus. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  tha  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  film*  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqui  ci-dessous. 


10X 

14X 

18X 

22X 

26X 

XX 

y 

12X 


16X 


20X 


24X 


?|X 


32X 


Th«  copy  filmad  h«r«  hat  boon  roprodueod  thanks 
to  tho  gonoroslty  of: 

Douglas  Library  ^ 

Quoon's  University 


L'axamplairo  film*  fut  roproduit  grAco  A  la 
ginArosit*  do: 

Douglas  Library 
>  Queen's  University 


Tho  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  improe- 
sion,  and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  ^^  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED "),  or  the  symbol  Y  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 


Los  images  suK^antes  ont  AtA  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  do  la  condition  et 
do  la  nettetA  do  I'exemplaire  filmA,  et  en 
conformitA  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 

Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  eet  ImprimAe  sont  filmAs  An  commenpant 
par  la  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  ia 
dernlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impreesion  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
pkit,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmAs  en  commen^ant  par  ia 
premlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impreesion  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  dee  symboies  suivants  apparaftra  sur  ia 
dernlAre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  la 
cas:  la  symbols  —►  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbols  V  signifie  "FIN". 


Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  loft  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  Atre 
filmAs  A  des  taux  de  rAduction  diff Arents. 
Lorsque  le  siocument  est  trop  grand  pour  Atre 
roproduit  en  un  soul  clichA,  11  est  filmA  A  psrtir 
de  I'angle  supArieur  gauche,  de  gauche  A  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenent  le  nombre 
d'images  nAcessaira.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
iiiustrant  la  mAthode. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

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6 

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:«■-*' 


ENCYCLOPiEDIA 


Of 


GEOGRAPHY: 


COHPRISINO  A 

OOMPLETE  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH, 

(■  PHYSICAL,  STATISTICAL,  aviL,  AND  POLITICAL; 

I' 

'I  EXHIBITIRO  ITS  RELATION   TO  THE   HEAVENLY   BODIES, 

ITS  PHYSICAL  STRCCTCRE, 

THE   NATURAL   HISTORY  OF  EACH  COUNTRY, 

AND  THE  INDUSTRY,  COMMERCE,  POLITICAL  INSTITUTIONS, 

AND   CIVIL  AND  SOCIAL  STATE 

or 

ALL  NATIONS 


BY  HUGH  MURRAY,  F.R.S.E. 

ASSiaTKD  IN 

ASTTRONOMY,  &c.  BY  PROF.  WALLACE,  |  BOTANY.  &e.  BY  PROFESSOR  HOOKEll 
GEOLOGY.   Ae.   BY    PROF.    .AMESON.  I  ZOOLOGY.  &c  BY  W.  SWAINSON.  ESQ 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  EIGHTY-TWO  MAPS, 
AND  ABOUT  ELEVEN  HUNDRED  OTHER  ENGRAVINGS  ON  WOOD 

RETUBENTINO  THK  HOST  REMARKABLX  OBJXCTS  OF  NATVIIK  AMO  AST 
IN  EVERT  REGION  OF  THE  GLOBE. 

TOOETHBR  WITH  A 

NEW  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATEa 


REVISED,     WITH     ADDITIONS, 

BY  THOMAS  G.  BRADFORD. 


IN  THREE  VOLUMES. 
VOL.  I. 


i.\ 


PHILADELPHIA: 
BLANC  HARD    AND    LEA. 

1857. 


*.\  .V. 


.-  p 


i     ^ 


Gns-  A3 


"J.    M .,.  .?',< 


V        .   >■      I.     1         A 


,<     I 


.      .,,     J     , 


;.!;T   iV/ 


Entered  according  to  the  act  of  Congress  in  tbi  jear  eighteen  hundred  and  thirty-nz,  by 

CAREf,  LEA,  AND  BLANCHABO. 

In  the  clerk's  office  of  the  district  court  for  the  eastern  district  of  Pennsylvania. 


3. 


STEREOTS-PED  BY  J.  FAOAN FHII.ADELFHIA. 


PBINTI'.D  BY  C.  8HERUAN  AND  CO. 


^ 


/•■■I  i  \  '..' 


ji-  i  (;>/  1  ..UJ 


PREFACE  TO  THE  ENGUSH  EDITION. 


.1  .:  .1 


The  value  and  Importance  of  the  study  of  Geoflpraphy  are  so  obvious,  and  indeed 
so  universally  acknowledged,  as  to  require  little  illustration.  Nothing  can  be  more 
mteresting  to  man,  or  more  gratify  his  thirst  for  Icnowledge,  than  a  survey  of  the 
earth  which  he  inhabits,  peopled  as  it  is  by  beings  of  the  same  nature  with  himself. 
To  visit  and  observe  foreign  climes  and  regions  is  an  object  of  {general  desire,  and 
forms  one  of  the  most  enectual  means  of  enlarging  and  enlightening  the  human 
mind.  This  wish,  however,  unless  in  the  case  of  a  few  individuals,  can  be  gratified 
only  to  a  very  limited  extent,  and  in  none  can  embrace  more  than  a  small  portion 
of  the  vast  variety  of  interesting  objects  which  the  earth  comprises.  This  necessary 
defect  of  personal  observation  may,  however,  be  in  a  great  measure  supplied,  by 
collecting  the  reports  and  narratives  of  those  intelligent  Individuals  who  have 
explored  and  described  its  various  regions,  and  forming  out  of  these  a  general 
description  of  the  world  and  its  inhabitants. 

Works  of  this  class  have  always  possessed  a  peculiar  attraction.  Even  in  ancient 
times,  when  the  extent  of  the  known  world,  and  the  information  with  respect  to 
the  inhabitants  and  productions  of  its  remoter  regions,  were  comparatively  Umited, 
the  geographical  descriptions  of  Herodotus,  Strabo,  Pomponius  Mela,  and  Pliny, 
rank  among  the  most  valuable  productions  of  the  classic  ages.  But  in  modern 
times,  and  particularly  in  the  present  age,  Geography  has  acquired  a  mutli  more 
prominent  place  among  the  departments  of  human  knowledge.  The  discovery  of 
America  in  the  fifteenth  century  awakened  a  spirit  of  enterprise,  and  a  desire  to 
explore  unknown  regions,  that  have  continued  to  gain  new  strength.  During  the 
last  half  century  more  especially,  the  most  civilised  nations  of  Europe  have  oeen 
contending  with  each  other  for  the  glory  of  discovery ;  and  there  is  now  scarcely  a 
shore  however  remote,  or  the  Interior  of  a  continent  however  barbarous  or  difficult 
of  access,  which  has  not  been  surveyed  and  described.  Materials  have  thus  been 
provided  for  a  much  more  complete.  Interesting,  and  authentic  description  of  the 
earth,  than  could  have  been  drawn  up  at  any  former  period. 

The  extensive  discoveries  thus  recently  made  have  thrown  a  wonderfiil  light  on 
the  structure  and  productions  of  the  earth,  and  afforded  large  contributions  to  aH 
the  departments  or  natural  history  They  have  also  displayed  man  in  every  varied 
condition,  from  the  highest  refinement  of  civilised  society,  to  the  rudest  and  most 
abject  condition  of  savage  life.  These  representations  are  not  only  interesting  in 
themselves,  but  throw  fight  on  the  history  of  past  ages.  Communities  are  still 
found  exactly  similar  to  some  of  those  described  in  the  earliest  records  of  antiquity. 
The  tent  of  the  Arab  sheik  differs  little  from  that  which  Abraham  pitched  on  tne 
plains  of  Mamre ;  many  of  the  Tartar  tribes  are  a  people  exactly  similar  to  those 
who  roamed  In  early  ages  over  the  plains  of  Scjrthia ;  and  the  splendid  courts  of 
Babylon  and  Persepolis  have  their  representatives  in  the  existing  world.  We  may 
thus,  in  fact,  trace  back  man  to  an  earlier  and  ruder  stage  than  any  represented  in 
the  ancient  records ;  for  these  convey  only  faint  and  fabulous  notions  of  what 
mankind  had  been  at  a  very  early  period.  But  the  wilds  of  America,  and  the 
shores  of  the  Pacif^'^,  exhibit  the  state  of  savage  simplicity,  which  doubtless  existed 
in  Europe  before  the  light  of  authentic  history  had  begun  to  dawn.  Hence  it  is 
that  Geography,  in  its  present  extended  range,  not  only  shows  man  as  he  actually 
exists,  but  delineates,  as  It  were,  the  progressive  history  of  the  species. 

Besides  the  gratification  thus  aflforded  to  a  liberal  curiosity,  the  knowledge  of 
even  the  remotest  regicms  has,  through  recent  events,  become  an  object  of  the 
utmost  practical  importance.  In  many  of  these,  colonies  have  been  founded, 
political  relations  formed,  and  a  commercial  intercourse  with  them  opened,  by  the 
civilised  nations  of  Europe,  and  particularly  by  Britain.  Regions  the  most  distant 
to  which  a  ship  can  sail  form  integral  portions  of  her  dominion,  and  have  their 
ports  crowded  with  her  vessels.  There  are  thousands  In  this  country  who  have  a 
more  intimate  connection  with  Calcutta  or  Sydney,  than  with  towns  in  their 
immediate  vicinity.  The  manu&cturer  labours  to  supply  the  markets  of  countries, 
the  very  existence  of  which,  fifty  years  ago,  was  unknown ;  the  circumnavigation 
of  the  globe  is  now  an  ordinary  trading  voyage.  The  knowledge  of  Geography 
has  thus  become  a  necessary  qualification  for  the  pursuits  of  commerce  and  indus- 
try, and  for  much  of  the  ordinary  and  current  business  of  life.  A  great  proportion 
of  the  youth  of  Britain  are  trained  for  employments  In  countries  which  lie  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  Europa 

8 

69(552 


PREFACE   TO   THE   BNOLIBH   EDITION. 


m 


m 


The  same  causes  have,  moreover,  given  to  the  knowledge  of  distant  countries  a 
peculiar  hold  on  the  domestic  and  social  affections.  There  are  few  amongst  us 
who  have  not  a  near  relation,  perhaps  a  brother  or  a  child,  residing  in  another 
nemispnere.  Oceans  now  separate  us  from  those  to  whom  we  are  united  by  the 
tenderest  ties ;  the  objects  of  our  affection  have  their  abode  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges,  or  the  shores  of  the  Pacific ;  and  many,  whose  hearts  are  knit  in  the  closest 
friendship,  are  divided  from  each  other  bv  half  the  earth.  In  this  situation,  • 
description  of  the  place  in  which  oiur  friena  or  relative  dwells,  the  objects  which 
meet  his  eye,  the  societv  in  which  he  mingles,  must  afford  peculiar  Ratification, 
and  soothe  the  mind  under  this  paiufiil  separatioa 

Deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  great  extent  and  difficult  execution  of  a 
complete  geographical  work,  the  Eklltor,  during  nearly  ten  years  in  which  he  has 
been  engaged  upon  it,  has  used  the  utmost  exerlion  to  procure  from  every  quarter 
information  and  aid.  He  has  studiously  collected  the  most  recent,  authentic,  and 
accurate  accounts  of  the  extent,  natural  features,  population,  productions,  industry, 
political  constitution,  literature,  religiont  and  social  state  of  the  various  regions  of 
the  globe,  with  the  leading  details  as  to  their  districts  and  cities.  The  sciences 
connected  with  the  natural  history  of  the  earth  have,  however,  attained  to  such  an 
extent  and  importance,  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  them  can  only  be  possessed 
bv  individuals  who  have  specially  devoted  themselves  to  one  particular  branch. 
The  Editor,  therefore,  considered  it  essential  to  procure  the  co-operation  of  writers 
who  had  risen  to  acknowledsed  eminence  in  the  departments  of  Geology  and 
Mineralogy,  Zoology  and  Botany.  He  considered  that  he  bad  fully  succeeded, 
when  Professor  Jameson  undertook  to  delineate  the  geological  structure  of  the 
globe,  and  the  distribution  of  minerals  over  its  surface ;  Mr.  Swainson  to  explain 
the  distribution  of  animals,  and  the  most  remarkable  of  those  found  in  each  particu- 
lar region;  and  Dr.  Hooker  to  perform  the  same  task  in  regard  to  the  vegetable 
Idngdom.  Profbssor  Wallace  has  illustrated  the  relations  of  the  earth  as  a  planet, 
the  trigonometrical  surveys,  the  construction  of  maps,  and  other  subjects  connected 
with  mathematical  science.  These  tasks  have  been  executed  in  a  manner  which, 
It  is  hoped,  will  fUlIy  support  the  high  reputation  of  their  respective  authors.    In 

greparing  the  sections  relating  to  commerce,  the  editor  derived  much  assistance 
om  Mr.  M*CiilIoch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  and  he  is  also  indebted  to  that 
gentieman  for  many  valuable  communications.  Various  parts  relating  to  remote 
countries  have  been  revised  by  gentiemen  recently  returned  from  them. 

The  Maps,  which  are  so  numerous  as  to  form  a  complete  Atias,  have  been 
executed  from  drawings  by  Hall;  and  having  been  carefully  revised  by  the  Editor, 
they  will,  it  is'hoped,  be  found  to  be  accurate,  and  to  include  all  the  most  recent  dis- 
coveries. Notwithstanding  the  smallness  of  the  scale,  they  are  illustrated  by  the 
letter-press  in  a  manner  which  enables  them  to  comprise  equal  information  with 
others  of  much  larcer  dimensions. 

The  other  WoodEngravings  are  mostly  original,  or  have  been  carefblly  selected 
from  the  most  faithfbl  representations  of  the  objects  described;  and  they  are  exe- 
cuted in  the  best  style  by  the  eminent  artists  whose  names  appdur  on  the  title-page. 
They  exhibit  the  most  remarkable  plants  and  animals,  the  chief  cities,  public  buUd- 
ings,  natural  curiosities,  and  picturesque  scenery,  with  the  characteristic  figures 
and  costumes  of  the  natives,  in  the  countries  described.  It  is  not  believed  that  any 
work  of  this  kind  is  similarly  embellished,  at  least  to  nearly  the  same  extent. 
These  representations  are  by  no  means  introduced  for  the  salce  of  mere  ornament ; 
they  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  utility,  conve]dng  an  infinitely  better  i  lea  of  the 
objects  than  could  be  derived  firom  the  most  laboured  description. 

Notwitiistanding  all  these  efforts,  it  is  impossible  to  lay  this  volume  before  the 
Public  without  the  painful  reflection,  that,  in  a  subject  involving  such  an  infinite 
number  and  variety  of  details,  many  of  which  are  often  very  difficult  to  procure, 
not  a  few  imperfections  and  even  errors  must  inevitably  occur.  M.  Balbi,  whose 
exertions  to  collect  the  most  recent  geographical  information  are  well  known,  and 
to  whose  labours  the  present  volume  16  much  indebted,  candidly  observes :— "  One 
of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  be  surmounted  in  the  composition  of  an  elementary 
treatiso  of  Geography  is  the  want  of  contemporary  documents.  Geography  is 
olmost  necessaiSy  a  compound  of  things  which  are,  with  things  which  have  ceased 
to  be.  How  can  one  be  informed  of  aU  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years,  even  in  tiie  capitals  of  Europe,  sUH  more  in  those  of  Asia,  AfHca, 
and  America  1  To  compose  a  Geograi^y  which  should  exhibit  a  complete  picture 
of  the  globe  at  a  particular  period,  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  authentic  docu- 
ments, all  of  the  same  date  and  that  a  recent  one;  which  never  has  been,  and 
never  can  be." 


<5 


h.u!.;J  (!'.i;i...'.l  W;    ADVERTISEMENT    ^'  :'*''^:'""^*^^  '^'=  '^;/^'; 
.!,■■  ■.,!,.'' '..^ff'itX  i»t''|'*     .■•;'«  '•'...■♦V  i)«''.ii.i).»  ,    •"■'M'ljiuv'Jii  ij'fl  fM 

.  ■       '     ■  'to  ths  '       t        • , 

1    .,       .-ti  AMERICAN    EDITION,     if   .'hi?- 

The  object  and  plan  of  the  ENCTCLOPiEDiA  of  Geography  have 
i)een  very  fully  set  forth  in  the  Preface  to  the  English  Edition,  and 
the  names  of  the  editor  and  his  collaborators  are  sufficient  vouch- 
ers  for  its  value.  It  is  due,  however,  to  the  American  reader,  to 
inform  him  in  what  respects  these  volumes  differ  from  the  original. 
The  whole  of  the  EInglish  work  is  here  given,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception, that  the  description  of  Great  Britain,  which  occupied 
more  than  one-third  of  the  Book  devoted  to  Europe,  and  con- 
siderably more  than  the  space  given  to  the  whole  of  America,  has 
been  somewhat  abridged ;  but,  it  is  believed,  without  the  omission 
of  any  thing  of  importance.  The  text  has  been  carefully  revised 
and  corrected  throughout,  and  in  most  cases  more  recent  statis- 
tical details  have  been  substituted  for  those  of  the  original.  The 
additions  to  the  first  volumes  are  not  considerable  in  amount,  but 
are  generally  such  as  have  be^  required  by  changes  in  oi*r'  know- 
ledge or  in  the  condition  of  things.  The  Book  relating  to  Ai  ierica 
has  been  enlarged  as  far  as  the  limits  of  the  work  would  allow, 
principally  by  the  addition  of  local  details ;  the  condition  of  the 
new  American  states  is  too  unsettled  to  render  it  worth  while  to 
fill  much  space  with  accounts  of  their  political  relations,  which 
might  be  entirely  changed  before  these  pages  met  the  eye  of  the 
reader.  The  Chapter  which  treats  of  the  United  States  has  been 
written  anew,  the  original  being  extremely  imperfect  and  incorrect, 
as  all  European  treatises  on  the  subject  are. — Our  growth  is  so 
rapid,  the  increase  of  our  population,  wealth,  commerce,  manufac- 
tures, and  other  industrial  resources,  so  amazing,  the  creation  of 

new  towns,  cities,  nay,  states,  is  continually  making  such  a  change 

1*  6 


%, 


.,^v,  #■•** 


ft  ADYBRTISBMBNT  TO  THB  AMBRICAN  BDITION. 

in  the  face  of  things,  public  works  are  conceived,  planned,  and 
executed  on  so  great  a  scale  and  with  such  promptitude,  that  it  is 
not  at  all  surprising  that  a  distant  writer  should  be  entirely  baffled 
in  his  attempts  to  describe  the  country  as  it  is.  The  SCoolooical 
section  has  alone  been  retained,  but  it  has  been  much  enlarged, 
chiefly  from  a  later  work  of  Mr^'Swainson^s ;  and  some  general 
remarks  upon  the  shells  of  the  United  States  have  been  added. 
For  the  account  of  the  Geology  of  our  country,  the  reader  is 
indebted  to  Prof.  Rogers,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  The 
Botanical  section  has  also  been  prepared  by  a  gentleman  of  high 
reputation  in  the  scientific  world.  The  Editor  is  painfully  sensible 
of  the  imperfection  of  the  other  parts  of  this  Chapter,  but  he  trusts 
that  the  difficulties  of  the  subject  will  obtain  for  him  the  indulgence 
of  the  reader.  ■  ~^^  »•  «  -- '  •  -  '  -  —  -  -  ^  ^^ 
-    PBn.Ai>M.«iiA,OrtofterW,i88e:'  '^'.'  noiNp:.v>!.  ofli  Ji..?]  .Mu%io 

iinminv  Gt'l  tiioiitjv/'  J).>voi!.!u  Ht  il  J.'xf  :  fv^- hr:<}.;  ttitlvf- ,•:(■:  f\yA\ 
ly^sr/st  '(.l][i/);'T«'>  f"|;>(f  ai.)i  .!/i;f  -jiiT '  .■v'.»(is-'<'4/.:t  'lo  ^fv  'f  ,',«rr  'to 
•tftisii'j  imyy^t:  onoax  m>'.r.'\  i  ■nfu  ij  {.trui  .f»«iifvHf.iMi  \y,i'. xxi-u- >  Ivj'. 

/«gll'u  fe{irv>v/  :^V)V  'rM  'to  U:h  ;!  wdi  >^i;  ist  '<■■;  b.>vt;-[n'?  v..  "J  j-km 
wlJ  lo  liOt)i(»«0:'>  mh  :--.fiul"!i  f;  wi  lo  Koijiliftrv    mi:  vJ   /'i,  .li-Hti-ii; 

«>*li  lo  $iV'»  fnft  torn  K'>7>r'^|  u-f-oAi  tnol'Hl  f)ai^(jj«l')  ylyittii  -  'o*.*  W>^\ui 
ttji'^fd  s«ff  K'jJiti'Si  vjifiJ  j.{If  lo  ftt«s'?tt  ft'>fi!.v  *i  Ujuti  )  --MCr  '.rjlMtif 
,r*f)«ior^ai  b«/i  i'.wl'rjq/ai,7Jofu'.>*!lzo  jjfiir>:5  Wn!jmcv'biL%Yf'>fio  it  •tu-oY 


>  *M«*»*«fi\|  VV> 


•  .                '''    .' 
tu il 


CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  I. 


■  ft.  MMttJt*^ 


J/ 


ni 


mirAcn  to  tub  bnoum  iDmoif » in 

rBBTAOB  BT  TRB  AMERICAN  BDITOB V 

nmoDuonoir % 


PART  I. 


.t>t. 


RisTOBT  or  oBooiunnr. 


■n  t*  (i;i 


BOOK  I. 

ANonir^  aMojunr 

<l«bw>l»  utf  yVanlelin  Gtognphy 
«  P«»».«ir*i"  " 
11.  KlBfikMi 


.A.^iknki  I 


P••^arrJM'  Aim... 
11.  KlBfikMi  of  final, 
lit.  ConunerM  of  TVN . 


ft|«n> 

10 

U 

!V.  tlM  Worl<<  iieeohlini  to  tiw  Rtbrtwi'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  n 

1.  Tanhlth U 

8.  OpMr 14 

1.  Tim  IiIu 19 

4.  Bhcba  and  Dedtn IS 

5.  OnuntilM  oa  iha  Kuphrataa 17 

•^OoiiMWK.twItlMNarUi ,.,,,>„,um  17 


CHAP.  fl. 
AndaiilVojraivaorDlMOTenr U 

I.  Clreumna*l|aiioD  of  Aflrlea  undar  Ifaetao 18 

II.  Voyagaof  Botaipaa IS 

III.  Vuyaga  of  Hanno 10 

IV.  Vojrai*  of  BwloiiM M 

V.  Voyafo  of  Fytheaa 


V.  Voyafo  of  Fytheaa VJ 

VI.  Voyage  of  NearclMil M 

VIL  rariploa  of  the  Erythrean  ■•■ 17 


CHAP.  lU. 

Oreek  Oeofraphy  befbre  Alexandar. 
I.  Oeofraphy  of  Homer 


II.  Poetical  Oeoiraphy  . 
I  of  iMilntua  . 


10 

31 

III.  School  of  Mllntua S 

IV.  Oeograpliy  of  Herodotua 33 

1.  Europe  of  Herodotua 34 

9.  Alia  of  Herodotua 34 

8.  AlHoaoT  Heradotua 18 

CHAP.  nr. 

Flrat  Alexandrian  School.  Eraloathenaa  and  filrabo  37 

I.  Expedition  of  Alexander. 37 

II.  Expedition  of  Btleueaa 38 

III.  Eraloathsnea 38 

IV.  HIpparehui SO 

V.  The  World  acoordlnitoEratoBtbanea  Mid  Strabo  30 

1.  Europe 40 

S.  Alia «>* 

8.  AAriea C 

CHAP.  V. 

Boman  Oeofrapby. 

I.  Mela.rr....... 

II.  Pliny 

m.  Itiaarai lea— Peutlnierian  TaUa 40 

CHAP.  VI. 

laeond  Alexandrian  School ....81 

I.  Marinua  of  T^re 81 

n.  Ptolemy 88 

1.  Europe .« S3 

B.  Alia 80 

a.  Aftka 80 


BOOKIL 
owMttAnn  aw  n 

OHAP.  L 


'■i^rr ; 


Arabian  o«offnpiir ..;.;?^'..;;.;...'8l'" 

I.  Oenaral  iyitem 81 

II.  Alia.... ai 

IIL  Africa 88 

OHAP.  n 
Eunpeau  Oeoiraplqr  daring  tha  Dark  Afaa 88 

CRAP.  III. 
Gaoiraphlcal  Xaowledia  derived  from  tlM  Oraaadw.  8t 

OHAP.  IV.  .»<^ 

TanarOeography ^u fli- 

OHAP.  ▼. 
Vanatlan  Gaography ff 


i<.e 


BCXMCni. 


■  ta***  4*  ••  a 


••a«*a«aaaa«a*«  43 

•  •••a«aa*a«««aa  49 


MODUN  OlOOKArar.  V  'Mtttvl    it 

OHAP.  I. 

Dlieovarjr  of  Amertea  and  tha  Eait  Indlaa 88 

OHAP.  II. 
Early  Byitem  of  Modem  Oeographjr.MxMOH  »>wi10 

CHAP.  Ill       -"'^^f^f'^^  ^?|- 
Modem  Aatioaomleal  Geography )l 

OHAP.  nr. 

Modem  Oritieal  Oeography IS 

OHAP.  V.      ,  ,,i,',)  in„i  .t%.  (■  .1^ 
Modem  Deaeriptlve  and  Statlatical  C«utikHj...t..  ii 

OHAP.  TL 
Modem  Gaograpby  of  Aiia.. 94 

OHAP.  vn. 

Modem  Oaofraphy  of  Africa ••••'i^ 

q^    .,..,.,.,, ...     CHAP.  VnL                      '7*-]' 
Modem  Geography  of  Amerka f n 

OHAP.  n. 
Modem  Geograplqr  of  tlM  Aonnl  Ba^  and  Uanda.  1^ 


..  V(l<|l 

...  -^I'si: 


\\ 


II  111 


i.,upt(>i»i!«i>3»ii    .    PART    II.  •;.-•■•:'■ 
•><•  PRIirCIPIiES    or    GSOGRAFHT. 

BOOK  L 

AanoiioiiiaAii  nuNOiru^Vv''<- *'' 


■•.    .•-i!l5t1^^t~>V  ,.1«K  .«■ 

-fM  «>■«'  •■>  '*  ■'"  ■■■  ■  Htll  4;ft 


OHAP.  L 
SaMra  View  of  the  Phenomena  of  tiM  HeaTena, 
appannt  Motiona,  flzed  Stan,  Planeta,  tee. 80 


■  .•fi>k•.,^.%y„.■,i^*ls^,■m?^ 
ctur.tii  - 

The  Heavana,  aa  aaea  tliroagh  tba  Tcleaeope Bl 

OHAP.  in. 
Appnxlmatloa  to  tha  Figura  and  Magaltoda  ef  tha 


Ippfo] 

Bartl 


fUl 


OOMTBinib 


\^ 


.J 

f  4  if 


CHAP,  n 

OoclrlM  of  lb*  IplMrt M 

CHAP.  V. 
leutlok  of  llM  Bull,  Moon,  tnd  titMtt  M  tlHlf 

Aim  -llMir  tigan M 

OHAr.  vt. 

INM«i.«M  and  MM'lhMl*  of  »m  HMVialjr  lodlM.  ■   n 

CHAP.  VII. 

Boutloa  of  tlM  lartk m 

CHAP.  VIII. 
Apptrani  AniiatI  Molloa  af  Iba  fca.    Vidallada 
oraaaioat 

ORAP.  IX. 


IHrlMoa  and  Maaturt  of  TIaM. 

CMAP.  X. 
ProMr  MMioB  of  Iha  Moai.   Uw  Phaaia.  XellpaM 
of  Iba  lua  and  Mooa 


CHAP.  XI. 

Motion  of  Iba  Planala  round  Iha  Sua IM 

CHAP.  XII. 
Motion  ofthalartb  round  Iba  Bna 110 

OBAP.  XIIL 
OrbtiaoflbaPlaaaia lis 

CHAP.  XIV. 
OooMU 114 

CHAP.  XV. 

Law  of  UalvarMl  OraTltalion iM 

CHAP.  XVI. 


Fifura  and  Conitilutton  of  tba  Bartb  dadaead  flrom 
UM  Tbaorjr  of  OrkTltallon 


IM 


CHAP.  XVIL 

TbaTMta M 

CHAP.  XVIIL 
Oaaaral  Vlaw  af  Iba  lolar  ■yMMH M 

CHAP.  XIX. 
PIf ara  and  Mafniluda  of  Iba  Karik Ill 

CHAP.  XX. 
OttaiMlaalloa  of  Lailiada  and  U«|llada...»        117 

CMAP.  XXL 
Kapiaaanlalion  of  Iba  lartk  ........   ......  Ui 


Malaofolonr. 
Hrdrolofjr... 
Oaognoajr.... 


BOOK  II. 

awLooiOAi.  nuHoirLn. 

CHAP.  I. 


CHAP.  n. 

crap!  iii.' 


BOOK  IIL 
OKNUAL  ptiNCirLn  Of  aiooEArar  citnm  iTf 

ULATION  TO  OMANiaU  AND  UTINO  aUNOI. 
CHAP.  I. 

Oaotrapbr MBaidarad  in  ralallon  lo  Iba  Oiftribatlon 

ofPlania tsr 

CHAP.  II. 
Ototraphjr  eontldcnid  In  ralallon  lo  Iba  Uitrlbailon 

of  Man  and  Anlnala IM 

CHAP.  III. 
Oaofripby  contldtred  la  ralallon  to  Man  In  loalaty  >7%- 


■i(*i.'  •-'  n»  (vmtff-' 


'■.•K« . 


:    PART  III. 

OBOORAPHY  COIfSIDBRKD  Iff  RBLATIOIV  TO  THE  VARIOX^  REOIOffS  Or  THK  OLOBBi ' 


BOOK  I^EUROPE. 
CHAP.  I. 

OaHBRAL  Bcnvar  or  Eoaora WB 

I.  Natural  Pe^lurao SM 

II.  Inbabitanu Ml 

III.  Botany IM 

IV.  Zoolofy 998 

V.  Languaiaa 398 

CHAP.  II. 
BM0i.*ra SIS 

I.  Oaographleal  Outllna 317 

II.  Natural  Oaomphy 319 

III.  Illitorieal  Oaotrajiby S41 

IV.  Political  Qaoarap^ 349 

V.  ProduetlTa  Induitry «....•«.... 311 

VI.  Civil  ond  Bocial  Btala 3S7 

VIL  Local  Gaqcraphy     388 

1.  Bouthem  Oountiea     364 

9.  Baatern  Countiaa 388 

3.  Central  Counllea 371 

4.  Northern  Conntlaa      3(9 

8.  Weflarn  Countiaa 391 

&  Walei 398 

CHAP.  lU. 

ricoTi.AnB 401 

I.  Gaofraphlcal  Outlina 401 

If.  Natural  Oeofraphy 403 

m.  Hiitorical  Sunray 400 

IV.  Political  Oonititutlon 400 

V.  Productive  Induitry 410 

VL  Civil  and  Social  Wata 413 

VII.  Local  Geography 41S 

1.  The  Lowland  Countiaa 4M 

9.  The  Highland  Countlea 493 

3.  The  Bcottiih  Ulanda 498 

CHAP.  nr. 

II8L4IIB ■ 433 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aipaet 439 

II.  Natural  Ctoography «*. 433 

m.  Hiitorical  Geography 440 

IV.  Political  Oonititution 441 

V.  Productive  Induitry 443 

VL  Civil  and  Social  Mate 440 

VIL  Local  Geography 4S0 

CHAP.  T. 
DamiMK 463 

I.  General  Ootline  and  Aipeel 46S 

'  n.  Natural  Geography 471 

in.  Hiitorical  Geography 471 

IV.  Productive  Induitiy 471 

V.  Political  Geograpby 47S 

VL  Civil  and  Social  Stale ».^ 473 

Vll.  lioeal  Geogranb;  -».«..«»««. .m.»m.«m.  .  473 


CHAP.  VL 

■waoaN  AND  Norway 478 

I.  Cenaral  Outline  and  Aapael 470 

II.  Natural  Geography 470 

IIL  Hiitorical  Geography 481 

IV.  Political  Geography 481 

V.  Productive  Induitry 481 

VL  Civil  and  Social  SUta 484 

VIL  Local  Geography 486 

1.  Sweden 480 

9.  Norway 401 

3.  Lapland 403 

CHAP.  VIL 

RoUAnnAire  BaLaiuM 4M 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aapact 
IL  Natural  Geography 

III.  Hiitorical  Geography 

IV.  Political  Geography 

V.  Productive  Induitry 

VL  Civil  and  Social  Rate  . ..  ■ 
VII.  Local  Geography 


•.*....•*..••• I 
«..•.•.«•..... 


..4IB 
..408 


•  •aa  ••aooaaaaa* 


,009 

.803 

.MS 

.    .   .  .008 

L  Beliiuro 009 

9.  Holland Oil 

CHAP.  VIIL 

FiANca sn 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aipaet 019 

IL  Natural  Geography MO 

IIL  Hiilorieal  Geography 030 

IV.  Political  Geography 039 

V.  Productive  Induitry 034 

VL  Civil  and  Bocial  SMta 040 

VIL  Local  Geography 043 

CHAP.  IX. 

Bpain 038 

I.  General  Outline  aad  Aapael S88 

IL  Natural  Geography SOB 

IIL  Hiiturical  Geography 808 

IV.  Folitieal  Geomphy 870 

V.  Productive  Induitry 87] 

VL  Civil  and  Social  Stata 5JS 

VIL  Local  Geography 875 

VIIL  BepuMle  of  Andorra OBI 

CHAP.  X. 

FORTIMAL 

L  General  Onlllne  and  Aapact . 

IL  Natural  Geography 

IIL  Hiitorical  Geography 

IV.  PoUtieal  Geography 

V.  Productive  Induitry  .. 


ggo 

800 

090 

801 

001 

ata 

VL  Civil  and  Social  AaU 803 

V|L  Lnc>!€«Q8ra^>!!y w3 


i.,  ^ 


ENCYCLOPiEDIA  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


«■    1. 


INTRODUCTION. 


GwMMAPHT  coniiiU  in  th«  dMcription  tad  delinMtkn  of  the  Etith.  It  coiuidfln  that 
planet  in  reepoct  to  its  fi>m,  iti  connexion  with  other  bodies  in  the  univene,  the  vtrioua 
puti  into  which  it  ia  divided,  their  relatione  to  each  other,  and  the  objeota  with  which 
each  ia  reapectiveljr  filled.  Geography  indeed  could  not  attempt  a  acientiflc  analjrsia  of 
all  these  objecta,  without  seeking  to  comprohond  within  itaelf  a  complete  circle  of  science. 
It  viewa  only  their  obvioua  and  visible  characters,  and  chiefly  those  featu/es  which  arr 
peculiar  1o  each  respective  country  and  region  on  the  ikce  of  the  globe. 

The  great  importance  of  this  branch  of  knowledge  must  be  sufficiently  obvious  It 
embraces  a  vast  variety  of  those  objects  which  are  most  interesting  in  themselves,  and 
with  which  it  most  concerns  man  to  be  conversant.  It  enables  the  navigator,  the  merchant, 
the  military  commander,  to  carry  on  their  reapective  operations.  Geography  is  moreover 
essential  to  the  clear  understanding  of  every  branch  of  the  history  both  of  man  and  nature. 
The  transactions  of  bordering  states  are  unintelligible  without  a  knowledge  of  their  rel^ 
tive  extent  and  position,  and  of  the  theatre  on  which  the  great  events  of  their  history  arc 
acted.  Every  form,  both  of  animal  and  vegetable  nature,  is  modified  in  the  most  striking 
manner  by  the  climate  or  the  country  in  which  it  is  placed.  Still  more  intimate  is  its  re- 
lation with  geology  and  other  sciences,  which  investigate  the  materials  composing  thu 
substance  and  crust  of  the  earth.  None  of  these  branches  of  knowledge  can  be  distinctly 
understood,  or  viewed  under  its  proper  relation  and  arrangement,  without  a  previous  know 
ledge  of  geography. 

This  important  and  extensive  subject  seems  to  divide  itself  naturally  into  three  parti. 

The  Fir$t  Part  treats  of  the  "  History  of  Geography ;"  the  origin  and  progress  of  the 
Science ;  and  the  steps  by  which  man,  who  seemed  fixed  by  nature  in  a  local  and  limited 
position,  has  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  immense  circuit  of  the  globe.  This  Part 
ia  divided  into— L  Ancient  Geography ; — IL  Geography  of  the  Middle  Ages ; — HL  Modem 
Geography. 

The  Second  Part  comprises  the  Prineipht  of  the  Science.  These  are — I.  Matkematu 
eal:  those  which  relate  to  the  form  of  the  earth,  its  movementa,  its  plaee  in  the  Solar 
System,  the  great  circles  by  which  it  is  divided,  the  operations  by  which  it  is  surveyed, 
and  the  modes  in  which  its  spherical  outlme  can  bo  represented  on  the  plane  surface  of  a 
map.  n.  Phyneal:  those  which  treat  of  the  substances  which  cover  the  earth's  surface, 
the  elements  which  compose  and  aurround  it;  rock,  earth,  water,  air,  aa  they  appear  under 
t^  various  forms  of  mountain,  plain,  river,  sea,  and  present  all  the  changing  phenomena 
of  the  atmoephere.  HI.  Geography  may  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  pther  objects  and 
sciences.  1.  To  Zoology,  or  the  distribution  of  animals  over  the  globe.  2.  To  Botany,  or 
the  difilision  of  vegetable  productions.  3.  To  the  human  race,  and  the  various  branches 
into  which  it  has  been  formed,  considered  in  rotation  to  numbers,  wealth,  political  union, 
social,  intellectual,  and  moral  condition. 

The  Third  Part  considers  Geography  in  detail,  as  it  applies  to  the  various  quarters  and 
countries  into  which  the  world  is  divided,  the  outline  and  extent  of  each,  its  natural  fea> 
tures,  the  revolutions  through  which  it  has  passed,  its  political  constitution,  the  icdastrjr 
and  wealth,  the  civil  and  social  condition  of  its  inhabitants.  The  descripticm  of  each 
country  will  conclude  with  a  local  and  topographical  survey  of  ita  districts,  cities,  and 
towns. 

This  Part  will  divide  itaelf  into  five  general  heads : — ^I.  Europe.  U.  Asia.  lU.  Afiriea. 
IV.  Australia.    V.  America. 

An  Index  will  be  added,  which,  being  extremely  copious,  and  containing  refbrenees  t« 
all  the  places  mentioned  in  the*work,  will  answer  in  a  great  degree  the  purpoees  of  a  Geo> 
graphic^  Gazetteer.   _^^.^   ]^  .■■r:^iVi:  ■■^^..'■  -  v.- •:  ■•- J■•>n,-^►i7t^f^^•"i|'«^ff?^f•^e 


M?:*'.)  "in  (■  .(i;;^/i'  *.\'.^  i"'y"[ 


PART   I. 
'      '^       '  HISTORY  OF  OEOORAPHY. 

The  History  of  Geography  may  be  divided  into  three  books: — ^L  Ancient  Qeognjity. 
T  Geography  of  the  middle  ages.    III.  Modem  Geography. 


4J  .  '\    .^ 


■;  t  ■ 


(■ 


i' 


] 


BOOK   I. 

ANCIENT   GEOGRAPHY. 


The  Greography  of  the  Ancients  may  be  conai'lered  under  the  heads  of,  I.  Hebiew 
and  PhoBnician  Geography ;  the  principal  features  of  which  may  be  found  in  the  Jewidi 
Scriptures.  II.  Greek  Geography,  in  its  early  state,  before  the  expedition  of  Alexander. 
ni.  The  first  Alexandrian  school  formed  by  Eratosthenes.  IV,  The  Roman  school,  finrmed 
chiefly  by  Mela  and  Pliny.    V.  The  second  Alexandrian  school,  formed  by  Ptolemy. 


1  •     ■.   -fft-'-..  *■. 

CHAPTER  L 

-.»,  ■ 

HEBREW  AND  PHOENICIAN  GEOORAPHT. 

The  Sacred  Records,  in  addition  to  their  higher  claims  on  the  attention  of  mankind, 
possess  the  important  secondary  advantage,  that  they  enable  us  to  trace  human  existence, 
and  the  forms  of  society,  back  to  a  much  earlier  period  than  the  information  derived  firoro 
any  other  source.  They  were  long  anterior  in  this  respect  to  the  classic  story  of  Greece 
and  Rome ;  the  faintest  light  even  of  whose  fabulous  history  cannot  be  traced  back  to  the 
.period  when  Abraham  was  driving  his  flocks  over  the  seats  of  future  empire  on  the  Euphrates. 
AoKHiff  Abraham's  contemporaries  we  discern  the  germ  of  the  mat  monarchies  which 
fint  changed  the  face  of  human  aflairs.  Nimrod,  the  founder  of  Babylon,  almost  like  au 
Iroquois  chief,  is  mainly  celebrated  for  his  activity  and  success  in  the  chase.  Modem  di» 
covery  has  indeed  made  us  acquainted  with  tribes  existing  in  a  still  ruder  form ;  but  there 
is  no  narrative  in  which  we  can  trace  so  distinctly  the  gradual,  yet  somewhat  rapid,  transi- 
tion made  in  these  &vourcd  regions,  from  the  hunting  and  pastoral,  to  the  commercial  and 
agricultural  states  of  society. 

Sect.  L — The  Patriarchal  Age$. 

In  the  early  patriarchal  records  we  discover  first  the  rich  Mesopotamian  plain,  not  yet 
covered  with  cities  and  harvests,  but  standing  as  an  open  cranmon,  over  which  the  sons  o# 
Terah  drove  unmolested  their  flocks  and  herds.  In  these  fiivourable  circumstances,  and 
surrounded  by  suriple  and  rural  plenty,  the  flocks  and  the  shepherds  multiplied  in  an  extras 
ordinary  manner.  The  heads  of  the  families  became  petty  princes,  and  were  as  such  at 
once  respected  and  ffeared.  As  they  went  on  increasmg,  the  land  became  "not  able  to 
bear  them ;"  and  the  most  intimate  friends  were  able  to  prevent  dissension  among  their 
adherents  only  by  an  entire  though  painful  separation ;  nay,  even  by  striking  into  routes  so 
opposite,  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  a  future  union.  This,  however,  was  rather  a 
palliation  than  a  cure  for  the  evil ;  for,  in  whatever  quarter  each  directed  his  course,  he 
came  into  contact  with  other  families.  The  difficulty  was  still  augmented,  when  all  the 
more  fertile  tracts  began  to  be  cultivated  by  a  fixed  population,  subject  to  regular  govern- 
ment The  first  regions  which  came  under  these  circumstances  appear  to  have  been  Lower 
EJgypt  and  Gerar,  on  the  coast  of  Philistia,  along  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  latter  we  find 
Imac  attempting  to  settle  and  cultivate  the  ground ;  but  the  king,  though  evidently  afinid 
to  offend  so  potent  a  tribe,  insisted,  in  a  determined  though  courteous  manner,  upon  their 
quitting  his  territory.  The  family  were  therefore  obliged  finally  to  establish  themselves 
in  the  vicinity  of  Hebron,  collecting  the  somewhat  scanty  herbage  which  grew  amid  the 
rugged  mountains  to  the  west  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was,  therefore,  an  auspicious  change 
when  they  were  transported  into  the  Z^and  of  Goshen,  a  rich  pastoral  district  of  Egynt 
The  circumstances  attending  t!ie  captivity  of  Joseph  enable  us  already  to  observe  ui6 
activity  of  that  interior  caravan-trade,  which  afterwards   on  so  great  a  scale,  traversed 

10 


BookL 


HEBREW  AND  PHCENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY 


h* 


Arabia.  Two  caravans,  destined  for  the  supply  of  Egypt,  appear  meeting  each  other  in 
opposite  directions;  and  that  cruel  trade,  of  which  men  were  the  object,  ia  already  c&rried 
on  in  the  same  remorseless  manne**,  and  by  the  same  unjust  means,  by  which  it  has  ever 
since  been  conducted.  k,    ,    , 

♦  Sect.  n. — The  Kingdom  of  Israel.    *'   -  '    '     *      -, 

The  Israelites,  after  being  established  in  Egypt  for  more  than  two  centuries,  were 
led  back  into  the  promised  land,  so  long  the  seat  of  their  ancestors.  Every  thing  there, 
since  the  patriarchal  age,  had  assumed  quite  a  different  aspect :  it  presented  walled  cities, 
and  high  cultivation,  accompanied  with  that  gross  superstition  and  dissolute  voluptuousness 
which  are  the  too  common  attendants  of  early  wealth.  The  ^ilty  inhabitants  of  Canaan 
with  their  country  were  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  Israebtes ;  and  the  territory  being 
divided  among  the  ten  tribes,  gave  occasion  to  a  very  careful  topographical  survey ;  but 
nothing  yet  occurred  to  attract  the  views  of  the  nation  beyond  these  limits,  or  towards  the 
world  m  general.  Still  less  could  this  take  place  during  the  subsequent  period,  when  thev 
were  forsaken  of  heaven,  and  reduced  to  servitude  under  the  neighbouring  nations,  it 
was  under  the  favoured  reign  of  David  that  Israel  finally  triumphed  over  all  her  ene- 
mies. That  great  prince  left  to  Solomon,  either  as  subject  or  tributary,  a  territory  extend- 
ing from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  borders  of  Egypt,  forming  the  most 
powerful  state  then  in  western  Asia.  Solomon,  by  the  terror  of  his  father's  name,  and  of 
the  powerful  army  transmitted  to  him,  wan  enabled  to  preserve  the  whole  of  this  king- 
dom, during  a  long  reign,  in  peaceful  submission.  This  accomplished  prince  devoted  him- 
self to  the  arts  of  peace,  to  the  extension  of  commerce,  to  the  culture  of  science,  and  to 
the  improvement  and  embellishment  of  his  dominions  in  every  direction.  By  the  alliance 
with  Hiram,  he  was  enabled  to  accomplish  v jvaj'es  more  remote  than  had,  perhaps,  been 
ever  undertaken  under  any  former  sovereign.  His  alliance,  and  even  his  society,  were 
courted  by  distant  princes ;  and  the  observation  of  the  Jews  began  to  extend  over  a  con- 
siderable portidn  of  the  globe.  , 

The  separation  of  the  kingdoms  afler  the  death  of  Solomon,  was  a  fatal  blow  to  the 
greatness  of  the  house  of  Israel.  Their  divided  power  could  no  longer  maintain  numer- 
ous tributaries  in  submission,  nor  was  it  adequate  to  distant  and  extensive  enterprises.  All 
the  states  beyond  the  Jordan  shook  off  the  yoke ;  the  attempts  to  navigate  the  Red  Sea 
were  abandoned ;  and  all  distant  regions  in  a  great  measure  lost  sight  of.  Their  view, 
however,  was  enlarged  by  unexpected  and  unwelcome  events  from  another  quarter. 

The  successive  invasions  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  which  terminated  in  the  down&ll  of 
both  the  kingdoms,  forced  upon  the  Israelites  a  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  these  proud 
and  powerful  empires.  At  the  same  time,  the  colossal  grandeur  of  Egypt,  the  only  power 
capable  of  contending  with  thenff  was  brought  into  prominent  notice.  Ample  materials 
were  thus  afforded  for  those  lofly  and  awftil  images,  those  pictures  of  the  shaking  of  the 
world  and  the  downfall  of  nations,  which  abound  in  the  writings  of  the  prophets  during 
the  regal  times.  Another  and  nearer  object  attracted  wonder,  and  afforded  Uie  means  of 
knowledge  respecting  regions  still  more  distant.  This  was  Tyre,  the  earliest  seat  of 
commerce,  in  whose  markets  were  found  collected  the  tin  of  Britain,  the  gold  of  Africa, 
the  cotton  of  India,  and,  perhaps,  .the  silks  of  China.  This  forms  so  grand  a  feature,  and 
the  descriptions  of  it  tend  so  much  to  illustrate  early  geography,  that  it  must  claim  some 
separate  notice. 

Sect.  EI. — Commerce  of  Tyre. 

Tyre,  which  under  Solomon  was  already  great  and  flourishing,  continued  to  increase 
till,  with  the  exception  of  one  of  its  own  colonies,  it  became  the  most  splendid  emporium 
of  the  ancient  world.  It  appears,  indeed,  truly  wonderful  that,  at  this  early  period  of  arts 
and  history,  when  Rome  yet  consisted  only  of  a  few  straw-thatched  cottages,  merchants  in 
Tyre  should  vie  with  the  pomp  of  kings.  So  magnificent  was  the  scene,  that  the  prophet, 
in  announcing  the  divine  intention  to  destroy  Tyre,  considers  it  as  implying  a  purpose  "  to 
Btain  the  pride  of  all  glory,  and  to  bring  into  contempt  all  the  honourable  of  the  earth." 
{Isai.  xxiii.  9.)  Perhaps,  however,  commerce  in  its  earlier  efforts  has  a  particular  ten- 
dency to  concentrate  itself  in  one  point,  where  alone  it  finds  protection,  information,  and 
regular  channels ;  while  in  the  advance  of  society  its  streams  begin  to  be  moire  widely 
diffused. 

In  the  interesting  picture  of  Tyrian  commerce  drawn  by  Ezekiet,  the  foundation  of  the 
intercourse  with  Damascus  and  other  contiguous  districts,  is  stated  to  be  "  tiie  multitude 
of  the  wares  of  her  making ;"  that  is,  it  consisted  in  the  exchange  of  her  manu&ctured 
produce  for  the  raw  produce  of  these  rich  agricultural  districts.  There  is  little  specificft- 
tion  of  the  Tyrian  manufactures,  but  the  returns  were  alt  made  in  natural  products,  of  tiio 
first  quality  which  the  soils  of  Judea  and  of  Syria  afforded ;  fbom  Judea,  the  finest  wheat, 
honey,  oils,  and  balsam ;  firom  Syria,  white  wool,  and  the  wine  of  Helbon.  No  situatioc 
roulc  be  more  fortunate  than  that  of  Tyre  for  the  formation  of  a  navy,  with  the  magnifr 


19 


HI8T0RY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  I 


cent  fimata  of  Lebanon,  Senir,  and  Baahan,  rising  inunodiately  behind.  The  timben,  it 
appoan,  were  conatructed  of  Ar ;  the  cedar  auppUed  masts ;  while  the  oak  was  used  for 
those  long  and  powerful  oars,  which  were  then  the  chief  instruments  of  navigation.  The 
vessels  appear  to  have  been  fitted  up  witii  a  luxury  unknown  to  modern  times.  The 
benches  were  of  the  finest  cypress  wood,  inlaid  with  ivory;  tiie  fine  linen  of  Egypt, 
qdomed  even  with  embroidery,  was  spread  ont  in  sails.  Tyre,  like  Carthage,  appears  to 
have  adopted  the  policy  of  employing  mercenary  troops,  which  she  drew  even  from  the 
mountainous  districts  of  Persia  and  Uie  upper  Euphrates.  The  immediate  guard  of  the 
citf,  however,  was  intrusted  to  its  neighbours  of  Arvod  and  Gammadin,  wtio,  standing 
riniid  the  walls  in  brUliaat  armour,  are  said  to  have  "  made  its  beauty  perfect." 

With  regard  to  the  distant  commerce  of  Tyre,  the  quarters  to  which  it  was  carried  on 
must  become  the  subject  of  eame  discussion,  in  the  course  of  which  we  shall  introduce  the 
interesting  particulan  given  by  the  prophet  ■^■'''"  "/'U  i:»^^"'''»  •■  •'  t"  -  h»   •"•  "y^ 

Burr.  TV. — The  Worid  according  to  th^  Hebrewi. 

No  system  of  Geography  can  be  traced  in  the  sacred  writers,  who,  occupied  with  higher 
objects,  do  not  even  idlude  to  any  such  as  existing  among  the  Hebrews.  The  ideas  of  that 
people  with  regard  to  the  structure  and  boundaries  of  the  earth  may,  however,  be  it\ferred 
from  the  genealogical  chapters  (Gen.  x.,  repeated  1  Chron.  i.),  which  contain,  in  fiict,  a 
view  of  the  known  divisions  of  the  earUi,  agreeing  in  some  striking  particulars  with  the 
recrads  of  pro&ne  history ;  also  fhxn  the  accounts  <^  the  commerce  of  Tyre,  and  from 
various  detached  notices  in  the  historians  and  prophets. 

The  Hebrews  obviously  never  attempted  to  lorm  any  scientific  theory  respecting  the 
structure  of  the  earth.  The  natural  impression,  which  represents  it  as  a  flat  surface,  with 
the  heaven  as  a  firmament  or  curtain  spread  over'  it,  is  found  universally  prevalent  Be- 
neath was  conceived  to  be  a  deep  pit,  the  abode  of  darkness  and  the  shadow  of  death.  In 
one  place  we  find  the  grand  image  of  the  earth  being  hung  upon  nothing ;  but  elsewhere, 
the  pillars  of  the  eartli  are  repeatedly  mentioned ;  arid  sometimes  the  pillars  of  heaven. 
In  short  it,  is  evident  that  every  writer  caught  the  idea  impressed  on  his  senses  and  im- 
agination by  the  view  of  these  grand  objects,  without  endeavouring  to  arrange  them  into 
any  regular  system.  Although,  however,  the  Jews  never  indulged  in  speculative  geogra- 
phy, yet  there  are  copious  examples  of  minute  and  careful  topography  for  practiced  pur- 
poses. Our  object  however,  is  not  to  mark  the  divisions  of  Judea,  but  to  trace  the  ideas 
of  the  Jews  respecting  the  extent  and  boundaries  of  the  known  world.  We  shall  at  the 
same  time  be  able  to  collect  all  that  is  now  to  be  known  of  the  Phcsnician  Geography ;  for 
it  is  evident  that  Ezekiel  visited  Tyre,  as  Herodotus  did  Babylon,  with  the  eye  of  an  in- 
telligent observer ;  and  he  would  doubtless  hold  intercourse  with  the  best  informed  men  in 
that  great  school  of  commerce  and  navigation.  The  objects  alwara  alluded  to,  as  placed 
at  the  fkrthest  limits  of  their  knowledge,  are  Tarshish;  Ophir;  The  Isles;  Sheba  and 
Dedan;  The  River;  Gog,  Magog,  and  the  north.  (^Fig.  1.) 


'4:i 


SvBSEOT.  1. — Tarthi$h. 


Ml 


Tarshish  is  the  name  which,  in  the  annals  of  Jewish  and  Phcenician  navigation,  occurs 
most  firequently,  and  ranks  next  to  Tyre ;  yet  nothing  has  been  found  more  difficult  than 
to  fix  that  name  to  any  precise  place.  The  peculiar  difficulty  is  this ;  that  there  are  two 
voyages  from  Tarshish :  one  up  the  Mediterranean,  bringing  iron,  silver,  lead,  and  tin,  the 
produce  of  Spain  and  Britain  {Ezek.  xxvii.  12.) ;  the  other  up  the  Red  Sea,  bringing  gold, 
ivory,  and  apes,  the  produce  of  tropical  Africa  (1  Kinprg,  x.  22.).  How  Uieae  two  voyages 
can  be  from  the  same  place,  appears  at  first  sight  to  baffle  research. 

Various  places  have  been  suggested,  among  which  I  should  not  think  it  nccessanr  to 
mention  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  were  it  not  supported  by  such  names  as  Volney  and  Malte 
Brua  Except  the  resemblance  of  name,  it  has  not  a  single  feature  which  can  be  recon- 
ciled to  the  Tarsb':  h  of  Ocripture.  Besides,  the  name  Tartus  is  evidently  of  Greek  origin 
(See  Steph.  Byzant.  in  v.  Strabo,  1.  14.  Bocharft  Phaleg.,  and  Wetatein's  Nov.  Test 
vol.  u.  p.  511.  and  606.),  whereas  Tarshish  is  manifestly  of  oriental  derivation,  and  is 
doubtless  of  Phmnician  origin.  Indeed,  Malte  Brun  admits  it  to  be  tenable  only  on  the 
clumsy  and  improbable  supposition  of  Uiere  being  two  places  of  the  name  of  Tarshish. 
Tartessus  ar  Cadiz  is  certainly  more  plausible,  and  agrees  with  the  Mediterranean  voyage ; 
but  the  distance  is  too  great,  and  notice  might  have  been  expected  to  be  taken  of  not  a 
few  iiitcnnediate  objects,  particularly  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  It  is  altogether  foreign 
to  the  voyage  by  the  Red  Sea.  This  last  objection  appears  also  to  hold  against  Carthage, 
which,  in  every  other  respect  seems  preferable  to  Tartessus,  and  of  which  more  willbe 
•kid  in  the  seQuel. 

To  flolve  the  problem  of  the  two  voyages,  ijie  onl*  attempt,  sc  far  as  I  know,  has 
beeD  in  the  ingenious  hypothesis  of  GosseUn :  Tarshiui,  according  to  him,  signifies  Uib 
great  or  open  sea,  as  distingubhed  even  from  the  largest  of  its  inclosed  gul&.  The  name 
may  then  oe  applied  equally  to  the  Atlantic  and  the  uidian  Ocean ;  and  Uie  voyage  to  and 


BiiOKt 


% 


■vtHUk-'^iStt 


HEBRrvv  AND  PH(ENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 

aRAPHICAL  SYSTEM  OF  THE  HEBREWS.  "^^  ***i'*^  ^ 
n  « 


_  .,        . , ^mi..,' 

■P 
ao 

from  Tarahish  may  equally  be  by  the  Red  Sea  ox  the  Mediterranean.  But  though  thi« 
hypothesis  be  supported  by  the  signification  of  an  dd  Hebrew  term,  and  though  it  solve 
the  great  probleoi,  I  think  any  one,  who  attentively  traces  the  various  occaaicnw  <mi  whidi 
Tarwish  is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  will  be  satisfied  that  it  has  a  sense  quite  difierenk  from 
the  loose  and  vague  (me  here  ascribiBd  to  it  Let  us  onW  read  the  following  verse: — ^"But 
Jonah  rose  up  to  flee  into  Tarshish  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  wmt  down  to  Joppa, 
and  he  found  a  ship  going  to  Tarshish ;  so  he  paid  the  fare  thereof,  and  went  down  into  it, 
to  go  with  tiiem  into  Tarshish  firom  the  presence  of  the  Lord."  Do  not  these  words  una- 
voidably suggest  a  precise  port,  to  which  there  was  a  regular  packet,  with  a  fixed  rate  of 
fare  1 — not  a  mere  vague  setting  out  into  the  wide  and  open  sea.  If  tiie  folbwing  expres- 
sions can  be  reconciled  to  M.  tjcosselin's  hypothesis,  it  is  only  by  very  strained  interpretso 
tions : — "  The  kings  of  Tarshish ; — the  merchants  of  Tarshirii ; — ^pass  ye  over  to  TVirshuh  ;— 
Tarshish  was  thy  merchant: — ^with  silver,  &c.  they  traded  in  tiie  mirs; — silver  in  plates 
is  brought  from  Tarshish,  and  j^ld  from  Ophir ; — ^the  dau^ter  of  Tarshish,"  die.    u  the 

genealogical  chapters,  Tarshish  is  introdilced  as  one  of  the  sons  of  Javan.  But  the  other 
iree  sons,  and  every  other  name  mentioned  in  these  chapters,  are  the  fiithers  of  a  country 
and  nation ;  and  it  would  be  quite  singular  if  Tarshish  alone  diould  have  had  mly  the  tern 
for  his  offiipring.  What  a  strange  idea  to  call  the  see  one  of  the  sons  of  Javan !  Indeed, 
this  is  so  gluingly  improbable,  mat  M.  Gosselin  has  recourse  to  the  hypothesis  of  inter- 
polation—a supposition  very  unlikely  in  regard  to  books  held  so  sacred,  and  in  respect  to 
these  chapters  among  a  people  so  fond  of  genealoey,  and  altogether  a  most  unsound  prin. 
ciple,  as  applied  to  the  sacred  volume,  finally,  I  think  it  very  evident,  fhxn  the  general 
tenour  of  Hebrew  writers,  that  they  had  no  distinct  notion  of  the  Mediterranean  as  an 
inclosed  sea,  and  of  an  ocean  beyond  it  The  expression,  "  the  sea,"  used  in  that  vague 
and  wide  sense,  will,  I  apprehend,  be  always  fbund  to  signify  the  Mediterranean,  the  Red 
Sea  being  designated  by  that  particular  term.  Tlius,  there  appears  to  be  no  motive  for 
adopting  M.  Gosselin's  hypothesis,  except  the  want  of  any  other  by  which  the  problem  of 
the  two  vojrages  can  possibly  be  solved.  But  if  another  can .  be  stated,  which  diall  solve 
that  problem,  and  at  vis  same  time  niake  Tanhiah  the  very  place  it  might  be  expected  to 
be,  this  great  question  may,  perhaps,  be  considered  as  settled  in  a  mote  Satis&ctory  manner 
than  heretofore. 

That  TNuvhiah  must  be,  fbndamentally,  Carthage,  cannot  I  think,  admit  of  a  moment*e 
doubt  The  strongest  argument  is,  that  if  it  be  not,  then  that  grand  emporium  of  Medi- 
terranean trade,  the  colony  of  Tyre,  the  place  of  all  others  with  which  Tyre  held  always 
the  closest  intercourse,  must  never  have  been  named  by  the  proohets,  who  give  such  copiwii 

vou  I  a 


^•^s^ 


M 


.^j         HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY.    .,5;,,^ 


Part  I 


Mid  detailed  accounts  of  Tyriac.  conunerce.  When  Ezekiel  was  enumerating  every  place, 
even  the  most  obscure,  with  which  Tyre  held  interco>tr8e,  can  it  be  supposed  that  this,  the 
chief  of  all  others,  would  have  been  totally  omitted  1  Bui.  if  Tarshish  be  Carthage,  then 
that  eelebnted  city  bolda  exaolily  the  prominent  place  which,  according  to  every  circum- 
stance,  it  ou£;ht  to  have  held  in  relation  to  Tyre.  This  general  neeative  argument  doe* 
appear  to  me  quite  irresistible.    The  detaUs  are  equally  conibnnable.    Carthage  in  her 

Scffy  monopolized,  almost  entirely,  the  commerce  of  Spain  and  Britain.  She  even  took 
e  most  violent  measures  to  prevent  any  maritime  power  from  penetrating  to  the  west  of 
Sicily.  There  appears  no  trace  of  ti)e  Tyrians  ever  proceeding  further.  They  found, 
apparently,  in  CarUiage,  a  complete  assortment  of  the  commodities  of  all  the  countries  to 
the  west,  and  on  ^e  ocean — silver,  iron,  lead,  and  tin,  which  were  thus  naturally  viewed 
by  the  Jews,  and  perhaps  by  tho  Tyrians  themselves,  as  Carthaginian  commodities.  With 
regard  to  the  name,  considerini;  that  both  Tarshbh  and  Carthage  are  corruptions  of  the 
onginal  Phcenician  term,  they  have  that  rude  resemblance  winch  might  be  expected.  The 
coonexion  is  rendered  stronger  by  Carchedon,  the  Greek  name  of  Carthage,  which  ferms 
a  sort  of  middle  term  between  tliem. 

The  voyage  from  Tarshish  by  the  Red  Sea,  however,  which  fi)nns  the  grand  difficulty, 
remains  yet  unaccounted  for ;  and  it  can  ooly,  I  think,  be  solved  in  the  following  manner : 
I  conceive  the  name  of  this  great  African  metropolis  must  have  been  generally  extended 
to  Uie  whole  of  the  continent  of  Africa.  All  the  names  of  the  continents,  we  may  observe, 
were  originally  derived  from  one  of  their  remarkable  and  frequented  districts.  The  name 
of  Asia  was  extended  W  the  Greeks  from  a  tract  of  that  name  immediately  opposite  to 
their  shore,  includmg  llroas,  Ionia,  and  some  other  of  the  more  eastern  districts  of  Asia 
Minor.  Witii  the  Romans,  Africa  derived  its  name  from  the  very  district  now  in  quertion, 
called  always  Africa  Propria,  being  the  finest  on  that  coast,  and  including  Carthage.  It 
appears,  then,  quite  natural  that  a  place  so  very  prominent,  with  which  Tyre  held  such 
close  and  c<Histant  intercourse,  apparently  the  coily  place  much  frequented  by  her  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  should  be  associated  in  her  conception  with  the  whole  continent  in  which 
it  was  situated.  On  any  other  supposition,  the  Jews  and  Phoenicians  must  have  had  no 
name  for  Africa,  which  is  not  very  probable.  It  is  observable  thet  Tarshish  evidently  does 
not  ccnnprehend  eitiher  Egypt  or  Upper  Ethiopia,  which  countries,  in  fact,  were  never  by 
the  ancients  considered  as  decidedly  African,  that  continent,  according  to  tfieir  conception, 
havinff  the  Nile  ftr  its  eastern  boundary.  If  we  admit  Tarshish  to  be  Africa,  the  whole 
difficiuty  respecting  the  two  voyages  at  once  disappears.  As  the  voyage  to  the  northern 
coast  was  by  the  Mediterranean,  so  that  to  the  eastern  coast  was  of  course  by  the  Red  Sea. 
ft  is  in  fiivour  of  this  solution  that  Jerome,  in  fact,  calls  the  voyage  to  Tarshish  "an  Afri- 
can voyage."  The  Jews,  unacquainted  with  intermediate  coontnes,  had  probably  a  very 
inadequate  conception  of  tlic  distance  between  these  coasts ;  at  all  events,  they  justly  coin 
aidered  them  as  parts  of  Uie  same  vast  expanse  of  continent 

.MtHBi  a  f*%ia  iir.rtt  %mn   ,i\r.n;ii,.i  jj  ut  •   lO  ^i'st'.fsi^nr.  i;  'ifWih'^ii  '.mi 

f.,  -.■.:^.  •-,-■  ",  ".'■-'''  Simmrr.  2. — Ophir.  '-■'■>  -_•  '"-■;.:  -"'v..-  • 
The  name  of  Ophir,  combined,  as  it  always  is,  with  the  most  precious  of  metals,  and 
the  most  coveted  of  all  commodities,  ranks  among  the  distant  countries  known  to  the 
Jews,  almost  superior  in  splendour  to  Tarshish,  though  not  equal  in  greatness  and  com- 
mercial importance.  The  voyages  of  Sol<»non  to  Ophir  for  gold,  form  the  greatest  naval 
enterprise  in  which  the  kingdom  of  Judea  was  ever  engaged.  Yet  this  name  has  been 
attenaed  with  little  less  difficulty,  and  produced  scarcely  less  controversy,  than  that  of 
TanJiish. 

The  belief  that  Ophir  was  m  Arabia  has  certamly  not  a  little  to  urge  in  its  &voar.  Ir 
the  genealogical  chapters  it  is  always  combined  with  Sheba,  or  Sabea,  which  was  undoub^ 
edly  situated  at  the  south-west  angle  of  Arabia.  It  was  from  Sheba  that  gold  (doubtless, 
the  gold  of  Ophir,)  was  regularly  brought  to  Judea  and  Phoenicia.  Even  Bochart,  who 
thinks  himseu  obliged  to  seek  in  India  a  more  distant  Ophir,  clumsily  compounds  the 
matter  t^  making  another  Ophir  in  Arabia.  He  is  followed  by  M.  Malte  Brun.  M.  Gae> 
selin,  wiUi  his  usual  zeal  to  restrict  ancient  knowledge,  insists,  that  there  never  was  any 
Ophir  except  the  Arabian,  and  places  it  in  the  modem  interior  district  of  Dofar.  There 
appear  to  me,  I  confess,  vast  improbabilities  in  this  Arabian  Ophir.  As  an  interior  district, 
it  must  have  been  nearer,  or  certainly  as  near,  to  Judea  as  Sheba ;  and  it  appears  strange, 
that  no  direct  land  communication  should  ever  have  been  opened  vrith  iU  Let  us  consider 
the  mighty  operations  of  Solomon ;  his  utmost  efforts  combined  with  those  of  Hiram ;  the 
inaterius  of  shipbuilding  conveyed  by  land  over  a  vast  desert;  the  most  skilful  workmen 
transported  to  Ezion  Geber ;  a  fleet  composed  of  large  vessels,  called  ships  of  Tarshish,  at 
Ituit  fcrnsedi  and 


!i?!<lsrtfik!Tjg 


scries  Gi  voyages,  in  eacn  01  wnicn  three  yeara  were 
employed.  What  a  waste  of  labour  and  expenditure  to  obtain  a  commodity  which  could 
luive  been  conveyed  across  Arabia  in  two  months  on  the  backs  of  camels  I  Yet  the  repe- 
tition of  the  voyage  shows  that  the  article  was,  in  fact,  procured  on  better  terms  than  by 
the  usual  channel.    In  the  voyage  from  Ophir,  also,  we  find  new  articles  never  mentioned 


r^-'-'Jt'y^' 


■;WT14^""TJ--  'f^^■™:^w^^T7^g^'l » 


Pabt  I 

f  every  place, 
that  uiiB,  tka 
i^arthage,  then 
every  circum* 
nrffumeiit  doef 
xtnage  in  her 
)he  even  took 
to  the  wett  of 
They  found, 
e  countries  to 
tnrally  viewed 
odities.  With 
uptions  of  the 
xpected.  The 
e,  which  ferms 

rand  difScuIty, 
wing  manner: 
rally  extended 
3  may  observe, 
9.  The  name 
ely  opposite  to 
stricts  of  Asia 
w  in  question, 
Carthage.  It 
yre  held  such 
by  her  on  the 
nent  in  which 
:  have  had  no 
evidently  does 
vere  never  by 
eir  conception, 
^ca,  the  whole 
the  northern 
the  Red  Sea. 
hiah"an  Afti- 
'obably  a  very 
ley  jnatly  con- 


if  metals,  and 
mown  to  the 
ess  and  com- 
freatest  naval 
jne  has  been 
than  that  of 

ts  &voar.    In 

was  imdoubt> 

Id  (doubtless, 

Bochart,  who 

mpounds  the 

un.    M.  Gos- 

ever  was  any 

O&r.    There 

:erior  district, 

ears  strange, 

t  us  OHiaiaer 

Hiram;  the 

fill  workmen 

Taiahi^,  at 

years  were 

which  could 

fet  the  repe- 

rms  than  by 

ir  mentionea 


Book  I. 


HEBREW  AND  PHCENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


m  relation  to  Sheba  or  Arabia,  but  characteristic  of  equatorial  AiKca^-ivoiy,  a]iea,  and 
peacocks.  With  regard  to  the  oloae  combinaticm  in  which  Sheba  and  Ophir  are  always 
fiwnd,  it  will  appear  natural  enough,  when  we  consider  that,  unless  during  the  short 
lition  of  Solomon,  Sheba  appears  to  have  been  the  channel  by  which  the  sold  of 
r  was  transmitted  to  Judea  and  Phoenicia.    This  circumstance  might  readily  lead  the 

abitants  of  those  countries  to  consHer  the  two  as  closely  connected,  thoiwh  CMiir 
might  be  beyond  Sheba,  and  even  be  separated  finm  it  by  seas  and  territories  oTcoatiacff- 
abw  extent 

The  hypothesis  which  places  Ophir  in  India,  though  sopported  by  great  ntunes,  appear* 
quite  untenable.  The  trade  of  Ophir  bears  not  the  least  resemblance  to  an  Indian  trade. 
It  does  not  include  tiie  fine  manunctures  and  rich  spices  which  India  has  always  furnished ; 
and  its  staple  is  gold,  which  never,  at  any  time,  was  an  article  of  export  tcom  tint  quarter 
of  Asia.  India  has,  on  the  contrary,  always  demanded  a  large  balance  of  specie,  mi  has 
ftrmed  a  gulf  in  which  the  gold  of  the  west  has  been  absolved.  If  we  tmect  Inlk,  we 
dull  not  certainly,  with  some  lavatu,  travel  as  far  as  Peru  in  quest  of  our  omect,  notwith- 
standing the  sli^t  resemblance  of  name,  and  the  attempt  to  eke  it  out  by  the  expression 
"ffdd  m  Parvaun,''  which  has  some  appearance  of  being  synonvinous. 

The  eastern  coast  of  Africa  is  the  quarter  to  which  all  the  indicatkms  appear  very  clearly 
to  point  In  the  voyage  to  Tarshish  by  the  Red  Sea,  its  name  and  that  of  Ophir  are  al- 
ways combined ;  nay,  the  voyage,  which  in  the  Book  of  Kings  is  called  the  voyage  to 
Tarshish,  in  the  Chronicles  is  called  the  voyage  to  Ophir;  so  that  it  is  evident  the  two  are 
one  and  the  same  voyage ;  and,  if  Tarshish  was  Africa,  Oidiir  must  clearly  be  in  Africa. 
There  is,  however,  on  ^is  coast  no  abundant  si»ply  of  gold  till  we  reach  as  fiu:  south  as 
Sofida ;  thus  impl]ring  an  extent  of  navigation  wmbn  is  certainly  somewhat  startling.  M. 
Gosselin  particularly  urges,  that  in  the  time  of  Alexander  there  was  no  longer  any  know- 
ledge of  eastenf  Africa ;  and  that  even  the  Romans  never  appear  to  have  penetrated  heycni 
Cape  Delgada  On  the  other  hand,  it  ia  to  be  considered  that  the  alliance  of  Hiram  and 
Solomon  united  advantages  which  never  existed  again  in  an  equal  degree.  The  wealth, 
naval  skill,  and  ample  materials  which  those  great  princes  could  command  were  scarcely 
equalled,  even  by  the  Ptolemies.  After  the  deaUi  of  Solomon,  the  kingdom,  split  into  two, 
and  weakened  ay  continued  dissention,  abandcmed  entirely  these  distant  commercial  enter- 
prises. A  solitary  attempt  to  renew  the  trade  was  made  by  Jehosha]riiat,  but  the  vessels 
prepared  ftr  that  purpose  were  wrecked  in  the  very  mouth  of  the  port  of  Ezion  Gebor; 
after  which  the  undertaking  was  entirely  given  up.  In  the  calamities  which  aHerwaids 
befbl  Israel  and  Judah,  and  me  revolutions  which  subverted  the  whole  political  system  of 
Western  Asia,  it  is  not  wonderfhl  that  every  trace  of  this  distant  intercourse  should  have 
been  obliterated ;  and  that  the  successors  of  Alexander  should  have  had  to  enter  on  a  new 
field  of  discovery.  In  support  of  the  supposition  of  Sofiila,  there  may  also  be  noticed  a 
certain  resemblance  of  name;  and  the  duration  of  the  voyage,  stated  at  three  years,  wcrald 
affind  very  ample  time  to  reach  the  Zambese,  even  under  all  the  imperfections  of  ancient 

Bvmam.  Z.—The  likt. 

The  Isles,  a  term  which  occurs  much  in  Scripture,  mij^t  be  supposed  to  describe  gene- 
rally those  portions  of  the  globe  which  come  under  this  description;  yet  a  carefU  compal- 
risen  of  the  different  passages  in  which  the  word  occurs  will  probably  show,  that  it  is  used 
in  a  much  more  precise  and  determinate  sense,  and  is  applied  to  a  wide  and  connected 
range  of  territory.  The  whole  of  the  southern  coasts  of  Europe,  consisting  either  of  real 
islands  or  of  peninsular  tracts,  appears  by  the  Jews  and  Phcenicians  to  have  been  viewed 
as  a  long  range  of  islands.  Besides,  the  terms  M^oof  and  insula  were,  in  periods  of  remote 
antiquity,  ap^ied  loosely  to  peninsulas  as  well  as  islands  proper.  Among  many  examples 
which  might  be  adduced,  one  will  suffice — Peloponnesus.  The  isles,  relative  to  Tyre, 
appear  to  liave  ranked  only  second  to  Tarshish  as  a  source  of  wealth,  and  in  respect  of 
close  and  intimate  intercourse.  Tyre  is  called  expressly,  "  a  merchant  of  many  isles  :** 
and  the  consternation  which  shook  the  isles  at  the  sound  of  her  fall ;  the  dismay  of  their 
kings,  who  are  said  to  have  then  cast  off  their  robes,  and  sat  on  the  ground, — all  point  out 
the  extent  and  importance  of  this  commerce.  Tarthith,  Elitha,  Chittinif  and  Dodanim 
are  named  in  the  genealogical  chapter  as  the  four  who  divided  among  them  the  isles  of 
the  Gentiles;  but  tfaou^  Tarshish  is  so  often  named  in  «x>mbmation  witii  "the  isles** 
maoag  the  most  distant  maritime  territories,  there  is  never  any  indication  as  if  it  were 
itself  an  island.  The  coirbination  is  probably  produced  by  the  extensive  possessions  and 
commerce  of  the  Carthaginians  in  the  western  islands  and  coasts  of  Europe.  These,  is- 
e!ading  the  southern  point  of  Italy,  were,  as  already  observed,  probably  considered  as  insu- 
lar, and  were  distinguished  by  the  appellations  of  the  "isles  afkr  off,"  and  *'the  distant 
isles  of  the  sea,"  'Rie  "  isle"  in  particular,  which  Isaiah  mentions  in  such  close  connex- 
ion with  Tarshish,  and  which  the  merchants  of  Sidon,  "by  passing  over  the  sea,  had 
replenished,"  can  scarcely  be  any  other  than  Sicily,  an  island  almost  Carthaginian,  and 


'■^* 


HISTORY  OF  GEOQRAPHY. 


PabvL 


li 


coDtAuunff  M  mujr  flouruhing  citiea.  With  ngud  to  the  iales  of  Eliaha,  they  are  evidently 
Hellu,  the  Greek  name  cf  Greece.  The  only  diatinetive  ohanusteriatici  indeed,  that 
fi[  flimiahiiy  Tvre  with  the  Uue  and  purple  dye,  doee  not  recall  to  ua  aiqr  of  the  featurea 
under  which  we  have  been  aoonatomed  to  reoognim  that  celelarated  region.  But  Greece 
waa  not  yet  the  aeat  of  arta  and  anna;  and,  had  ahe  been  ao^  the  Tyrian  merehanta  mi^ 
•till  have  viewed  hn  only  aa  die  aerved  their  purpoae.  Boehart  haa  collected  ample  teeti* 
mooiea  Uf  ahow  that  the  mures,  the  ahell  which  yielded  thoae  celebrated  dyea,  waa  fcond 
in  tieculiar  abundance  on  the  ooaat  of  Laconia.  Chittim  appean  very  evidently  Cypnub 
ana  its  earlr  capital  of  Citiirp-  The  alarm  being  given  thence  of  the  approach  cr  the 
kiiu:  of  BabyUHi,  and  ita  beincr  oouridered  aa  the  natural  place  of  rdbge  far  the  inhabitanti 
of  Tyn,  whem  yet  they  woiud  not  be  fiilly  aecure,  mark  a  pnoimity  which  belonga  to  no 
other  island.  The  name,  indeed,  ia  in  one  inatance  given  to  Greece,  and  in  another  to 
Italy ;  but  thia  aeema  merely  to  be,  that,  aa  the  neareat  known  ialand,  ita  name  ia  aome- 
timea  thua  vaguely  extendea  to  the  whole  of  that  torritoiy  ccaaid»«d  by  the  Jewa  aa  inath 
lar.  The  attempta  of  Boehart  to  find  the  name  of  Chittun  in  Italv  have  been  wholly  aboi^ 
tive ;  for  we  cannot  coiuider  aa  worthy  of  notice  the  obaervation  that  it  and  Lathun,  in  the 
reapoctive  Greek  and  Latin  langua^^ea,  both  aignii^  "to  hide."  In  regard  to  Dodanim, 
oonvertiUa  into  Eodanim(T  and  1  bemg  perpetually  mtorchanged  and  combunded),  tboo^ 
it  ia  mentioned  only  once,  we  aeem  fauufled  in  mdng  en  Rhodea,  already  iourishing  and 
commercial,  thou^^  not  yet  became  the  rival  of  kinga.  Boehart  aeema  to  go  moch  too  fiir, 
whfu  he  aeeka  f^  it  on  the  Rhone  or  the  Ebnk  .      , 

> '  ^'^'      Sm»m  i.Sheba  and  DeiaH.  '"■■'*>*•  ^^"^*  '**'^  t*^  '^  ' 


A^  during  the  early  agea,  the  moat  eztenaive  and 
I  Arabia.    It  conaiated,  not  ao  much  in  the  prodnctiona 


Of  the  mtemal  trade  of  western 
important  waa  that  carried  <m  acroaa 

c£  the  region  itael^  aa  in  thoae  of  India  and  Africa,  which  feund  their  way  by  thia.channel 
to  Judea  and  Phcenicia. 

Sheba,  among  the  Arabian  atatea,  holda  the  moat  prominent  jdace,  being  undoubtedly 
the  aamc  with  Um  Sabea  or  Arabia  Felix  of  the  cuaaic  writera.  Ita  impcita  were  tM 
precious  cominoditiea  of  gold  and  incenae :  the  latter  anciently  in  moat  eztenaive  demani 
for  the  purpose  of  aacrifice.  These  artielea  appear  to  have  been  brouffht  to  Judea,  not  by 
any  maritime  channel,  but  in  crowded  caravana.  The  "  ccmpaniea  of  Iweba**  are  mentioned 
even  in  Jobi  Isaiah apeaka  of  the  "multitude  of  camela;*'  and  of  "all  thev from  Sheba." 
Yet  the  incenae,  it  ia  now  certain,  must  have  come  chiefly  from  the  opposite  African  ooaat  of 
Berbera;  and  Uie  gold,  we  have  aome  reaaon  to  think,  must  have  been  derived  from  a  atUl 
more  remote  part  of  that  continent 

The  commerce  of  Dedan  rivalled  that  of  Sheba,  being  carried  m  from  the  opposite  or 
eastern  coast  The  mention  of  "many  ides"  m  combination  with  Dedan,  seems  to  fix  it 
tathat  point  at  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  QviS,  which  is,  in  fkct  bordered  I^  numerous 
islands.  One  of  these,  Ormus,  became  afterwards  the  seat  of  a  kingdom,  wmch,  from  a 
situation  and  commerce  similar  to  that  of  Dedan,  derived  a  splendour  which  made  it  the 
pride  (^  the  East  The  impprta  fttKH  Dedan — **  ivory  and  precious  cloths"-^poiut  out  the 
source  of  thia  proaperity.  These  were  the  ecmmoditiea  of  India,  brought  to  the  mouth  <^ 
the  Persian  Uulf,  and  thence  tranapcrted  acroea  the  desert  to  the  western  regions.  Tho 
caravan  trade  <^  Dedan  appears  to  have  been  most  extensive  ;^  insomuch  that  the  prophet,  in 
denouncing  the  Judgment  upon  Arabia,  mentkms  the  "travelling  companies  of  Dedanim"  as 
its  most  conspicuous  feature.  In  the  prophets,  Edom  and  Dedan  are  almost  universally  named 
together,  ana  the  same  judgments  represented  as  albcting  both.  Hence  they  are  usually 
considered  as  parts  of  the  same  oountzy,  and  the  ordinary  maps  include  Dedan  as  a  district 
of  Edom.  Even  Boehart,  whose  learning  showed  him  that  there  must  be  a  more  distant 
Dedan,  adopts  the  hackneyed  scheme  of  supposing  that  there  were  two  Dedans,  There  is 
no  occasion  for  so  unskiliul  a  theory  to  explain  the  intimate  connexion  between  these  two 
states.  When  caravans  came  across  Arabia  finxa  the  Persian  GulC  it  was  at  Edom  or  Idumea 
that  they  first  touched  on  the  civilized  world.  A  depAt  was  thus  naturally  formed  there  of 
the  commodities  in  which  they  traded.  This  traffic  raised  Idumea  and  its  capital,  Petra,  to 
a  hi^  pitch  of  wealth  and  importance.  So  close  a  connexion  necessarily  caused  Deden  to 
be  deeply  ai^ted  fay  any  calamity  which  desolated  Edom,  and  rendered  her  no  longer  the 
channel  through  which  this  commerce  could  flow.  But  these  disasters  are  by  no  meana 
rei^euented  as  touching  her  so  ckiaely  or  so  deeply ;  and  while  Edom  is  rejHresented  as  utterly 
spoiled,  and  converted  mto  a  waste  and  reproach,  the  inhabitants  of  Dedan  are  merely  warned 
to  "  tiurn  back  and  dwell  deep ;"  (Jer.  :dix.  8.)  and  the  expression,  "  they  of  Dedan  shall  ML 
by  the  sword,"  is  mwe  correctly  interpreted  in  the  margin,  "they  shall  M\  by  tho  sword 
unt'!  Dedan."  These  circumstances  appear  to  mark,  along  with  an  intimate  connexiiMi,  a 
compete  distance  and  aepsratics  between  these  two  great  Af&blan  states. 

Raamah  is  mentioned  among  other  nations  of  Arabia,  along  with  Sheba,  as  producing  the 
same  articles,  but  as  a  much  less  remarkable  countiy.  It  appMrs  to  be  the  modem  Had 
ramutli,  neither  situated  so  commodiously  as  Sheba  for  the  African,  nor  as  Dedan  for  ths 


7  *Tf/' fw  i-"' "^1 ' "-" '  ""^^  y  T,  ■, ; 


Book  I. 


HEBREW  AND  PHOSNICIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


Indian,  trade.  Some  of  the  best-watered  districts  probably  of  the  Nedsjed,  appear  to  have 
composed  tlie  kingdom  of  Kedar,  enriched  by  the  breeding  of  numerous  sheep  and  goats, 
with  which  it  supplied  oven  Tvre,  and  rose  to  such  prosperity,  as  to  make  it  be  considered 
a  mighty  catastrophe  "  when  all  the  glory  of  Kedar  should  fiiil."  ^- ..:..: 

SuBSEOT.  5. — Countnea  on  the  Euphrates. 

The  river  (for  such  is  the  import  of  the  term)  presents  itself  as  a  grand  feature  of  the 
landscape  after  mssinjr  across  the  wide  Syrian  desert,  towards  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
known  world.  This  narae,  in  preference  even  over  the  Nile  and  the  Jordan,  was  always 
applied  to  the  Euphrateii,  which,  holding  so  immense  a  course  through  kingdoms  the  mojt 
celebrated  in  history,  wais  considered  as  one  of  the  gnmd  boundaries  of  the  earth.  The  great 
empires  and  capitals  of  Assyria  and  Babylon  gave  to  it  a  lustre,  which  was  scarcely  divided 
by  the  Tigris,  whose  name  was  little  known  to  the  Jews  before  the  captivity.  Along  this 
lino  of  territory  Ezekiel  enumerates  a  number  of  cities,  Haran,  Canneh,  Eden,  Ashur,  &c., 
from  which  great  caravc.ns  proceeded  to  Tyre  with  cloths  and  other  articles  of  the  meet 
valuable  description.  In  such  early  accounts,  however,  the  country  from  wliich  commodities 
last  came  is  seldom  distinguished  from  their  original  seat.  I  therefore  entirely  agree  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  that  tlicy  must  have  been  brought  by  a  long  overland  voyage  across  Asia; 
that  these  chests  of  rich  apparel,  so  carefully  bound  with  cords,  came,  probably,  by  interior 
caravans  from  Hindostan,  and,  perhaps,  already  from  the  frontier  of  China. 

Of  the  countries  beyond  the  Euphrates,  only  some  broken  fragments  of  knowledge  appear 
to  have  reached  Judea  before  the  captivity.  Elam  is  particularly  noticed ;  the  residence  of 
a  warlike  people,  occupying  the  long  mountpLiOuT  'lUCt  east  of  the  Tigris.  Media  and 
Persia  are  also  named  on  a  few  occasions,  but  so  as  to  prove  that  they  were  only  contem- 
plated in  dirn  and  obscure  distance.  At  a  vague  and  indefinite  distance  beyond,  the  ends 
of  the  earth  were  imagined  to  exist.  The  early  Greeks  and,  after  them,  the  Arabians,  viewed 
the  habitable  earth  as  an  island,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  water.  Ptolemy,  on  the  con- 
trary, places  at  every  extremity  of  his  map  a  vague  expanse  of  unknown  land.  The  He- 
brews combined  in  some  measure  these  two  views  of  the  subject.  To  the  west,  the  remotest 
object  for  them  was  the  sea,  studded  with  numerous  and  distant  isles ;  but  to  the  east,  where 
land  was  seen  indefinitely  extending,  they  formed  the  idea  of  an  inland  termination,  without 
being  able  to  attach  to  it  any  precise  limits.  Such  a  boundary  was  apparently  supposed  to 
exist  in  various  directions,  since  "  all  the  ends  of  the  earth"  is  an  expression  frequently 
occurring.  It  was  to  the  east,  however,  that  this  idea  peculiarly  attached  itself;  and  "  fix)m 
the  river  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,"  is  the  farthest  point  to  which  the  figurative  kingdom 
)f  the  Messiah  is  made  to  extend. 

SuBSECT.  6. — Gog,  Magog,  ani  the  North, 

The  north  quarter  is  the  only  part  of  the  circuit  of  the  geographical  knowledge  of  the 
Jews  which  remains  to  be  surveyed.  It  presented  features  of  peculiarly  rude  and  formi- 
dable aspect  Ezekiel,  in  anticipating  an  approaching  inroad,  draws  the  most  gloomy  feature 
of  the  hordes  which  it  poured  forth :  Gog,  with  all  his  bands,  coming  like  a  storm  or  a 
cloud  to  cover  tlie  land ;  Gomer  with  all  his  bands ;  the  house  of  Togannah,  firom  the  nortli 
quarter :  "  a  great  company  and  a  mighty  army,"  directing  their  course  against  those  nations 
which  "  were  at  rest,  dwelt  safely,  ond  had  gotten  cattle  and  goods ;"  and  with  the  eager 
purpose  "  to  take  a  prey,  to  carry  away  their  silver  and  gold,  to  take  a  great  spoil."  This 
picture,  these  hostile  and  tumultuous  crowds,  "all  riding  upon  horses,"  with  their  wide- 
roaming  and  predatory  habits,  has  always  suggested  the  idea  of  Scythian  invasion ;  and 
the  Arabian  geographers  have  placed  the  castle  of  Gog  and  Magog  at  the  remotest  extremity 
of  Tartary.  On  looking  narrowly  into  the  matter,  however,  we  shall  find  it  difficult  to 
suppose  this  inroad  to  have  proceeded  from  any  part  of  those  imbounded  plains.  The  fiict 
is,  wc  have  no  occasion  to  look  so  far ;  for  the  high  table-lands  in  the  interior  and  north  of 
Asia  Minor,  Phrygia,  Galatia,  Cappadocio,  and  Paphlagonia,  have  always  presented  the 
same  rude  pastoral  aspect,  and  have  bred  tribes  of  migratory  shepherds  and  warriors,  very 
similar  to  those  of  Scythia  itself.  These  tracts,  in  fiict,  continue  still  to  pour  forth  vast  bodies 
of  irregular  cavalry,  which  form  the  main  strength  of  the  Turkish  armies.  This  view  of 
the  subject  appears  completely  fixed  by  the  account  of  the  commercial  intercourse  main- 
tained by  these  nations  with  T3rre.  The  prophet  mentions  Meshech  and  Tubal,  elsewhere 
completely  identified  with  Gog,  who  is  called  their  "  chief  prince."  There  never  has  been 
the  least  doubt  as  to  the  position  of  these  countries  in  Upper  Armenia,  and  on  the  southern 
border  of  Caucasus.  There  the  classical  writers  mention  in  the  Moschi  and  the  Tibareni, 
which  are,  perhaps,  the  same  names.  The  imports  into  Tyre  are  stated  to  be  "  vessels  of 
brass,  and  persons  of  men."  This  somewhat  curious  coiiibinatlon  is,  however,  altogether 
characteristic  of  the  region  in  question,  which  was,  in  ancient  time,  highly  distinguished 
for  the  copiousness  and  excellence  of  its  copper  and  iron,  which  last  is  not  wholly  excluded 
by  the  term  used  in  the  original.  The  skill  with  which  it  was  worked  into  steel  by  the 
{ -halybes,  a  people  of  this  region,  caused  their  name  to  be  generally  given  to  this  product 

Vol,.  I.  9*  C 


1« 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  L 


Bvon  in  tho  proMnt  itate  of  no^Ieot,  tho  nni^fhlxKirhnod  of  Trol)iMon(1  luppliofl  witli  oxcot> 
lont  cu|)|)cr  nil  the  liomnr  Ana.  Tho  otiior  article,  rIw,  in  but  too  doscriptivo.  The 
txpmwiun,  "  iNtmonM  of  mon,"  mnrki  tho  trade  in  iiluvoa,  with  which  it  hua  ulwuya  boon 
tho  tiito  of  ('uiicaMiuii  coiintrioA  to  mipplv  tho  VMtt.  Horaoa  and  iiiulca  are  roportod  (ta 
bruuglit  by  Uin  "  hoiiao  of  Tominnah."  Iloraoa  havo  always  boon  a  booxt  of  Turtiiry ;  and 
an  ulliunco  hnii  lio«)n  imoginod  bctwonn  this  namo  and  that  of  tho  Turcomuna,  who  still 
furnish  the  <lnoat  horaee.  But  thoro  was  a  rnco  calind  Trof^mi,  in  tlie  upland  tracts  of 
PophluiiiMiia,  a  region  oelobratcd  tor  its  horses,  and  also  for  i\M  niulos,  in  which  last  roH|)ocl 
It  haa  a  dociriod  advantoifo  over  Tartary,  to  which  tliis  la«t  brootl  ia  a  atran((or.  Thus  we 
Boem  juBtiliod  in  finding  Gog,  with  all  hia  rude  nnd  terrible  appondages,  in  the  nortliorn 
extremity  indood  ol  the  civilized  and  classical  world  of  Asia,  but  still  far  distant  fVoin  those 
boundloaa  waatea  which  comjpoaod  tho  ancient  Hcytliia  and  tho  nuMlcrn  Tartary. 

Javon,  which  ia  doscribod  aa  flimishing  tlio  sanio  objects  of  trade  with  Moshrch  and 
Tubal,  but  not  oa  having  any  concern  in  tho  desolating  invasion  of  Gog,  is,  in  fiict,  tlic 
samo  word  witli  Ion,  or  Ionia,  an  extensive  ap(irllation,  which  comprehcndotl  all  tho  western 
|Mirt  of  tlio  Loaacr  Asia.  Tho  Jowa  and  Phwnicinns,  overlooking  tho  long  xan^e  of  narrow 
straits  which  separated  it  fivm  Europe,  not  yet  rocognisod  as  a  soparnte  continent,  appear 
to  have  extended  tho  naino  to  Thrace,  and  tho  interior  of  continental  Grooco.  Alexander 
tlio  (treat  ia  in  one  place  called  king  of  Javan.  That  a  similar  oxtonaion  was  rocogniaed 
in  tiio  early  ngoa  or  Greece  itaelf,  appears  by  tlio  colebratwl  ancient  inscription  at  tlie 
litUimua  of  Corinth.  "  This  is  Peloponnesus,  not  Ionia,"  Tho  Javan  slaves  woro  probably 
drawn  flrom  Thrace,  whoso  barboroua  rogiona  amply  supplied  tlio  ancient  markets  with  tins 
cruel  apocics  of  commodity. 


I      ] 


\f^ 


JXllff;: 


,IV 


CHAPTER  II. 


;„j^jj  ,   ,„  ANCIENT  V0YA0E8  OP  DIBCOVERY. 

The  early  voyages  of  discovery  formed  tho  most  important  materials  ibr  those  delineations 
of  Uio  globe  which  were  made  by  tlio  googmpiiical  schools  of  Greece  and  Romo  in  their 
more  advanced  and  perfected  state,  fiofbro  procec<ling,  therefore,  to  consider  the  s3rstom8 
of  tliese  schools,  it  may  Iw  proper  to  take  a  survey  ot  tlio  exploratory  voyages  performed 
oy  anciont  navigators.  These  do  not  appear  very  considerable  in  the  eves  of  a  modern 
mariner.  There  ia  not  one  of  thom,  pcrliapH,  which  tlio  captain  of  a  tolerably  appointed 
merchant-vessel  would  not,  in  tho  course  ot  his  ordinary  business,  bo  ready  to  undertake 
But  in  steering  along  an  unexplored  coast,  in  vessels  which  could  scarcolv  rank  abovo  boat* 
witliout  tlie  use  of  tho  compass,  or  any  correct  means  of  astronomical  observation,  evo> 
these  limited  voyages  were  iVaught  with  peril  and  adventure.  Tho  record  of  tliom  is 
however,  involved  m  much  mystery  and  controversy.  Thoy  woro  not  reported  to  the  worl* 
in  those  regular  narratives  with  which  tlio  modern  press  teems.  The  ancient  norrativoi 
are  al>vay8  meagre,  nnd  in  many  cases  we  have  only  fragments  of  hearsay  testimony,  col 
lectod  by  careless  or  prejudiced  writers.  A  learned  investigation,  therefore,  is  usually 
necessary,  to  discover  along  what  roost  tho  navigator  sailed,  to  what  point  of  it  he  reached 
and  sometimes  whether  he  ever  sailed  along  any  coast.  In  several  cases  the  most  skilfli^ 
disputants  arc  still  divided  on  oucstions,  which,  sunk  in  the  deep  abyss  of  time,  must  probably 
remain  for  ever  undecided.  Faint  and  dubious,  however,  as  are  these  records,  they  will 
lead  u8  over  some  of  the  most  interesting  problems  of  antiquity,  and  will  enable  us  to  trace, 
in  some  degree,  tlie  iniimt  steps  of  maritime  enterprise. 

,    ,,  Sect.  I. — Circumnavigation  of  ^rica  under  Necho, 

To  perform  tho  circuit  of  tlie  coast  of  Africa  was  tho  favourite  object  of  ancient  maritime 
enterprise,  as  it  continued  to  bo  of  that  of  modem  times,  till  tlio  era  of  its  final  happy 
oecomplislinicnt.  The  manner  in  which  its  coasts,  beyond  tho  Mcditerraneau  and  the  Red 
Sen,  begin  to  converge,  suggested  the  idea  of  a  peninsula,  tlie  circumnavigation  of  which 
miglit  he  effected,  even  by  the  limited  resources  of  ancient  navigation.  The  wide  sphere, 
botii  of  knowledge  and  trade,  which  such  a  discovery  would  open  to  the  enterprising  mari* 
time  nations  round  the  Mediterranean,  was  sufficiently  obvious.  The  first  attempt  of  this 
description  originated  in  a  quarter  which  had  usually  been  accustomed  to  keep  aloof  from 
every  species  of  naval  enterprise. 

Egypt  had  long  held  itelf  as  a  country  strictly  agricultural ;  but  Necho,  who,  next  to 
Kcsostris,  raised  its  military  glory  to  the  greatest  height,  appears,  like  other  conquerors, 
to  have  been  animated  by  an  active  spirit,  which  exerted  itself  in  every  direction.  Not 
poRsessing  fit  instruments  among  his  own  subjects,  he  engaged  some  Phoenician  navigators 
to  descend  the  Red  Sea,  and  endeavour  to  find  their  way  back  to  the  lueuitefratieau,  by 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  The  narrative  is  so  very  short,  that  we  may  easily  give  it  in  the 
words  of  Herodotus:  "Tho  Phoenicians,  setting  sail  from  the  Red  Sea,  made  meir  way  into 
the  southern  sea ;  when  autiunn  approached,  they  drew  their  vessels  to  land,  sowed  a 


Part  L 

oa  with  oxcoU 
criptivo.  Th« 
1  alwiiyi  boon 
ra  roportod  iii 
■  Turlary ;  whI 
naiiR,  who  ■till 
)land  tracta  of 
ich  laat  roH])Ocl 
Ifor.  Thiw  we 
n  the  nortliorn 
tAnt  fVoin  thoac 
y. 

I  Moahpch  and 
ia,  in  fiict,  tlic 
nil  tho  woatorn 
inp[o  of  narrow 
mtmont,  appear 
CO.  Aloxandor 
was  rccojjniaed 
scription  at  Uic 
9  wcro  probably 
tarkoUwitliUuH 


Book  I. 


VOYAGKS  OP  HATASPES  AND  IIANNO. 


hosedelineationa 
I  Rome  in  their 
lidor  tho  ajratoms 
yaj^oa  performed 
ires  of  a  modern 
crnbly  appointed 
iy  to  undertake 
ank  above  boat* 
bscrvation,  evo» 
on!  of  them  i» 
led  to  the  worla 
iciont  norrativGi 
f  testimony,  col 
sfore,  is  usually 
of  it  he  reachea 
die  most  skilflr 
le,  must  probably 
scords,  they  will 
able  us  to  trace, 


incient  maritime 
its  final  happy 

lau  and  the  Red 
^tion  of  which 
le  wide  sphere, 
iterprising  mari- 
attempt  of  this 
keep  aloof  from 

lo,  who,  next  to 
jther  conquerors, 
direction.  Not 
Lician  navigators 
leuiterraiiean,  by 
lly  ffive  it  in  the 
|e  their  way  mto 
land,  sowed  h 


crop,  and  waitad  till  it  was  grown,  when  they  reaped  it,  and  avain  put  to  sea.  Hating 
apont  two  yoara  in  tliia  manner,  in  tho  tliinl  year  thoy  reached  tho  Pillnra  of  Uorculea, 
and  rnturnod  to  E^ypt,  roiwrting  what  dutm  not  find  belief  with  me,  but  may,  perhapt, 
with  aoino  other  piriion;  tor  thoy  aaid  that  in  paaaing  Africa  thoy  had  the  aun  on  their 
rigiit  hand  (i.  o.  the  north).    In  thia  manner  liibya  was  flrtrt  known." 

Tho  authenticity  of  tliia  narrative  has  been  in  a  remarkable  degree  tho  object  of  learned 
ctirioaity,  and  haM  produced  a  moiW  of  controveray,  greater,  perhapa,  ttian  ita  abort  and 
vaguo  iiaturo  is  well  able  to  admit  The  argumunta  appear  to  have  been  exhauated  on 
tho  believing  aide  by  Uennell,  on  the  acoptical  by  Goeaelin  an!  Vincent.  Formidable  aa 
the  acliieveinent  was,  it  docs  not  seem  to  involve  any  absoluto  impoaaibilitv,  aince  the 
whole  voyage  might  bo  performed  without  loaing  aight  of  tho  ahore,  or  launching  into  the 
open  sea,  through  wiiich  tho  ancionta  hud  no  means  of  guiding  tiieir  courae;  and  their 
smaller  voaaols,  keeping  close  to  tho  ahore,  might  even  poaaeas  aome  advantage  over  our 
larger  onoa,  obliged  to  stand  out  to  aoa,  and  encounter  tlie  atomiy  waves  of  the  Atlantic. 
Herodotus  aoema  inclined  to  credit  tho  information,  unlcsa,  on  tho  ground  of  one  general 
utatemont,  which,  bemg  tlie  very  thing  that  should  liave  happened,  and  diabelioved  only 
tlirough  hia  ignorance,  atrongly  fortifloa  our  inclination  to  credit  the  atory. 

■   ■■■   ,  1-   •  I    t..-j  '  •■ft:'. 

Sect.  H. — The  Voyage  of  Satatpe$. 

The  Peraion  monarchs,  ailer  their  sway  was  established  over  tho  eastern  coasts  of  tho 
Mediterranean,  found  the  exploration  of  Africa  in  some  degree  their  peculiar  province. 
This  nation,  however,  laboured  under  on  aversion  and  dread  of  the  sea,  greater,  perhaps, 
than  that  of  the  other  orientals.  The  only  effort  of  theirs  on  record  waa  one  which  arow 
in  a  singular  and  rather  casual  manner. 

tiatospcs,  a  Persian  nobleman,  having  committed  a  heinous  offence,  was  condemned  by 
Xerxes  to  a  cruel  death.  His  friends,  however,  persuaded  the  monarch,  that  by  com- 
muting tills  sentence  into  that  of  a  voyage  round  Africa,  ho  would  inflict  sufTerings  scarce- 
ly loss  severe,  and  might  render  a  national  benefit  They  prevailed,  and  Sataspes,  having 
procured  in  Egypt  a  vessel  and  crow,  passed  tho  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  bent  hut  courao 
southwards.  He  ia  represented  as  havmg  beat  about  for  several  months,  at  the  end  of 
which  he  probably  reached  the  coasts  of  tho  Sahara.  The  view  of  those  frightful  and 
desolato  shores,  and  of  the  tempestuous  ocean  which  dashed  against  them,  might  well 
intimidate  a  navigator  bred  in  the  luxurious  indolence  of  tho  Persian  court.  Satospes  was 
struck  with  a  panic,  and  measured  l>ack  his  course  to  tlie  straits.  Yet,  hoping  that 
time  and  the  degree  in  which  he  hod  accomplished  his  mission  might  efikce  tlie  im- 
pression, both  of  former  offence  and  of  present  failure,  he  again  presented  himself  before 
Xerxes.  In  giving  an  account  of  his  voyage,  he  merely  related,  that  wherever  he  landed 
ho  had  seen  little  mcii  wearing  a  Phoenician  dress,  who  immediately  fled  into  the  moun- 
tains ;  but  his  people  had  done  them  no  injury,  bevond  carrying  off  the  cattle  of  which 
they  stood  in  need.  The  failure  of  the  ultimate  object  of  the  expedition  he  imputed  to 
the  occurrence  of  an  insurmountable  obstacle,  the  nature  of  which  has  not  been  satisfac* 
torily  explained.  Xerxes,  however,  accustomed  to  expect  that  all  nature  should  be  sul^ 
Bprvicnt  to  his  will,  would  listen  to  no  excuse,  and  ordered  the  original  sentence  to  be  im- 
mediately executed, 

'  :'    SicT.  III. — Voyage  of  Hanno. 

The  CarthaginiaiiB,  as  the  greatest  maritime  and  commercial  people  of  antiquity,  might 
have  been  expected  to  make  earlier  and  further  progress  in  the  discovery  of  Africa  than 
'Uiy  other  nation.  In  general,  however,  a  veil  of  deep  mystery  shrouded  all  the  proceed- 
ings of  that  powerful  and  aspiring  people.  It  is  even  asserted  tliat  they  considered  as  ex> 
clusivcly  theirs  the  whole  Mediterranean  west  of  a  line  drawn  across  to  Sicily,  and  that 
they  captured  all  the  vessels,  and  put  to  death  the  crews,  that  were  found  navigating 
within  these  forbidden  precincts.  The  Romans,  on  the  other  side,  anunated  by  inex- 
tinguishable enmity,  are  said  to  have  industriously  destroyed  all  the  records  of  the 
literature  and  history  of  their  fallen  rivals.  The  only  fragment  that  escaped  is  the 
Periplus  of  Hanno,  which,  notwithstanding  the  scepticism  of  Dodwell,  its  editor,  the 
learned  world  are  now  generally  agreed  in  considering  as  ancient  and  authentic.  T%ia 
celebrated  document  is  so  short,  that  we  may  find  space  here  for  a  complete  translation 
of  it 

"  It  pleased  the  Carthaginians  that  Hanno  should  sail  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules, 
and  should  found  cities  of  the  Liby-Phcenicians.  He  set  sail,  therefore,  with  a  fleet  of 
sixty  vessels,  each  of  which  was  impelled  by  fifty  oare.  They  carried  with  them  men  aiid 
women  to  the  number  of  thirty  thousand,  with  provisions  and  suopliea  of  various  kinds. 
\Vp.  sailed  two  days  beyond  the  straits,  and  fi)unded  a  city  overlooking  an  ample  plain,  and 
which  we  called  Thvmiaterium.  Thence  we  proceeded  westward  to  Soloe,  a  promontory 
of  Libya,  thickly  shaded  with  trees,  where  we  founded  a  temple  to  Neptune ;  then  turning 
OAstwurd  for  half  a  day*s  sail,  we  came  into  a  lake  not  far  nt>m  the  sea,  overgrown  wiu 


20 


mSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  i. 


numeroui  and  high  reeds,  and  on  wlioso  banks  elephants  and  a  number  of  wild  aninialt 
were  feeding,    ifaving  pofiftod  this  lake  in  the  course  of  a  day's  sail,  wo  founded  cities  on 
the  sea  coast,  Caricuu^-Teichoe,  Gytte,  Acra,  Melissa,  and  Animbys.     Then  sotting  sail, 
we  made  our  way  to  the  great  river  Lixus,  which  flows  from  Libya.     On  its  banks  the 
Lixits,  a  pastoral  race,  (bd  their  flocks ;  with  whom  wo  formed  ties  of  friendship,  and  spent 
t  short  interval.     The  country  above  them  waa  inhabited  by  inhospitablo  Ethiopiann,  filled 
with  wild  beasts,  and  traversed  by  very  high  mountains,  whence  the  Lixus  is  said  to  descend ; 
and  it  was  added,  that  these  mountains  were  inhabited  by  men  dwelling  in  caves,  3f  a 
strange  appearance,  who  outran  even  horses  in  the  chase.  Having  received  mterprctcrs  from 
the  LixitK,  wo  proceeded  along  a  desert  coast  till  the  middle  of  the  second  duy ;  when  we 
■ailed  one  day  to  the  eastward,  and  in  the  recess  of  a  little  bay  found  a  small  island,  five 
stadia  in  circuit    We  left  inhabitants  there,  and  named  it  Ceme.   This  island,  on  taking  an 
account  of  our  course,  we  conjectured  to  be  opposite  to  Carthage ;  for  the  navigation  from 
Carthage  to  the  Pillars,  and  from  the  Pillars  to  Come,  corresponded.    Then  we  came  to  a 
lake  through  which  flows  a  great  river  called  Chretcs.    That  lake  contained  three  islands 
greater  than  Ceme ;  by  these,  in  the  course  of  a  day's  navigation,  we  reached  the  interior 
shore  of  tlio  lake,  where  very  great  mountains  impended  over  it,  inhabited  by  a  rough  people 
dressed  in  skins  of  wild  beasts,  who  by  throwing  stones  repelled  us,  and  prevented  us  from 
landing.    We  tlien  sailed  into  another  river,  large  and  broad,  full  of  crocodiles  and  river 
horses.    We  then  returned  to  Ceme.    From  Ceme,  renewing  our  course  to  the  south,  we 
pfused  for  twelve  days  along  a  shore,  the  whole  of  which  waa  m  the  possession  of  the  Ethi* 
opians,  who  showed  a  trembling  dread  of  our  aspect,  and  spoke  a  language  unknown  to  our 
Jiixite  interpreters.    On  the  lost  day,  we  came  to  high  mountains  covered  with  trees,  the 
wood  of  which  was  odoriferous  and  variously  tinted.    Passing  round  these  mountains  by  a 
navigation  of  two  days,  we  came  to  an  immense  opening  of  tlie  sea,  bordered  by  plains  in 
which  we  saw  fires  of  different  magnitude  glittering  at  mtervals  from  every  spot.     Having 
watered  there,  we  proceeded  five  days  along  the  snore,  till  we  came  to  an  immense  bay, 
which  the  interpreters  called  the  Wcstem  Horn.  In  it  was  a  large  island,  and  in  that  island 
a  salt  water  lake,  in  which  again  there  was  another  island.    Entering  this  lake,  we  saw  in 
tiie  day  nothing  but  forest ;  but  ir  the  night  there  were  many  fires  buming ;  and  we  heard 
various  sounds  of  musical  instruments,  fend  the  cries  of  numberless  human  beings.     I^ing 
terrified  l^  these  objects,  and  the  prophets  also  exhorting  us  to  quit  the  island,  we  made  off, 
and  reached  next  the  fiery  region  of  Thymiamata,  whence  torrents  of  flame  poured  down 
into  the  sea.    Here  the  heat  of  the  earth  was  such,  that  the  foot  could  not  tread  upon  it 
We  therefore  took  our  speedy  departure  firom  this  place,  and  after  four  days'  further  sail,  saw 
the  earth  in  the  night  full  of  flames.    There  appeared  also  in  the  midst  of  thi  m  one  lofty 
fire  greater  than  the  rest  which  seemed  to  reach  to  the  very  stars ;  this,  when  seen  by  day- 
light proved  to  be  a  very  lofly  mountain,  called  the  chariot  of  the  gods.    Thence  by  a  navi- 
gation of  three  days,  having  passed  these  fiery  torrents,  we  came  upon  another  bay,  called 
Uie  Southern  Horn.    In  its  inmost  recess  was  on  island  similar  to  that  formt.'rly  described, 
which  contained  in  like  manner  a  lake  with  another  island,  inhabited  by  a  mde  description 
of  people.    The  females  were  much  more  numerous  than  the  males,  and  had  rough  skins : 
our  interpreters  called  them  Oorilke.    We  pursued  but  could  take  none  of  the  males ;  they 
all  escaped  to  the  top  of  precipices,  which  they  mounted  with  ease,  and  threw  down  stones ; 
we  took  three  of  the  females,  but  fJiey  mode  such  violent  stmggles,  biting  and  tearing  their 
captors,  that  we  killed  them,  and  stripped  off  the  skins,  which  w^e  carried  to  Carthage :  being 
out  of  provisions,  we  could  go  no  further." 

Such  is  the  entire  narrative  of  this  most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  voyages ;  but  it  would 
be  impossible  to  comprise  within  the  some  limits  even  a  sketch  of  the  commentaries  to  which 
it  has  given  rise  among  the  learned. 

Three  leading  hypotheses  have  been  formed ;  one,  that  of  Bougainville,  who  conceives 
Hanno  to  have  reached  the  Gulf  of  Benin ;  another,  of  Major  Rennell,  who  carries  his 
course  only  to  Sherbro  Sound,  a  little  be^^ond  Sieira  Leone;  while  M.  Gosselin  insists 
upon  terminating  it  about  the  river  of  Nun.  {Fig.  2.)  When  we  reflect  that  the  first 
of  these  courses  is  upwards  of  three  thousand  miles,  and  the  last  under  seven  hundred,  an 
idea  may  be  formed  of  the  extremely  vague  nature  of  these  data,  where  all  the  names  are 
changed,  and  no  one  point  fixed  with  such  certainty  that  the  others  can  rest  upon  it. 

Bougainville  contends  that  his  assigned  limits  do  not  exceed  what  may  reasonably  be 
supposed  to  have  been  passed  over  by  the  most  skilful  navigator  of  antiquity;  in  fact 
the  period  of  thirty-eight  days  is  precisely  the  time  employed  by  the  squadron  sent  in 
1641  to  found  the  Portuguese  fort  of  Elmina.  All  the  grand  features  of  man  and  nature 
described  by  Hanno  are  to  be  found  in  tropical  Africa  only;  Ethiopians  or  Negroes, 
Crorillee,  who  are  evidentlv  apes  or  orang-outangs ;  rivers  so  large  as  to  contain  croco- 
dilefi  and  hippopotami.  The  great  conflagrations  of  the  grass,  arS  the  music  and  dancing 
prolonged  through  the  night  are  phenomena  which  have  been  observed  only  in  the 
lient)  territories. 

Major  Rennell'ti  system  retains  all  the  arguments  by  whicii  that  of  Bougainville  is  eav 


PABTk 

r  wild  aninialf 
Lindod  citicfl  on 
)n  lottinff  iail, 
I  its  banks  the 
ship,  and  spent 
thiopiann,  tilled 
aid  to  descend ; 
in  cttvcB,  of  a 
iterpretcrs  from 
day ;  wlien  we 
lall  island,  five 
id,  on  taking  an 
mvigation  mm 
we  came  to  a 
ed  three  islands 
led  the  interior 
'  a  rough  people 
vented  us  from 
odiles  and  river 
to  the  south,  we 
lion  of  the  Ethi- 
unknown  to  our 
I  with  trees,  the 
mountains  by  a 
red  by  plains  in 
Y  spot.    Having 
n  immense  boy, 
nd  in  that  island 
lake,  wo  saw  in 
f ;  and  we  heard 
1  beings.    Being 
nd,  we  made  on, 
me  poured  down 
ot  tread  upon  it 
further  sail,  saw 
f  th<'m  one  lofty 
len  seen  by  da3r- 
lience  by  a  navi- 
Dther  bay,  called 
mi.'rly  described, 
rude  description 
lad  rough  skins : 
the  males ;  they 
;w  down  stones ; 
ind  tearing  their 
Carthage :  being 

BS ;  but  it  would 
intaries  to  which 

i,  who  conceives 
who  carries  his 
Gosselin  insists 
:t  that  the  first 
iren  hundred,  on 
1  the  names  are 
t  upon  it. 
y  reasonably  bo 
iquity;  in  fact, 
luadron  sent  in 
man  and  nature 
18  or  Negroes, 
contain  croco- 
oic  and  uanciug 
sd  only  in  the 

gainville  is  sur 


Book  1.  ^  VOYAGE  OF  HANNO.     '* 

""""'"'  jpig.  3._MAP  ILLUSTRATINU  THE  VOYAGE  OF  HANNtt 


f^ 


»- 


MBDITiaBANI  AN    g^ 


10- 


CVefd 


'1    '■:■'.       ''  'i.r        ;,-M  ,}<;;<!  7 
..  (   ^.  ,"!.,.»  i».    :    •'•X'  '••,f,   .,.  •  -v   /<>,■..(»  I Vy  .».■-,•■  I   ■" 

,'■'•••         '-  ■*■  '  ■'  ■,'  •■  ■■')  ■'  -r  -r  1  ■-'I  •  • 

',,.'  •    -    •      ■.■:-';.'  '   .«.■'.   "•     '. .  :<,f  ..ij-^ 

•ft. <*'>.■',.  \i  •>.  ,t^^.->f- 


"M 


ported,  at  the  same  time  that  it  avoids  the  extravagant  supposition  of  ancient  vessels  hav- 
mg  made  a  course  of  seventy  geographical  miles  m  the  day.  The  Gulfs  of  Bissago  and 
Sherbro  present  those  numerous  i^ands  described  by  Hanno,  and  not  found  on  any  other 
part  of  the  coast ;  and  even  their  form  seems  to  correspond  to  the  appellation  of  Horn, 
applied  by  him  to  these  great  gulfs.  If,  then,  Hanno's  career  reached  Central  Africa,  there 
can  bo  little  doubt  that  Major  Rennell's  hypothesis,  or  something  near  it,  exhibits  his  real 
progress. 

M.  Gosselin  restricts  the  voyage  within  much  narrower  limits.  It  was  impossible,  he 
urges,  that  the  course  could  be  otherwise  than  slow  in  a  voyace  of  discovery  Ujion  an  un- 
known sea,  where  the  mariner  could  sail  only  bv  daylight,  wim  constant  precautions,  and 
minutely  examining  every  part  of  the  coast.  The  motions  of  Hanno  were  clogged  also  by 
the  large  and  incumbered  fleet  of  which  he  was  the  escort.  Destitute  of  the  compass,  and 
without  the  power  of  standing  out  to  sea,  he  could  never,  it  is  alleged,  have  doubled  Cape 
Bojador,  which  so  long  baffled  the  efforts  of  the  Portuguese.  With  regard  to  the  features 
supposed  to  be  exclusively  characteristic  of  tropical  Africa,  M.  Gosselin  conceives  that 
Morocco,  yet  in  no  degree,  civilized  or  subdued,  but  in  the  fbll  possession  of  rude  native 
tribes,  would  bear  a  much  more  similar  aspect  than  now  to  the  interior  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent The  ape  tribe  and  the  wild  river  amphibia  might  probably  fill  a  region  unoccupied 
by  man,  though  now,  it  is  supposed,  expelled  by  culture  and  a  more  crowded  population. 
The  term  Ethiopians  has  been  applied,  not  to  negroes  only,  but  to  all  nations  of  a  dark 
colour.  He  conceives,  therefore,  that  Hanno's  course  could  never  pass  much  beyond  the 
frontier  of  Morocco,  and  could  have  reached  only  a  very  little  further  than  the  estuary  of 
the  river  of  Nun. 

To  decide  a  point  on  which  such  learned  men  so  widely  disagree,  is  what  we  do  not 
feel  very  forward  to  undertake ;  and  really  the  difficulties  appear  very  great  in  any  view  of 
the  subjcc*.    The  detail  of  the  positions  would,  on  the  whole,  lead  us  to  prefer  tlie  most 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Tart  I. 


! 

i 
I 


»*"* 


;ii' 


tiitiu  ".    or  UmMW  |Miti<)fw  tho  iMlniul  of  Cortio  fonim  tlin  kny ;  and  the  Idcntiiyiiig  of 

it  wii  i.:  •  •  *»ontl«  t«»  rt.ii>  ►.  iDort  ot'  tho  two  rt'iiioto  liypotlii'no*.  Dut  th«)UKh  it  i» 
cvitioiu      .a  .  >lu  of  tlio  «.  kI  tu  Curno  i«  iiot  Kivun,  t]io  time  boing  omittoti 

rlnif  wliicli  ti<  nitioM  wi'in  i ■<!,  y<  *  tho  ([I'licrnl  toiioiir  H(*i<iiia  hanllv  conaiiit(*nt 

witll  M)  ([rent  a  wo  uuiiig  iiiiulu  itlonK  Huch  u  Jiffitult  uiul  unknown  tihorn.  Ihodotbct  U 
III  niiio  Avatoo  miimlimlDy  nn  nnoient  nautirtil  jrMidn  of  noinn  niithority,  calind  tho  I'fri- 
phia  of  Hcymx,  in  w(ii<-h  tlio  niuI  fVom  tho  atraita  to  Trmn  In  |(ivon  nt  twolvo  days,  a  |«<rii)<l 
whirh  Major  Iloiinoll  u<huitH  to  ho  wholly  inmifncu<nt  for  roachina  Arguin.  I'toloiny,  ii.i'od, 
carricH  ('i<riio  to  almoat  a  lr<<,  nl  hititiido;  but  uu  \w  koo|Mi  it  HtiTi  north  of  t)io  Canaricn,  iila 
(rraduatioit  li'>ro  i«  nmnifonUy  en  huhhin,  and  hii*  authority,  on  tlio  wholo,  ia  in  fkvour  of  re- 
I  iiig  rorno  >■  itliin  tho  lIinitM  of  Morocci  Tho  dotaila  of  Ilnnno  do  not  apiwar  to  bo 
ftlwtjfa  '  ""v  aati»(ii(  tr)ry ;  but  |N<rhn|M  tliov  .  ;(ht  provo  inoro  m\  did  wo  powM-iw  a  more 
UOUrato  MUi  <7  of  UiIm  eonitt  than  ImM  yot  bvoii  Uikcii.  On  tho  wiiolo,  thon,  tho  ffrout  quon* 
tion  ia,  whutlii-r  M.  OoxMolin'a  ■olutioim  can  account  for  tho  aapcct  of  nature  and  lifo  \H;\ng 
w)  dilliront  IVvin  that  of  Morocco,  and  ho  liko  that  of  a  ni<(;ro  cooat:  pcrhapa  here,  too,  noino 
li(fht  might  bo  obtained  Ouiii  a  carutlil  ohaervation  ortiio  rudor  bordon  of  the  fbrmor  empiro. 

8icT.  IV. —  Voynf(r»  of  Kudoxui. 

Tho  ambition  of  porfbrminir  tho  circuit  of  AtVica,  tho  ffmnd  maritime  problem  of  an 
tiquity,  waa  not  nololv  conflnml  to  princcti  nnd  Htiit(<H,  Kvon  privato  advonturon,  animatca 
by  tliu  ambition  of  achieving  so  great  an  ontcrpriw,  and  hoping,  pcrhapa,  to  combine  with 
it  opportunitioN  of  lucrative  commerce,  are  tbund  in  the  hat  of  tho  explorora  of  AfViciu 
Riiuoxiia  waa  tho  nnwt  memorable  of  theao  advonturora,  whoae  atory,  however,  haa  comt 
down  to  UR  through  a  very  cloude<l  medium.  In  ancient,  atill  more  than  in  motlvni  tiinoa, 
there  oxiated  men  whoae  hiibit  it  waa  to  trout  with  doubt  and  dorixion  all  nomitivcH  of  dia- 
covery  that  oxtcndo<I  beyond  tho  ordinary  limit*.  At  the  head  of  thia  aceptical  ban<l  itands 
Htrabo,  ono  of  the  greatoxt  gcogra|tlu'rH  whoao  worka  aurvivc,  and  who  forma  tlio  chief 
medium  by  which  thono  narnitivcH  hiivo  ronchi>d  our  time ;  a  moat  unfortunate  circumstance 
to  tho  fliino  of  those  early  diMcoverera,  However,  in  many  inntancva,  nature  honiolf  hna 
Httxxl  ti)rth  aa  tlieir  vindicator;  and  our  moro  extunded  knowledge  hoa  enabled  ua  to  detect 
tlio  fiillacy  of  tho  nrguinent^  by  which  StnilK)  lm«  enilimvoure*!  to  reflito  them.  Thia  ia  not 
IMirtioularly  the  cnso  with  regani  to  Kudoxua;  but  really,  in  Strabo'a  noticea  respecting  tho 
wIventuMiH  lifo  of  tho  bold  navigator,  wo  cannot  aoe  any  tiling  which  tonda  to  controvert 
the  general  belief  of  antiquity,  that  he  liiul  modo  re[M>atod  and  spirited  attempts  to  oxplor* 
tho  unknown  cousta  of  the  AfVican  continent. 

Arconling  to  the  normtivea  of  Strabo,  Ki:  I  \  m  waa  a  native  of  Cyitious,  sent  on  a  miaaion 
to  Ale.xandria,  then  the  great  aoat  of  m  .iilimn  enlerprido  and  geographical  knowledge. 
His  anient  mind  waa  strongly  imbued  •^  itii  the  spirit  which  roigntMl  tlicre;  and  he  ofl'ered 
himaclf  to  Ptoloiny  Everpeten,  tho  reigning  king,  as  a  lealouH  inatrunicnt  to  bo  employed  in 
any  exiHHlition  having  these  objects  in  view.  There  was,  at  first,  some  talk  of  ascending 
tJio  Nile,  and  endeavouring  to  roach  its  unknown  sources ;  but  their  views  received  a  new 
direction  from  tho  arrivol  of  a  person  who  waa,  or  profbsscd  to  be,  a  native  of  India, 
CBcape<1  alone  lVi>m  tho  wreck  of  his  vessel  near  Uie  foot  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  Ptolemy  im- 
mediately fitto<l  out  a  naval  armament,  with  which  Eudoxus  procoedod  on  this  destination. 
He  appears  to  have  made  a  proHpcrous  voyage,  and  to  have  returned  with  a  cargo  of  aroma- 
tics  and  precious  stones,  which  last  had  cither  been  washed  down  by  tho  rivers,  or  dug  out  in 
a  concrete  state.  It  is  scarcely  probable,  however,  that  Eudoxus  ever  reached  tJio  real  shores 
of  Iniiio,  or  went  beyond  tlio  southern  shore  of  Arabia,  and,  at  fhrthcst,  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Of  this  wealth,  Evorpetes  apiiears  to  have  plundered  him ;  which  Stralm  insinuates  was  in 
resentment  of  some  dishonest  conduct  on  his  own  part.  We  cannot,  •  '  our  ,iiyp.  attempt 
to  judge  between  tho  two  parties.  However.  Evergotcs  dying,  his  wai  •<.  v'l- 1  imtra  took 
Eudo.xus  again  into  favour,  and  sent  him  on  .!  tresli  voyage.     Hew."    t.iiv  y  unfit- 

vourable  winds  to  tho  coa.it  of  Etliiopia,  where  ho  wos  well  received  ..w    .  uits,  and 

corriod  on  somo  advantageous  trade.  His  return  to  Alexandria  wus  again  unfortunate. 
Cleopatra  vma  dead ;  and  nor  son,  who  succeeded,  treated  him  as  ill  as  Evergctos  had  done. 
Eudoxus  brought  with  him,  however,  ono  trophy  from  tho  extremity  of  his  voyage — the 
prow  of  n  vessel,  said  to  have  come  fh)m  the  westward  as  a  portion  of  a  wreck,  and  on 
which  w-  -culptured  tho  figure  of  a  horso.  This  prow  being  exhibited  by  Eudoxus  on  the 
harbour,  ».•..■  i-^BriuiCrs  ftom  Cadis  declared  it  to  bo  tho  very  form  peculiar  to  a  species  of 
large  ve  «>•.  h  ont  iVcn  tliat  port  for  purposes  partly  of  trade,  and  partly  of  fishing, 
to  the  cwj'  iiv  NruritHxii  i.  Eudoxuu  listened  with  enthusiastic  credulity,  and  determined 
now  to  reri  "tunc  >  o  \v  litfiil  patronaco  of  courts,  and  to  fit  out  a  new  exiiedition  fVom  the 
commercir<  c'-y  *  C««»Jis.  lie  p*-""  "^drd  thither  by  way  of  Mossilia  and  other  maritime 
utations,  when«  he  iout'ly  proclaimeii  his  hopes,  anil  invitea  «1!  who  were  animated  v.'ith  any 
spirit  of  enterprise  to  accompany  him.  He  accordingly  succeeded  in  equipping  an  cxpeditian 
on  a  considerable,  and  oven  magnificent  scale.  He  had  one  ship  and  two  large  boats,  on 
board  of  which  he  carried,  not  only  geods  and  provisions,  but  artisans,  medical  men,  and  even 


Book  f. 


VOYAGE  OP  PYTIIEAB. 


playcn  on  muiieal  Inrtramontii.  A  crt^w  m>  g!i;r,  and  filled,  probably,  willi  ojitravaKniit  Iw|h  ^ 
wore  ill  fitted  to  oncountor  ttin  hanlNhipM  >  :  African  diacovory.  They  Uwk  fright  at  the 
awoll  of  tho  npon  loa,  tliroiiKJi  which  HudoxuM  wuh  nnxiuim  to  conduct  thoin,  and  inxioted, 
accordiii|7  to  tiio  uaual  tiiiiiil  nyaloin,  on  Iwi  "  broimlu  in  n  to  U>o  nhorn.  Thia  lod  to  the 
diaaator  which  Kudoxua  had  tbroaoon:  tho  »  .\<  nro  atrandud,  ind  tho  carso  with  difficulty 
aavod,  Tha  moat  valuable  articloa  w<'r<-  then  [mt  on  Ixmrd  on«  v«'kp<  I  of  a  liKhtor  conatruc- 
tion,  and  ho  proaocutml  tho  voyaf^e  till  li'  '^amo  to  n  rn.  f  people  who  appeared  U>  hini  ta 
apoak  tJio  Minie  lunguiiKO  with  iJioao  whom  no  hod  mot  on  tiio  oppoeito  ahore  of  thio  rotiti- 
nent.  Conceivinfr  hiniMolf  to  have  thua  aacortaiiicil  the  object  ot  hi^  vu^a^p,  ho  rotumnd, 
and  endeavoured  to  procure  the  barbaric  aid  of  IIoccIiiih,  kinu  of  Mauritania ,  I  «>■  »iiHpoctin(( 
that  monarch  of  a  tronchcrouH  doaiffn  ai^ainat  him,  ho  ifain  betook  himaclf  to  8|»iu..  Jfero 
ho  niccoeded  in  equipping  a  fVoah  oxpu<lition,  conaiatitiK  of  ono  Inrga  vtHwl  fitted  for  tiie 
upon  aea,  and  another  ot  amallor  diiinnwions  for  oxplorinjf  the  coaat.  Here,  untbrtunatuly, 
the  nrirrnt -'o  broaka  ofl',  roforrin((  to  thn  Hpaiiiards  and  Uadituniana,  na  likt<l_,  to  know  nH)rii : 
but '  orA.  >  n^  more  ia  atated  on  any  authority,  we  fuur  tliat  thia  luHt  cxptnlition  inuHi  liavc 
!  1  I  '  .nf  lunuto  iaHiio.  Huch  ia  tho  iiarmtivo  (fiven  by  Htrabo,  \i\mi  information  whicli 
• ''»i.«  J'  i  been  orif^inally  obtained  fi-oni  Kiidoxua  himaolf;  and  wo  acn  nothini;  m  it  un- 
worlliy  ot  iMlief,  or  which  might  not  very  well  be  accnmpliahod  bv  a  man  of  bold  i»nd  cnthu- 
cin  itio  charnctor,  posaoaaed  of  acionce  and  talent,  and  dnvotcd  with  audi  ardent  znal  to  the 
(.>' ." !  of  diacovery.     Eudoxua  cannot  bo  mado  rcaponaible  for  the  fablca  which  antiouity-  haa 

Cut  into  hia  mouth.  Ho  ia  ropreaentod  bv  lonio  aa  havin/;  actually  made  tho  circuit  of  Africa ; 
y  othera  oa  having  ccnne  to  one  nation  that  waa  dumb,  and  another  whoae  mouth  waa  entirely 
cloaed,  and  which  received  tbod  through  an  orifice  in  tho  noae.  But  none  of  thcae  fitbloi 
at  I  found  in  the  report  of  Eudoxua  himaolf,  oa  coming  through  tlie  medium  of  i^tmbo  hia 
enemy. 

Bbot.  V. — Voyage  qf  Pythea$.  ,,,;v 

Tho  voyage  of  Pythoaa,  the  Maasilian  navigator,  ia  of  peculiar  intereat,  aa  it  )t>  the  only 
one  deacribod  in  any  detail,  liaving  Europ<},  and  particularly  the  liritiah  lalcr',  Wit  ii  -<  obinct. 
It  comea  to  ua,  howcwor,  Btill  more  deeply  tinj^od  by  tho  aamo  dim  and  discoloured  i  'lortium 
through  which  that  of  Eudoxua  hna  paaaed.  It  ia  known  almost  solely  by  tiie  hoeti  o  quo- 
tationa  of  the  acopticiil  Btrabo,  adduced  for  tho  purpoao  of  proving  Pytheaa  to  bo  a  liar 
of  tlie  first  magnitudo."  Yot,  tiio  nature  of  tho  grounds  on  which  thia  conclusion  in  mado 
To  rest,  ia  such  as  to  placo  in  tho  clcaroHt  light  Btrabo'a  own  ignorance,  and  tho  suijorior 
information  of  Pythcoa.  This  lost  will  become  more  connpicuous,  if  wo  suppose,  oa  sr^cms 
probable,  that  the  errors  of  tho  geographer  were  transmitted  to  him  from  Moaailia  itself ;  in 
which  caao,  Pytheaa  being  found  poasoiwcd  of  knowledge  of  which  his  countrymen  v  cro 
destitute,  there  appears  no  mode  in  which  he  could  have  obtained  it,  except  tlie  actual  p<:r- 
tbrmanco  of  the  voyages. 

The  following  aro  statements  on  which  Strabo  rests  his  refutation  of  Pytheaa.  That  no  !■ 
gator  stated,  that  the  Calbium  I'rotnonlorium,  the  extremity  of  Bretognc,  pointed  to  t  c 
west,  while  Strabo  afHrms  it  to  bo  perfectly  notorious  that  its  direction  was  to  the  twrth. 
This  last  strange  idea  was  connected  with  what  wo  shall  find  to  bo  tho  general  error  of  th  4 
school,  which  allowed  to  Franco  a  southern  coast  only,  and  not  a  western  one.  Again, 
Pythcas  represented  Britain  as  having  ono  of  its  sides  much  longer  than  five  hundred  mile.-, 
wlicroas,  his  adversary  maintains  this  to  bo  the  dimensions  of  its  longest  side,  which,  accord- 
ing to  him,  is  that  oppoHito  to  and  seen  from  the  shores  of  Gaul.  Finally,  Pytheos  asserts 
that  his  Ultima  Thule  vas  farther  north  than  Ireland ;  whcreos,  all  wcll-mformed  persons, 
knowing  Ireland  to  be  tour  hundred  miles  north  from  Britain,  and  scarcely  habitable  on  ac- 
cr^iint  of  the  cold,  considered  it  as  fbrming  on  that  side  the  extreme  boundary  of  the  in- 
habited earth.  Thus  tiir  it  is  necessary  only  to  name  the  charges  against  Pytheaa,  to  make 
him  shine  conspicuoiiH  above  his  enemipH. 

There  are  other  stnlemcnts,  it  must  be  confessed,  which  appear  at  first  sight  a  little  start- 
ling. Pytheaa  describes  the  longest  side  of  Britain  not  only  as  more  than  five  hundred  miles 
in  length,  but  as  exceeding  two  thousand.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  tliat  while  Strabo 
described  Britain  as  a  triangle,  having  its  longest  side  opposite  to  Gaul,  Pythcas  conceived 
it  to  have  only  two  sides,  one  of  which,  consequently,  reached  fiom  the  Land's  End,  or  the 
Lizard  Point,  to  th»5  extremity  of  Scotland.  If  wo  consider  this  vast  extent  of  coast,  with 
so  many  winding  shores  and  deep  bays,  all  tlie  sinuosities  of  which  an  ancient  navigotor  was 
obliged  to  follow,  the  "stimate  will  appear  not  very  extravagant.  Again  Pytheas  described 
the  coast  of  Kf  ^  iis  K«>veral  days'  sail  from  that  of  Gaul,  But  the  term  by  which  Strabo 
designates  Gaul,  is  KijXTixtj  (Celtica) ;  and  it  appears  fVom  Ceesar,  that  Celtica  formed  only 
one  of  the  three  parts  into  which  Gaul  was  divided,  and  was  bounded  on  the  en«t  by  tho 
Seine.  Pytheas  probably  used  the  term  in  this  restricted  and  more  proper  sense ;  when  the 
distance  assignefl  became  strictly  correct.  Ho  moreover  described  the  coast  of  Spain  as 
inhabited  by  Gallic  nations;  it  would  even  seem,  that  he  considered  the  Calbium  Promon- 
*orium  as  Spanish.    Here  lie  was  clearly  in  the  wrong ;  but  tlie  error  will  probably  be 


24 


rnSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPIIY. 


PaetL 


!\  ':«' 


*buiKl  to  have  rested  not  in  his  observations  and  facts,  but  in  mixing  them  with  on  errone- 
ous theory  prevalent  at  Massilio,  according  to  which,  France  had  not  a  western  coast,  nor 
one  facing  the  Atlantic ;  such  a  coast  belonged  to  Spain  only.  Under  this  impression, 
Pytheas,  so  long  as  he  sailed  akng  the  western  coast  of  Gaul,  and  till  he  came  to  that 
opposite  to  Biitain,  would  naturally  imagine  that  he  was  sailing  along  the  coast  of  Spain. 

Strabo  at  last  traces  Pytheas  to  Thulo,  and  "  her  utmost  isles,"  when  he  does,  certainly, 
present  a  narrative  assuming  somewhat  of  a  fabulous  aspect,  i'he  most  daring  navigator, 
as  he  approached  the  dreary  boundaries  of  earth  and  ocean,  and  saw  only  the  high  billows 
of  the  North  Sea  dashing  against  a  rocky  and  misty  shore,  might  become  liable  to  some 
sinister  impressions.  Pytheas,  it  seems,  said,  that  beyond  Thule  there  commenced  what 
was  neither  earth,  sea,  nor  air,  but  a  confused  blending  of  all  the  three,  similar  to  the  sub- 
stance called  pulmo  marinus  (a  species  of  medusa  common  on  our  shores).  He  added,  that 
this  substance  was  the  basis  of  the  universe,  and  that  in  it,  air,  earth,  and  sky  hung  as  it 
were  suspended.  If  we  place  ourselves  in  tiie  situation  of  Pytheas,  seeing  before  him  the 
northern  sea,  overhung  by  thick  and  gloomy  mists,  shrouded  in  twilight,  and  darkened  by 
tempest,  we  may  suppose  him  very  easily  persuaded,  that  what  he  beheld  was  a  contused 
blending  of  all  the  elements,  not  very  dissimilar  even  to  that  thick  viscid  animal  substance 
to  which  it  was  compared.  Nor  can  we  feel  much  wonder,  if,  after  this  long  and  difficult 
navigation  through  so  many  perils,  he  should  lend  somewhat  of  a  ready  ear  to  a  report 
which  represented  him  to  have  reached  that  farthest  boundary  of  nature,  beyond  which  it 
was  no  longer  possible  for  mortal  sail  to  penetrate.  Anothei  report  of  Pytheas  was,  that 
at  Thulo  the  phenomenon  took  place  which  belongs  only  to  the  polar  circle, — a  summer  of 
one  long  day,  and  a  winter  of  one  long  night.  Antiquity  is  somewhat  full  of  rumours  of 
this  phenomenon,  which  bcience  had  pointed  out  as  likely  to  take  place  at  a  certain  latitude ; 
and  there  was  a  general  disposition  in  those  who  had  made  any  progress  northwards  to  an- 
ticipate the  term.  Considering  the  loose  way  in  which  rumour  then  spread,  it  may  easily 
be  supposed,  that  the  partisans  of  this  idea  might  support  it  by  an  exaggerated  representa- 
tion of  the  real  statements  of  Pytheas.  One  of  these  (Geminius)  merely  reports  him  as 
saying  that  the  nights  appeared  to  him  to  last  only  for  two  or  three  hours,  a  statement 
which  at  midsummer  would  be  quite  correct.  Indeed,  we  have  been  assured  by  persons 
who  have  resided  in  the  Shetland  islands,  tliat  at  that  season  there  was  scarcely  any  sen- 
sible term  of  darkness.  A  foreigner,  then,  visiting  the  islands,  might  very  readily  imagine 
he  had  arrived  at  that  point  on  the  globe  where  the  summer  was  one  uninterrupted  day. 

The  theories,  which  would  make  Thule  any  other  place  than  Shetland,  seem  not  to 
require  much  discussion,  though  there  are  not  wanting  learned  partisans  in  favour  of  each. 
Iceland  would  imply  too  great  an  extent  of  open  sea  for  an  ancient  navigator ;  and  the 
period  of  five  days'  sail  from  the  continent  would  be  very  inadequate.  Some  Scandinavian 
writers  have  claimed  Thule  as  belonging  to  their  own  region ;  Rudbeck  for  Sweden ;  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  and  Schojnning  for  the  Norwegian  Tellemach;  Malte  Brun  for  Jutland. 
These  theories  seem  sufficiently  refuted  by  the  single  consideration,  that  Pytheas  mvariably 
considered  Thule  as  British,  and  expressly  calls  it  the  "  farthest  of  the  Britains."  But 
Jutland  or  the  Baltic  he  could  have  only  reached  by  a  long  navigation  along  the  coasts  of 
Germany,  which  could  never  have  been  performed  witliout  the  clear  perception  of  having 
left  far  behind  him  every  thing  belonging  to  Britain. 

Sect.  VI. — The  Voyage  of  Nearchus, 

Alexander  the  Great  was  animated  beyond,  perhaps,  any  other  ancient  monarch  or  sage, 
with  an  ardent  zeal  for  discovery  His  expedition  became  almost  as  much  one  of  explora- 
tion as  of  conquest.  Its  course  was  in  general  by  land,  and  through  the  interior  of  the 
continent;  but  his  mind  was  not  loss  deeply  fixed  upon  commerce  and  maritime  discovery. 
On  reaching,  therefore,  the  banks  of  the  Indus,  and  being  obliged  by  the  mutiny  of  his 
troops  to  fix  there  the  termination  of  his  career,  he  was  seized  with  a  desire  to  explore  the 
lower  course  of  that  river,  and  afterwards  the  southern  coasts  of  Asia ;  a  long  range  com- 
pletely unknown  to  the  Greeks.  The  prospects  of  this  voyage,  however,  were  such  as  to 
appal  the  most  enterprising  of  his  naval  officers.  The  perils  of  tempest  and  shipwreck  on 
this  wide  and  unknown  ocean,  with  those  of  being  driven  upon  a  barbarous  and  desert 
coast,  appeared  almost  to  preclude  the  hope  of  reaching  by  this  long  circuit  the  destined 
station  of  the  army  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  The  inferior  officers  variously  excused 
themselves  from  so  heavy  a  task ;  and  the  enterprise  appeared  ready  to  fiiil  for  lack  of  instru- 
ments, when  Nearchus,  the  admiral  of  the  fleet,  came  forward  and  proffered  his  own  ser- 
vices. Alexander  unwillingly  committed  tliis  task  to  an  officer  so  high  in  rank,  and  his 
intimate  friend ;  but  tiie  earnestness  of  Nearchut,  and  the  backwardness  of  all  the  others, 
left  him  at  length  no  alternative. 

The  voyage  down  the  Indus  was  brilliant.  Alexander  conveyed  his  army  in  a  crowded 
.Iret  of  two  thousand  vessels.  The  sound  of  the  numberless  oars,  eciioed  by  the  surround- 
ing woods,  as  they  floated  down  tliis  majestic  stream,  excited  tiie  admiring  gaze  of  the 
natives.    Alexander  even  accompanied  his  admiral  down  tiie  Delta  of  the  Indus,  and  took 


I 


Book  I. 


VOYAGE  OF  NEARCHUS. 


2!5 


u  vie  AT  of  the  ocean,  after  which  he  returned,  to  lead  his  army  by  a  most  perilous  and  diffi- 
cult route  through  Gedrosia  and  Karamania  to  Babylon. 
Nearchus  now  began  his  arduous  naval  route  (  Fig.  3.),  after  the  usual  antique  preparation 


Fig.  a— MAP  OF  THE  VOYAGE  OF  NEARCHU& 

M         65         eo         es 
J I L 


-« 


of  sacrifices  and  games.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  appeared  a  most  formidable  obstacle ,  a 
rock  barring  the  passage,  and  against  which  the  waves  broke  with  fury.  This  was  sur- 
mounted by  cutting  a  canal  across  the  softest  part  of  the  rock,  tlirough  which  the  vessels 
were  able  to  pass  at  full  tide.  He  then  pa£sed  the  sandy  island  of  Krokali  (Corachie,) 
and  Mount  Eirus  (Cape  Monze,"*  when,  being  now  in  the  open  ocean,  a  series  of  galea 
began,  so  lieavy  and  continued,  as  obliged  him  to  seek  the  shelter  of  an  excellent  harbour 
formed  by  an  island  called  Bibacta.  The  crews  here  landed,  threw  up  an  entrenchment 
to  defend  themselves  e^inst  the  natives,  and  remained  for  twenty-threo  days,  subsisting 
chiefly  on  shell-fish.  The  wind  having  abated,  they  set  sail,  and  came  to  a  coast  where 
water,  of  which  they  appear  to  have  needed  almost  daily  supplies,  was  only  to  be  got  by 
going  several  miles  up  into  the  country.  They  then  passed  between  a  range  of  rocks,  so 
close  to  each  other,  that  the  oars  struck  against  tliem  on  each  side.  After  sailing  a  con- 
siderable space,  partly  in  a  narrow  channel  between  a  wooded  island  and  the  shore,  they 
came  to  the  river  Arabius  (the  modem  Pooralee).  It  gave  name  to  a  numerous  people, 
inhabiting  all  the  territory  between  this  river  and  the  Indus.  On  the  other  side  was  the 
coast  of  the  Oritte.  In  proceeding,  however,  Nearchus  met  witli  a  dreadful  tempest,  in 
which  three  of  his  vessels  perished,  though  the  crews  were  saved  by  swimming,  and  he 
with  difficulty  brought  his  shattered  vessels  to  the  coast.  Here  he  found  Leonatus,  whom 
Alexander  had  detached  to  open  a  communication  with  him,  which  he  obtained  only  by 
very  hard  fighting,  Nearchus  here  spent  some  time  in  refitting  his  shattered  vessels,  and 
exchanged  those  of  his  crew  who  had  proved  themselves  less  efficient,  for  fresh  men  out 
of  the  Greek  army.  Having  laid  in  com  for  ten  days,  they  sailed  with  a  prosperous  wind, 
and  reached  the  lapid  stream  of  Tomeras  (the  modem  Wudd).  Here  the  natives,  six 
hundred  strong,  were  drawn  up  to  oppose  their  landing;  a  barbarous  race,  armed  with 
lances  six  cubits  long,  pointed  not  with  iron,  but  with  wood  hardened  in  the  fire.  Near- 
chus caused  a  band  of  his  light  troops  to  swim  on  shore,  and  to  make  no  movement  till 
they  were  drawn  up  in  a  triple  line,  then  suddenly  to  raise  a  general  shout,  and  pour  in 
clouds  of  darts  and  missiles.  This  sudden  attack,  their  shouts,  and  the  glitter  of  their 
armour,  produced  instant  and  total  rout  on  the  part  of  the  natives.  They  are  described  as 
presenting  an  aspect  almost  incredibly  savage,  being  covered  in  a  great  measure  with  hair, 
and  having  long  nails  like  the  claws  of  wild  beasts.  Their  dress  consisted  in  the  skins  of 
animals  and  of  large  fishes. 

The  expedition  now  steering  out  to  sea,  and  taking  a  southerly  course,  observed  pheno- 
mena belonging  to  the  midsummer  of  the  tropic,  the  novelty  of  which  stmck  them  with 
surprise.  When  the  sun  was  in  the  meridian  no  shadow  was  projected,  and  when  there 
came  to  be  a  little  shadow,  it  dfir.lined  to  the  southward.  Stars,  which  were  wont  to  be  seen 
high  in  the  heavens,  were  now  little  above  the  horizon.  At  Bagaziri  (Cape  Arrubah)  they 
left  the  coast  of  the  Oritte,  and  entered  that  of  the  Ichthyophagi,  or  fish-eaters,  a  food  which 
is  said  to  have  so  remarkably  abounded,  that  even  the  flesh  of  the  cattle  savoured  of  fish, 
from  their  making  it,  like  sea-birds,  their  daily  food.  The  people  were  hospitable,  but  could 
ffive  only  fishes  and  goats.  It  was  not  till  the  Greeks  had  sailed  a  considerable  distance  that 
at  Bama  they  found  some  palms,  gardens,  and  verdure.    After  passing  Cophantce  (Guadel,) 

Vol.  I.  3  D 


'io 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1 


where  they  obtained  a  Bupply  of  fine  water,  and  Cyzia  (Gwutter)  on  a  desert  and  rocky 
shore,  they  camo  to  a  small  town  on  a  hill  a  littlo  inland  (probably  Churbar,)  where  it 
appeared  probable  tlmt  i  supply  of  grain  might  be  obtained.  To  possoss  himself  of  this, 
Ncarchus  had  recourse  to  measures  that  harmonized  much  more  with  the  clmnicter  of  a  buc- 
caneering freebooter,  than  with  that  of  an  officer  of  the  first  prince  in  the  world.  The 
people  met  him  in  the  most  kindly  manner,  and  presented  to  him  roasted  fish  and  other  vic- 
tuals. Meeting  their  friendly  advances,  he  expressed  a  wish  to  visit  tlicir  city,  and  being 
cordially  admitted,  his  first  step  was  to  take  military  occupation  of  it,  and  command  the 
natives  to  lay  open  to  him  all  their  stores  of  grain.  The  poor  citizens  at  first  flew  to  arms, 
but  having  no  means  of  effectual  resistance,  were  obliged  to  yield.  It  proved,  however, 
that  they  had  little  except  dried  fish  reduced  to  powder,  and  Nearchus  could  get  only  a  very 
small  stock  of  grain.  In  sailing  now  along  an  almost  desert  coast,  the  stock  of  provisions 
Secame  excessively  ocanty ;  and  they  obtained  only  a  poor  supply  by  landing  and  cutting  off 
tlio  leaves  of  wild  palm-trees.  The  pressure  became  so  extreme,  and  was  so  impatiently 
•vjme  by  the  crews,  that  Nearchus  did  not  think  it  safe  to  land  at  night,  lest  they  should  all 
take  flight  into  the  interior.  l\i  one  place  he  found  a  paltry  village,  all  the  inhabitants  of 
which  fled ;  but  the  Greeks  found  seven  camels,  which  they  killed  and  eagerly  devoured. 
The  same  distress  continued  to  press  upon  them  so  long  as  they  sailed  along  the  coast  of  the 
"  fish-eaters."  Notwitlistanding  this  name,  few  of  them  were  fishers,  or  had  even  boats. 
They  procured  this  food  by  immense  nets,  sometimes  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  formed  out 
of  the  fibrous  bark  of  the  palm  tree.  These  they  placed  at  high  tide  across  tlie  moutli  of 
little  bays,  so  tliat  when  the  waters  receded,  the  nets  retained  all  the  fish  which  had  been 
carried  up  with  the  tide.  The  houses  of  the  rich  were  built  with  the  bones  of  whales  cast 
ashore,  tljose  of  the  poor  with  tlie  back-bonea  of  smaller  fishes.  Nearchus  descried  a  number 
of  whales,  whosu  presence  was  at  first  made  sensible  only  by  the  quantity  of  water  thrown 
up  into  the  air,  and  tossed  as  in  a  whirlpool,  a  spectacle  which  struck  the  sailors  with  terror, 
and  made  the  oars  drop  f^om  their  hands.  The  commander,  however,  on  being  informed  of 
the  cause,  made  his  crews  raise  the  loudest  possible  sound  by  shouts,  trumpets,  and  dashing 
of  oars,  which  at  once  kept  up  their  own  spirits,  and  was  supposed  to  induce  these  monsters 
of  the  deep  to  replunge  into  their  abysses. 

The  coast  of  Caramania  was  next  reached  by  Nearchus,  atler  passing  the  fabulous  abode 
of  a  Persian  Circe,  who,  according  to  report,  was  accustomed  to  seduce  the  navigator  by 
voluptuous  pleasures,  and  then  convert  him  into  a  fish.  Nearchus  now  found  his  distresses 
nearly  at  an  end,  as  the  soil  was  tolerably  productive  in  grain  and  fruits,  and  there  was  plenty 
of  good  water.  After  passing  Capes  Jask  and  Bombareck,  they  came  in  view  of  a  huge  pro- 
montory, stretching  far  into  the  sea,  called  Cape  Maceta  (Mussendoon),  and  forming  the 
entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf  The  great  body  of  tlie  sailors,  and  even  Onesicrotus,  an  officer 
high  in  command,  weary  of  this  long  navigation,  earnestly  proposed  to  land,  and  march  on  foot 
to  Babylon.  Nearchus  justly  and  strongly  insisted  that  this  was  in  no  degree  to  fulfil  the 
intention  of  Alexander,  whose  injunction  it  was,  to  survey  every  coast,  every  harbour,  and 
every  bay,  between  India  and  the  Euphrates ;  and  that  besides  they  incurred  great  hazard  of 
being  involved  in  those  arid  and  burning  deserts,  ot  which  Arabia  in  a  great  measure  con- 
sists. This  wise  opinion  prevailed,  and  in  ascending  the  Persian  Gulf  they  found,  for  the 
most  part,  a  fertile  and  beautifiil  coast.  In  the  delightful  country  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Anamis  (the  modem  Minab)  they  landed,  and  began  to  refresh  themselves  after  so  many 
hardships.  Nay,  a  party  having  proceeded  to  some  distance  into  the  interior,  met,  with  tears 
of  surprise  and  joy,  a  man  in  a  Greek  dress,  and  speaking  the  Greek  language.  This  proved 
to  be  a  soldier  who  had  straggled  from  the  army  of  Alexander,  which  he  reported  to  be  at  a 
distance  of  only  five  days'  journey.  On  receiving  tliis  intelligence,  Nearchus  cnused  the 
ships  to  be  drawn  on  shore,  a  rampart  to  be  formed  round  them,  and  tJie  crews  to  take  rest 
and  refreshment,  while  he  and  Archias  set  out  alone  for  the  camp.  On  their  arrival  they 
presented  an  aspect  so  haggard,  pale,  and  squalid,  that  the  persons  they  met  did  not  know 
them,  but  on  being  told  their  name,  hastened  to  carry  the  first  tidings  to  Al'-xander.  They 
added  (a  hasty  conclusion  formed  fVom  appearances,)  that  the  fleet  and  the  army  had  per- 
ished. Alexandci*  received  Nearchus  with  a  kindness  mingled  with  sorrow,  and  after  the 
first  salutations,  began  to  a.sk  particulars  of  the  catastrophe  of  his  favourite  armament ;  but 
when  Nearchus  replied,  "O  king!  thy  ships  and  men  are  safe,"  the  conqueror  burst  into  a 
flood  of  tears,  and  swore  by  Jupiter  Ammon,  that  he  derived  more  pleasure  from  this  event 
than  from  the  entire  conquest  of  Asia, 

The  rest  of  the  navigation  of  Nearchus,  when  he  had  with  some  difliculty  regained  the  fleet, 
was  easy,  care  being  taken  that  he  should  find  on  the  coast  every  kind  of  supply.  They 
passed  the  barren  and  desert  rock  of  Organa,  afterwards  so  celebrated  under  the  name  ci' 
Ormuz,  the  large  and  fertile  Oaracta  (the  modern  Kishme).  Soon  after  they  quitted  the 
coast  of  Caramania  and  entered  that  of  Persia  proper  (the  modern  /are,)  which  they  follow- 
ed till  its  termination  at  the  river  Arosis  (the  modem  Endian  Tab,)  which  appeared  to  them 
the  largest  they  had  seen  since  they  had  left  the  Indus.  They  were  now  in  Susiana,  and 
soon  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris  where  the  voyage  terminated. 


Paht  1 

a  desert  and  rocky 
f  Churbar,)  whore  it 
BPBs  himself  of  this, 
10  charttctcr  ofa  biic- 

in  the  world.  The 
d  fish  find  other  vic- 
their  city,  and  beinfj 
t,  and  command  the 
It  first  flow  to  arms, 
It  proved,  liowevor, 
!ould  get  only  a  verv 
!  stock  of  provisions 
iding  and  cutting  oft' 

was  80  impatiently 

lest  they  should  all 
I  the  inhabitants  of 
id  eagerly  devoured, 
long  the  coast  of  the 

or  had  even  boats, 
ile  long,  formed  out 
icross  tlie  moutli  of 
ish  which  had  been 
ones  of  whales  cast 
8  descried  a  nimiber 
ty  of  water  thrown 
)  sailors  with  terror, 
I  being  informed  of 
mpets,  and  dashing 
uce  these  monsters 

the  fabulous  abode 
:e  the  navigator  by 
round  his  distresses 
nd  there  was  plenty 
'iew  of  a  huge  pro- 
),  and  forming  the 
esicrotus,  an  officer 
1,  and  march  on  foot 
degree  to  fulfil  the 
Jvery  harbour,  and 
ed  great  hazard  of 
reat  measure  con- 
they  found,  for  tJie 
nouth  of  the  river 
ves  after  so  many 
or,  met,  with  tears 
lage.    This  proved 
eported  to  be  at  a 
archus  caused  the 
rows  to  take  rest 
their  arrival  they 
net  did  not  know 
M>"xander.    They 
he  army  had  per- 
•ow,  and  after  the 
e  armament;  but 
ieror  burst  into  a 
J  from  this  event 

regained  the  fleet, 
)f  supply.  They 
ider  the  name  ti' 

they  quitted  the 
'hich  they  follow- 
ippeared  to  them 

in  Susiana,  and 


Book  I. 


PERIPLUS  OF  THE  ERYTHREAN  SEA. 


27 


The  circumnavigation  of  Arabia,  and  the  opening  of  a  communication  between  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  formed  to  Alexander  on  object  of  almost  equal  ambition.  He 
ax'cordingly  appears  to  have  sent  expeditions  down  both  seas,  in  the  hope  of  accomplishing 
this  object  Those,  however,  who  went  from  Persia  were  never  able  to  double  that  formidable 
promontory  (the  Mussendoon)  which  Nearchus  had  passed  at  the  entrance  of  the  gulf;  while 
those  who  went  from  Egypt,  after  making  a  certain  progress,  were  always  obliged  to  return 
for  want  of  water.  The  narrator  chose  to  conclude  with  inferring,  that  such  an  achieve- 
ment must  be  beyond  human  skill  or  power,  otlierwise  the  daring  curiosity  of  Alexander 
would  certainly  have  accomplished  it.  He  reinforces  tliis  argument  by  observing,  that  as 
caravans  which  crossed  Arabia  were  able  to  travel  only  during  tlie  night  and  in  the  day 
wore  unable  to  bear  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  it  was  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  a  region 
still  farther  to  the  south  should  be  at  all  habitable. 

Sect.  VII. — Periplus  qf  the  Erythrean  Sea. 

The  complete  establishment  of  the  dominion  of  Rome  produced  a  long  period  of  compara- 
tive peace.  The  encouragement  of  industry  and  commerce  never  formed  part  of  the  policy 
of  that  powerful  empire ;  but  the  demand  for  luxuries  of  every  description  in  its  overgTown 
capital,  where  the  wealth  of  the  world  was  collected,  and  to  procure  which  the  remotest 
extremities  of  the  earth  and  sea  were  ransacked,  powerfully  stimulated  mercantile  enterprise. 
Alexandria  continued  still  the  great  nautical  school,  by  whose  mariners  the  obstacles  which 
in  the  time  of  Alexander  had  been  deemed  insurmountable  were  completely  overcome. 
Regular  voyages  were  established  across  to  India,  and  for  a  considerable  extent  along  the 
•lastern  coast  of  Africa.  The  course  of  this  commercial  voyage  is  related  by  Arrian,  not 
Uie  historian  of  Alexander,  but  a  merchant  of  Alexandria ;  and  though  not  so  much  a  voyage 
of  discovery  as  a  coasting  guide,  it  is  founded,  probably,  upon  personal  observation,  and  wUl 
enable  us  to  complete  the  survey  of  the  great  naval  routes  of  the  ancient  world. 

Tlie  voyage  down  the  west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  began  with  Berenice,  founded  by  the 
Ptolemies,  and  the  site  of  which,  after  being  long  sought  for  in  vain,  seems  to  have  been 
nearly  fixed  by  Belzoni.  The  coaist  on  the  African  side  was  wild,  ond  occupied  only  by  a 
few  rude  huts  of  barbarous  Nubians.  The  small  port  called  Ptolemais  Theron  was  the 
only  place  where  refreshments  could  be  obtained.  At  length,  the  navigator  came  to  Aduli, 
a  groat  emporium,  whose  site  Mr.  Salt  seems  to  have  ascertained  in  the  vicinity  of  Arkceko. 
Here  was  a  profusion  of  excellent  ivory,  collected  and  sent  down  from  Axum,  the  metropo 
lis,  about  eight  days'  journey  in  the  interior.  In  return  for  this  single  staple  of  Ethiopia 
was  exchanged  that  variety  of  showy  colours,  suited  to  a  rude  taste ;  pottery  and  glass 
vessels,  the  manufacture  of  Diospolis ;  brass  for  vessels  and  ornaments,  iron  for  pointing 
lances,  arms,  and  cutting  instruments.  Some  fine  clothfe,  and  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver, 
were  brought  as  presents  or  tribute  to  the  king.  Fartlier  down,  apparently  in  the  Gulf  of 
Zeyla,  was  the  kingdom  of  Zoskalcs,  a  prince  who  is  described  in  glowing  terms  as  adorned 
with  every  virtue,  and  eminently  skilled  in  Grecian  literature ;  but  these  seeds  of  civiliza- 
tion, if  they  ever  existed,  did  not  ripen  in  so  ungenial  a  climate.  The  coast  now  turns 
eastward  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

A  view  of  the  passage  down  the  opposite  or  eastern  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  must  now  be 
taken.  Navigators  do  not  seem  to  have  ventured  across  the  breadth  of  that  sea  from  Berenice, 
but  went  by  Myos  Hormus,  along  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  touchmg  at  Leuhe  Kome, 
the  fair  village,  which  formed  the  port  of  tlie  great  commercial  capital  of  Petra.  The  coast 
downwards  was  most  unfavourable  to  navigation,  "  full  of  danger,  without  harbours,  beset 
with  rocks,  everywhere  full  of  horror ;"  and  such  the  whole  of  the  Red  Sea  is  described  to 
be  by  modern  navigators.  If  a  vessel  was  driven  too  near  the  shore,  it  was  immediately 
plundered  by  the  barbarous  inhabitants,  and  all  who  survived  carried  intij  slavery.  At  length 
they  came  to  the  Burnt  Island,  which  seems  to  be  Gebel  Tor,  on  the  coast  of  Yemen,  where 
they  found  a  fine  country  and  a  friendly  people.  The  emporium  of  tliis  coast  was  Moosa, 
near  the  modern  Mocha,  said  to  be  inhabited  by  a  race  skilled  in  maritime  affiiirs.  The 
imports  were  of  the  same  description  as  at  Aduli,  but  of  finer  quality,  including  a 
considerable  quantity  of  dye-stuffs.  The  exports  were  myrrh,  gum,  alabaster  (no  mention 
yet  of  coffee).  They  then  proceeded  downwards,  and  passed  the  straits  now  called  Bab  el 
Mandel. 

The  southern  coast  of  Arabia  formed  the  next  object  of  navigation.  Ocelis  (the  modem 
Ghella)  was  a  good  harbour,  though  with  little  trade ;  but  Arabia  Felix,  which  seems  to 
have  been  near  the  site  of  Aden,  had  been  a  most  flourishing  port,  forming  a  depot  in  which 
the  merchants  of  Alexandria  found  all  tlie  commodities  of  India,  It  had  lately,  however, 
been  destroyed  by  the  Romans.  In  coasting  along  Arabia,  they  found  Kane  (the  modem 
Maccuiia) ;  the  Gulf  of  Sachalites,  in  which  is  found  the  modern  Sahar ;  and  Syagros,  de- 
scribed as  the  largest  promontory  in  the  world,  usually  supposed  to  be  Raa  el  Had,  but 
which  Vincent  appears  clearly  to  fix  in  the  much  more  westerly  position  of  Cape  Fartash. 
This  region  is  described  as. yielding  a  considerable  quantity  of"^ incense,  but  as  extremely 
iiicist  and  unhealthy.    They  now  passed  Mosca  (Morebat),  Asichone  (Hasec),  the  islands 


28 


inSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


1;    I.  ,     '     I 


Fig.  4. — Perii'lus— Coast  of  India. 

09  70  73  74 


KtlUoia 


'■•i 


.23 


20 


.1 


of  Zcnobius  (Curia  Muria),  and  came  to  Ras  cl  Had,  where  the  coast  turns  northward  to 
the  Persian  Gulf.  The  writer  observes,  and  truly,  that  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  is  bordered 
by  very  lofty  and  rugeed  mountains;  he  mentions  the  celebrated  pearl  fishery  on  its 
western  shore,  and  Apologos,  otherwise  called  Oboleh,  then  the  emporium  of  the  Euphrates. 
He  does  not  dwell,  however,  on  these  details,  and  passes  also,  with  very  slight  notice,  the 
southern  coast  of  Persia,  which  the  observations  of  Nearchus  hod  shown  tooe  destitute  of 
any  materials  for  commerce. 

The  coa£t  of  India  (Jig.  4.)  now  commences,  and  forms  the  most  important  era  in  the 
voyage.  He  reaches  the  mouth  of  the 
great  river  Sinthui,  by  which  name  he 
designates  the  Indus.  It  is  represented 
as  entering  the  sea  by  seven  mouths,  only 
one  of  which  is  navigable,  and  on  which 
is  situated  a  place  called  Emporium  Bar- 
baricum,  subject  to  the  interior  metropolisz^  - 
of  Minnagara,  which  last  is  described  as  a 
Scythian  city.  The  idea  of  Scythia  at- 
tached to  this  part  of  India  coula  only  he^ 
suggested  by  the  rude  pastoral  manners 
of  tlie  people,  and,  combined  with  the  cir- 
cumstance of  its  being  included  in  the 
Parthian  empire,  points  out  Minnagara  asm 
belonging  to  what  is  now  called  tlie  king- 
dom of  Caubul,  to  which,  in  fact,  the  Del- 
ta of  the  Indus  is  still  subject  The  mer- 
chants were  obliged  to  go  up  to  Minna- " 
gara,  and  to  negotiate  with  the  prince 
himself.  After  passing  the  Indus,  navi- 
gators found  successively  the  gulfs  ofi8-| 
Eirin(Cutch)  and  of  Barygaza  (Baroach). 
The  narrator  here  remarks  the  dangers 
of  every  kind  with  which  these  gulfs  arc 
beset,  shallows,  concealed  rocks,  narrow 
and  difficult  entrances,  but  above  all,  the 
extraordinary  occasional  violence  of  the 
tide ;  in  consequence  of  which,  unexpe-,2 
rienced  navigators  often  saw  their  vessels 
eitlier  sunk  or  driven  on  shore.  Frequent- 
Iv,  when  tliey  were  sailing  in  perfectly 
smooth  Avater,  a  sound  was  heard  as  of  an 
advancing  army ;  and  soon  the  tide  rushed 
on  with  such  force,  that  no  anchor  could  secure  the  vessels.  Barygaza  wap  a  very  great 
emporium,  at  which  were  found  the  same  commodities  as  at  Emporium  Bcrbaricum,  with 
much  finer  cloths,  and  a  quantity  of  long  pepper.  Ozene  (Ougein)  was  a  great  interior 
capital,  the  prince  of  which  it  was  necessary  to  propitiate,  by  sending  up  handsome  presents 
of  the  very  best  wine,  rich  unguents,  cloth,  and  beautifiil  female  slaves. 

The  region  of  Dachinabades  (the  Decan,  i.  e.  the  South,  for  Arrian  remarks,  Aajjavoj 
wAttrai  6  voto{  ir)  avtuv  'fiMeati)  extended  to  the  south  of  Barygaza,  and  is  described  as 
combining  "  many  regions,  deserts,  huge  mountains,  wild  beasts  of  every  kind,  and  finally, 
many  great  and  populous  nations."  It  had  two  large  interior  capitals,  Plithana  and  Tagara ; 
the  one  twenty  days'  journey  south  from  Barygaza,  the  other  ten  days  farther.  The  gran- 
deur of  both  has  sunk  under  the  changes  to  which  eastern  cities  are  subject ;  but  the  site 
of  the  former  seems  recognised  in  Piltanah  on  the  Godavery,  that  of  the  latter  in  Deoghir, 
now  Dowlatabad,  in  whose  vicinity  are  the  magnificent  sculptured  temples  of  Ellora.  A 
number  of  ports  are  now  described,  whicli  cannot  be  very  precisely  determined ;  but  Kal- 
liena,  mentioned  as  the  scat,  though  with  some  interruptions,  of  a  very  great  commerce,  is 
pretty  clearly  recognised  at  or  near  the  modem  Bombay.  Afterwards  we  may  know  the 
Concan  by  the  mention  of  pirates.  At  length  the  Greeks  reached  Limyriko,  a  fine  port, 
and  the  seat  of  a  great  trade.  The  three  chief  emporia  were  Tyndis  (Barcelore),  Mo<Jsiris 
(Mangalore),  and  Nelkunda  (Nelisuram).  This  last,  which  has  sunk  into  a  place  of  very 
secondary  importance,  was  then  the  chief  southern,  as  Barygaza  was  the  chief  nortliern, 
emporium  of  western  India.  Tlie  larger  Greek  vessels  had  even,  by  availing  themselves 
of  the  monsoon,  been  enabled,  with  a  daring  coarse  very  foreign  to  the  usual  habits  of 
incient  navigation,  tu  steer  directly  across  from  the  mouth  of  the  Red  Sea  to  Nelkunda. 
The  grand  staple  then,  as  now,  was  pepper;  to  which  were  added  pearls,  and  precious 
ftones  of  various  descriptions,  among  which  were  diamonds  and  hyacinths,  cotton  cloths 
tortoise-shell,  and  betel-leaf,  from  the  interior.    Among  the  imports,  according  to  the  usual 


.« 


70 


"  ■  WnjS!^.*f-:t*!^'^PTT^t^fil  ""TT-^  '■ 


":nw':'^(7"^i7r= ' 


IktUK  I. 


PERIPLUS  OF  THE  ERYTHREAN  SEA 


89 


i  turns  northward  to 
the  Gulf  is  bordered 
pearl  fishery  on  its 
im  of  the  Euphrates, 
ry  sliffht  notice,  the 
i^n  to  be  destitute  of 

nportant  era  in  the 
!T  OF  India. 

74 


-24 


wa.o  a  very  great 
Bi;rbaricum,  with 
3  a  great  interior 
andsome  presents 

remarks,  ^axavof 
I  is  described  as 
kind,  and  finally, 
lana  and  Tagara ; 
her.     The  gran- 
3ct ;  but  the  site 
xtter  in  Deoghir, 
es  of  Ellora.    A 
Tiined;  but  Kal- 
Jat  commerce,  ia 
\  may  know  the 
riko,  a  fine  port, 
:elore),  Majsiris 
a  place  of  very 
chief  northern, 
ling  themselves 
usual  habits  of 
3a  to  Nelkunda. 
s,  and  precious 
I,  cotton  clotlis 
ing  to  the  usual 


course  of  Indian  trade,  stood  foremost  "  much  money,"  a  little  cloth,  and  a  little  wine ;  but 
a  considerable  quantity  of  metals  and  toys,  brass,  lead,  tin,  glass,  coral,  stibium  for  painting 
the  eyes,  orpiment,  «,nd  cinnabar.  There  is  much  appearance  that  Nelkunda  was  the  far- 
thest point  to  «vliich  the  Greek  navigators  actually  penetrated,  and  that  they  found  there  a 
supply  of  the  commodities  produced  in  the  more  eastern  regions. 

All  beyond  Nelkunda  is  faint  and  tinctured  with  fable.  We  recognise,  however,  Comar 
(Cape  Comorin),  Taprobane  (Ceylon),  and  its  great  pearl-fishery.  The  Coromandcl  coast 
is  nearly  a  blank,  till  w^e  arrive  at  Masalin,  which,  witJi  the  great  abundance  of  its  cotton 
cloths,  speaks  clearly  Mosulipatan.  In  proceeding  northwards,  navigators  came  to  a  strange 
and  barbarous  people,  with  visages  sometimes  of  enormous  length,  at  others  resembling 
those  of  horses,  and  some  eating  human  flesh :  an  exaggerated  picture  of  the  fierce  preda- 
tory races  who  occupy  the  mountain  and  jungle  tracts  of  Orissa.  Arrian  describes  accurately, 
however,  the  direction  to  the  east  which  the  coast  of  the  ocean  takes,  before  it  receives  the 
mighty  flood  of  the  Ganges.  At  its  mouth  there  was  then,  it  seems,  a  great  emporium 
bearing  the  name,  which  no  city  now  does,  of  the  river  itself.  The  staple  was  "  superla- 
tively fine  cotton  cloths,  called  Grangetic,"  and  which  still  exist  in  the  superb  fabrics  of 
Dacca  and  Moorshedabad. 

In  the  regions  beyond  Ganges  the  author  of  the  Periplus  gropes  almost  in  total  darkness. 
Mention  is  made  of  an  island,  the  farthest  part  of  the  world  to  the  east,  and  which  is  richly 
stored  with  the  most  precious  productions  of  the  countries  that  lie  on  the  shore  of  the  ReS 
Sea.  This  cannot  seemingly  be  any  other  than  Sumatra,  though  erroneously  placed  near 
the  Ganges.  The  only  ulterioi  position  is  Thino;,  a  great  interior  city,  situated  opposite  to 
Pontus  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  arid  near  to  where  the  Palup  Moeotis  flows  into  the  ocean.  This 
strange  site  we  shall  afterwai-ds  find  reason  to  consider  as  a  combination  of  some  actual 
rumours  with  the  theory  fonned  by.  the  first  Alexandrian  school  respecting  the  form  and 
dimensions  of  the  continent  of  Asia.  There  seems  some  reason,  however,  to  conclude  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  that  this  Thinee,  whence  caravans  came  by  way  of  Bactria  to  Barygaza,  must 
have  obscurely  indicated  the  capital  of  China.  Nor  can  we  be  easily  persuaded  that  in 
the  malabathrum,  though  most  usually  applied  to  betel-leaf,  some  confiised  idea  of  tea  is  not 
involved.    Its  being  so  strictly  characteristic  of  China,  and  being  brought  by  persons  of  a 


Fig.  5. — Periplus — African  Coast. 


3* 


broad  forehead,  short  body,  and  flat  nose, 
features  decidedly  Mongol  and  Chinese, 
seem  all  in  favour  of  this  supposition,  and 
inconsistent  with  that  which  would  make 
it  merely  betel-leaf,  a  product  of  Indostan ; 
though  there  is  doubtless  a  great  and  mani- 
fest confusion  between  the  two  substances. 
We  must  now  look  back  to  the  Straits 
of  Bab-el-Mandel,  and  follow  our  author 
along  the  Afirican  coast.  {Fig.  5.)  From 
those  straits  vessels  proceeded  eastward 
along  the  shore  opposite  to  Arabia,  the 
modem  Berbera.  Its  ports,  Avalites,  Mo- 
syllum,  Mundos,  Daphnon,  and  others, 
cannot  be  easily  identified  on  a  coast,  with 
respect  to  which  we  have  scarcely  any 
modern  data.  The  imports  were  nearly 
the  same  as  at  Adulis ;  the  exports  were 
myrrh,  frankincense,  a  species  of  cinna- 
mon called  casia,  some  other  aromatics, 
slaves,  and  a  little  ivory.  At  length  they 
doubled  the  promontory  of  Aromata  (Guar- 
dafiai),  when  they  came  to  a  coast  stretch- 
ing to  the  southward  and  facing  the  Indian 

■10  Ocean.  Here  was  a  port,  the  seat  of  a 
considerable  trade,  but  by  no  means  secure ; 
however,  when  the  north  wind  began  to 
Mow  with  dangerous  violence,  the  vessels 
1  )und  shelter  in  the  neighbouring  promon- 
tory and  port  of  Tabai.  Proceeding  on- 
v/ards,  they  found  Opone,  Apokapa  the 

^loss  and  greater,  Nicon,  Serapion,  seven 
successive  fivers,  wiih  anchorages  at  the 
mouth  of  each.  Soon  after,  at  the  distance 
of  about  three  hundred  stadia  from  the 
continent,  there  occurred  a  low  wooded  is- 
land, bearmgf  the  very  expanded  name  of 


90 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1. 


Eitcncdiom-monouthesias,  which  other  writers  wisely  contract  into  Mcnuthios.  It  contained 
no  wild  animals,  but  abounded  in  fish,  particularly  tortoises,  which  the  inhabitants  were  very 
diligent  in  catching.  Two  days'  voyage  farther  brought  them  to  Rhapto,  a  promontory  and 
port,  and  the  seat  of  a  great  trade.  Beyond  this  point,  the  ocean  was  not  yet  explored ;  but 
It  turned  to  the  west  and  south,  and  was  supposed  to  continue  in  that  direction  till  it  joined 
the  Atlantic.  The  exports  from  this  coast  were  ivory  in  groat  abundance,  but  not  equal  in 
quality  to  that  of  Aduli ;  tortoise-shell,  superior  to  every  other  except  that  of  India ;  and  a 
number  of  valuable  slaves,  chiefly  destined  for  the  Egyptian  market.  The  territory  was 
'governed  by  a  numlwr  of  petty  kings,  all  owning  the  supremacy  of  Mopharites,  who  was 
liimself  tributary  to  Moosa,  by  the  vessels  of  which  great  commercial  state  the  trade  of  this 
ooast  was  almost  entirely  carried  on. 

The  extent  of  coast  tlms  described  by  the  author  of  the  Periplus  has  been  the  subject  of 
considerable  controversy.  Dr.  Vincent  fixes  Rhapta,  its  farthest  point,  at  Quiloa,  thus 
allowing  a  navigation  of  upwards  of  fifteen  hundred  miles;  while  the  rigid  scepticism  of 
M.  Gosselin,  placing  it  at  Brava  near  the  mouth  of  the  Doara,  allows  a  good  deal  less  than 
half  that  distance.  Dr.  Vincent  here,  however,  appears  to  carry  the  question  triumphantly, 
by  means  of  his  seven  mouths  of  rivers,  of  which  M.  Gosselin  admits  that  no  trace  can  be 
found  within  his  limits.  They  are  clearly  pres"nted  by  the  estuaries  of  the  Quillimanci, 
on  wiiich  are  the  important  harbours  of  Patte,  Melinda,  and  Mombaza.  But  wo  cannot,  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  pass  by  Pemba  and  Zanzibar,  to  find  in  the  little  island  of  Monfia  the  Menu- 
thios  of  Arrian.  Zanzibar,  from  its  size  and  its  proximity  to  the  coast,  appears  a  feature 
wliich  it  was  impossible-  to  overlook,  and  its  position  is  in  much  better  bearing  with  the 
seven  estuaries  previously  passed.  The  next  cape  must  then  bo  Rhapta,  and  this  will  be 
that  opposite  to  which  is  situated  the  small  group  of  tlio  Hinagie  Islands.  Beyond  it  for 
a  considerable  distance  the  coast  runs  in  the  direction  of  south-west,  which  docs  not  at  all 
admit  the  placing  Rhapta  beyond  Quiloa,  nor,  indeed,  on  any  other  part  of  the  coast  till 
after  we  pass  Mosambiquc. 


i; 


CHAPTER  m. 

GREEK  GEOGRAPHY  BEFORE  ALEXANDER. 


ti  r 


Greece  is  regarded  by  all  civilized  nations  as  their  instructress  in  the  sciences,  many  of 
the  most  brilliant  of  which  she  carried  to  the  utmost  perfection.  In  that  of  geography, 
however,  little  progress  was  made  until  the  formation  of  tho  Greek  kingdom  in  Egypt 
under  the  Ptolemies.  Neither  extensive  commerce  nor  distant  conquest  characterised  the 
Grecian  states,  otherwii .  so  illustrious  for  all  the  arts  of  peace  and  war.  It  was  not  till 
the  conquering  career  of  Alexander,  that  the  survey  of  the  Greeks  was  extended  over  the 
wide  circuit  of  the  ancient  world.  Engaged  before  that  era  in  the  glorious  defensive  war 
against  Persia,  and  the  contests  with  each  other  for  pre-eminence,  tliey  confined  their  views 
very  much  within  the  limits  of  Greece  and  its  neighbouring  coasts  and  islands. 

Tlie  first  traces  of  Greek  geography  are  found  among  its  poets,  whose  brilliant  fiincy  has 
spread  its  lustre  over  all  tho  regions  with  which  Greece  ever  held  intercourse.  Ilomer 
took  tiie  load,  and  his  high  authority  gave  to  the  geography  of  the  Greeks  a  poetical  cast, 
which  they  transmitted  to  the  nations  whom  they  taught,  and  of  whicli  the  traces  are  not 
entirely  obliterated. 

Sect.  I. — Geography  of  Homer. 

It  is  in  Homer  that  we  find  the  first  trace  of  the  widely-prevalent  idea,  that  the  eartn  is  a 
flat  circle,  begirt  on  every  side  by  the  ocean.  This  was  mdeed  a  natural  idea  in  a  region  so 
entirely  insulsr  and  penmsular,  nowhere  presenting,  like  Judea,  a  vast  tract  stretchmg  so 
far  as  to  give  the  idea  of  immeasurable  distance.  The  circular  shape  was  suggested  by  that 
of  the  visible  horizon ;  and  until  science  demonstrated  the  globular  form  of  our  planet,  tlie 
very  natural  opinion  prevailed  that  the  earth  was  a  flat  circle,  with  the  vault  of  heaven  above, 
darkness,  and  the  abode  of  departed  souls  beneath. 

Homer,  like  Hesiod  rn.l  the  ancient  poets  generally,  delights  in  topographical  detail,  and 
scarcely  allows  a  city  or  natural  object  to  pass  without  applying  to  it  some  characteristic 
epithet.  It  was  only,  however,  within  a  very  limited  range  tliat  he  could  give  these  distinct 
and  animated  notices.  The  Greek  islands,  beautiful  and  fertile  spots,  which  seem  to  have 
been  the  first  cradle  of  European  civilization,  were  the  central  point  from  which  his  know- 
ledge emanated.  He  knew  well,  and  hod  probably  visited,  on  one  side  Peloponnesus,  Attica, 
and  the  regions  immediately  adjoining ;  on  the  other,  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  banks  of  the  beautifiil  rivers  by  wh'ch  it  is  watered.  Perhaps  scarcely  any  other  tract 
on  tho  globe  presents  within  the  same  compass  such  a  variety  of  grand  and  beautiful  objecis 
to  rouse  the  imagination.  Beyond  this  circuit  the  world  of  Homer  was  soon  involved  ir 
mysterious  obscurity.  Some  grand  and  distant  features,  discernible  through  the  gloom,  were 
•vaggeratcd  and  distorted  by  ignoranc)  and  superstition.     Thebes,  the  mighty  capital  d 


Part  1. 


Book  I 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  HOMER. 


SI 


:iences,  many  of 
it  of  geography, 
gdom  in  Egypt 
haractcrised  the 
It  was  not  till 
tended  over  the 
18  defensive  war 
ined  their  views 

lliant  fancy  has 
:ourse.  ifomer 
a  poetical  cast, 
traces  are  not 


it  the  earth  is  a 
a  in  a  region  so 
t  stretching  so 
ggested  by  that 
our  planet,  the 
f  heaven  above, 

ical  detail,  and 
i  characteristic 
e  tliese  distinct 
seem  to  have 
[lich  his  know- 
nnesus,  Attica, 
sia  Minor,  and 
iny  other  tract 
juutiful  objpcts 
)n  involved  ir 
le  gloom,  were 
;hty  capital  of 


Ecvpt,  when  tliat  kingdom  was  in  its  greatest  glory,  is  celebrated  for  its  hundred  gates,  and 
the  hosts  of  warriors  which  they  sent  forth  to  battle.  Beyond  lay  the  Ethiopians,  deemed 
the  remotest  of  men,  dwelling  on  the  tiirthest  verge  of  the  etrth,  and  to  whose  distant 
confines  Jupiter  repaired  to  hold  an  annual  festival.  In  the  western  part  of  tlie  same  conti- 
nent the  stuiwndous  ridges  of  Atlas  had  excited  in  Grecian  fancy  the  image  of  a  gigantic 
deified  being,  to  whom  was  intrusted  the  support  of  the  heavens.  Even  farther  to  the  west, 
the  exploits  and  wanderings  of  the  great  Grecian  demigod  had  conveyed  a  tradition  of  the 
strait  leading  into  the  ocean,  and  of  the  rocks  on  each  side,  celebrated  under  the  denomination 
of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  On  the  east,  Colchos  was  distinguished  by  its  early  wealth  and 
commerce ;  it  was  considered  a  city  on  the  ocean,  witli  wMch,  therefore,  the  Black  Sea 
must  have  been  confounded ;  and  being  supposed  to  contain  the  palace  of  the  Sun,  where 
during  the  night  ho  gave  rest  to  his  coursers,  and  whence  in  the  morning  he  drove  hia 
chariot  to  its  diurnal  career,  Colchos  must  have  been  regarded  by  Homer  as  placed  on  the 
most  eastern  verge  of  the  earth.  On  the  north,  Rhodope,  under  the  name  of  theRiphiean 
Mountains,  was  considered  a  chain  of  indefinite  extent,  closing  in  the  northern  lunits  of  the 
world.  The  poet,  however,  had  heard  a  vague  report  of  the  Scythians,  under  the  description 
of  a  people  subsisting  on  mares'  milk.  The  vessels  which  conveyed  the  Grecian  army  to 
Troy  were  evidently  little  better  than  large  boats;  and  all  distant  voyages,  or  those  in  which 
land  was  lost  sight  of,  were  considered  as  fiaught  with  the  extremest  peril.  A  navigation 
to  Africa  or  to  Sicily  took  place  only  through  tempest,  terminating  usually  in  shipwreck ; 
and  a  return  from  these  shores  was  esteemed  almost  miraculous.  In  regard  to  Sicily,  indeed, 
Homer  has  largely  communicated  his  ideas,  having  made  it  the  theatre  of  the  woes  and 
wanderings  of  the  hero  of  the  Odyssey.  Making  every  allowance  for  poetical  license,  we  see 
evident  traces  of  the  terrified  and  excited  state  of  mind  hi  the  navigators  who  returned  firom 
tliese  shores.  Monsters  of  strange  form  and  magnitude,  who  watched  for  the  destruction  of 
the  mariner,  and  even  fed  upon  his  quivering  limbs ;  delusive  syrens,  who  lured  but  to  destroy ; 
imprisonment  under  the  transformed  shape  of  wild  beasts ;  these,  probably,  are  only  a  highly- 
coloured  repetition  of  the  terrific  rumours  brought  by  the  few  whose  bark  had  been  wailed 
to  those  as.  yet  savage  coasts. 

Sect.  II. — Poetical  Geography, 

An  ideal  and  poetical  character  was  communicated  to  the  science  of  geography  itself  by 
the  fables  with  which  Homer  thus  tinged  his  narrative.  This  tendency  indeed  did  not  rest 
solely  upon  Homeric  influence,  but  proceeded  from  certain  secret  workings  of  the  human 
heart.  There  exist  in  man  ideas  and  wishes  for  which,  m  the  sphere  of  his  actual  existence, 
he  can  find  no  corresponding  objects ;  these  he  creates  for  himself  in  that  dim  boundary 
which  separates  the  known  from  the  unknown  world.  There  involuntarily  arises  in  his 
breast  a  longing  after  a  more  exalted  state  of  existence  than  the  world  before  him  presents^ 
bright  scenes,  which  he  seeks  but  never  finds  in  the  circuit  of  realities.  In  a  newly-discovered 
region,  hov/ever,  which  possesses  any  share  of  beauty,  imagination  soon  heightens  the  colours 
of  nature,  till  they  appear  to  fulfil  its  fond  anticipations.  Such  were  those  brilliant  spota 
celebrated  by  the  poets  under  the  title  of  the  Gardens  of  the  Hesperides — the  Fortunata 
Islands — the  Isles  of  the  Blest — for  which,  when  knowledge  had  dispelled  the  first  illusion, 
and  brought  them  down  to  the  ordinary  level,  a  place  wos  still  found  in  some  more  distan* 
extremity  of  the  globe.  Northern  Africa,  as  it  stretched  westward,  was  peculiarly  adapted^ 
by  its  striking  and  brilliant  contrasts,  to  excite  these  illusions.  The  first  site  of  the  Hesperian 
gardens  was  at  the  frontier  of  CyrciiC,  where  they  are  described  by  Scylax  as  forming  a 
luxuriant  grove,  in  which  the  lotus  and  the  palm  were  mingled  with  the  finest  trees  of 
Europe.  Other  and  more  western  sites  were  successively  found,  both  for  them  and  the 
Fortunate  Islands,  which  last  were  finally  fixed,  probably  on  ver^  imperfect  observation,  at 
the  Canaries.  These  islands  have  not  altogether  lost  the  appellation ;  and  they  are  painted 
by  Ho'ace  in  glowing  colours  as  a  refuge  still  left  for  mortals  from  that  troubled  and  hnper- 
fect  existence  which  they  experience  in  every  other  quarter  of  the  globe.  Independent, 
however,  of  this  bright  and  romantic  enjojrment,  there  are  other  objects  of  fond  deske  to  the 
human  heart.  In  this  agitated  world  it  sighs  after  peace — a  scene  of  profound  repose,  exempt 
from  the  tumults  of  passion  and  the  corrosion  of  care.  Such  a  scene,  indeed,  would  never 
fiilfil  the  hopes  thus  formed ;  yet  these  hopes  spring  from  a  natural  illusion,  to  flatter  which 
Grecian  poetry  conjured  up  a  fabled  race,  the  Hyperboreans,  seated  in  the  recesFPs  of  the 
North,  and  sheltered  by  vast  mountains  fix)m  the  rage  of  the  eslements.  They  were  repre- 
sented as  exempted  from  all  ills,  physical  and  moral,  the  change  of  seasons,  sickness,  and 
even  from  death.  The  original  seat  assigned  to  them  was  behind  the  Ripheean  Mountaine^ 
which  seem  to  have  been  originally  Rhodope,  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Homeric  world. 
The  Greeks  having  soon  ncnnired  knowledge  sufficient  to  nscertaui  that  no  such  people  was 
there  to  be  found,  sought  them  next  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube ;  but  every  thing  there  waa 
remote  fi^m  that  tranquil  aspect  under  which  the  poets  had  painted  the  Hyperborean  world. 
Some  traditions  carry  them  westward;  but  their  seat  was  finally  fixed  in  that  northern 
extremity  of  Asiatic  Russia  which  the  ancients  never  explored.    Thev  even  carried  with 


m 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1. 


tlioin  the  RipIicDon  Mountains,  which  became  thus  an  ideal  chain,  delineated  in  modern  mii[v 
as  extctidint;  along  the  extreme  frontier  of  Europe.  Impressions  of  gloomy  daricnesH,  uiul 
even  of  the  termination  of  existence,  are,  in  other  moods  of  the  human  mind,  ossociitcd  with 
unagc8  of  distance  and  obscurity.  Tiicso  influences  gave  birth  to  tiie  Cimmerians,  a  people 
who  dwelt  in  perpetual  darkness,  and  were  never  illumined  by  the  cheerful  rays  of  the  .sun. 
Their  favourite  scat  was  on  the  straits  at  the  mouth  of  the  peninsula  of  Taurida,  the  fiirtlic3t 
point,  probably,  of  wiiicii  rumour  hud  spoken  in  tlie  poetical  nijes,  and  which  v/aa  called  thn 
Cimmerian  Bnaphorus.  It  was  probably  from  siinilitudo  of  name  that  they  were  aflcrwiinls 
confounded  with  the  people  called  Clmbri.  Tlie  learned,  Iiowever,  iiavo  found  traces  of 
Cimmerians  in  the  extremities  both  of  tiio  cast  and  the  west;  and  the  idea  of  the  oartli  as 
terminated  by  a  boundary  of  darkucs:?,  beinff  founded  on  natural  impressions,  has  very  (jenn- 
rally  prevailed.  Park  mentions  it  as  tiio  reigning  belief  among  the  Mandingos  at  thia  dny ; 
and  tlie  world,  in  the  system  of  tlio  Arabian  geographers,  was  enclosed  by  a  sea  of  darkness. 
Other  fabulous  creations,  springing  from  those  of  Homer,  continued  long  to  hold  a  place  in 
geography.  The  one-eyed  Cyclops  appears  under  the  name  of  Arimospian  on  the  frontier 
of  India,  and  in  the  remotest  extremity  of  Africa.  The  Pigmies  multiplied  still  more  cxtim- 
eively;  they  had  seats  on  the  Strymon,  the  Hebrus,  in  India,  and  the  north  of  Europe. 
According  to  Strabo  they  were  spread  over  the  whole  southern  border  of  the  earth;  onil  this* 
representation  even  induced  Banier  to  suspect  that,  on  that  side,  they  have  been  confounded 
with  the  monkeys. 

Sect.  HI. — School  of  Miletus  ' 

The  astronomical  schools  of  Miletus  and  Samos  appear,  so  far  at  least  as  there  is  an} 
precise  record,  to  have  made  the  first  attempts  to  form  geography  into  a  system,  and  to  apply 
to  it  the  lights  derived  from  astronomy.  Those  and  other  cities  of  Asia  Minor  rank  high 
among  the  early  seats  of  commerce,  and  t'ley  established  colonies  in  various  quarters  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Euxine.  While  they  continued  independent  they  were  very  wealthy 
and  prosperous,  and  the  sciences  were  cultivated  with  ardour  and  success.  To  a  commercial 
people  practical  mathematics,  n.nd  especially  tlioso  branches  subservient  to  geography  and 
navigation,  must  have  peculiarly  recommended  themselves.  Thalcs,  Anaximandor,  Anaxi- 
menes,  and  Pythagoras,  are  celebrated  by  their  countrymen  as  the  inventors  of  all  the  pro- 
cesses by  which  the  phenomena  of  the  globe  are  calculated.  The  gnomon  or  sundial,  fbr 
ascertaining  the  progress  of  the  sun  from  tropic  to  tropic,  and  finally  the  latitude  of  particu- 
lar places,  the  division  of  the  year  into  1365  days,  and  into  four  seasons,  are  represented  as 
having  originated  in  this  school.  It  appears  doubtful,  however,  whether  these  discoveries 
were  due  to  their  own  exertions  or  borrowed  fron  the  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans,  whose  fame, 
amid  the  dim  traditions  of  antiquity,  dtands  pre-eminent  for  astronomical  observation. 

The  first  rude  mode  of  Ibrming  a  ilivision  of  the  earth  was  into  climates,  determined 
by  the  species  of  animals  and  plants  produced  in  each.  Thus  the  negro,  the  rhinoceros,  the 
elephant,  were  considered  as  characteristic  of  the  torrid  zone.  This  very  loose  method  gave 
place  to  anotlier,  formed  by  observing  at  each  place  the  length  of  the  longest  and  sliortnst 
days.  Thjs  could  only  be  done  with  accuracy  by  a  gnomon  or  dial,  erected  on  a  iiorizorftal 
plane,  and  showing,  by  the  length  or  shortness  of  its  shadow,  the  elevation  of  the  sun  alx)vo 
the  horizon.  There  is  much  reason  to  think  that  this  simple  instrument  was  employed  by 
the  Egyptians,  especially  in  the  operation,  which  they  undoubtedly  performed,  of  adding  five 
days  and  a  quarter  to  360,  the  number  originally  supposed  to  form  a  complete  year.  It  has 
even  been  imagined  by  some,  that  the  pyramids,  those  enormous  structures  by  which  this 
people  excited  the  astonishment  of  the  world,  were  only  huge  sundials;  and  tliough  it  might 
doubtless  be  extravagant  to  conclude  tliis  to  have  been  their  sole  object,  yet  it  really  appears 
that,  being  placed  in  the  direct  position  of  the  cardinal  points,  they  are  perfectly  fitted  for 
being  tluis  employed.  But,  though  it  is  clear  that  Thales  and  his  disciples  had  largely  drawn 
from  these  early  sources,  they  probably  made  considerable  additions  to  the  information  thence 
derived.  Two  books,  one  on  the  tropic,  and  tho  other  on  tlie  equinoxes,  are  reported  tn 
have  been  written  by  Thalcs  himself.  The  degree  of  knowledge  thus  attained  enabled  liini 
to  discover  the  error  of  the  vulgar  in  supposing  the  earth  to  be  a  plane  surface ;  but  lie  could 
not  reach  the  precise  idea  of  its  globular  form.  Annximander  viewed  it  as  a  cylinder ;  some 
compared  its  form  to  that  of  a  boat;  otiiers  to  that  of  a  lofty  mountain.  Tho  details  of  the 
Pythagorean  cosmography  have  not  reached  us ;  but  the  fact  that  they  placed  tho  sun  in  the 
centre  of  tlie  system,  with  the  earth  moving  round  it,  indicates  at  that  infant  era  attnimuents 
which  were  lost  during  many  ages,  and  only  recovered  at  a  far  more  advanced  stage  of 
modern  science. 

Tiie  map  must,  as  soon  as  geography  was  cultivated,  have  occurred  as  the  best  and 
most  perspicuous  form  of  embodying  its  results.  Anaximander  is  the  first  who  is  reported  to 
have  constructed  a  map  of  tlie  world,  embracing  thnt  limited  sphere  of  objects  which  were 
then  comprehended  under  tJiat  term.  But  tho  most  celebrated  production  of  this  nature  was 
that  employed  by  Aristagoras,  the  prince  of  Miletus,  to  induce  Cleomenes,  the  Spartar.  king 
U)  undertake  the  conquest  of  Persia.    He  entered,  it  is  said,  the  presence  of  that  nionarcl., 


H 


Part  I. 

atod  in  modern  miiiw 
loomy  darknesH,  unci 
nind,  ossociitcd  with 
Cimmerians,  a  people 
rful  rays  of  the  sun. 
I'uurida,  tho  furthest 
vhich  woe  called  the 
[ley  were  afkrwardin 
ivo  found  truces  of 
idea  of  the  earth  as 
lions,  has  very  fftmv.- 
indingos  at  thia  d:>y ; 
by  a  sea  of  darkness, 
tiff  to  hold  a  place  in 
pian  on  the  frontier 
led  still  more  cxten- 
he  north  of  Enropo. 
'  the  earth;  end  this' 
ave  been  confounded 


least  as  there  is  anj 

system,  and  to  apply 

.sia  Minor  rank  high 

rious  quarters  of  the 

y  were  very  wealthy 

is.    To  a  commercial 

it  to  peoffraphy  and 

Inaximander,  Anaxi- 

itors  of  all  t!ie  pro- 

lomon  or  sundial,  for 

3  latitude  of  parlicu- 

,  are  represented  as 

lor  these  discoveries 

ildeans,  whose  fame, 

observation. 

limates,  determined 

the  rhinoceros,  the 

loose  method  gave 

lonjjest  and  shortest 

cted  on  a  horizorftnl 

on  of  the  sun  alxDvo 

nt  was  employed  by 

rmcd,  of  addinflf  five 

plote  year.     It  has 

tures  by  whicii  this 

md  tliouph  it  mifijht 

ret  it  really  appears 

perfectly  "fitted  for 

had  larffely  drawn 

information  thence 

tes,  are  reportwl  tn 

tained  enabled  liim 

rface ;  but  he  could 

s  a  cylinder;  some 

The  details  of  t!ie 

iced  tho  sun  in  the 

int  era  attniiinients 

advanced  stage  of 

d  as  the  best  and 
,  who  is  reported  to 
bjccts  which  were 
of  this  nature  was 
the  Sparta:'  kinjr 
e  of  that  nionarcl., 


Book  I. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  HERODOTUS. 


33 


holding  in  hia  hand  a  tablet  of  brass,  on  which  were  inscribed  "  tlie  whole  circuit  of  the  earth, 
the  sea,  and  all  the  rivers."  Under  this  pompous  description,  however,  was  probably  includ  • 
little  more  than  a  route  from  tho  Ionian  sea  to  Susa,  which  was  specially  pointed  to  as  t 
by  which  the  Spartan  prince  might  lead  his  victorious  troops  to  the  Persian  capital.  Even 
of  this  line,  respecting  which  he  was  so  deeply  interested,  the  short  detail  of  Herodotus 
shows  him  to  possess  by  no  means  complete  information.  Beyond  Cilicia  his  descriptions  are 
very  indistinct.   He  hao  omitted  Media  altogether,  and  has  given  to  Armenia  quite  an  undue 

extension.  „    ,   . 

Tho  continental  Greeks,  during  the  era  of  theur  greatest  power,  did  not  cultivate 
systematic  geography,  nor  indeed  any  sciences  dependent  upon  matliomaticiil  principles, 
with  much  activity ;  indeed,  they  did  not  even  keep  them  up  to  tlie  state  in  which  they  had 
been  received  from  the  Ionian  cities.  One  solitary  observation  of  latitude  is  recorded  as 
having  been  made  at  Athens,  by  Meton  and  Eudemon,  432  years  A.  C.  The  different  states, 
in  the  course  of  their  extensive  wars,  must  have  acquired  a  great  portion  of  that  topographi- 
cal knowledge  which  is  indispensable  for  military  operations.  Engrossed  by  these  internal 
objects,  their  attention  was  little  directed  to  the  general  system  of  the  world.  One  mdividual 
alone,  by  extensive  travels  and  diligent  enquiries,  procured  an  ample  accession  to  the  science 
of  history  and  of  historical  geography. 

Sect.  IV. — Geography  of  Herodottis. 

The  system  of  geography  included  in  the  great  historical  work  of  Herodotus  is  as 
c(Hnplete  as  could  be  formed  from  tho  materials  within  his  reach.  It  comprises  a  general 
summary  of  all  that  he  could  learn  respecting  the  human  race,  and  the  regions  which  they 
mluibited.  His  information  was  obtained  not  solely  or  chiefly  from  books,  but  mostly  by 
travelling,  the  only  mode  in  which  at  that  era  geographical  knowledge  could  be  effectually 
collected.  He  assures  us  that  he  had  visited  Persia,  Assyria,  Egypt,  Thrace,  Scythia,  and 
all  the  distant  regions  which  he  describes.  He  viewed  them,  however,  only  as  tracts  of  ter- 
ritory, the  abode  of  men,  and  did  not  attempt  to  combine  them  into  any  system  of  the  earth ; 
nor  did  he  possess,  or,  at  least,  apply  any  of  the  mathematical  or  astronomical  principles  of 
the  Milesian  school.  He  even  derides  some  of  its  conclusions ;  as  that  of  the  earth  being 
round  and  encompassed  by  the  ocean.  His  strange  statement,  that  the  sun  in  India  was  ver- 
tical in  the  morning  instead  of  at  midday,  is  evidently  a  misunderstood  report  of  what  he  had 
been  informed  respecting  the  difference  of  time  in  the  different  parts  of  the  earth's  circum- 
ference. His  knowledge,  however,  such  as  it  is,  consisting  of  plain  ihcts,  untinctured  with 
theory,  is  both  solid  ana  extensive. 

The  division  of  the  eartJi  into  three  quarters,  or  continents,  was  by  this  time  completely 
formed.  Sea,  or  at  least  water,  seems  to  have  been  the  principle  of  separation,  though  not 
re<^uired  to  be  altogether  complete.  Setting  out  from  Europe,  for  the  origin  of  which  appel- 
lation we  have  nothing  but  the  fable  of  Europa,  the  Greeks  seem  to  have  named  the  other 
continents  from  the  districts  immediately  beyond  the  intervening  sea.  Homer  already  men- 
tions the  name  of  Asia  as  applied  to  a  large  and  fine  tract  on  the  coast  of  Ionia.  Thence  it 
spread  through  tlie  spacious  peninsula  of  which  it  forms  part,  and  which  Europeans  con- 
tmue  to  call  Asia  Minor;  but  soon  passing  these  limits,  it  was  vaguely  extended  through  the 
boundless  regions  of  the  East,  till  it  fmally  embraced  entirely  the  largest  of  the  three  conti- 
nents. On  the  other  side,  directly  to  the  south,  the  Greeks  first  landed  on  the  coast  of  Libya ; 
and  the  name  of  Libya  was  by  them  applied  to  the  entire  continei  t  With  the  Romans,  on 
the  contrary,  whose  position  and  political  relations  attached  them  entirely  to  the  district 
of  Africa  proper,  in  which  Carthage  is  situated,  the  name  of  Africa  soon  prevailed  over 
every  other. 

These  grand  divisions  of  the  ancient  world  were  already  known  to  Herodotus ;  but  he 
has  a^onbhed  European  readers  in  an  extraordinary  degree  by  the  assertion,  that  Europe  is 
longer  and  of  greater  extent  than  Asia  and  Africa  united.  The  severe  judgment  of  M. 
Cro^lin  pronounces  such  an  assertion,  made  in  the  midst  of  the  nations  which  carried  on 
tlie  most  extensive  navigation,  to  be  a  proof  that  they  had  not  formed  the  least  idea  of  the 
distance  which  their  vessels  sailed  along  the  Mediterranean.  Before  pronouncing  so  severe 
a  sentence,  we  must  consider  attentively  what,  in  the  conception  of  Herodotus,  was  Europe, 
and  what  was  Asia.  He  mentions  two  boundaries :  one  formed  by  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Don,  which,  though  it  does  not  form  a  very  appropriate  boundarv  of  a  continent,  continues 
still  to  prevail,  ^ing  connected  with  tlie  Northern  Ocean  by  the  mountain  chain  of  the 
Urals.  But  in  the  ouier,  which  is  that  preferred  by  Herodotus,  die  Black  Sea  is  continued 
by  the  Caspian ;  the  boundary  line  being  carried  along  the  north  of  that  sea,  and  thence 
indefinitely  eastward.  Taking  Europe  in  this  sense,  we  find  it  in  the  west  co-extended  witli 
the  opposite  coast  of  Africa,  which  the  ancients  necessarily  considered  as  marking  the  length 

"  'at  continent,  while,  in  the  east,  however  &r  Asia  might  be  prolonged,  Europe  was  stil. 


nf  fhat 


regarded  as  co-extensive, 
extreme  want  of  precision. 
Voul 


With  regard  to  the  boundaries  of  Africa,  too,  there  was  an 
Our  limit  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  is  certainly  the  most  accurate ; 

E 


M 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  L 


I 


'*■'  \ 


but  the  Kiicicntfl,  who  could  not  readily  admit  tho  notion  of  a  continent  bounded  by  any  thing 
but  water  attached  themselves  more  to  tho  Nile,  and  did  not  well  know  whether  to  conaider 
Rgrypt  08  Asiatic  or  African. 

SvoascT.  1. — TTie  Europe  of  Heroiolu$. 

Scythia  wan  tho  extremity  of  Europe,  beyond  Greece,  with  which  Herodotus  appear* 
to  have  been  most  fhniiliar,  and  which,  m  fkct,  he  knew  better  than  almost  any  other  ancient 
writer.  Tliis  name,  which  became  ult  aatcly  Asiotic,  was  restricted  by  him  to  the  tracts 
that  now  form  the  southern  provinces  of  tho  Russian  empire.  Those  regions  were  then, 
and  in  a  great  measure  still  are,  possessed  by  the  same  description  of  rude  Nomadic  and 
pastoral  people,  who  have  always  occupied  tho  central  plains  of  Asia.  The  attention  of  tho 
nistorian  was  specially  called  to  them  by  tho  rash  and  daring  expedition  of  Darius  into  a 
region  secured  by  its  natural  barriers,  and  tho  wandering  and  untamed  character  of  its 
people,  ag^ainat  every  form  of  regular  subjection.  Darius,  crossing  the  Hellespont,  marched 
along  tho  southem  shore  of  the  Euxino,  reached  tho  Iwinks  of  tho  Volgo,  and  after  the  fhiit- 
Icss  labour  of  erecting  there  several  fcrtresseB,  returned  by  a  moro  inland  route,  in  which 
Major  Rennell  even  supposes  him  to  have  passed  tlie  site  of  Little  Novogorod.  The  know- 
ledge acnuirod  by  this  expedition,  however,  did  not  enable  Herodotus  to  avoid  great  errors 
in  tiie  delineation  of  European  Scytliia.  Ho  imbibed  a  most  exaggerated  idea  or  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  PaluB  Mocotis,  which  Ito  calls  the  "  mother  of  tho  Euxino."  This  appears  to 
have  arisen  chiefly  from  the  false  orienting  of  tho  side  which  feces  Russia,  and  which  is 
mado  to  stretch  almost  due  north,  instead  of  west,  while  tho  sea  itself  is  represented  as 
forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  tJiat  great  space  of  four  hundred  miles  square,  wi!>iin  which 
Herodotus  comprises  Scythia.  Tho  southern  boundary  was  formed  by  the  Euxirf ,  and  the 
otlier  two  by  tho  land,  so  that  he  does  not  connect  it  in  any  shape  with  tLo  Forthem 
Ocean. 

The  details  of  this  extensive  region  are  given  by  Herodotus  with  considerublo  accu- 
racy. Of  its  rivers,  after  tho  Danuho,  which  ho  ranks  second  to  the  Nile,  ho  mentions  the 
Tyres  or  Dniester,  tho  Hyponis,  or  Bog  (and  even  describes  the  close  approach  of  these 
rivers  to  each  other  in  the  upper  part  of  their  course),  tho  great  channel  of  the  Borysthenes. 
or  Dnieper,  and  the  Tonais  or  Don.  Between  the  last  he  mentions  several  streams,  the 
Panticnpes,  Hypacyris,  and  Gerrhus,  which  not  being  recognized  by  modem  geography, 
Major  Rennell  supposes  to  be  creeks  or  branches  of  the  greater  rivers. 

Milesian  colonies  had,  by  the  active  enterprise  of  that  commercial  people,  been 
already  formed  even  on  these  rude  shores.  One,  called  the  oorl  of  the  Borysthenes,  is 
described  as  the  centre  of  the  trade  of  Scythia.  On  the  bonkk.  of  this  great  river  dwelt  a 
people,  bearing  the  rare  character  of  the  ploughing  Scythians,  who  renouncing  the  almost 
universal  habits  of  their  race,  raised  crops  of  grain  in  this  fertile  district,  which  still 
furnishes  to  the  ports  of  Taganrog  and  Odessa  those  supplies,  which  render  them  1^0 
granary  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Milesians  had  also  a  colony  established  at  tho  mouth 
of  the  Danube. 

The  northern  interior  countries  of  Europe,  which  h.y  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Scvthia 
explored  by  tho  expedition  of  Darius,  were  covered  for  Herodotus  with  a  veil  of  dim  olscu- 
rity.  On  the  Scythian  frontier,  along  the  heads  of  the  Dniester  and  Borysthenes,  he  repre- 
sents several  nations ;  the  Melanchleni,  "  men  clothed  in  black ;"  tho  Androphagi,  "  men 
eaters;"  the  Neuri,  "once  a  year  converted  into  foxes."  These  Greek  names,  and  partly 
febulous  attributes,  show  the  very  imperfect  nature  of  the  notices  collected  on  the  subject 
The  regions  beyond  the  Danube  axe  expressly  stated  to  be  occupied  by  nations  to  him 
unknown.  Two  precious  commodities,  the  amber  from  the  coast  of  Prussia,  and  the  tin  of 
the  Cassiterides,  under  which  last  name  a  vague  idea  of  the  British  Islands  seems  to  be 
included,  communicated  the  knowledge,  that  there  was  a  great  ocean  in  the  north,  but 
witliout  the  means  of  ascertaining  its  extent  and  limits.  On  the  east,  however,  as  already 
observed,  he  had  attached  to  Europe  a  vast  extent  of  territory  which  has  been  entirely 
severed  from  it  in  subsequent  systems.  The  expanse  of  northern  and  even  middle  Asia, 
which  the  ancients  afterwards  called  Scythia,  and  which  forms  the  modem  Tartary,  inha- 
bited by  races  exactly  similar  to  the  Scythians  already  described,  appeared  to  Herodotus 
decidedly  European.  It  was  bounded  by  the  Phasis,  the  Caspian,  the  Aral  (not  distinctly 
recognized),  and  the  Jaxartes.  The  Massagetce,  celebrated  for  their  contest  with  Cyrus, 
gave  name  with  Herodotus  to  all  the  wandering  tribes  in  this  eastern  part  of  Europe ;  but 
Uiey  were  afterwards  merged  into  the  prevailmg  appellation  of  Scythians. 

Sdbsect.  2.  Asia  of  Herodotus. 
Asia,  according  to  the  conception  of  it  formed  by  Herodotus,  will  appear,  from  what  has 
oeen  said,  to  include  only  a  small  portion  of  the  vast  continent  to  '.vhich  we  assign  thai 
tiame.  On  the  north  it  had  the  same  seas  and  rivers  just  enumerated  as  the  boundaries  of 
easterr.  Europe ;  to  the  east  it  terminated  with  India;  while  even  to  the  south,  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  desert  tracts  of  Arabia  were  lot  yet  believed  to  exist   When  this  great  historian 


.■.I-' 


Pabt  I, 

ndod  by  any  thing 
tiothor  to  consider 


lorodotuB  appear! 
any  other  ancient 
him  to  the  tracts 
Dffions  were  then, 
lido  Nomadic  and 
10  attention  of  tho 
of  Dariim  into  a 

character  of  its 
llcspont,  marched 
nd  after  tho  fhiit- 
id  route,  in  which 
)rod.  The  know* 
ivoiA  ffreat  errora 
dea  or  tho  dimen- 

This  appears  to 
sia,  and  which  is 
is  represented  u 
are,  wi*>iin  which 
3  Euxirr.,  and  the 
ith  tlA!  Forthfcm 

onsiderublo  accu- 
,  ho  mentions  the 
ipproach  of  these 
r  the  Borysthcnea 
3ral  streams,  the 
oAcm  geography, 

iai  people,  been 
e  Borysthenes,  is 
eat  river  dwelt  a 
mcing  the  almost 
trict,  which  still 
render  them  the 
hed  at  the  mouth 

_  of  the  Scythia 
eil  of  dim  oLscu- 
thenes,  he  repre- 
idrophagi,  "men 
imes,  and  partly 
'  on  the  subject 

nations  to  him 
and  the  tin  of 
ids  seems  to  be 
n  the  north,  but 
^evor,  as  already 
as  been  entirely 
en  middle  Asia, 
n  Tartary,  inha- 

d  to  Herodotus 
(not  distinctly 

!8t  with  Cyrus, 

of  Europe;  but 


from  what  has 
re  assigu  that 
e  boundaries  of 
ith,  a  large  por* 
I  great  historian 


Ik)OK  I. 


ASIA  OF  HERODOTUS. 


m 


wrote,  all  tho  various  kingdoms  and  potty  states,  into  which,  in  tho  infancy  of  the  world, 
Asia  had  been  partitioned,  were  absorhi-d  into  one  vast  empire.  Tho  Persians  claimwl  Asia 
as  their  own,  and  had  distributed  it  into  tweiityfinir  satrapies,  which  have  been  illustrated 
in  a  very  learned  manner  by  Major  Ronnell.  They  included,  with  tho  exception  of  the 
northern  part,  which  ho  considered  as  Euronean,  oil  of  Asia  that  was  known  to  tho  Greeks. 
In  collecting  tiiereforo  from  Major  Rennell's  investigation  the  following  table  of  those 
satrapies,  we  exhibit  not  only  the  outline  of  that  great  empire,  but,  with  tho  somewhat 
dubious  exception  of  a  small  part  of  Greece,  the  whole  of  the  civilized  world.  Tho  tribute 
paid  in  talents  of  silver  will  exhibit  their  relative  wealth  and  importance.  ,, 

TABLE  OP  THE  DIVISION  OP  AttA  INTO  BATRAriF.& 


Tnnlft,  Msgnonln,  Cnrln,  JF.ntia,  I.ycia,  Piimphylln  (tho  woit  and  louth  coart  of  Aiin  Minor) 

Myniii,  I.vdln,  ic.  (llio  wcitcni  interior) ......................... . 

riirygin,  Pnplilaitnnia,  Cnpnnilcjcia,  &r.  (llin  iinrth  rnml  and  the  Rruat  Interior  table-land  of  Alio  MInur) 

Cilioia  (Incliidiiiir  iiart  of  Hyrin,  anil  rcncliinu  to  tho  Euphrntea) 

Plimnirla,  I'niontliiu,  and  Cyuriin  (which  rUrninhod  aUo  a  third  part  of  the  naval  force  of  tha  empire) 


KKypt,  incliidinx  (Jyrciio  BmrUarcB  (lialf  of  the  tribute  paid  in  fraln). . 
Ilaliylnii  and  AHuyrla,  includini;  Syria,  and  fiirniihing  aUo  SOO  eunucbi. 


BiiKiana,  nr  Hnutlicrn  Pcrnia. 

Media,  (Northern  Periia) • ;"•••.•  V ' 

Tho  (?B«pian«,  Pa!(iicii',  Panlimnthi,  and  Darilm  (tho  Cniplan  prnvlncei  of  Pcrtla). 
Tho  Maticni,  Banpirei,  tc.  ( Adcrbijan  and  tho  Armenian  province*) 


Armenia. 


Tim  MoaynoDci,  Tibareni,  Moselii,  tiC.  (the  Wcitern  Cauiasui,  Georgia,  Mingrolia,  ai  far  aa  Trebl- 
»ond) ; 

The  Sngartianii,  Baramoani,  &c.  (Belitan,  Caramanla,  Lar,  and  other  territories  along  tha  Indian 
Oenan,  and  tho  eaatern  part  ol  tim  Pcriian  Giilf ) 

Tliu  Parthiani,  Choaaminna,  Soadiana,  and  Arlana  (Khoraaan,  Herat,  Candohar) 

Tliu  Oandarii,  the  Dadicoi,  fcc.  (Margiana,  the  country  on  tho  Murghab,  between  Khoraaan  and  tha 


Oxiii. 

nactria  (Balk) 

Tim  Sacx  andCaapiciB(Kaahgar,  Famer,  and  other  tract!  of  mountoinoui  country  about  tha  head  of 

the  Oiiia) . 


The  Paricanii  and  Ethiopiani  of  Aaia  (Mokran,  including,  pcrhapa,  Cnubul,  and  the  Delta  of  tho 

Indiia) 

India,  tho  largoat  of  all,  being  300  talonta  in  gold,  which  amounts  in  silver  to 


Tdmh. 

400' 
MM 

3no 

900 
300 
1400 
1000 
300 
430 
SOO 
iMW 
4U0 

300 

000 
300 

170 
300 

330 

400 
4680 


R 


Some  tracts  of  this  vast  empire,  not  formed  into  regular  satrapies,  were  privileged  to 
furnish  only  presents,  or  gifts,  under  an  appearance  of  voluntary  homage.  Among  these 
were  ranked  the  Persians  proper,  inhabiting  the  modern  Pars,  who  obtained  this  distinction 
OS  the  conquering  people  by  whom  tho  empire  was  originally  founded.  The  Southern 
Arabians,  and  the  Ethiopians  above  Egypt,  derived  the  same  immunity  from  the  difficult 
access  to  those  rude  regions  in  which  they  dwelt.  The  Southern  Arabians  are  said  to  have 
propitiated  the  favour  of  the  great  king  by  tho  present  of  a  thousand  talents  of  incense.  The 
Colchians,  and  the  occupants  of  the  neighbouring  heights  of  Caucasus,  were  also  numbered 
among  the  "  givers  of  gifts ;"  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts  of  that  great  range, 
secure  in  their  mountain  fastnesses,  are  said  to  have  cared  very  little  about  the  mighty  ruler 
of  Persia. 

These  delineations  of  Asia  display,  upon  the  whole,  a  surprising  accuracy  and  extent  of 
knowledge ;  yet  several  remarkable  errors  occur  with  regard  to  points  of  which  the  investi- 
gation does  not  ftppear  very  difficult.  Thus  the  breadth  of  Asia  Minor  was  reduced  almost 
a  half;  that  between  Babylon  and  the  capital  of  Egypt  was  underrated  at  least  a  fourth ; 
and  the  country  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian  was  placed  in  the  same  meridian 
with  the  Persian  Gulf,  while  it  is  really  four  degrees  to  the  westward.  These  errors  are 
the  more  remarkable,  as  the  distances,  instead  of  being  in  excess,  according  to  almost  every 
other  ancient  example,  fall  short  of  the  truth.  The  early  travellers  exaggerated  every  space 
over  which  they  actually  passed;  but  it  sometimes  happened  that  two  points  were  ap 
preached  from  different  quarters,  and  then  united  to  each  other  by  a  hypothetical  line,  which, 
OS  men  usually  undervalue  what  they  know  nothing  of,  was  made  generally  too  small.  It 
would  not  appear  that  any  regular  route  had  been  formed  across  tho  high  and  rugged  table- 
land in  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor  from  Cilicia  to  Trebisond.  These  two  points,  being 
approached  respectively  along  the  southern  and  northern  coasts  of  the  peninsula,  might  be 
supposed  nearer  to  each  other  than  they  really  were.  Egypt  was  approached  tlirough  Syria 
and  Palestine,  and  Babylon  by  descending  the  Euphrates ;  but  the  direct  line  between  tiiem 
lying  across  the  Arabian  desert,  was  scarcely  known  or  frequented,  and  therefore  became 
an  ideal  line  in  the  view  of  Herodotus.  The  line  from  Armenia  to  the  Persian  Gulf  was 
of  course  measured  along  tho  Euphrates,  the  general  course  of  which  was  south ;  and  aa 
the  ancients  oriented  all  their  lines  to  a  cardinal  point,  they  overlooked  the  gradual  but 
constant  bend  which  that  river  takes  to  the  eastward. 

The  ideas  of  Ilerouotus  concerning  the  extent  of  Asia,  even  including  all  that  portion 
of  it  which  he  assigned  to  Europe,  could  not  fell  to  bo  defective.  He  knew  notlimg  of 
India  beyond  the  Ganges,  Thibet,  Cliina,  Eastern  Tartary,  or  Siberia,  more  than  half  the 
superficial  extent  of  *he  continent.    Even  his  notions  concerning  India  were  most  imper- 


30 


HISTORY  OF  OKOGRAPIIV. 


f>AlT  I. 


Icct.  IIo  (IvHcribos  it  u  bounded  on  tlio  cut  hy  Hand,  iitrntclilnff  into  an  unknown  and 
inoaMurnlotH  duHurt.  From  tliirt  utatoniunt  it  clnnrly  npimnrN  tliat  hiit  India  coinprnliundod 
merely  tlio  wcBtrrn  part  watered  by  tlin  Indui  and  it«  llvo  triiiiitaricM ;  lio  l<now  n»tliin(f  of 
i*«  widovt  and  ricliimt  roKionit,  tiio  Oangotic  provincca,  Dollii,  llonifiil,  and  tiio  Dvccun ; 
largo  portions  woro  alnu  cut  off  iVom  tlio  Huutlivrn  conHti*  of  AHia,  which  worn  HuppoNud  to 
bo  waxhod  b^  an  ocean  callud  llio  Red  or  Krytliroan  Htm,  without  any  diittinotiou  of  the 
Poriian  Gult,  and  very  little  of  that  which  wo  now  call  tlio  Red  Huo.  « 

Bvaner.  8. — /\/Hca  of  Hirodotut. 

In  hi*  inquirioN  roapccting  AfVica,  Horo<lotuH  apponrs  to  liavo  boon  equally  diligent  oa 
ronctrning  the  other  rogioni  of  the  globe ;  but  ns  ho  never  proceixlod  beyomf  Kgypt,  and 
ail  the  tormidnblo  barrierit  which  nature  oppoHea  to  him  who  attisnipta  to  penetrate  the  into< 
rior  had  boon  very  imixirfectly  overcome,  nmch  in  what  ho  collected  ia  otwcured  with  my»< 
tcry  or  perplexed  with  conjecture. 

Egypt  ia  dnacribed  witli  great  accuracy,  and  under  aomo  foaturon  which  no  longer  exiat; 
for  the  Tanitic  and  Pcluaiac  branchca  of  Uio  Nile,  of  which  littlo  moro  than  the  channcla 
can  now  be  tnieml,  wore  then  in  ftill  flow.  It  nppoara,  however,  that  conaidemblo  confuaion 
prevailed  reapecting  the  quarter  of  tho  world  to  which  Egypt  was  to  bo  adjudged.  As 
water  Ibrmed  tho  buia  of  the  diviaion  into  continenta,  tho  aandy  iathmua  of  Suez,  believed 
to  be  broader  than  it  really  waa,  appeared  very  ill-fitted  to  form  audi  a  limit  The  Nile, 
thorrfore,  in  tho  opinion  of  all  tho  urceka,  waa  tho  boundary  of  tho  continents:  all  to  tho 
coat  waa  Arohia ;  nil  to  tho  weat  Libya ;  but  a  difficulty  hero  arose  in  fixing  the  lot  of  Egypt 
itaelf.  The  Greeka,  it  ap[)oara,  conaidorod  nothing  aa  Egypt  beyond  Uio  Delta;  but  this 
opinion  ia  ridiculed  by  llerodotua,  who  obaorvea,  that  in  that  case  there  muat  formerly  have 
been  no  Egypt  at  all,  since  tliis  its  lower  brunch  wna  evidently  produced  by  tho  gradual 
alluvial  dejpoaitions  of  tho  Nilo.  Ho  contends  reaaonnlily,  that  all  the  banka  of  tho  Nile  as 
fiir  im  aa  Elophanta,  which  was  inhabited  by  Egyptians,  was  clearly  Egypt.  Ho  accusos 
the  Grocka  of  referring  tho  Delta,  or  their  Egypt,  neither  to  Aaia  nor  Libya.  If  wo  rightly 
understand  his  own  idea,  it  is  that  tho  middle  or  Sebennytic  branch  waa  tho  proper  point 
of  division  between  those  continents. 

In  tracing  tho  Nilo  above  Egypt,  Herodotas  states  a  lino  of  two  months'  journey  partly 
along  tho  banks,  partly  in  boats  which  wcrr:  dragged  by  ropca  along  tho  current  throngn 
tho  rocky  chamicl.  At  tho  end  of  this  journey  they  camo  to  Meroo,  the  copital  of  Ethiopia 
above  Egypt,  an  ancient  and  celebrated  hingdom,  whoso  monumonta  were  viewed  with 
almoat  religious  veneration,  and  whoso  nionnrcha  had  repeatedly  conquered  Egypt  and 
founded  dynastiea.  Two  montlia'  journey  tarther  was  the  country  of  tho  Egyptian  exiles, 
a  numerous  body,  who,  having  revolted  frcin  Psammoticua,  sought  tho  protection  of  tlio 
king  of  Etliionia,  and  woro  cantoned  by  him  in  this  romoto  district,  which  may  bo  Sennaor, 
or  rather,  pernajM,  the  branch  of  tho  Bahr-cl-Abiad  opposite  to  it;  for  Herodotus  shows  hia 
knowledge  of  this  last  stream  by  observing  that  it  cornea  ft-om  the  west. 

Tho  long  tract  of  desert  to  the  west  of  Egypt  is  also  described  by  Herodotus  in  some 
detail,  though  apparently  only  from  hrarsay.  Tho  most  conspicuous  objects  here  are  the 
oases,  particularly  that  which  contains  tho  ancient  and  venerated  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon, 
and  which  has  been  identified  with  thu  modem  Siwah.  To  the  west  he  gives  the  namea 
of  a  succession  of  wandering  and  pastoral  tribes,  such  as  still  roam  over  these  arid  and  sandy 
regions,  deriving  from  tho  soil  only  tho  produce  of  the  date-tree.  Many  of  them  stand 
charged  with  morals  peculiarly  shameless  and  dissolute,  tho  females  indulging  openly  in 
the  most  irregular  conduct,  and  making  even  a  boast  of  the  number  of  tlieir  paramoura. 
Probably  there  may  be  scandal  mixed  in  these  very  evil  reports  of  the  African  ladies.  An 
exception  to  this  rudo  jmstoral  character  existed  on  tho  coast  of  Cyronaica,  where  the 
Greeks  established  flourishing  colonies,  which  could  bo  approached,  however,  only  by  the 
dangerous  route  of  tho  Syrtis  or  quicksand,  proverbial  in  ancient  timoa  aa  tlie  scene  of  dis- 
astrous shipwreck. 

The  Naaamones,  tlie  most  westerly  as  well  aa  the  most  numerous  of  the  wandering 
tribes,  in  general  drove  their  herds  along  the  sea-coast,  but  in  summer  repaired  to  the  Oaaia 
of  iCgila  (Augila)  to  collect  the  dates  produced  in  that  district.  A  tribe  among  this  people 
were  called  the  Psylli,  or  devourers  of  serpents ;  and  in  fact  appear  to  have  had  a  peculiar 
power  of  charming  those  noxious  reptiles  with  which  their  deserts  abound.  Within  thei> 
borders,  on  tlie  side  of  Gyrene,  where  verdure  first  began  to  adorn  the  waste,  Herodotus 
has  fixed  the  fabled  site  of*^  tho  Hesperian  gardens. 

The  Garamantes,  to  the  south-west  of  Augila,  and  the  Nasamones,  ore  represented  by 
our  historian  as  inhabitants  of  a  region  infested  by  wild  beasts,  and  of  a  timid  character 
fljing  the  view  and  intercourse  of  other  men,  destitute  of  arms,  and  unacquainted  with  war. 
These  characters  do  not  appljrto  the  people  of  modem  Fezzan,  which,  however,  is  undoubt- 
edly the  tract  pointed  out  To  the  north-west  were  the  Gindanes  (the  modem  Gadamis), 
among  whom  the  license  of  public  morals  had  risen  to  a  greater  height  than  among  all  the 
wandering  tribes  of  Libya.   Still  proceeding  north-west,  the  traveller  came  to  tlie  lake  Tri* 


[■f  Hiifl'.'iL'  .^^•w^-ii^Ji.i^'rT^ 


Boo*  I. 


THE  EXPEDITION  OF  ALEXANDER. 


4i 


:h  no  longor  nxiiit; 
than  tho  clmnnclu 
Hulcmbln  confuHion 

be  a(ljuil((0(l.  Aa 
I  of  Suoz,  boliovod 

limit  Tho  Nile. 
tinonts:  all  to  tho 
rig  the  lot  of  Egypt 
10  Delta;  but  this 
nuflt  formerly  havo 
:od  by  the  OTailual 
inka  of  tho  Nile  as 
fypt.  Ho  accuROfl 
bya.  If  wo  rightly 
3  tho  proper  point 

Ihs'  journey  partly 

0  current  througii 
capital  of  Ethiopia 
ivero  viewed  with 
[uored  Egypt  and 
)  Egyptian  exiles, 

protection  of  ttie 

1  may  bo  Sennaor, 
irodotus  shows  his 

lerodotuB  in  somo 
jocts  hero  are  the 
of  Jupiter  Ammon, 
gives  tho  names 
cso  arid  and  sandy 
ny  of  Uiem  stand 
dulging  openly  in 
f  tlicir  paramours, 
frican  ladies.  An 
jnaica,  where  the 
rever,  only  by  the 
)  the  scene  of  dis- 

jf  the  wandering 
Miired  to  tho  Oasia 
imong  this  people 
Lvo  had  a  peculiar 
id.  Within  thei' 
waste,  Herodotus 

e  represented  by 
timid  character 
uainted  with  war. 
vever,  is  undoubt- 
nodcrn  Godamis), 
lan  among  all  the 
3  to  tlie  lake  Tri> 


tonis,  celebrated  in  ancient  ftl>lo  as  the  birth-plnco  of  Mincrvo,  who,  according  'o  one  legend, 
was  «prung  from  Noptuno  aiul  tho  nymph  of  tho  lake.  This  lake  forms  tlic  wcstoni  limit 
of  tho  long  rango  of  nomadic  trilws.  Doyond  it,  Hi<riMlotu>i  gives  us  tlio  Maxyos,  who  cul- 
tivated tho  ground.  He  hod  now  reached  timt  flue  rniigo  of  torritory  belonging  to  Curthugc, 
stretching  along  the  coaiit,  watered  and  enriched  by  streams  fVom  the  Atlas.  It  is  very 
romarkftWo,  however,  that  ho  should  pass  by  entirely  that  mighty  and  celebrated  state, 
,  which  was  not  only  thn  most  powerllil  in  Africa,  but  was  also  tlio  centre  of  industry  anci 
commerce  with  respect  V)  'lie  ancient  world.  Major  Kcnnoll  has  suspectrd  that  this  arose 
fVom  a  national  feeling  of  amity  on  account  of  Uieir  alliance  with  the  Persians ;  but  when 
we  consider  that  no  such  feeling  has  prevented  the  flillest  account  (Vom  being  given  of  tho 
Persians  themselves,  it  can  scarcely  be  supposed  that  tho  being  merely  fVienus  to  tho  Per- 
sians would  exclude  so  great  a  people  tVoin  his  notice.  It  seems  reallv  very  dilBcult  to 
conjecture  his  motive,  unless,  according  to  tho  suggestion  of  a  learned  ftiena,  we  suppose  that 
Herodotus,  writing  almost  entirely  to  illuHtrate  what  was  obscure,  or  communicate  know- 
ledge on  points  respecting  which  tiie  world  were  in  ignorance,  might  tliink  it  superfluous  to 
describe  what  must  havo  neen  well  known  to  the  bulk  of  his  readers,  for  tho  same  reason 
that  ho  has  given  no  regular  description  of  Greece.  In  reference  to  tho  transactions  of  this 
people  with  othor  nations,  he  takes  repeated  occasion  to  mention  them,  so  that  tho  omission 
could  not  arise  fVom  absolute  ignorance. 

Atlas  and  tho  desert  border  behind  it  next  engage  tho  attention  of  our  historian;  a  tract 
reaching  as  far  as  tho  straits,  which  ho  calls  the  hiffh  forehead  of  Africa.  He  describes 
Atlas  as  a  long  and  lofty  range,  whoso  highest  pinnacles  are  wrapped  in  perpetual  clouds 
and  ho  ascribes  to  tho  natives  tho  origin  of  tho  belief  adopted  by  the  Greeks,  which  mwlo 
it  tho  pillar  of  heaven.  Even  in  this  extreme  boundary  of  the  continent,  ho  mentions  somo 
peculiarities  thot  really  exist : — tho  enormous  sizo  and  formidable  character  of  the  serpent 
tribe;  oxen  with  largo  and  crooked  horns;  houses  of  salt  which  would  melt  away  if  a  single 
shower  wore  to  interrupt  the  continued  drought.  When  ho  begins,  however,  to  speak  of 
people  with  horses'  hoods,  and  others  without  heads  at  all,  it  is  timo  to  take  our  leave ; 
though  somo  learned  writers  suppose  this  to  be  a  mere  exaggerated  description  of  somo 
animals  of  tho  desert.  We  must  still  follow  him,  however,  to  tho  western  coast  beyond  tho 
straits,  whero  tho  Carthaginians,  ho  was  informed,  carried  on  trade  with  tho  natives  in  a 
peculiar  manner.  The  parties  did  not  sec  each  other,  but  after  a  signal  made  by  smoke,  one 
laid  down  his  proflcr,  went  away,  and  loft  room  for  the  other  to  do  the  samo ;  when  tho  first 
came,  and  citner  accepted  or  rejected  the  bargain,  till  the  terms  were  adjusted.  There 
have  been  reports  in  various  quarters  of  this  mooe  of  traffic,  but  all,  we  suspect,  exaggerated 
representations  of  the  timid  manner  in  which  civilized  traders  make  their  approaches  to 
those  savage  people  who  possessed  any  valuable  commodities.  The  product  sought  upon 
this  shore  was  gold :  and,  as  it  docs  not  exist  in  any  latitude  north  of  tho  Senegal,  Major 
Renncll  concludes  that  the  trade  of  Carthago  extended  to  that  distant  river.  A  sceptic 
might  surmise  that  tho  gold  was  brought  across  the  desert  to  tho  coast  of  Barbary ;  yet, 
considering  the  formidable  character  of  this  desert,  it  seems  doubtful  if  at  so  early  a  period 
a  commercial  route  across  it  could  have  been  opened. 

The  interior  of  Africa  could  not  fail  deeply  to  attract  the  curiosity  of  Herodotus.  The 
part  already  noticed  as  described  by  him  forms  only  a  belt  along  its  northern  coast,  and 
mcludes  none  of  the  vast  inland  tracts.  On  this  subject,  however,  he  has  only  one  tale  to 
tell.  Several  Nasamonian  youtlis  of  distinction,  seized  with  that  desire  to  penetrate  tho 
continent  which  has  prevailed  throughout  all  ages,  departed  on  an  expedition  to  the  south- 
ward. They  traversetl  thrco  successive  belts ;  first,  the  cultivated,  or  at  least  verdant  and 
mhabited  tract  along  the  sea-shore ;  then,  another  occupied  only  by  wild  beasts ;  and,  lastly, 
a  region  arid  and  desolate.  Here,  while  plucking  fruits,  they  were  surprised  by  some 
men  of  small  stature,  who  carried  them  by  the  way  of  very  great  lakes,  to  a  city  inhabited 
by  black  inhabitants,  and  situated  on  a  large  river  flowing  from  west  to  east.  This  river 
Herodotus,  naturally  enough,  judges  to  be  the  Nile.  Major  Renncll  conceives  it  to  be  pro- 
bably the  river  of  Tombuctoo,  which  Europeans  call  the  Niger ;  but  wo  think,  since  the 
late  discoveries,  there  can  scarcely  bo  any  hesitation  in  fixing  it  as  the  Yeou,  the  river 
which  rolls  through  Bornou,  while  the  Tchad  may  be  identified  with  tho  great  lakea 
along  which  the  expedition  was  conducted. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FIRST  ALEXANDIIIAN  SCHOOL.- ERATOSTHENES  AND  STRABO. 
Sect.  I. — The  KxiwAitinn  of  Al(>.rantf/>f 

The  geography  of  the  Greeks  became  little  more  than  a  topographical  delineation  of 
military  routes,  after  the  intestine  wars  in  which  they  were  involved  caused  them  to  lose 
eight  of  the  moro  distant  regions  of  the  earth.    Besides,  as  they  never  cultivated  mathe- 

Vol.  I  1 


88 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I 


w 


•f  -  Wi' 


^-    1; 


fr 

l)i!l 


nmtical  scionco  witli  any  caro  or  to  any  extent,  tliey  had  not  Uio  power  of  arrtuiffin^ 
even  tliese  limited  nmterials  into  a  systematic  form. 

The  expedition  of  Alexander  gave  a  much  greater  degree  of  expansion  to  the  human  mind. 
That  monarch  transferred  the  scat  of  war  into  tlio  Persian  empire,  and  carried  his  victorious 
arms  into  the  remotest  regions  of  the  East  Wiiatever  might  be  the  faults  and  follies  with 
which  his  career  was  stamed,  it  cannot  bo  denied  that  an  enlightened  curiosity  animated 
all  his  proceedings.  Wherever  he  wont,  ho  was  uccompnied  by  skilful  surveyors,  Diogno- 
tus  and  Bmton,  who  measured  the  length  and  direction  of  every  route  over  whicli  the 
army  passed.  Alexander  himself  carefully  inspected  tlioso  itineraries,  employed  oil  prac- 
ticable means  for  obtaining  the  best  materials,  and  his  letters  are  even  quoted  by  Pliny  as 
authorities  for  many  geographical  statements.  These  itineraries  are  said  to  have  been 
afterwards  published  by  Bicton,  under  the  title  oi  '*  the  Marches  of  Alexander."  From  the 
'cfoctivc  state  of  the  science,  however,  which  that  prince  could  not  remedy,  all  these 
.natorials  were  necessarily  imperfect.  They  could  include  nothing  beyond  mechanical 
measurement,  nor  is  there  any  record,  throughout  this  long  career,  of  a  single  attempt  to 
fix  the  position  of  any  spot  by  celestial  observation.  Imperfect  as  they  were,  however, 
tlicse  documents  did  not  the  less  form  a  completely  new  era  in  geographical  science.  After 
the  death  of  Alexander,  they  passed  througu  the  hands  of  Seleucus  into  tliose  of  Ptolemy 
Philadclphus,  wlio  spared  no  cflbrts  to  render  Alexandria  the  greatest  seat  of  learning  and 
science  in  tiic  ancient  world;  and  among  the  sciences  there  cultivated,  geography  and 
ustronomy  held  the  most  distinguished  place. 

The  progress  of  Alexander  led  him  at  first  through  Syria,  Egypt  and  Persia,  but  did  not 
bring  the  Greeks  to  the  knowledge  of  any  countries,  of  whose  existence  and  limits  the/ 
were  not  already  fully  apprised.  But  after  he  began  the  pursuit  of  Bessus,  who  had  carried 
off  Darius  into  Bactriana,  his  march  became  a  sort  of  exploratory  route.  In  his  vain  pur« 
suit  of  tlic  Scythian  armies  he  reached  the  banks  of  tlie  Jaxartcs,  though  he  did  not  fully 
trace  the  course  eitlier  of  that  river  or  of  the  Oxus.  On  his  way  tlience  to  India,  he  liad 
to  penetrate  the  narrow  passes  overhung  by  the  snowy  ramparts  of  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  and, 
with  much  difficulty  and  many  hardships  to  his  troops,  learned  to  appreciate  the  magnitude 
of  that  great  inland  barrier  of  Asia.  In  Lidia,  Alexander  could  not  penetrate  beyond  the 
region  watered  by  the  five  rivers.  Yet  he  did  not  consider  it  as  the  boundary  of  the 
earth ;  he  learned  t.ho  existence  and  beauty  of  the  fine  regions  on  the  Ganges,  whither  he 
in  vain  attompted  to  persuade  his  fatigued  and  refractory  troops  to  follow  him.  He  consoled 
himself  by  conveying  his  army  in  pomp  down  the  Indus,  to  view  the  entrance  of  that  great 
stream  into  tlic  ocean,  and  with  instructions,  as  we  have  already  seen,  to  trace  the  shores 
of  Asia  round  the  Persian  Gulf.  He  himself,  upon  very  bad  information,  undertook  to  lead 
back  his  army  through  Gedrosia  and  Caramania,  the  greater  part  of  which  he  found,  as 
modem  travellers  have  done,  to  be  a  desert  of  the  most  dreary  and  formidable  character,  in 
which  his  army  was  with  difficulty  saved  from  total  destruction. 

Sect.  II. — Expedition  of  Sclcncus. 
Seleucus,  on  the  partition  of  the  empire  of  Alexander,  succeeded  to  the  dominion  of 
Syria  and  tlie  East.  Neither  that  prince  nor  his  successors  were  eitlier  learned  or  patrons  of 
learning ;  but  as  the  owner  of  extensive  dominions,  and  oiming  at  fartlier  conquest,  he 
cherislied  the  natural  wish  to  bo  acquainted  with  what  ho  ix)ssessed  or  hoped  to  obtain.  He 
employed  his  admiral,  Patrocles,  to  make  a  survey  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  had  not 
entered  into  tlie  line  of  Alexander's  route ;  but  the  information  gamed  by  this  voyage  must, 
as  we  shall  see,  have  been  far  from  complete.  It  would  also  seem  as  if  he  had  employed  the 
same  admiral  in  an  attempt  to  Circumnavigate  Asia ;  but  the  assertion  which  obtained  credit 
in  that  age,  that  he  hatl  sailed  round  from  India  to  the  Caspian,  sufficiently  attests  the  failure 
of  the  enterprise.  Seleucus,  also,  finding,  probably,  that  the  inroad  of  Alexander  into  India 
had  been  of  vcrj  transient  result,  undertook  a  military  expedition,  the  details  of  which  are 
little  known,  and  which  enabled  him  to  cstablisli  no  permanent  footing  in  the  country ;  but 
he  collected  some  further  materials  for  tlie  geographer,  and  the  record  of  his  marches  appean 
to  have  been  of  important  service  to  Pliny.  He  sent  also  an  embassy  under  Megasthenes 
to  Palibothro,  capital  of  the  great  Indian  kingdom  situated  on  tlie  Ganges,  from  which  the 
ancients  derived  u  more  accurate  knowledge  of  tliese  eastern  parts  of  me  world  than  they 
had  previously  possessed. 

Sect.  HI. — Eratosthenes. 
Eratosthenes  at  length  succeeded  in  reducing  geography  to  a  system  under  the  patronaat, 
of  the  Plolnmies,  which  gave  him  access  to  all  tlie  materials  collected  by  Alexander,  his 
generals,  and  successors,  and  to  the  immense  mass  of  documents  assembled  in  the  AIexan= 
drian  library.  The  astronomicai  observations  made  in  this  school  were  now  sufficient  to 
prove  the  gfobular  form  of  the  earth.  Eratosthenes,  proceeding  upon  this  principle,  mode  it 
•lis  study  to  adjust  to  it  all  the  known  features  of  the  globe.  He  did  not,  however,  attend 
V)  tne  grand  original  divisions  of  the  equator,  the  pole,  or  even  the  tropics.    The  luic  wliicb 


1 


m-k 


Part  I 

owor  of  orraiiffin/r 

to  the  human  mind, 
orried  his  victorious 
lilts  nnd  follies  with 
[  curiosity  animated 

surveyors,  Diogno- 
ito  over  which  tlie* 

employed  nil  prac- 

quoted  by  Pliny  as 

said  to  have  been 
Sander."    From  the 

remedy,  all  these 
beyond  mechanical 

single  attempt  to 
cy  were,  however, 
cal  science.  After 
3  tliose  of  Ptolemy 
sat  of  learning  and 
ed,  geography  and 

Persia,  but  did  not 
ce  and  limits  they 
IS,  who  had  carried 
In  his  vain  pur- 
li  he  did  not  fully 
:e  to  India,  he  hod 
lindoo  Coosh,  and, 
iate  the  magnitude 
letrato  beyond  the 
)  boundary  of  the 
anges,  whither  lie 
him.  He  consoled 
[ance  of  that  great 
to  trace  the  shores 
I  undertook  to  lead 
lich  he  found,  as 
lable  character,  in 


the  dominion  of 
med  or  patrons  of 
Jier  conquest,  he 
)ed  to  obtain.  He 
which  had  not 
this  voyage  must, 
hwl  employed  the 
:h  obtained  credit 
attests  the  failure 
xandcr  into  India 
lils  of  which  are 
the  country ;  but 
1  marclies  appears 
der  Megasthenes 
,  from  which  Uie 
world  than  they 


?r  the  patronage. 
Alexander,  his 
in  tho  A!exan= 
now  sufficient  to 
rinciple,  made  it 
lowevcr,  attend 
The  line  wiiicb 


UooK  T.      WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES  AND  STRABO. 


39 


formed  U>o  basis  of  his  geography,  and  generally  of  that  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  was  a 
parallel  drawn  across  ue  Mediterranean,  and  thence  prolonged  through  Asia.  It  was 
rormed  in  a  very  rough  manner,  upon  no  actual  observation,  and  comprising  all  loading 
positions  which  came  nearly  though  not  strictly  within  its  sphere.  It  was  called  generally,  tJie 
parallel  of  Rhodes.  The  most  westerly  point  was  the  Sacred  Cape  of  Iberia  (Cape  St.  Vin- 
cent), after  which  followed  the  "  Strait  of  the  Pillars"  (of  Hercules).  The  next  point  was 
the  Strait  of  Sicily,  erroneously  considered  to  be  under  the  same  meridian  with  Rome  and 
Carthage.  Then  came  Rhodes,  the  centre  of  the  lino.  Issus,  celebrated  as  the  site  of  the 
victory  of  Alexander,  was  with  little  difficulty  brought  within  the  limit.  Next  followed  the 
somewhat  doubtful  position  of  the  Caspian  gates,  onil  tlie  line  was  extended  along  the  chain 
of  Mount  Taurus,  supposed  to  divide  Asia  into  two  parts,  till  it  terminated  at  the  remote 
city  of  Thinoj,  situatetf  on  the  eastern  ocean.  This  entire  length  of  the  habitable  world,  as 
'A  was  called,  amounted  to  about  7U,000  stadia,  or,  according  to  his  estimate,  one  hundred 
degrees,  not  quite  a  third  of  the  circuit  of  the  globe. 

In  determining  a  meridian  to  exhibit  his  breadth  of  the  habitable  world,  Eratosthenes 
laboured  under  still  greater  difficulties.  On  the  extreme  south  was  "  the  limit  of  the  habitable 
earth;"  for,  according  to  this  school,  a  certain  tract  around  the  equator  was,  from  the 
excess  of  heat,  unfit  for  human  habitation.  Tho  uninhabitable  zone  was  supposed  to  extend 
8,300  stadia,  or  about  twelve  degrees  to  the  north  of  the  equator.  Under  the  next  parallel 
were  included  the  "  Isle  of  the  Exiles,"  in  or  near  Sennaar ;  the  cinnamon-bearing  region, 
which  appears  to  be  Berbera,  and  Taproban,  or  Ceylon.  Next  comes  Meroc,  the  capital  of 
Etibiopia,  which  was  supposed,  though  witii  great  error,  to  correspond  as  to  latitude  with 
the  southern  extremity  of  India :  thence  descending  the  Nile  the  geographer  marks  the 
celebrated  position  of  Syene,  which  was  concluded  to  be  immediately  under  the  tropic, 
iiince  there  was  a  well,  in  the  depth  of  which  at  noon-day,  at  the  precise  time  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  the  disk  of  the  sun  was  seen  reflected  entire.  The  observation  was  very  nearly 
correct.  Next  came  Alexandria,  of  which,  as  the  centre  of  all  theco  observations,  the 
position  as  to  latitude  was  very  closely  approximated.  Then  followed  Rhodes  in  the  centre 
of  the  great  parallel  already  described  as  exhibiting  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe. 
Continuing  northward,  though  not  upon  the  same  line,  were  found  the  Hellespont,  Byzan- 
tium, the  mouth  of  the  Borysthenes,  and  passing  over  the  vast  obscurely-known  tracts  of 
Germany,  Gaul,  and  Britain,  the  farthest  Thulc,  which,  on  the  report  of  Pythcas,  Eratos- 
thenes regarded  as  the  extreme  northern  boundary  of  the  earth.  As  the  same  authority 
placed  Thule  under  the  Arctic  circle,  or  at  sixty-six  degrees  of  latitude,  the  interval  be- 
tween that  position  and  the  limit  of  the  habitable  earth  on  the  side  of  the  equator  amounted 
to  about  fifty-four  degrees,  or  according  to  his  estimate  38,000  stadia,  which  fonned  thus 
the  supposed  breadth  from  north  to  south  of  the  habitable  earth. 

Sect.  IV. — Hipparchus. 
Hipparchus,  carrying  still  farther  tho  system  adopted  by  Eratosthenes,  subjected  tho 
whole  science  of  geography  to  astronomical  principles.  His  labours  in  numbering  the  stars, 
and  arranging  them  according  to  their  place  in  the  heavens,  were  such  as  appeared  mar- 
vellous to  the  ancients,  and  are  esteemed  by  Pliny  as  achievements  that  would  have  been 
Arduous  even  for  a  god.  In  this  career,  however,  he  had  been  preceded  by  Timocharis  and 
Arlstillus,  who,  more  than  a  century  before,  had  made  some  observations  which  paved  the 
way  for  the  present  extended  discoveries.  Hipparchus  appears  to  have  first  conceived  the 
idea  of  transferring  the  observed  latitudes  and  longitudes  of  the  stars  to  their  correspond- 
ing places  on  the  uarth's  surface,  thus  fixing  the  latter  with  a  precision  which  no  itinerary 
loeasurements  could  ever  attain.  He  made  a  considerable  number  of  observations  of  lati- 
tude, in  addition  to  the  very  few  previously  existing,  and  he  pointed  out  the  mode  in  which 
the  longitudes  might  be  ascertained  by  observing  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon.  It  does 
not  appeiT  to  what  extent  he  carried  the  difficult  operations  requisite  for  this  investigation ; 
bur  he  is  said  to  have  calculated  the  eclipses  for  six  hundred  years,  including  the  moments 
of  their  appearance  at  different  places ;  a  performance  which  seems  to  indicate  a  know- 
ledge of  their  astronomical  position.  Thus  Hipparchus  distinctly  perceived  all  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  an  accurate  system  of  geography  migiit  be  founded,  and  made  some 
progress  in  their  application ;  but  these  important  principles,  like  others  which  were  beyond 
the  comprehension  of  the  age  in  which  they  were  made,  remained  for  a  long  time  dormant 
or  misapplied,  and  were  not  brought  into  full  practical  application  until  a  much  more 
advanced  period  in  the  progress  of  science. 

Sect.  V. — The  world  according  to  Eratosthenes  and  Straibo. 
The  application  to  the  different  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  of  the  principles  according 
to  which  the  globe  was  to  be  delineated,  formed  a  task  still  more  arduous  than  that  of  the 
first  establishment  of  those  principles.  The  longitudes  and  latitudes  of  the  ancients  are 
both  erroneous ;  more  especially  the  longitudes,  to  which  astronomical  observation  was 
never  verv  extensively  apnlied ;  hence  it  is  not  wonderful  that  the  errors  should  be  grea' ; 


w 


fflSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


but  the  regular  and  rapid  manner  in  which  they  accumulate  appears  very  surprisina 
They  begin  from  the  Sacred  Cape  of  Iberia  (Cape  St  Vincent),  wnich  the  ancients  maoe 
their  first  meridian,  and  continue  regularly  increasing  as  we  proceed  eastward.  To  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  were  assigned  more  than  two  degrees  beyond  the  truth ;  to  Alexandria, 
nearly  seven ;  to  Issus,  ten ;  to  the  Caspian  gates,  fourteen ;  to  Pattalena,  or  the  Delta  of 
the  liidus,  twenty-three ;  to  tlie  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  nearly  twenty-seven.  We  have 
already  had  occasion  to  observe,  and  tlie  remark  is  found  in  the  best  ancient  geographeni 
that  merchants  and  travellers  of  that  age  gave  an  exaggerated  report  of  all  me  distances 
over  which  they  passed.  The  windmgs  of  the  route,  the  hardships  and  obstacles  encoun- 
tered by  them,  the  desire  to  magnify  dieir  own  achievements,  all  concurred  in  inducing 
them  to  view  and  present  this  particular  through  an  amplified  medium.  All  the  itineraries 
continued  along  the  line  upon  which  Eratosthenes  measured  his  length  of  the  habitable 
globe  being  thus  unduly  extended,  the  degrees  calculated  out  of  them  were  of  course 
equally  in  excess ;  and  this  excess  became  .always  the  greater  ip  proportion  to  the  length 
to  which  the  line  was  protracted  beyond  its  commencement  at  the  Sacred  Cape.  The  lati- 
tude of  the  principal  places  in  and  round  the  Mediterranean  is  in  general  not  far  firom  thtt 
truUi,  probably  because  it  was  determined  by  such  rude  observations  as  were  within  the 
compass  of  Chreek  science  at  that  early  period. 

In  tracing  the  outline  of  the  known  world,  and  especially  of  the  continents,  geographeis 
still  proceeded  amid  obscurity  and  doubt.  This  school  had  laid  down  the  fiindamental  prii^ 
ciple  of  a  great  circumambient  ocean,  embracing  the  entire  circuit  of  the  three  continents. 
This  idea,  inherited  from  Homer,  was  doubtless  supported  by  facts  to  a  considerable  extent ; 
but  its  application  to  the  world  in  general,  and  especially  to  the  northern  shores  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  was  manifestly  hypothetical.  Eratosthenes,  in  comparing  the  magnitude  of  his 
known  world,  even  under  its  exaggerated  dimensions,  with  the  general  circumference  of 
the  earth,  became  sensible  that  only  a  third  part  of  this  last  was  filled  up.  He  indulges  in 
conjecture  as  to  the  contents  of  this  vast  unknown  region,  which,  he  observes,  might  either 
be  supposed  to  consist  of  one  great  ocean,  the  whole  of  which  he  denominates  the  Atlantic, 
or  of  lands  and  islands  which  might  be  discovered  in  sailing  to  the  westward.  With  a 
degree  of  caution,  however,  not  very  common  in  that  age,  he  declines  to  give  any  decisive 
opmion  on  this  question. — The  system  of  Eratosthenes  may  now  be  considered  in  regard  to 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Afirica. 

^'       ^'.  ^"  ;^  ScBSECT.  1. — Europe.  (^Fig.6.)  ''.,',■ 

The  imperfection  of  ancient  geography  is  often  conspicuous  with  respect  to  conntriet 
which  were  very  near  and  familiar.  Li  regard  to  the  very  centre  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Eratosthenes  committed  a  capital  error.  Following  the  propensity  to  include  all  the  lead- 
ing positions  under  some  one  line  to  which  they  approximate,  he  ^aced  in  the  same  me- 
ridian Rome,  the  Sicilian  strait  (that  of  Messina),  and  Carthage.  The  mistake  with  regard 
to  the  first  and  last  of  these  points  did  not  much  exceed  a  degree ;  but  the  middle  point  is 
nearly  four  degrees  east  l!-om  Rome,  and  five  firom  Carthage.  Such  an  error  could  not  fiul 
to  produce  others.  M.  Gosselin  shows  that  it  has  led  to  a  signal  mistake  respecting  the 
position  of  Sicily,  as  the  geographer,  in  order  to  retain  its  relative  position  towards  Carthage, 
necessarily  represented  its  greatest  length  as  from  north  to  south,  instead  of  firom  east  to 
west.  The  promontory  of  Lilybeum,  meing  Carthage,  became  the  southern  instead  of 
the  western  extremity  of  Sicily ;  while  Cape  Pachynum,  instead  of  the  southern,  became 
the  eastern.  Sici^v  being  thus  projected  so  unreasonably  towards  the  south,  Carthage  also 
was  made  to  recede  too  &r  in  the  same  direction ;  and  tiie  coast  leading  thither  fiom  the 
straits  of  Gibraltar  was  supposed  to  bend  to  the  south  instead  of  the  north.  The  same 
erroneous  process,  placing  Sicily  too  fiir  west,  enlarged  beyond  measure  the  eastern  basin 
of  the  Mediterranean  comprehended  between  it  and  Asia  Minor.  This  deformity  became 
still  more  serious  from  another  application,  to  Alexandria  and  Rhodes,  of  the  system  rf 
placing  leading  points  under  the  same  meridian.  As  the  former  error  had  made  Sicily  Uio 
far  west,  this  made  Rhodes  too  far  east,  and  rendered  the  sea  between  these  islands  too 
large  by  at  least  a  half. 

Strabo,  ever  alive  to  the  faults  of  his  predecessors,  detected  the  mistake  of  Eratoa- 
thenes  with  respect  to  the  relative  positions  of  Rome  and  Carthage.  He  has  been  fitr, 
however,  firom  rectifying  all  the  wrong  positions  established  by  his  predecessor.    He  has 


1% 


3»dM 

Carthiso  Nova 

iSirbo 

MiMUia 

Aniipoli* 
.  Oeniu 
B.  Lnns 
9.  Pomilaoliua 

10.  C(MM 


R*ference$  to  the  Map  of  Europe  according  to  EratotOteneii. 


II.  Roma 

13.  Ottia 
la  Cinseii 

14.  PnlecU 

15.  Naapolii 
19.  Poridonii 
17.  Vclia 
la  Lain 

19.  UipiNNiiun 


90.  RhcfiDm 
SI.  Scrlacium 
JK.  TfinrU 

{■*  ttreaium 
.  Braiiduiiiiai 
glpoi 
.  TMDum 
Aneona 
Aiiminum 


».  Poll 
30.  r 
9h    . 
K  ApoUooia 


aurni 


Mbh 


a  A 

0  Beqiut 


lU»«rt 


d  Lifer 

9  0animoa 
ffc.i.iw 


ftonw 
RbodiuMI 


Tf/WT{s^|p^'^J  jyi.;,  Tlhf  7.\" 


Part  I. 

rs  very  surprisina 
the  ancients  made 

eastward.  To  the 
ith ;  to  Alexandria, 
na,  or  the  Delta  of 
r-seTen.  We  have 
icient  geographers, 
of  all  uie  distances 
1  obstacles  encoun- 
curred  in  inducing 

All  the  itineraries 
th  of  the  habitable 
em  were  of  course 
ortion  to  the  length 
3d  Cape.  The  lati- 
ml  not  far  from  the 
as  were  within  tiie 

inents,  geographers 
e  fundamental  prin- 
he  three  continents, 
onsiderable  extent ; 
m  shores  of  Europe 
le  magnitude  of  his 
d  circumference  of 
ip.  He  indulges  in 
serves,  might  either 
linates  the  Atlantic, 
westward.  With  a 
k>  give  any  decisive 
sidered  in  regard  to 


espect  to  countries 
the  Mediterranean, 
iclude  all  the  lead- 
in  the  same  me- 
nistake  with  regard 
the  middle  point  is 
error  could  not  fiiil 
ake  respecting  the 
towards  Carthage, 
ead  of  from  east  to 
suthem  instead  of 
southern,  became 
)uth,  Carthage  also 
^  thither  fh>m  die 
north.    The  same 
the  eastern  basin 
deformity  became 
of  the  system  (^ 
id  made  Sicily  too 
these  islands  too 

listake  of  Eratos- 

He  has  been  fitr, 

decessor.    He  has 


d  Liter 
e  avumnt 

I"  Tuioi 
IbonM 
Kbodiumi 
VuiM 


EUROPE  ACCORDING 


ERATOSTHENES. 


41 


43 


mSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartI 


i:.!i 


11  ill 


left  untouched  the  false  orienting  of  Sicily,  and  all  the  errors  dependent  upon  it.  Both  he 
and  Eratosthenes  describe  Italy  as  extending  from  nortii  to  south,  which,  allowing  for  the 
early  tendency  to  orient  all  luies  towards  a  cardinal  point,  may  be  taken  as  a  pretty  fait 
representation.  M.  Gosselin  has  undertaken  to  show  that  such  a  direction  would  be  incon- 
sistent with  the  other  data  given  by  these  geographers,  in  conibrmity  to  whicli  Italy  must 
Btretch  from  east  to  west.  Considering,  however,  the  imperfect  state  of  geographical  deli- 
neation at  that  period,  it  seems  going  too  far  to  follow  each  error  into  all  its  consequences, 
or  to  suppose  that  all  the  views  given  can  be  brought  into  complete  harmony. 

The  outline  of  the  central  and  northern  countries  of  Europe  drawn  by  these  geogra> 
phers  is  excessively  vague.  Strabo  indeed  makes  some  approach  to  accuracy  in  comparing 
the  Spanish  peninsula  to  a  "  hide  spread  out,"  or  to  a  parallelogram.  Various  countries 
were  by  the  ancients  denominated  from  a  fancied  resemblance  to  some  object  in  nature,  nor 
are  examples  wanting  in  modem  times.  But  the  eastern  side  r^  this  figure  is  formed  by 
the  Pyrenees,  which  are  thus  made  to  extend  flrom  north  to  douth,  to  form  the  western 
boundary  of  Gaul,  and  to  be  parallel  to  the  Rhine.  Hence  arises  the  ^eatest  of  all  these 
errors ;  for  Gaul  is  allowed  to  have  on  the  ocean  only  i;ne  coast  which  is  that  looking  to 
the  north,  and  every  where  opposite  to  Britain.  Strabo  treats  with  derision  the  report  of 
Pytheas,  that  the  Calbium  promontorium,  the  extreme  point  of  Brittany,  looked  to  the  west, 
and  he  represents  vessels  as  sailing  tc  Britain  as  readily  from  the  mouth  of  tlie  Loire  and 
(Saronne  as  from  that  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Seine.  Great  as  these  errors  are,  we  shall  easily 
trace  their  origin  in  considering  the  sources  whence  the  Greeks  derived  their  information 
respecting  these  extremities  of  Europe.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  case  with  regard  to 
the  Carthaginians,  it  is  evident  that  neither  Greeks  nor  Romans  ever  navigated  its  exterior 
seos.  Pytheas  alone  performed  that  daring  voyage ;  but  having  no  witnesses  to  bring  in 
support  of  his  relation,  it  was  denounced  as  fabidous,  in  common  with  others  made  by  early 
discoverers.  The  regular  channel  of  communication  was  Marseilles.  The  merchandise  of 
Britain  bemg  brought  across  the  British  chamiel  to  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Seine, 
was  conveyed  up  those  rivers,  and  by  land  carriage  to  that  great  emporium  of  Gaul.  Hence 
the  geography  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  in  that  age,  was  ruled  entirely  by  Massilian  ideas. 
From  the  causes  stated,  the  Massilians  had  no  communication  with  Britain  unless  by  the 
northern  coast  of  Gaul,  and  by  routes  directed  from  south  to  north  through  that  country. 
Reasoning  only  from  what  they  knew,  they  might  soon  arrive  at  the  conclusion,  that  Gaul 
had  only  a  northern  coast,  and  might  apply  to  it  the  whole  of  the  erroneous  system  now 
described.  The  result  of  this  system  was,  that  the  Cassiterides,  Islands  of  Tin,  in  which 
term  the  Scilly  islands  were  evidently  blended  with  Cornwall,  were  made  to  approach  to 
Spain,  and  came  to  be  considered  as  much  Spanish  as  British.  So  prevalent  was  this  idea, 
tluit  even  afterwards,  when  the  conquests  of  Rome  had  made  known  the  wide  separation 
between  the  two  countries,  the  Cassiterides  are  found  in  some  maps  still  attached  to  Spain, 
and  at  a  little  distance  from  Cape  Ortegal. 

Britain,  under  this  system,  was  represented  as  a  triangle,  of  which  the  base,  or 
longest  side,  was  that  along  the  channel  and  opposite  to  Gaul.  As  the  coast,  after  passing 
the  two  extremities  of  this  line,  begins  on  one  side  to  bend  inward  towards  the  Bristol 
Channel,  and  on  the  other  to  the  Thames,  navigators  then  probably  considered  it  as  continue 
ing  in  these  directions  till  it  came  to  a  point,  far  short  of  its  real  termination.  leme,  or 
Hibernia,  (Ireland)  appears  in  dim  obscurity.  It  is  said  to  be  situated  four  hundred  miles 
north  from  the  centre  of  Britain,  under  a  climate  so  excessively  cold  that  there  could  not 
possibly  be  any  inhabited  country  nearer  to  the  pole.  If  the  four  hundred  miles  be  measured 
from  the  centre  of  the  southern  coast,  and  allowance  be  made  for  fiilse  orienting,  it  will  not 
be  found  so  very  wide  of  the  truth.  The  rest  of  the  description  was  probably  made  out  by 
confused  ideas  of  Scotland,  and  particularly  the  bleak  mountainous  tracts  in  the  north. 
Eratosthenes,  indeed,  has  derived  from  Pytheas  a  knowledge  of  the  fiir  northern  limit  of 
Thule,  and  of  its  appendant  islands,  stretching  towards  the  Arctic  sea ;  but,  as  the  proud 
scepticism  of  Strabo  rejected  this  statement,  he  was  thrown  back  upon  the  more  imperfect 
inl>  Tnation  afforded  by  the  merchants  of  Marseilles. 

The  eastern  shores  of  northern  Europe  occasioned  still  more  embarrassment  to  the 
Greeks.  They  had,  in  general,  the  idea  of  this  continent  having  the  sea  for  its  boundary ; 
but  this  seems  mainly  to  rest  upon  the  general  vague  belief  of  a  circumambient  ocean,  and 
an  understanding  that  Germany  had  on  the  nortii  a  maritime  boundary,  indicated  by  the 
amber  brought  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  Here,  too,  Pytheas,  either  by  personal 
investigation  or  by  careful  inquiry,  had  collected  some  particulars  which  if  Strabo  had  not 
disdained,  he  would  not  have  been  left  in  such  total  darkness.  After  proceeding  far  along 
the  German  coast,  that  navigator,  it  is  said,  came  to  a  great  gulf  (evidently  the  Baltic).  He 
found  Basilia,  a  very  large  island,  the  same  which  Pliny  calls  Baltia ;  being,  in  fact,  the 
peninsiila  of  Scandinavia,  whicli,  until  it  was  circumnavigated,  must  have  been  regarded  by 
navigators  as  an  island.  Then,  it  is  said,  he  came  to  the  Tanais,  which  appears,  no  doubt, 
a  very  st-i'tling  aisertion;  bu;  we  must  remember  that,  in  this  school,  the  circumambient 
ocean  was  supposed  to  have  a  coast  only  a  little  north  of  the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian,  und 


Part  I 

it  upon  it.  Both  he 
ich,  allowing  for  the 
akon  as  a  pretty  iait 
:tion  would  be  incon- 
'  to  which  Italy  must 
of  geographical  deli- 
Eill  its  consequences^ 
rmony. 

fm  by  these  geognu 
icuracy  in  comparing 
1.  Various  countries 
object  in  nature,  nor 

figure  is  formed  by 
to  form  the  western 
^eatest  of  all  these 
ich  is  that  looking  to 
srision  the  report  of 
r,  looked  to  the  west, 
th  of  tlie  Loire  and 
s  are,  we  shall  easily 
I'ed  their  information 
i  case  with  regard  to 
lavigated  its  exterior 
'itnesses  to  bring  in 
thers  made  by  early 
The  merchandise  of 
[Ihine  and  the  Seine, 
ium  of  Gaiil.  Hence 

by  Massilian  ideas, 
tritain  unless  by  the 
hrough  that  country. 
:onclusion,  that  Gaul 
Toneous  system  now 
ids  of  Tin,  in  which 
lade  to  approach  to 
falent  was  this  idea, 
the  wide  separation 

1  attached  to  Spain, 


loOK  I. 


^::^/nm 


ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


i^hich  the  base,  or 
coast,  after  passing 
towards  the  Bristol 
idercd  it  as  continu- 
nination.    leme,  or 

four  hundred  miles 
that  there  could  not 

miles  be  measured 
rienting,  it  will  not 
obably  made  out  by 
racts  in  the  north. 

northern  limit  of 

but,  as  the  proud 
he  more  imperfect 

wrrassraent  to  the 
a  for  its  boundary ; 
imbient  ocean,  and 

indicated  by  the 
either  by  personal 
1  if  Strabo  had  not 
K:eeding  far  along 
ly  the  Baltic).  He 
>eing,  in  fact,  the 
!  been  regarded  by 
appears,  no  doubt, 
he  circumambient 

the  Caspian,  and 


to  communicate  with  these  seas  or  gulfs  (as  they  were  supposed  to  be)  bjr  narrow  straits, 
one  of  which  was  the  Tanais,  and  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  great  Baltic  rivers  might  very 
easily  be  unagined  to  form  the  termination  of  this  strait. 

HcBSBcrr.  2.— Asia.    {Fig.  7.  page  44.) 

The  limits  assigned  to  Asia,  already  too  small,  were  contracted  by  the  geographers  of  the 
Alexandrian  school,  notwithstanding  the  additional  sources  of  information  which  they  pos- 
sessed respecting  that  continent  This  error  arose  partly  from  their  theory  of  a  surround- 
ing ocean,  and  partly  from  their  neglect  of  the  important  information  obtained  by  Herodo- 
tus respecting  the  countries  along  the  heads  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian.  The  expedition 
of  Alexander,  indeed,  and  the  embassy  of  Megasthenes,  made  them  acquainted  with  the 
Ganges,  rolling  eastward  through  the  fine  plain  of  Upper  Hmdostan.  Seeing  it  pursue 
this  direction  to  the  utmost  limit  of  the  then  knowa  world,  they  were  led  to  conclude  that 
its  course  continued  eastward,  and  that  it  fell  into  the  eastern  ocean,  which  formed,  on  that 
aide,  the  boundary  of  the  continent.  Connecting  this  with  the  Caspian,  the  only  northern 
Asiatic  sea  known  to  them,  tiiey  drew  a  line  from  one  to  the  other,  by  which  they  excluded 
nearly  two-thirds  the  extent  of  Asia ;  the  Birman  empire,  China,  the  greater  part  of  Tar- 
tary,  and  the  whole  of  Siberia.  On  the  shore  of  the  eastern  ocean  was  placed  Thins;,  evi- 
dently known  only  by  vague  rumour,  and  which  they  fixed  at  the  extremity  of  the  line 
measuring  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe.  What  may  be  the  import  of  this  mysterious 
name,  ana  whether  it  be  the  capital  of  Siam  or  of  China,  is  a  discussion  which  will  be  bet- 
ter reserved  until  we  come  to  the  more  precise  notices  of  Ptolemy.  One  other  grand 
feature  was  known  to  this  school ;  the  cape  of  the  Coliaci  or  Cape  Comorin ;  but  conceiving 
the  coast  of  Coromandel  to  follow  the  Ime  of  the  Ganges,  and,  conseouently,  to  verge  to- 
wards the  west,  they  made  it  several  degrees  more  easterly  than  even  Thinee. 

Asia  within  and  Asia  beyond  Taurus  were  made  the  grand  divisions  of  that  continent. 
That  great  mountain  chain  arising  m  Asia  Minor  was  supposed  to  be  prolonged  by  those 
of  the  Elburz,  of  Khorasan,  and  of  Hindoo  Coosh,  which,  m  fact,  there  is  much  reason  to 
believe,  may  form  a  chain  nowhere  wholly  interrupted.  Within  Taurus  were  all  the  fertile, 
populous,  and  splendid  kingdoms  and  countries  of  Asia ;  Syria,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Persia, 
Susiana,  Ionia,  Cilicia ;  beyond,  were  the  ruder  tracts  of  Scythia,  Bactria,  Sogdiana ;  and 
more  westerly,  the  Caucasian  territory,  and  the  part  of  Asia  Minor  situated  along  the  shore 
of  the  Black  Sea. 

SvBSBCT.  3. — Jifrica. 

In  regard  to  Africa,  the  knowledge  of  these  geographers,  though  accurate  in  some  re- 
spects, was  extremely  limited.  They  believed  its  boundary  to  be  the  sea ;  but  this  correct 
judgment  proceeded  rather  from  a  casual  coincidence  with  their  theory  of  an  encircling 
ocean,  than  from  any  actual  knowledge ;  since  Strabo  rejected  even  the  possibility  of  cir- 
cumnavigation. This  scepticism  was  founded  upon  the  hypothesis  of  an  uninhabitablb  tor- 
rid zone,  which  formed  an  essential  part  of  the  reigning  system  at  this  period.  It  is  a  be- 
lief manifestly  African,  founded  on  the  observation  of  those  vast  and  burning  deserts,  which 
extend  indefinitely  beyond  the  narrow  inhabited  stripe  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 
TTie  Nile,  then,  being  still  considered  as  the  eastern  boundary,  Africa  became  a  sort  of 
right-angled  triangle,  of  which  the  two  smaller  sides  were  formed  by  that  river  and  the 
Mediterranean,  while  the  hypotenuse,  or  largest  side,  was  the  unexplored  shore.  It  was 
upon  the  Nile  tliat  Eratosthenes  measured  the  habitable  world  of  Africa ;  yet  he  does  not 
tnice  that  river  so  high  as  Herodotus,  his  details  reaching  only  between  three  and  four 
hundred  miles  above  Meroe.  In  these  details,  however,  he  is  very  accurate :  on  the  east- 
em  side,  he  represents  it  as  receiving  two  great  rivers,  liie  Astapus  and  the  Astaboras,  the 
former  of  which  flows  from  lakes  in  the  south,  and,  when  swelled  by  Uio  summer  rains, 
forms  almost  the  main  body  of  the  Nile.  He  describes  also  the  bend  which  the  river  makes 
in  its  passage  through  Nubia.  The  source,  being  imagmed  to  exist  in  regions  rendered  in- 
accessible by  extreme  heat,  could  not  be  considcied  aa  within  the  reach  of  discovery.  The 
idea,  however,  still  prevailed,  that  it  came  from  the  west,  and  Strabo  even  mentions  a  re- 
port, that  its  source  was  in  the  remote  region  of  Mauritania,  south  of  the  Atlas.  This  is 
the  only  statement  made  by  geographers  of  this  school,  which  can  be  considered  as  indi- 
cating any  idea  of  the  existence  of  the  Niger. 


\ 


.>;r>:T--    «- 


iA*i*"- 


CHAPTER  V. 

BOMAN  OEOGRAPHV, 


Thb  Roman  geographers  attamed  no  proficiency  in  the  mathematical  branch  of  the 
science.  M.  Gosselin  does  not  even  hesitate  to  assert,  that  they  remained  always  strangers 
to  its  very  first  elements.  They  made  no  attempt,  therefore,  to  combine  their  materials  into 
one  harmonious  system,  or  to  fix  their  positions  with  that  strict  accuracy,  which  astronomi- 


THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES. 


Fio.  7 


MrlX  '^-t'    -fe-i   .-^^'^ 


.       I 


II; 


'  )irm: 


1' 


'■;  '■■'• 


i)ooK  I. 


ROMAN  GEOGRAPin.— MELA. 


45 


cal  observation  alone  can  reach.  "Vet  no  nation  employed  greater  diligence  in  the  opera< 
tions  of  practical  survey.  This  was,  indeed,  absolutely  requisite,  with  a  view  to  that  in- 
cessant warfare  in  which  they  were  engaged ;  they  could  not  conquer  the  world  without 
oreviously  surveying  it  Their  geographical  researches  were,  however,  held  strictly  mx\h 
servient  to  this  ambitious  design. 

Itineraries   were  thus  the  only  fomi  in  which  the  results  of  Roman  investigation 
were  presented.    Vegetius  bforms  us  that  when  war  was  to  be  carried  into  any  country, 
the  first  care  was  to  procure  a  complete  set  of  routes,  and  place  them  in  the  hands  of  the 
general.    These  itineraries,  it  is  observed,  ought,  if  possible,  to  contain,  not  merely  the  inter- 
vals, in  paces  and  Roman  miles,  between  one  place  and  another,  but  the  quality  of  the  roads, 
the  surrounding  objects,  mountains  and  rivers,  delineated  with  the  utmost  possible  precision. 
They  were  not  only  to  be  noted,  but  painted,  that  the  commanders  mlfiht  not  know  merely, 
but  see  before  then:  eyes,  Uie  route  by  which  they  were  to  proceed.    The  Romans  became 
thus  the  surveyors  aa  well  as  the  conquerors  or  the  world ;  and  evenr  new  war  in  which 
they  engaged,  every  new  conquest  which  their  arms  achieved,  producea  a  fresh  accumula- 
tio:?  of  materials  for  the  use  of  the  geographer.    Even  after  a  countnr  was  subdued,  the 
necessity  of  accurate  survey  did  not  cease.    The  empire  was  long  held  in  a  state  of  mere 
military  occupation;  camps  formed  at  ^>oper  distances  were  connected  bjr  those  excellent 
and  durable  roods,  many  of  which  remu  :  to  this  day.    An  accurate  acquaintance  with  the 
position  and  intervals  of  these  camps,  and  the  nature  of  the  intervening  territory,  was  essen^ 
tial  to  the  maintenance  of  th'eir  dominion  over  the  vast  extent  of  their  conquered  countries. 
No  sooner,  therefore,  had  Julius  Ceesar  seated  himseU*  on  the  undisputed  throne  of  the  empire, 
'  than  he  caused  a  $enat{is  constdtum  to  be  passed  for  a  general  measurement  of  the  Rcinan 
^  world.    This  task,  it  is  said,  was  intrusted  to  "  the  most  prudent  men,  adorned  with  every 
endowment  of  philosophy."    The  east  was  assigned  to  Zenodoxus,  the  west  to  Thcodotus, 
[and  the  souUi  to  Polycletos.    la  the  course  of  twenty-five  years,  as  we  are  informed  by 
l^thicus,  die  whole  was  completed.    Julius  Ctesar,  however,  did  not  long  survive  the  com- 
Imencement  of  this  great  work,  which  the  civil  wars  probably  suspended.    It  was  apparently 
resumed  and  completed  under  the  reign  of  Augustus  and  the  ministry  of  his  son-in-law 
I  Agrippa,  to  whom  it  appears,  from  Pliny,  to  have  been  afterwards  ascribed.    The  exact  prin- 
ciples upon  which  this  grand  measurement  was  conducted  have  nowhere  been  stated.    The 
reform  of  the  calendar,  effected  by  Ceesar,  seems  to  point  out  that  some  elements  of  astro- 
nomy existeii  among  those  with  whom  he  consulted. 

Rome,  in  the  most  flourishing  era  of  its  literature,  produced  ttoo  eminent  geographers 
Mela  and  Pliny. 

Sect.  I. — Mela. 

The  personal  history  of  this  eminent  geoCTapher  is  a  subject  respecting  which 
scarcely  any  particulars  have  transpired.  From  me  allusions,  however,  in  his  own  writings, 
to  the  conquest  of  Britain  by  Claudius  as  a  recent  event,  made  in  those  flattering  terms 
which  only  a  contemporary  would  have  employed,  it  would  appear  that  his  work  was  written 
under  the  reign  of  that  inglorious  prince,  and  is,  consequently,  anterior  to  that  of  Pliny. 

Mela,  in  forming  his  system,  does  not  appear  to  have  possessed  those  extensive  mea^ 
surements  and  itineraries,  which  were  probably  deposited  in  the  imperial  archives.  Faith- 
ful, however,  to  the  object  of  his  treatise,  "de  situ  orbis,"  he  discovers  very  considerable 
anxiety  to  determine  the  position  of  the  globe,  and  trace  with  accuracy  its  general  outlines. 
He  adopts  the  general  principles  of  the  school  of  Eratosthenes,  incorporating  into  it  the  new 
features  which  had  been  aro)rded  by  Roman  conquest  He  does  not  appear,  however,  to 
have  comprehended  their  idea  of  the  globular  form  of  die  earth,  nor  is  he  very  perspicuous 
in  any  thing  that  he  says  upon  that  subject  He  begins — "  All  tliat,  whatever  it  is,  to  which 
we  give  the  name  of  the  world  and  heaven,  is  one  uiuig,  and  in  one  circuit  embraces  itself 
and  all  things ;"  va-jue  and  pompous  expressions,  to  which  no  determmate  idea  can  be 
attached.  We  find  hun,  however,  adoptmg  in  its  fullest  extent  the  belief  of  a  circumam* 
bient  ocean :  and  when  he  speaks  of  "  the  figh  earth  in  this  middle  part  of  it,"  and  describes 
the  sea  as  going  under  and  washing  round  it,  we  are  led  to  believe,  that  he  viewed  the  earth 
as  a  sort  of  cone,  or  as  a  hi^h  mountain  raised  by  its  elevation  above  the  abyss  of  waters. 
Having  made  a  vague  division  of  the  world  into  east,  west,  and  north,  he  distributed  it  mto 
five  zones,  two  temperate,  one  torrid,  and  two  frigid.    Only  the  first  two  'vere  habitshle; 


A        EUROPA. 
.  MuailA 
..  Roma 

3.  Athena 

4.  ByiaoUum 

RlVtT9* 

a  Rbenut 
b  BonrathaoM 
e  Tamil 

ASIA 
I.  Diowuiiu 


RrfermentotkeMapoftht  Worid  according  to  EratoMhene*, 


.  Amimi 
JSiBopa 
4.  Epbetui 

S-fe"" 

0.  Thapneui 


is.  Palala 
16.  Palif 


'alibothra 


«  Ozuf 


Rivtn. 


9. 
10. 

n. 


lit; 


Babyhm 

Rhinoeohi-a 

/Elana 

.'inn  Inula 
Aradu*  Iniula 


b  Jazartet 
ft  Ph 


Phaiii 


d  EaphratM 
J  Tiirii 
f  Indus 
■  QaofM 


.   .,  AFRICA. 

I.  yxui 

9.  CartBato  , 

3.  Ptotomait     - 

4.  fjvninit 

5.  Serahiee 

6.  Alexandria 


iO.  BeraniM      .CJ.. 
1.  Sreoe         n.,, 
i9.  Meroa       ,■;.#' 
3.  ^:oi^«.i,  <V;^. 


im 
Aninoe 


JliMr* 


gNOni 
AaUpaa 
e  AftUMii. 


mSTORV  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 

Ftg.  8.-BY8TEM  OF  MELA. 


Pabi 


and  that  on  the  rauth  was  inaccessible  to  man,  on  account  of  the  torrid  regions  intervening. 
According  to  this  system,  however,  there  was  on  that  side  another  earth,  iimabitcd  by  people, 
whom  he  calls  Antichthonea,  from  their  opposite  position  witli  respect  to  that  part  which  we 
inhabit.  The  form  and  boundaries  of  the  known  and  habitable  earth  are  thus  delineated : — 
The  Mediterranean,  with  its  branches  of  the  Straits,  the  Euxine,  and  the  Palus  Moeotis ;  it« 
great  tributaries,  the  Nile  and  the  Tanais ; — ^these  combine,  in  his  conception,  to  form  the 
^rand  line  by  which  the  universe  is  divided.  The  Mediterranean  itself  separates  Europo 
from  Africa ;  and  these  continents  are  bounded  on  the  east,  tJie  former  by  the  Tanais,  the- 
latter  by  the  Nile ;  all  beyond  or  to  th?  east  of  these  limits  was  Asia.    (tig.  8.) 

In  drawing  the  outline  of  Asia,  Mela  adheres  very  strictly  to  his  Alexandrian  models. 
He  describes  it  as  bounded  by  an  ocean  on  every  side  except  Uie  western,  where  it  confines 
with  Africa  and  Europe.  It  presents,  he  says,  a  huge  and  perpetual  front  to  the  eastern 
ocean,  i*^  shores  being  occupied  by  the  three  fiirthest  known  nations,  the  Indians  on  the 
south,  the  Seres  in  the  middle,  and  the  Scythians  on  the  north ;  but  the  territory  of  the 
Indians  and  Scythians  is  rendered  in  a  great  measure  uninhabitable  by  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold.  The  limited  extent  of  his  accurate  information,  however,  is  apparent  from  tlie 
representation  he  gives  of  this  ocean,  as  flowing  directly  north  from  the  pomt  of  Colis  (Cape 
Comorin),  the  Ganges  flowing  into  it,  and  the  Scythians  occupying  its  shores  as  far  as  "  tlio 
Caspian  Bay."  He  even  inclines  to  credit  the  report  of  an  Induui  vessel  having  been  driven 
round  by  stress  of  weather  to  the  coast  of  Germany.  Thus  he  gave  to  Asia  the  same  trun- 
cated form  which  it  had  received  from  the  authors  whom  he  followed ;  but  he  certainly  ren- 
dered the  dimensions  of  its  eastern  shore  more  ample,  when  he  made  it  to  consist,  not  of  India 
only,  but  also  of  Serica  and  part  of  Scythia.  With  regard  to  the  Routhem  shores  of  Asia, 
they  were  known  with  sufficient  accuracy,  ever  since  the  expedition  of  Alexander,  and  tlie 
voyage  of  Nearchus.  He  calls  the  Indian  ocean  the  Red  Sea,  and  recognises  the  Red  Sea 
of  modem  geographers  only  under  the  name  of  the  Arabian  gulf;  but  this  is  plainly  a  mi'tt 
nominal  dinerence. 


i#'- 


Pam 


Book  I. 


ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY.— MELA. 


47 


egions  intervening. 
lUiabited  by  people, 
that  part  which  we 
lius  delineated : — 
'alus  Moeotis ;  ita 
cption,  to  form  tho 
f  separates  Europe 
by  the  Tanais,  tho 

Pig-  8-) 
exandrian  models. 

.  where  it  conHnes 

ont  to  the  eastern 

le  Indians  on  the 

le  territory  of  the 

e  extremes  of  heat 

apparent  from  the 

omtofColi9(Cape 

ores  as  far  as  "  the 

mving  been  driven 

,sia  the  same  truiv 

t  he  certainly  ren- 

lonsist^  not  of  India 

fim  shores  of  Asia, 

Alexander,  and  tlie 

:nises  the  Red  Sea 

is  plainly  a  mtrc 


Europe,  as  described  by  Mela,  extends  from  tho  Tanais  to  Cadiz,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  its  eastern  river-limit,"  is  bounded  every  where  by  seas  and  oceans.  Its  leading  feature 
is  tho  Moditorranoan,  joined  to  the  Euxme  and  tho  Palus  MoBotis,  which  are  considered 
only  as  prolongations  of  that  sea ;  while  t!;e  /Egean,  the  Ionian,  and  the  Adriatic  seat, 
form  its  three  great  gulfs.  The  western  part  he  divides  into  tho  Tuscan  and  the  Libyan 
seas.  His  delineation  of  the  exterior  coasts  t  !cs  a  great  advance  of  knowledge.  He 
assigns  to  Spain  a  northern,  and  to  France  a  \*efitem  coast  of  great  extent,  and  adds  that 
the  Pyrenees,  after  separating  France  from  Swiin,  enter  the  latter  country  ond  penetrate  to 
its  extremity,  when  tlw  y  face  the  Atlantic.  Here  the  whole  chain  of  the  Cantabrian  mounp 
tarns  is  considered,  by  no  very  strained  meaning,  as  Pyrenean.  In  treating  of  these  outer 
shores  of  Europe,  and  the  "huge  and  infinite  sea"  on  which  they  border,  Mela  relates,  with 
exaggerating  wonder,  the  phenomena,  unknown  to  a  Mediterranean  people,  of  the  tides, 
"that  migl)*y  movement  by  which  the  sea  alternately  advances  and  returns  into  itself,  over^ 
flowing  the  lands,  driving  back  mighty  rivers,  and  sweeping  away  the  strongest  land 
animals."  His  speculations  on  the  cause  are  singular ;  either  the  world  is  a  great  animal 
whose  breathings  excite  in  its  breast  these  alternate  movements ;  or  it  contains  deep  caves, 
into  which  the  waters  are  alternately  absorbed  and  ejected.  He  does,  however,  mention 
the  theory  which  supposes  them  influenced  by  the  moon,  and  remarks  their  correspondence 
with  the  movements  of  that  body.  In  treating  of  the  Cossiterides,  or  Islands  of  Tin,  which 
include,  as  already  observed,  the  Scilly  Islands  and  Cornwall,  be  shows  considerable  per- 
plexity, only  observing  that  th  jy  are  "  in  Celticis,"  indicating  their  closo  alliance  with 
France.  In  regard  to  Britain  itself,  however,  he  confidently  undertakes  to  give  the  world 
better  information,  in  consequence  of  the  victories  of  "  the  greatest  of  princes"  over  nations 
hitherto  unsubdued  and  unknown ;  and  he  certainly  makes  a  great  progress  beyond  the  iro- 
.perfect  notions  of  Strabo.  He  descriiws  Britain  as  presenting  two  extensive  oblique  coasts, 
[one  looking  towards  France,  the  other  towards  Germany ;  the  two  forminff  a  great  angle 
'  nearly  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine.  The  coasts  then  began  to  bend  inwards,  and 
form  a  triangle  varied  with  numerous  points  and  angles,  and  somewhat  similar  in  form  to 
I  Bicily.  The  country  is  described  as  flat,  large,  and  firuitftil,  but  contrary  to  what  now  ob- 
!  tains,  more  favourable  to  the  support  of  flocks  than  of  men.  The  natives  were  imcultivated, 
\  warlike,  and  ignorant  of  wealth ;  they  were  accustomed  to  paint  their  bodies,  and  to  ride  io 
'  chariots.  Above  Britp.in  was  Juvema  (Ireland),  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  of  an  oblong  form, 
its  soil  scarcely  fit  for  the  production  of  grain,  but  its  pastures  so  luxuriant,  that  if  thn 
cattle  were  allowed  to  feed  for  more  than  a  short  period  of  the  day,  they  died  of  repletion. 
The  relative  dimensions  assigned  to  Britain  and  Ireland  would  seem  to  show  that  the  former 
was  kno\vn  only  in  its  southern  part,  yet  the  writer  discovers  himself  not  unacquainted  with 
the  Scottish  islands.  He  mentions  thirty  Orcades,  in  which  number  the  Shetland  Islands 
axe  probably  included. 

In  proceeding  to  the  east  and  north,  Germany  is  described  by  Mela  as  a  region  of  great 
extent,  intersected  by  many  rivers,  and  covered  m  a  great  measure  with  woods  and  marches. 
The  uihabitants  were  tall  and  remarkable  for  courage  and  strength,  continually  exercised 
in  war  and  hard  labour,  eating  raw  flesh,  and  clothed  partly  in  the  Inrk  of  trees.  Passing 
the  Vistula,  wo  enter  into  Sannatia,  extending  to  the  Danube,  rather  a  vague  limit,  but  the 
term  is  evidently  meant  to  comprehend  the  greater  part  of  modem  Poland.  The  people 
are  some  stages  in  barbarism  beyond  even  the  Germans,  having  no  cities  or  even  settled 
abodes,  and  carrying  their  fierceness  to  such  a  pitch,  that  hunting  and  binding  the  bow 
were  considered  the  best  accomplishments  of  their  females,  no  one  tf  whom,  the  writer 
even  asserts,  could  enter  the  matrinionial  state  till  she  had  killed  her  man.  On  this  shore 
he  represents  the  Codanus  Sinus,  a  great  bay  filled  with  large  and  small  islands ;  nowhere 

[•resenting  an  expanse  resembling  a  sea,  but  dispersed  and  scattered  in  narrow  channels 
ike  rivers ;  a  description  very  applicable  to  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic  and  the  Danish 
islands.  In  common  with  all  the  ancients,  however,  Mela  appears  to  have  been  ignorant  of 
any  thin,7  like  a  continent  on  the  other  side  of  this  great  bay. 

The  outline  of  Africa,  drawn  by  this  geographer,  sufficiently  shows  his  limited  range  of 
information.  This  continent  he  views  as  a  triangle,  the  greatest  length  of  which,  measured 
in  his  system  fi-om  the  Nile  to  the  Atlantic,  is  considerably  less  than  tiae  length  of  Europe. 
Of  this  triangle,  tho  Nile  forms  the  l»se ;  and  from  thence  the  southern  coast,  or  that  of 
the  Ethiopic  ocean,  continually  approximates  to  the  northern,  till,  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Her- 
aules,  it  tapers  almost  to  a  pomt  The  origin  and  course  of  the  Nile  are  to  Mela  a  subject 
of  much  speculation.  One  account,  esteemed  by  hun  as  tolerably  credible  {aliquA  credibile) 
identifies  it  with  a  grei^t  Ethiopian  river,  called  in  the  language  of  the  natives  Nuchul; 
which,  while  all  other  n;ers  tend  towards  the  ocean,  alone  flows  eastward  to  the  central 
region,  and  no  one  knows  ^here  it  terminates ;  a  striking  comcidence  with  the  actual  ob- 
servation of  the  modems,  letjiecting  that  celebrated  stream  denominated  the  Niger.  Else- 
where, however,  Mela  propounds  an  hypothesis  of  a  much  more  extraordinary  character 
He  says,  that  if  there  be  another  earth  (on  the  south  of  the  eouator),  and  Antichthonen 
opposite  to  us,  "it  might  not  be  departing  too  far  from  the  truth '  to  suppose  that  the  Nilt 


48 


fflSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


P*»T  L 


V  4 


anMO  in  that  o&rth,  and  reached  our  aide  of  the  flflobe  by  a  channel  beneath  tlie  ocean. 
Thui  it  would  naturally  swell  during  the  summer  solstice,  which,  on  the  side  of  the  world 
ftom  which  it  came,  waa  the  season  -^f  winter.  Bertius  and  Vincent,  however,  have  per« 
haps  dealt  too  hardly  with  the  author,  in  embodying  this  wild  conception  into  a  map,  and 

t giving  it  to  the  world  aa  the  system  of  Mela,  who  mentions  it  merely  as  a  conjecture.  Th« 
owor  part  of  tlie  coun>e  of  the  Nile  he  describes  with  less  accuracy  than  Btrabo,  the  two 
channels  of  the  Astapus  and  Astaboroa  being  made  branches  of  the  Nile  itself,  first  seporaU 
ing  and  then  re-uniting.  His  ignorance  respecting  oven  the  shores  of  the  Red  iSea  i» 
proved  by  tiieir  being  filled  wiUi  poetical  wonders;  the  pigmies  waging  their  ancient  wat 
with  the  cranes;  the  phccnix,  afler  a  jife  of  four  hundroa  years,  dying,  and  reviving  fh)in 
ita  ashos.  Proceeding  to  the  interior  and  remoter  shores  of  Ethiopia,  ne  finds  always  now 
wonders,  sphynxes,  birds  with  horns,  flying  horses.*  He  refera  to  the  voyages  of  Hanno  and 
of  EudoxuB,  to  whom  I  3  ascribes  a  variety  of  fables,  by  which  the  reputation  of  tliat  navi* 

Eitor  has  been  much  and  perhaps  umustly  tarnished ;  lastly,  he  comes  to  tlie  Fortunats 
lands,  of  which  the  soil  produces  all  tilings  spontaneously,  and  the  fountains  are  possessed 
of  miraculo"s  virtues.  In  short,  every  thing  that  Mela  says  of  Aflrica  beyond  the  mer* 
Mediterranean  coast  betrays  a  remarkable  ignorance  of  the  mysteries  of  that  continent 

Sect.  U.—PUm. 

Pliny,  the  most  learned  of  the  Roman  writers,  Avotes  two  books  of  his  extensive  work 
on  natural  history  to  a  system  of  geography.  He  appears  to  have  possessed  a  greater  store 
of  autliontic  materials  than  any  former  writer.  From  his  intimate  connexion  with  the 
imperial  family,  and  with  manv  of  the  most  eminent  commanders,  all  the  military  measure* 
ments,  as  well  as  the  general  survey  of  the  Roman  empire,  were  placed  at  his  disposaL 
He  has  mtroduced,  therefore,  a  multitude  of  itiiferasy  details,  which  are  generally  very 
accurate  and  valuable.  But  he  employs  no  astronomical  elements,  and  appeara  to  have 
taken  no  pains  to  construct  a  regular  system.  All  the  general  ideas  which  we  can  trace  in 
his  delineation  appear  to  be  founded  on  tlie  same  basis  witli  those  of  Mela. 

Pliny  begins  with  Europe,  which  he  considera  as  by  for  the  most  beautitlil  and  fVuitful  of 
the  three  quortere  of  the  globe ;  and  he  applauds  the  opinion  of  those  who  consider  it  not 
merely  as  a  third,  but  ua  a  half  of  the  whole  globe,  separated  fVom  the  other  half  b^  thj 
Tanais  and  the  Mediterranean.  This  capital  error,  however,  will  not  appear  so  surprising, 
when  we  consider  that  the  regions  here  compared  with  Europe  wete  Asia  terminated  by 
the  Ganges  and  the  Jaxartes,  and  Africa  extending  only  a  few  hundred  miles  inland  from 
the  Mediterranean.  Europe  had  been  computed  by  Agrippa  at  8440  miles  in  length,  by 
Polybius  at  only  2440 ;  which  last  dimension  is  nearly  correct  Pliny  discovera  a  clear 
conception  of  the  form  of  Spain,  drawmg  the  Pyrenees  not  from  south  to  north,  but  from 
south-east  to  north-wcBt,  and  observingthat  Spain, " where  it  begins fhun  them,  is  narrower 
than  France,  and  even  than  itself."  The  position  of  Britain  in  the  map  of  Europe  is  very 
fairly  given ;  though,  to  enumerate  Spain,  with  France  and  Germany,  among  the  countries 
to  which  it  is  opposite,  partakes  too  much  of  antiquated  theories.  He  states  the  belief  of 
Agrippa  that  Britain  was  eight  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  three  hundred  in  breadth ;  Ire- 
land the  same  in  breadth,  but  shorter  by  two  hundr^  miles;  which  is  a  tolerable  estimate, 
the  last  particular  excepted.  His  disposal  of  the  islands  around  Britain  is  not  a  little  con- 
fused.  He  mentions  the  Orkneys,  seven  iEmode,  and  thirty  Ebudoe,  but  witliout  showing 
any  precise  idea  of  how  thev  stand.  Not  only  the  Isle  of  Man,  but  that  of  Wight  also,  is 
pilaced  between  England  ana  Ireland.  He  conunita  also  a  remarkable  error  when  he  men- 
tions Cassiterim  or  Cattiterim,  where  tin  is  produced,  as  an  island  at  the  distance  of  six 
days*  sail  from  Britain.  To  the  remotest  pomt,  Thule,  he  assigns  the  attributes  of  a  region 
beneath  the  Arctic  circle,  having  only  one  day  and  one  night  in  the  year ;  and  only  a  day's 
sail  from  the  Cronium  or  Concrete  Sea.  Here,  also,  he  mentions  reports  of  other  islands, 
Scandia,  Bergos  (Bergen),  Nerigon,  which  have  intercourse  with  Thule.  These  features 
evidently  belong  to  the  coast  of  Norway. 

In  describing  the  north  of  Europe,  Plinv  begins  from  the  northern  shores  of  the  Eiudne, 
and  Palus  Mceotis.  The  latter  receives  tne  l^ais,  flowing  firom  the  Riphaean  Mountains, 
and  forming  the  boundary  of  Europe.  Beyond  that  celebrated  and  demi-mbulous  range,  he 
still  finds  die  Hyperboreans,  a  people  screened  from  every  noxious  blast,  leading  a  nappy 
life  exempt  from  dd  age,  sickness,  discord,  and  grief;  till  at  length,  satiated  with  felicity, 
they  throw  themselves  firom  a  rock  into  the  sea.  These  fables  are,  however,  qualified  with 
the  saving  clause,  "  if  we  are  to  believe  them,"  which  shows  that  Uie  faith  of  Plinv  was 
not  implicit  The  shores  of  the  ocean,  he  confesses,  are  "  marked  by  uncertainty."  On 
the  authority,  however,  of  Xenophon  Lampsacenus  and  of  Pytheas,  he  reports  Eteisilia  or 
BaJtia  as  an  island  of  immense  magnitude,  three  days'  journey  from  the  Scythian  coast 
Proceeding  westward,  he  comes  to  the  Cimbric  Chersonese,  and  ooposite  to  it  another  isIoikU 
Scandinavia,  of  unexplored  magnitude,  but  which  was  by  many  described  as  forming  quite 
•ootber  world.    Thus  Boltia  uid  ScaJuiinavia,  approached  fhnn  difierent  points,  are  oon< 


g| 


'  »*"'  I"  ■  ^.•"^-"win^ 


oneath  tlie  ocoan. 
)  Bido  of  the  world 
lowevor,  have  per* 
on  into  a  map,  and 
a  conjccturo.  The 
an  Htrabo,  the  two 
itself,  finit  geparat- 
of  the  Red  Sea  ir 
I  their  ancient  wai 
and  reviving  fVom 
3  finds  always  now 
ages  of  Ilanno  and 
tation  of  tliat  navi- 
B  to  the  Fortunate 
itains  are  possessed 
,  beyond  the  mer« 
that  continent 


his  extensive  work 
ised  a  greater  store 
onnexion  with  the 
3  military  meosure- 
!ed  at  hia  disposal 
ire  generally  very 
d  appears  to  have 
ich  we  can  trace  in 
la. 

tiful  and  fhiitful  of 
who  consider  it  not 
)  other  half  bv  UiJ 
ppear  so  surprising, 
^ia  terminated  by 
miles  inland  from 
niles  in  length,  by 
f  discovers  a  clear 
to  north,  but  from 
them,  is  narrower 
of  Europe  is  very 
nong  the  countries 
tales  the  belief  of 
3d  in  breadth ;  Ire- 
tolerable  estimate, 
is  not  H  little  con* 
It  witliout  showing 
t  of  Wight  dso,  IS 
Tor  when  he  men- 
he  distance  of  six 
ributes  of  a  region 
and  only  a  day's 
a  of  other  islands, 
These  features 

res  of  the  Euxine, 
pheean  Mountains, 
mbulous  range,  he 
t,  leading  a  happy 
ated  with  felicity, 
vcr,  qualified  with 
hiUi  of  Plinv  was 
incertainty."  On 
reports  Basilia  or 
e  Scythian  coast 
s  it  another  islands 
as  forming  quite 
t  points,  are  con< 


Book  I. 


ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY— PEUTINOERIAN  TADri!. 


411 


sidored  as  two  distinct  insular  territories,  the  vast  extent  of  which,  however,  appears  to  be 
better  apprehended  by  F'iny  than  by  any  otlier  ancient  writer. 

Alia,  in  Pliny,  is  delinfcc'-id  according  to  the  general  ideas  of  Strabo  and  Mela.  Tho 
Caspian  or  Hyrcanian  Sea  is  a  ''ulf  opening  into  tho  northern  or  Scythian  ocean,  which  is 
m  communication  with  that  calltl  Seric  or  Oriental.  Pliny  seems  lo  have  fuller  informa- 
vion  of  the  grandeur  and  wealth  of  India  than  any  of  his  Dredecessom.  Its  inhabitants  and 
its  cities  were  innumerable,  and  it  was  reported  on  gooa  authority  to  form  a  third  of  tho 
whole  worlJ.  It  enjoyed  gentle  h  •'.es,  two  summers,  two  haivests,  one  before,  another 
after  the  pciodical  winds.  Blessed  witli  these  advantages,  this  happy  people  were  never 
known  to  emigrate  beyond  their  own  territories.  He  describes  the  marclics  of  Alexaiider, 
fVom  the  measurements  of  Diognetus  and  Baston,  and  whoro  these  fail,  ho  continues  them 
by  those  of  Seleucus,  and  by  the  embassy  of  Megasthenes,  as  fkr  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Ganges.  These  itineraries  seem  very  good.  In  treating  of  Taprobnne,  he  observes,  that 
it  had  been  believed  by  some  to  be  an  opiweite  continent  or  eirth,  but  that  the  inquiries  of 
Alexander  had  clearly  proved  it  to  be  an  island.  His  report,  however,  tliat  tho  country  of 
the  Seres  was  seen  mm  it,  inplies  a  most  inadequate  and  erroneous  con  ^option  of  the 
eastern  coasts  of  Asia. 

The  Africa  of  Pliny  does  not  differ  in  its  general  outline  from  that  of  Mela.    His  access, 

however,  to  the  archives  of  the  empire,  and  his  acauaintance  with  some  of  the  Roman 

generals,  enabled  him  to  give  now  details  as  to  some  or  its  most  interior  tracts.   The  region 

of  Atlas  had  been  first  penetrated  in  tho  reign  of  Claudius,  by  iEdemon,  an  adherent  of 

the  extinct  family  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  sought  refuge  there.    Suetonius  Paulinus,  with 

whom  Pliny  had  conversed,  found  it  of  immense  height,  covered  with  snow  even  in  summer; 

on  one  side  rising  fVom  the  sands,  rough,  horrid,  and  bare ;  on  tlie  other,  covered  with  thick 

I  groves  of  unknown  species  of  trees,  and  sparkling  with  fountains.    An  account  is  given  of 

a  voyage  along  the  western  coast  which  Polybius  had  fliade  by  order  of  Scipio.    Only  the 

names  of  the  places  and  tho  distances  are  given.     Tho  former  coincide  in  a  great  measure 

!;  with  those  of  Hanno;  and  if  Polybius  was  right  in  this  coincidence,  his  report  tends  much 

I  to  confirm  M.  Gosselin's  view  of  the  limited  extent  of  Hanno's  discoveries.    In  the  time  of 

f  Vespasian,  another  expedition,  under  Cornelius  Balbus,  penetrated  into  and  conquered  Gara* 

ma  (Germa),  and  C ,  damns  (Qadamis).    Tlie  Romans  here  beheld  with  surprise  houses  built 

of  salt  <uid  on  diggi.ig  to  a  small  depth,  water  sprung  out  of  the  sand.    A  number  of  names 

of  conquered  places  are  here  given,  which  it  is  difficult  to  recognize ;  for  it  seems  too  hasty 

to  identify  Boin  with  Bomou. 

A  theory  of  the  course  of  the  Niger  was  formed  by  Pliny  fi-om  these  materials  with  con- 
siderable pains,  but  very  imperfect  success.  Its  source,  according  to  king  Juba,  existed  in 
Mauritania,  and  it  is  even  said  to  have  been  found  by  Suetonius  Paulinus  aflcr  a  few  days' 
march  to  the  south  of  the  Atlas.  The  Niger  springs  here  f^om  a  lake ;  but  soon,  indignant 
at  flowing  through  sandy  and  squalid  tracts,  it  passes  under  ground  for  several  days,  and 
emerges  mto  another  lake  of  Mauritania.  Afler  a  circuit  however,  of  some  extent  it  ^in 
disappears,  and  having  pursued  a  subterranean  course  of  twenty  days,  re-appears,  dividing 
Africa  from  Ethiopia.  At  last  i°  its  passage  through  Ethiopia  itself^  it  assumes  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Nile,  first  in  two  channels,  Astusapes  and  Astaboras,  enclosing  the  island  of 
Meroe,  and  afterwards  imiting  to  form  the  entire  and  proper  Nile.  This  wild  and  absurd 
detail  evidently  includes  the  course  of  several  rivers  belongmg  to  different  and  widelv  re- 
mote regions  of  Africa.  It  may  even  be  doubted,  if  any  part  oelongs  to  what  by  modems 
has  been  considered  tihe  Niger.  It  seems  very  probable,  however,  that  the  middle  part, 
which  divides  Africa  fh)m  Euiopia,  has  been  suggested  by  the  river  of  Bomou,  or  the  Yeou, 
as  it  has  been  called  by  our  recent  discoverers.  ^. ,  ^ 

Sect.  Ul,—Itinerariet. — Peutingerian  Table. 

Of  the  itineraries  composed  by  the  masters  of  the  world,  and  employed  by;  them  as  au 
instrument  in  its  conquest,  some  fragments  yet  remain.  The  most  m  jmorable  is  that  which 
bears  the  name  of  Antoninus.  It  has  been  ascribed  by  some  to  Seve'us,  by  others  to  Theo- 
dosius,  and  in  fact  contains  many  particulars  which  could  not  have  been  written  prior  to  the 
era  of  the  last  sovereigns ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  there  were  successive  editions,  with 
such  amendments  and  alterations  as  time  suggested.  It  is  a  mere  skeleton  road-book,  with 
nothmg  but  the  names  of  places  and  their  distance  fh)m  each  other.  The  same  may  be 
said  of^the  Jerusalem  Itinerary,  exhibiting  in  great  detail  the  route  f^om  Bordeaux  to  that 
holy  city. 

The  Peutingerian  Table  (the  Italian  portion  of  which  is  exhibited  in  Pig.  9.  p.  50.)  is  a 
more  remarkable  monument  and  may  be  considered,  probably,  as  a  specimen  of  the  "  painted 
roads"  of  the  ancients.  It  forms  a  map  of  the  world,  constmcted,  however,  on  the  most 
novel  and  jjecuilar  principles.  Its  dimensions  being  twenty  feet  in  length  and  one  in  breadth, 
an  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  correctness  with  which  the  proportion  of  the  diflferent  parts  is 
exhibited.  The  high  road  which  traversed  the  Roman  empire  in  the  general  direction  of 
east  and  west  is  mue  the  first  meridian,  and  to  this  every  other  part  is  subjected.    The  ob- 

VoL.  1.  5  G 


THE  PEUTINOERIAN  TABLE. 


''!; 


i 


i-3'k  ,1 


h. 


,■  .....   \ 


Boor  I. 


SECOND  ALEXANDRIAN  SrHCOL 


Rl 


JecU  tilong  this  line  are  minutely  and  fliithfUlly  exhibited ;  of  thoao  lying  to  the  nortli  and 
•outh  of  it  only  aome  general  not'  ^  can  be  conveyed :  theao  are  all  roprowntad,  of  coune, 
most  onormouBly  extended  in  le'.i^th  and  reduced  m  breadth. 


4n 


CHAPTER  VI. 

lECOND  ALEXANDRIAN  RCHOO.'.. 


A  ■  - 


Alexandria  by  her  contributions  to  geography  supplied  to  a  great  extent  the  deficioncioR 
of  tho  Ilomans,  who,  amid  the  success  with  which  they  cultivated  history  and  literaturei 
never  attained  to  any  eminence  in  this  science.  That  capital,  even  in  its  subject  state, 
retained  still  the  iinpulse  received  from  tho  Ptolemies,  and  contmued  to  bo  tlie  second  in 
magnitude,  and  the  tbitimoet  in  learning,  of  all  in  the  empire.  In  the  second  century  there 
was  established,  here  and  at  Tyre,  a  geographical  school,  possessing  more  ample  materiala 
and  resources  tlian  any  that  had  hitherto  existed.  To  the  conquests  and  itineraries  of  Alex- 
ander were  now  added  those  of  Rome,  which,  extending  in  a  dilTcront  direction,  embraced 
many  countries  to  the  north  and  to  the  west,  Gaul,  Britain,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Maurita- 
nia, respecting  which  tlio  Greeks  had  possessed  only  confused  and  imperfect  notions.  Thua 
a  greater  portion  of  the  globe  than  at  any  former  period  was  now  united  under  one  govern- 
:  mont,  which,  by  a  standing  army  and  a  regular  system  of  laws,  preserved  the  whole  in  pcaca 
:  and  order.  The  terror  of  the  Roman  arms  enabled  travellers  to  penetrate  with  safety  even 
[  beyond  tho  limits  of  tho  empire.  Lastly,  the  unbounded  luxury  of  the  great  capitals,  and 
above  all  of  imperial  Rome,  enriched  with  the  spoils  of  the  globe,  fired  the  enterprise  of  the 
merchant,  who  fcHind  his  wav  into  those  remotest  markets  of  the  eastern  world,  tho  rich 
commodities  of  which  had  hitnerto  been  either  brought  by  caravans  or  found  at  intermediate 
"  ations. 

These  enlarged  materials  were  connected  together  by  a  much  more  accurate  and  scien- 
tific arrangement  than  hod  been  adopted  under  the  school  of  Eratosthenes.  The  method 
gested  by  Ilipparchus  of  subjecting  the  whole  of  geography  to  astronomical  principles, 
of  fixing  the  position  of  every  spot  upon  the  globe  according  to  its  longitude  and  lati* 
tide,  was  now  attempted  to  bo  carried  into  fiiU  eflect.  The  attempt,  however,  was  made  but 
fin  a  very  rude  manner,  and  upon  a  very  narrow  basis  of  observation.  Not  only,  therefore, 
(did  it  present  a  very  imperfect  edition  of  the  new  system,  but  involved  errors  which  caused 
fit  in  some  respects  to  retrograde  even  ttorc  the  rude  state  to  which  it  had  been  brought  by 
[the  former  school  of  Alexandria. 


(».  .* 


Sect.  I. — Marlnu$  of  TS/rt. 
No  Tyrian  system  of  geography  hap      ,ie  u,  .v-n  to  us,  notwithBtanding  the  commercial 
I  greatness  of  its  people  at  an  early  i>        ..    From  the  Hebrew  writers  we  have  accounts  per- 
haps of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  oistAnt  countries  with  which  the  Tyriana  held  intercourse; 


J{r/trrmt»  lo  tAe  PeiUingerian  Thih  (page  SO). 


NORTH  PART. 

.  Biiciii 

I.  Barilona 

I.  Aquineo 

1.  Brifantio 

>.  Jadera 

I.  Raf  adono 

'.  Babaria 

I.  Carnunto 

I.  Celeia 

I.  Vindobona 

.  Tanaliea 

':  Emona 

I.  Poltt 

I.  Bilvo 

i.  Parenlio 

L  Fonte-iumaia 

'.  Aquilala 

I.  Ovilia 

I.  Altino 

I.  Resino 

.  Tridents 

!.  Placcniia 

t.  Aqun  Popiilftnie 

1.  Florentia  Tiucoiui 

i.  Sena  Julia 

I.  Bitutiba 

'.  Verona 

I.  Mantua 

I.  Mutina 

I,  Coaa 

.  Adretio 

I.  Bnnonia 

I.  Oluiio 


. tiavenna 
■  Arinino 
.  GtaniKa 
.  Contum  eellia 
•  Aquu  luiri 


41.  Ancone 

43.  CBilro-(?i(.vo 

4'J.  Aqua,  VolKMrti 

44.  Biflpti' 
4.1.  Poleinia 

46.  Reato 

47.  C^aMello  Firmani 

48.  AJ  Sam.  Patium 

49.  k„ina 
.W.HoRii 

M.  Chaduins 
m  UileiiColooia 
Sa.  Aquli 
.M.  Inponta  diarito 
5.1.  Capta  Oolonit 
SH.  Ad  Medera 
57.  Dicleota  Col. 
S».  Thenaale 

50.  Bicca-reria 

liO.  Ad  Aqnai  Caiuii 


a  Danubiiit 
b  urinom 
c  Bavum 
d  Ania 
e  Frifido 
r  Lieenna 
K  .Afiiria 
h  Cleuaia 
i  Umatia 
J  Padm 
kPaala 
I  Aninio 
m  Ihx 


ftntn* 


;■.      .4,,fc 


0 

p 

r  Tibeiii 


i  Rubioum 
I  Nejurum 
u  Malana 
TMiao 
wFloiia 
xTania 
r  Narninum 
■  Aolo 

,   BOUTHPART. 

I.  Ad  Protoium 

9.  Pjr»ltio 

3.  Ad  Ptrlomm 

J.  Muna  Majoi 

O.jDdema 

6.  Tiuoburca 

7.  Ratnrio 
BieUi,  run. 
Balona 

,  Jftitlo 

1.  Inarona 

9.  Sinnhim 

3.  Naiona 

4.  Tanruoo 

9.  Ad  Malrieam 
8.Sintlduna 

0.  ^imiiritio 
i  Drmllft 
Aalraia 

LgaSmta' 

uanion 


u. 


XrmeaiUl 
Marta 


II.  Taranto 
J.  BrlndiaT 

33.  Gnalia 

34.  Nernloi 

35.  Balnno 
30.  Nuceria 

37.  Oplontii 

38.  BeneTento 

39.  Vanutie 
'    NaapoU 

Capua 
...  Caiiiaa 

43.  Srllaa 

44.  Aerai 

45.  Pretonlnm  Laocria- 

J       num 
B.  Biponio 
7.  JSaarnia 
18.  Teano  Bccdicino 
n.  BinuMia 

90.  Menturnli 
5I.Filiidia 
53.  Terraeina 

53.  Fenniinura 

54.  Febralaria 

f''\  Iitonum 
.  Coiilnio 
.  Harrobio 
.  Tre*  Tabarmi 
SB.  Canulb 
60.  pitia  eterni 

91.  Pinna 

W.  Caairo  nora 

63.  Pianeato 

64.  RnaiK 
«5.Hoatis 

1.  Ohaitacioe 
[.  Maxula 

BUiutClipaia 


70.  Oomt 

71.  Ad  Horrea 


eptemioua 
hifbro  Col. 


73.  ,., 

74.  Ad  Aquai 

75.  Taparura 

76.  Tacapo 

77.  Drepania 

78.  Lilirbao 

79.  Aquaa  Labodai 
cO.  Bttacuiia 

HI   AathnaMoiM 
''i.  Meaaana 


a  pannbiai 
b  Pnnum 
eSaram 
d  Margaro 


ivtri. 


apaam 
^anno 

Bilaram 


i  Coler 
k  ATaldluffl 
I  AiifldenoK 
mLarinnm 
n  Cloooria 
o  Bannum 
pCtiman 
qNarnum 
r  Arno 
aTiberia 

nVoitanraa 
vHhBem 


XJ   

rOttin 


53 


fflSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


ParfI. 


but  if  those  writers  are  supposed  to  have  borrowed  from  them  their  ideas  resptecting  the 
general  structure  and  boimdaries  of  the  earth,  geography  among  the  early  Phoenicians  will 
not  appear  to  have  passed  its  in&ncy.  As  Tyre,  however,  even  under  the  Roman  empire, 
remamed  still  the  seat  of  an  extensive  commerce,  some  of  her  intelligent  citizens  availed 
themselves  of  Uie  lights  afforded  by  the  learning  of  Alexandria,  and  applied  them  to  the 
illustration  of  those  subjects  on  which  the  greatness  and  prosperity  of  tlieir  city  depended. 
If  the  merchants  of  Tyre  had  nothing  left  of  that  proud  rule,  and  those  monopolizing  profits, 
which  enabled  them  to  rival  the  pomp  of  prmces,  their  commercial  relations  probably  ex- 
tended over  a  wider  surface  of  the  globe  than  ever.  They  seem  to  have  been  engaged 
in  that  vast  caravan  route  which  was  opened  from  Byzantium  across  the  whole  interior 
of  Asia,  conducting  the  merchants  by  a  journey  of  ten  or  eleven  months  to  the  Chinese 
frontier,  whence  uey  brought  silic,  the  staple  product  of  that  great  country.  Collect* 
ing  these  enlarged  materials,  Marmus,  a  native  of  Tyre,  sought  to  apply  to  them  the 
astronomical  principles  of  Hipparchus,  and  tiius  to  arrange  geography  into  a  new  and  more 
accurate  form.  * 

The  works  of  Marinus  have  perished,  and  are  known  to  us  only  by  the  references  and 
extracts  of  Ptolemy ;  but  these  ai-e  sufficient  to  show  that  his  system  partook  largely  of  the 
imperfection  of  a  nrst  effort.  Aware  that  the  degree  of  longitude  diminished  a?  it  receded 
from  the  equator,  he  yet  did  not  attempt  to  express  this  difference  by  representing  the  meri- 
dians with  curved  lines  approaching  each  ether,  although  this  had  been  already  shown  by 
Hipparchus  to  be  the  proper  course.  He  made  them  parallel  to  each  other,  not  at  the  equa- 
torial distance,  but  at  that  which  belonged  to  them  at  the  meridian  of  Rhodes.  Thus  in  the 
part  of  the  globe  which  came  into  his  immediate  observation  he  avoided  any  material  error; 
but  the  meridians,  adjusted  only  to  this  latitude,  became  too  near  each  other  as  they  were 
carried  southward,  and  too  distant  as  they  went  northward.  He  fell  into  a  still  more  per- 
nicious error  in  adopting  the  geodesic  measurement  of  Posidonius,  according  to  which  the 
circumference  of  tlie  earth  was  made  to  consist  of  only  180,000  stadia,  and  consequently  the 
degree  to  contain  only  500  stadia.  This  short  degree,  being  calculated  out  of  the  exagge- 
rated itmeraries  upon  which  the  maps  of  those  days  were  constructed,  enormously  amplified 
all  the  dimensions  of  the  globe.  Marinus  appears  also  to  have  admitted  with  excessive  cre- 
dulity the  extravagant  reports  of  the  merchants  who  had  penetrated  across  the  vast  moun- 
tain and  desert  tracts  in  the  east  of  Asia.  The  rugged  and  difficult  character  of  the  region, 
the  circuitous  route  which  they  were  firequently  obliged  to  follow,  and  the  obstacles  often 
encountered  from  the  rude  inhabitants,  caused  this  journey  to  occupy  a  much  longer  time 
than  those  performed  through  districts  better  known ;  and  time,  as  already  observed,  was  the 
element  out  of  which  the  ancients  were  chiefly  accustomed  to  calculate  space.  Ptolemy 
also  accuses  the  merchants  of  vain-glorious  propensities,  which  led  them  to  magnify  beyond 
truth  the  extent  and  vastness  of  the  regions  which  they  traversed.  Hence  the  great  line 
upon  which  Marinus  measured  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe,  instead  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-nine  degrees  given  to  it  in  tiie  measurement  of  Eratosthenes,  is  swelled  out  to 
two  hundred  and  twenty-five  degrees,  not  much  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  globe ;  whereas 
the  actual  length,  placing  Thinse  even  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  China,  is  not  much  more 
than  one  third.  The  exaggeration  is  enormous  chiefly  with  respect  to  the  country  beyond 
India,  which  is  made  to  comprise  one  hundred  degrees.  This  being  probably  a  new  route 
opened  through  the  Himaleh,  and  across  the  vast  deserts  of  Eaetem  Tartary,  had  been 
i^ected  by  all  the  sources  of  amplification  in  a  remarkable  degree. 

Sect.  IT. — Ptolemy. 
Ptolemy,  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  geographers  of  antiquity,  and  equally  illuetrious  as 
an  astronomer,  instituted  a  complete  reform  of  the  science,  and  undertook  to  purify  it  firom 
all  the  false  elements  with  which  it  had  been  alloyed.  The  principles,  in  fiict,  which  he 
adopted  were  strictly  correct ;  for  though,  as  an  astronomer,  his  theory  of  the  universe  waS 
substantially  fiilse,  yet,  in  admitting  the  globular  form  of  the  earth  and  the  revolution  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  he  admitted  all  the  elements  which  were  requisite  for  the  less  lofty  sphere 
of  earthly  delineation.  He  adopted  the  system  of  Hipparchus  in  its  utmost  extent,  subject- 
ig  every  spot  on  the  known  globe  to  astronomical  data,  and  constructing  his  tables,  never 
uccording  to  itinerary  distance,  but  acv-urding  to  the  supposed  latitude  and  longitude  of  each 
place.  He  saw  and  corrected  the  error  of  Marinus  in  making  the  degrees  of  longitude  equal 
under  every  lotitude.  Thus,  though  Ptolemy  did  not  actually  introduce  any  new  principle 
into  geography,  he  was  the  first  who  combined  together  all  the  sound  views  of  his  prede 
cessors,  and  formed  out  of  them  a  just  and  harmonious  delineation.  Yet  he  vfOB  far  froir. 
reaching  his  aim  of  forming  a  perfect  system.  He  still  retained  the  erroneous  measurement 
of  the  degree  formed  by  Posidonius,  and  of  which  Marinus  had  made  so  unfortunate  a  use. 
Hence,  while  he  felt  the  extravagance  of  the  distances  assigned  by  his  predecessor,  in  con- 
sequence  of  the  adoption  of  the  degree  of  500  stadia,  he  extricated  himself  but  partially 
from  the  same  error.  All  his  longitudes,  extended  along  the  lengUi  of  the  knovra  world, 
present  a  similar  accumulation  of  errors,  only  somewhat  diminii^ed  in  amount.    Thow) 


^-^ii«<«r^vuf  ."iv^'.  I '  "■■  "n 


pARrl. 

ieas  respecting;  the 
riy  Phoinicians  will 
the  Roman  empire, 
ent  citizens  availed 
ipplied  them  to  the 
their  city  depended, 
nonopolizing  profits, 
lations  probably  ex- 
have  been  engaged 
the  whole  interior 
nths  to  the  Chinese 
country.    Collect* 
apply  to  them  the 
into  a  new  and  more 

the  references  and 
Ttook  largely  of  the 
nished  ai^it  receded 
vesenting  the  meri- 
a  already  shown  by 
ler,  not  at  the  equa- 
)iodes.    Thus  in  the 

any  material  error; 
I  other  as  they  were 
to  a  still  more  per- 
ording  to  which  the 
ind  consequently  the 
.  out  of  the  exagge- 
normously  amplified 

with  excessive  cre- 
ross  the  vast  moun- 
racter  of  the  region, 

the  obstacles  often 
a  much  longer  time 
dy  observed,  was  the 
te  space.  Ptolemy 
1  to  magnify  beyond 
ence  the  great  line 
I  of  one  hundred  and 
!,  is  swelled  out  to 
the  globe;  whereas 
a,  is  not  much  more 

the  country  beyond 
robably  a  new  route 
1  Tartary,  had  been 


squally  illufitrious  as 
lok  to  purify  it  from 
!s,  in  fact,  which  he 
of  the  universe  waS 
he  revolution  of  the 
he  less  lofty  sphere 
nost  extent,  subject* 
ng  his  tables,  never 
d  longitude  of  each 
!3  of  longitude  equal 
)  any  new  principle 
views  of  his  prede 
^et  he  was  far  from 
neous  measurement 
a  unfortunate  a  use. 
predecessor,  in  coD' 
imself  but  partially 
f  the  known  world, 
in  amount.    Those 


BttoK  T. 


PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 


53 


errors,  beginning  from  Cape  St.  Vincent,  constantly  increase  till,  in  India,  they  amount  to 
upwards  of  forty  degrees.    M.  Gosselin  has  even  accused  him  of  an  error  which,  as  he  justly 
observes,  would  mark  a  strange  departure  from  every  principle,  and  a  neglect  of  what  ought 
to  be  the  first  care  of  a  geographer.    This  consists  in  giving  to  his  degrees  of  latituiw  a 
different  dimension  from  that  of  the  degrees  of  longitude,  and  retaining,  with  regard  to  the 
former,  Eratosthenes's  standard  of  700  stadia.     I  suspect,  however,  UaA  M.  Gosselin  has 
been  somewhat  precipitate  in  advancing  so  serious  a  charge  against  the  first  geographer  of 
antiquity.    The  ground  on  which  he  proceeds  seems  to  be,  that  while  Ptolemy  has  changed 
materially  all  the  longitudes  of  Eratosthenes,  the  latitudes  along  the  great  line  continue 
unaltered  and  generally  correct.    The  real  cause  of  this,  however,  appears  to  be,  that  the 
latitudes  of  Rhc^es  and  several  other  leading  points  of  this  great  line  were  determined  by 
observations  which,  though  not  perfect,  at  least  approached  to  the  truth,  while  the  longitudes 
were  calculated  merely  out  of  the  itineraries.    This  central  line,  therefore,  bisecting  the 
breadth  of  the  known  world,  was  fixed  upon  sound  data,  and  the  errors  could  accumulate 
only  to  the  north  and  south  of  it.    Tn  &ct,  we  shall  find  that  they  did  accumulate  as  rapidly 
as  in  the  longitudes,  when  the  sphere  of  observation  was  passed,  which  was  bounded  by 
Syenc  on  tlie  south,  Marseilles  and  Byzantium  on  the  north.    The  mouth  of  the  Seine  is 
placed  one  degree  too  far  north ;  that  of  the  Rhine,  nearly  two  degrees ;  that  of  the  Elbe, 
more  than  two  degrees ;  York  is  three  degrees ;  and  tiie  farther  accumulation  is  only  pre- 
vented by  that  singular  conformation  which  we  shall  find  given  by  Ptolemy  to  the  northern 
part  of  Britain.    To  the  south,  again,  Axum  is  placed  three  degrees  too  &r  south ;  Cape 
Aromata  (Guardafiii),  nearly  six  degrees ;  and  from  that  point  the  errors  continually  become 
greater.    Thus  it  appears,  that  as  soon  as  Ptolemy  quits  the  sphere  of  observation,  his  lati- 
tudes are  calculated  exactly  as  his  longitudes,  out  of  itineraries,  and  exhibit  the  same  accu- 
mulation of  errors. 
The  manuscripts  of  Ptolemy  are  clearly  shown  by  M.  Gosselin  to  have  reached  us 
£in  a  very  imperfect  state.    In  collating  with  care  the  different  editions,  that  learned  writer 
Miaa  found  a  greater  number  of  variations  than  in  those  of  almost  any  other  ancient  writer. 
iThese  variations  were  of  course  very  likely  to  occur  in  copying  cyphers  where  there  was 
f  no  connexion  of  sense  to  check  the  copyist.    The  manuscripts  and  the  maps  appear  to  have 
i  been  copied  by  different  hands,  holding  no  communication  with  each  other ;  and  accordingly 
I  these  two  parts  of  the  same  work  do  not,  in  many  instt^nces,  correspond.    Lastly,  the  work 
of  Ptolemy  appears,  for  several  centuries,  to  have  been  carried  about  as  a  guide  by  mariners 
and  travellers,  who,  wherever  they  found  any  feature  which  did  not  agree  with  their  obser- 
vations, altered  the  writing  or  the  map  accordingly.    This  process  appears  in  the  numerous 
variations  of  the  Latin  copies  with  regard  to  the  western  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  of 
the  Greek  with  regurd  to  the  eastern.    The  alterations  thus  made  would  often,  and  indeed, 
most  generally,  be  improvements;  but  the  great  discrepancies  which  they  introduced  into 
the  different  copies,  must  have  ^eatly  bewildered  the  public. 

In  delineating  the  geographical  system  of  Ptolemy,  we  can  only  consider  the  general 
outline,  which  is  pretty  much  the  same  in  all  the  editions.  Ptolemy  begins  with  rejecting 
the  theory  of  his  predecf  «rs,  from  Homer  to  Strabo  downwards,  whb  represent  the  whole 
earth  as  enclosed  by  a  circumambient  ocean.  Mercantile  caravans,  especially  in  the  east 
of  Asia,  hod  now  proceeded  considerably  beyond  the  line  of  coast  which,  according  to  the 
last  school,  had  marked  the  eastern  bounding  ocean.  They  had  passed  that  line  without 
reaching  the  distant  corresponding  one  by  which  t)'e  Pacific  and  Arctic  seas  were  actually 
drawn  around  this  vast  continent.  The  eastern  Atlantic,  and  the  Northern  Oceans  were, 
therefore,  effaced  fi-om  the  delineation  of  Asia,  and  an  mdefinite  expanse  of  terra  incognita 
(unknown  land)  was  substituted  as  the  boundary  of  the  world.  This  proceeding  must 
certainly  be  considered  as  more  precise  and  philosophical  than  the  gratuitous  theoretical 
one  for  which  it  was  substituted.  Men,  however,  seldom  know  exactly  where  to  stop: 
Ptolemy,  having  once  formed  the  idea  of  a  boundmg  terra  incognita,  extended  it  round 
nearly  the  entire  circuit  of  the  known  world.  All  the  reports  of  flie  circumnavigation  of 
Afirica  were  rejected;  that  continent  was  represented  as  stretchinfr  indefinitely  south,  and 
it  was  even  carried  round  to  join  the  east  of  Asia,  and  form  the  Erythrean  or  Indian  sea 
into  a  vast  basin.  Thus  the  whole  system  and  structure  of  these  two  continents  underwent, 
in  the  hands  of  Ptolemy,  a  complete  transmutation. 

Sobsect.  1.  Europe.  (Fig.  10.) 
In  regard  to  all  the  remoter  boundaries  of  Europe,  Ptolemy  displays  an  advancement 
in  knowledge,  trul^  wonderful,^considering  the  short  period  which  had  elapsed  since  the 
days  Oi  otiauc.  xhe  facts  which  we  have  stated  under  tlie  head  of  Roman  geography 
show  the  vast  additional  mass  of  information  derived  from  the  conquests  of  Ccesar,  and  from 
the  imperial  surveys.  This  having  been  incorporated  mto  the  writuigs  of  Mela  and  Pliny,  a 
century  before  the  a^e  of  Ptolemy,  would  easily,  through  these  and  other  channels,  reach 
his  knowledge.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  crude  delineation  of  the  exterior  coasts  cf 
Europe  under  the  Strabonic  system  should  have  been  materially  amended;   that  Spam 

5* 


M 


THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  PTOLEMY. 


Fia.  10 


T     'I 


w 


■"■•■■'•-■.T'TT'- 


Book  1. 


PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 


65 


ehouU  have  now  a  southern,  and  Gaul  a  western  coast;  and  that  the  Bay  of  Biscay  should 
appear  clearly  under  the  appellations  of  the  Cantabrian  Ocean  and  the  Aquitanian  Sea.  In 
regard  to  Britain,  also,  or,  at  least,  England,  a  great  reform  had  been  effected.  Its  coast, 
after  passing  the  promontory  of  Kent,  bends  mward  toward  the  estuary  of  the  Thames, 
called  hero  Tdumanus.  Still  more  decided,  on  the  opposite  side,  is  the  "  Sabrina  ettuarium" 
(U.(j  ifltuary  of  the  Severn),  a  very  appropriate  appellation  for  the  Bristol  Channel,  The 
pioje  Jtion  of  Wales,  and  its  entire  outline,  appears  then  drawn  in  a  very  unexceptionable 
manner.  With  reganl  to  Ireland,  Ptolemy  has  not  been  able  wholly  to  shako  off  the  errone- 
ous impressions  of  the  first  Alexandrian  school,  according  to  which  that  country  lay  to  the 
north  of  Britain.  He  makes  it  west,  indeed,  but  at  the  same  time  greatly  too  far  north,  its 
southern  coast  being  on  a  line  with  that  of  Lancashire,  or,  at  least,  with  the  north-western 
point  of  Wales.  The  conseiuence  is,  that  the  island  of  Mona  (Man)  is  placed  off  the  southp 
eastern  point  of  Ireland,  r,.t  fiir  from  Wexford.  Having  pointed  out  this  great  error,  we 
must  add,  that  the  whole  form  and  circuit  of  Ireland  is  given  with  a  correctness  which  ap. 
pears  very  surprising,  when  contrasted  with  so  great  a  mistake  as  to  its  relative  position. 
Again,  the  eastern  coast  of  England  proceeds  correctly  till  it  reaches  the  vicinity  of  York, 
when  an  aberration  takes  place  of  the  most  extraordinary  nature.  The  rest  of  the  English 
coast,  with  the  whole  of  that  of  Scotland,  instead  of  ranging  from  north  to  south,  runs  from 
west  to  east  The  eastern  coast  becomes  thus  the  southern,  the  western  becomes  the 
northern ;  and  the  coast  of  Germany  appears  opposite  and  parallel  throughout  its  whole 
extent.  The  most  northerly  extremity  of  Britain  is  thus  fixed  at  a  point  which  Mr.  Pmker- 
ton  supposed  to  be  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  but  which  seams  more  probably  to  be  some  point 
near  Port  Patrick,  which  might  be  supposed  the  most  westerly,  for  the  west  is  here  the 
north.  It  is  part  of  this  orrangement,  tliat  tlie  iEbudaj  (Hebrides)  are  placed  in  the  Deuca^ 
ledonian  Ocean,  which  washes  the  western  coast  of  Scotland,  made  herp  the  northern ;  and 
the  Orkneys  are  in  the  same  ocean;  for,  instead  of  following  the  line  of  the  main  land,  they 
jareplaced,  cs,  indeed,  they  ought  to  be,  north,  becoming  thus  at  right  angles  to  that  line, 

T^  ace- •'•  for  this  strangely  distorted  form  of  northern  Britain,  M.  Gosselin  has  formed 
la  very  ii.,;'  .  i  tiory.  The  southern  extremity  of  the  island  being  in  lat  62°  N„  and 
I  Thule,  the  '       extreinity,  in  63°,  Ptolemy  could  not,  within  these  limits,  find  space 

for  that  vai  ^  „a9  of  coast,  which  the  itineraries  repvesented  to  him  as  belongmg  to 
Britain,  To  make  out  this  space  he  had  no  alternative  but  to  give  to  the  northern  part  the 
form  it  actually  bears  in  his  maps,  and  under  which  the  latitude  is  augmented  only  by  the 
breadth  of  Scotland,  a  much  smaller  dimension  than  the  length.  The  question,  however,  is, 
by  what  circumstance  Ptolemy  was  checked  in  his  latitude  of  Thule,  and  why  he  should 
not  have  driven  it  out  to  the  north  as  far  as  his  itineraries  seemed  to  require.  We  at  one 
time  thouglit  it  possible  that  this  grand  boundary  point  might  have  been  fixed  by  some  rude 
observation  which  was  not  applied  to  the  mtermediate  points.  But  it  appears  very  improba- 
ble,  that  any  expedition  which  should  have  made  an  observation  of  latitude  at  Shetland, 
should  not  have  done  the  same  in  the  southern  and  much  more  accessible  parts  of  Britain. 
I  rather  incline  to  adopt  the  following  solution.  We  have  seen,  that,  in  the  ideas  of  the 
Roman  navigators,  Thule  was  in  a  great  measure  separated  from  Britain,  and  attached  to 
tlie  east  of  Germany,  or  rather  to  Scandinavia ;  whether  its  existence  was  made  known  to 
tliem  by  Scandinavian  navigators,  or  whether  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Norway  was  actually 
fixed  upon  by  them  instead  of  Shetland  for  this  most  northern  limit  of  the  earth.  This  idea, 
which  attached  Thule  to  Scandinavia,  appears  to  have  1)een  combined  in  Ptolemy's  mind 
with  that  of  Pytheas,  who  made  it  the  remotest  extremity  of  Britain.  Such  a  combination 
could  be  accomplished  only  by  stretching  Scotland  across  the  German  ocean  in  that  strange 
direction. 

The  details  of  Scotland,  if  we  pass  over  this  radical  error,  are  given  in  a  manner  much 
more  tolerable  than  cou'd  have  been  expected  in  a  country  unsubdued  by  the  Romans,  and 
with  their  imperfect  navig^ation,  Thule,  in  Ptolemy,  is  not  a  cluster  of  islands,  like  those 
of  Shetland,  but  one  large  island,  upwards  of  a  hundred  miles  in  length :  this  circumstance 
more  and  more  strengthens  the  suspicion  that  Norway,  to  a  considerable  extent,  entered 
hito  the  idea  attached  to  that  celebrated  name. 


EUROPA. 
1.  Cdrthago  Nova 
3.  Mawilia 

3.  Genua 

4.  Roma 
9.  Athens 

5.  Byzantium 

Rivet  t 

m  RljsnUS 

E  Ciietinuf 
e  Tanaii 
dRha 
t  Bsryithenet 

,  „  ^    ASIA, 


2.  Sinope 

3.  Amiiui 

4.  Iwii 
9.  jBlana 
0.  ZHaram 
7.  Miua 

Q.Twedoii 
10.  Babylon 

1,    %t!_: 

A..  i^lUlM 

13.  Dioacnriu 
13.  Gtiiara 
14.8uia 
19.  PetMpoUi 

16.  Baetra 

17.  Patala 
1&  PoliboUirt 


96.  Aipilhra 
37.  Tomara 
ss.  Binda 
Sn.  Daiooa 
30.  Sera 


itiD«r«. 


a  Euphratu 

bTigrii 

cOxus 


d  Polytimetiu 
Jaxartoa 


References  to  the  Map  of  the  World  a'-jrding  to  Ptolemy. 

10.  Raracura 

90.  Betynga 

91.  Batabo 
93.  Tacola 

33.  Saiiana 

34.  CaUgaia 
39.  Thins 


f  CEchardei 
(  Bautiaui 
pSenui 
i  Gangaa 
J  Indin 


9.  Cyrene 

6.  Alexandria 

7.  Heroopolii 

8.  Syone 

0.  Ptolomaia 

10.  Morne 

11.  Adolii 


Tavrohttna  Intula. 
a  Gange* 


Hivtrs 
a  BtBchir" 
b  Daratui 
LIBYA  VEL  AFRICA.  0  Nigir 
1.  Niftira  d  Gir 

9.  Oira.  e  Nilui 

3.  Caithaf  o  f  Aitapui 

4.  Phyciu  f  Aitabora* 


06 


fflSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  1. 


I'Biiii 


!!  ill 


:iiilili 


V'V: 


Under  the  Iieads  of  great  Germany  and  of  Sarmatia,  Ptolemy  has  given  all  the  knowledge 
he  had  acquired  of  the  north  and  east  of  Europe,  which  was  not  inconsiderable.  The  line 
uf  Uie  German  coast  is  very  veil  formed,  and  the  Amasius  or  Ems,  the  Visurgis  or  Weser, 
the  Albis  or  Elbe,  the  Vedrc.  or  Oder,  and  the  Visula  or  Vistula,  appear  in  regular  succes* 
eion,  and  almost  under  their  moder  names.  Jutland  appears  as  the  Cimbric  Chersonese, 
and  the  southern  coast  of  the  Boiuc  is  carried  on  very  correctly ;  but,  in  regard  to  Scandi- 
navia, he  fails  entirely.  Evidently  ignorant  that  the  Baltic  is  an  enclosed  gulf,  he  calls  it 
"  the  Sormatic  Ocean,"  and  places  in  it  ibur  islands.  Three  of  these,  close  to  the  Cimbrio 
Chorsonese,  are  clearly  recognised  in  the  islands  of  Denmark ;  but  the  sther^  uf  greater 
extent,  fertb<^r  to  the  east  and  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  is  probably  part  of  Swe> 
den,  and  pe.  .i^ps  Gothland  It  is  clear,  that  navigators  had  not  thc-c  rounded  Jatland,  and 
passed  through  the  Skagerrack  or  Cattegat,  otherwise  they  must  have  noticed  these  straits, 
and  the  great  extent  of  continent  opposite  the  Cimbric  ChersonePc;.  The  A^oecian  islands, 
however,  situated  off  the  northern  extremity  of  Jutland,  uiust  have  been  suggested  by  some 
part  of  the  Norwegian  coast,  as  there  are  no  islands  in  that  quarter.  The  more  northern 
part  of  the  Norwegian  coast  was  probably,  as  already  observed,  identified  with  Thule. 

The  coast  of  Sarmatia  is  described  by  Ptolemy  on  passing  the  Vistula,  and  he  traces  with 
accuracy  the  great  bend  which  it  takes  northward  to  the  gulf  of  Riga.  Pour  rivers  are 
given,  which  cannot  be  recognised  by  their  names,  but  which  M.  Gosselin  conceives  to  bo 
the  Pregel,  the  Niemen,  the  Windau,  and  thi  Dwina.  Beyond  this  he  places  "  the  end  of 
the  sea  of  the  known  land,"  and  immediately  commences  that  boandary  of  terra  incognita 
which  he  carries  around  the  whole  of  Asia. 

In  regard  to  the  south  of  European  Russia,  Ptolemy  recovers  muc!i  of  the  knowledge 
which  had  been  wholly  or  partially  lost  under  Strabo.  He  appears  indeed  to  have  gone  back 
in  a  great  measure  to  Herodotus,  whom  he  imitates  in  giving  most  unreasonable  extension 
to  the  Palus  Mteotis.  There  is  little  room  for  complaint  as  to  the  Tanais,  the  Borysthenes, 
and  the  other  great  rivers  which  fall  into  the  Euxine.  In  this  remote  end  wild  extremity 
of  Europe,  however,  he  has  found  a  place  for  certain  poetical  and  historical  Actions,  which 
experience  had  banished  from  better  known  quarters,  but  which  could  not  find  a  place  here 
with  any  propriety; — the  grove  of  Diana,  the  race-course  of  Achilles,  the  altars  of  Ccesar 
and  of  Alexander ;  neither  of  whom  ever  carried  their  arms  into  this  part  of  the  ancient 
Scythia. 

In  tracing  the  Mediterranean,  Ptolemy  improve.!  considerably  upon  the  labours  of  his  pre- 
decessors. Sicily,  in  particular,  is  much  better  constructed,  and  the  straits  of  Messina  are 
E laced  nearly  in  their  true  latitude.  He  still,  however,  merits  deep  reproach  for  the  utterly 
arbarous  form  which  he  has  given  to  Italy,  that  ruling  country,  which  must  of  all  others 
have  appeared  to  him  the  most  interesting,  and  for  which  he  must  have  possessed  the  most 
ample  materials.  Yet  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  a  slight  bend  at  its  extremity,  is  oriented 
almoGt  entirely  east  and  west,  having  the  Adriatic  for  its  nortlierr,  and  the  Tyrrhenian  for 
its  southern  boundary.  I  cannot  find  any  account  of  an  error  so  strange,  except  by  supposing 
that  Ptolemy  must  have  been  led  into  it  by  one  of  those  itinerary  maps  which,  like  the 
Peutingerian,  made  every  thing  subservient  to  the  direction  of  the  Roman  high  road,  and 
drew  it  in  a  straight  line  from  one  extremity  to  the  other.  It  is  easy  to  suppose  that  he 
might  not  comprehend  the  very  odd  principle  upon  which  this  map  was  constructed,  and 
might  conceive  that  being  made  with  regard  to  Italy,  a  country  so  near,  and  so  completely 
within  reach,  it  might  be  implicitly  relied  on.  This  suspicion  is  strengthened  when  we 
find,  after  passing  Dyrrachium,  the  port  of  embarkation  for  Greece,  this  beiug  the  direction 
of  the  great  road  of  the  empire,  that  the  coast  of  Italy  suddc-fiiy  resumes  its  just  form,  and 
the  peninsula  of  Campania  makes  even  too  abrupt  a  bend  to  the  south. 

SfiiSECT.  2. — Asia. 
In  regard  of  Asia  also,  important  discoveries  had  been  mode  since  the  time  of  Eratos 
thenes.  Immense  territories,  included  by  that  geographer  withui  the  domain  of  the 
ocean,  were  known  to  Ptolemy  ;j  occupied  by  the  wandering  hordes  of  Scythia,  or  by  the 
peaceful  and  industrious  nation  of  the  Seres  or  Chinese.  This  advantage  might  be  partly 
due  to  the  military  itineraries,  especially  that  of  Trajan  in  his  victorious  expedition  into 
Parthia.  The  grand  source,  however,  evidently  was  that  bold  spirit  of  commercial  enter- 
prise, to  which  an  impulse  was  given  by  the  vast  consumption  of  Rome,  when  the  wealth  o' 
tlie  world  centred  in  that  mighty  and  voluptuous  capital.  The  East  was  the  region  njainiy 
resorted  to  for  the  supply  of  Uie  boundless  wants  which  arose  in  that  artificial  and  luxuriouo 
state  of  society.  The  merchants  soon  learned  to  trace  routes,  both  by  land  and  sea,  much 
longer  and  more  adventurous  than  had  been  achieved  by  their  predecessors  at  any  forme; 
period.  Under  the  narrative  entitled  "the  Periplusof  the  Erythrean  Sea,"  wn  have  followed 
iho  maritime  career  by  which  the  merchants  of  Alexandria  were  led  to  the  coast  of  Mala- 
bar. Whether,  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  the  Greek  navigators  had  actually  proceeded  farther, 
it  may  be  difficult  to  say  with  certainty.  He  has  certainly,  however  obtained  a  considera 
ble  accession  of  knowledge  with  regard  to  this  eastern  extrciaity  of  the  known  world.    Ho 


f- 


:£ookI. 


PTOIJJMY— ASIA. 


57 


11  all  the  knowledge 
iiderable.     The  line 

Vifiurgifl  or  Weaer, 
ir  in  regular  succes* 
!!)imbric  Chersonese, 
in  regard  to  Scandi* 
)sed  gulf,  he  calls  it 
close  to  the  Cimbrio 
be  cther^  of  greater 
probably  part  of  Swe- 
ounded  Jutland,  and 
aoticed  these  straits, 
he  A^oecian  islands, 
n  suggested  by  some 

The  more  northern 
led  with  Thule. 
,,  and  he  traces  with 
a.  J^our  rivers  are 
selin  conceives  to  be 
i  places  "  the  end  of 
y  of  terra  incognita 

h  of  the  knowledge 
d  to  have  gone  back 
reasonable  extension 
lis,  the  Borysthenes, 
and  wild  extremity 
rical  Actions,  which 
not  find  a  place  here 
the  altars  of  Ciesar 
part  of  the  ancient 

lie  labours  of  his  pre- 
raits  of  Messina  are 
roach  for  the  utterly 
;h  must  of  all  others 

possessed  the  most 
ttremity,  is  oriented 
the  Tyrrhenian  for 
except  by  supposing 
ips  which,  like  the 
nan  high  road,  and 
to  suppose  that  he 
as  constructed,  and 

and  so  completely 

ngthened  when  we 

bei:ig  the  direction 

es  its  just  form,  and 


the  time  of  Eratoa 
the  domain  of  the 
Scythia,  or  by  the 
Bige  might  be  partly 
ous  expedition  into 
f  commercial  enter- 
when  the  wesdth  o* 
s  the  region  tiainiy 
ficial  and  luxuriouii 
land  and  sea,  much 
ssors  at  any  forme? 
"  wn  have  followed 


goes  far  heyord  ths  month  of  the  Ganges,  at  which  wo  have  observed  the  termination  of 
all  precise  ':-"'.vledge  in  the  author  of  the  Periplus.    After  deluieating  a  coast,  with  a 
cuccpssiou  I    To-ts  h.'^'ch  it  is  difficult  to  identify,  he  comes  to  a  erand  feature,  \yhich  he 
ciUs  "thn  Gflden  Chersonese,"  formed  by  three  great  estuaries  discharging  their  waters 
into  the  sea.    These  phenomena  are  actually  presented  by  the  mouths  of  the  Irrawaddy  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  Pegu.    This  is  followed  by  an  extensive  feature,  the  Magnus 
Sinus,  or  Great  Bay,  penetrating  far  inland,  and  receiving  some  considerable  rivers.    The 
gulf  of  Malacca  is  not  nearly  so  large  or  so  deep  as  this  Magnus  Sinus;  but  its  mouth 
[being  very  broad,  and  its  shores  very  wmding,  it  is  not  very  improbable  tha*;,  in  the  eyes  of 
./ancient  and  unskilful  navigators,  it  might  assume  this  exaggerated  form  and  dimension, 
'iv  Beyond  the  Magnus  Sinus  tiie  coast,  in  continuity  with  its  eastern  shore,  stretches  due 
south  to  the  farthest  known  extremity  of  the  world.    On  this  coast  the  leadmg  features  are 
Thinte,  a  great  interior  metropolis,  and  Cattigara,  its  sea-port  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Cotiaris. 
'This  coast,  it  should  seem,  can  only  be  that  of  Malacca  and  the  Isthmus  of  Kraw,  which 
,  ',.runs  exactly  in  the  direction  here  assigned  by  Ptolemy.    Gosselin  identifies  Thinte  with 
Tenaseerin ;  but  there  seems  more  reason  for  acceding  to  Dr.  Vmcent's  opinion  that  it  is 
i^Siani,   This  exposition,  which  is  supported  by  Vossius,  Gosselin,  and  Vincent,  appears  to  me 
fl'andoubtedly  preferable  to  tlie  more  general  one  supported  by  the  authority  of  d'AnvDle, 
^|which  makes  the  coast  of  the  Since  extend  along  the  gulf  of  Siam  and  the  sea  of  China. 
iSuch  a  line  would  involve  Ptolemy  in  ti).e  strange  and  incredible  blunder  of  making  a  coast 
|face  the  east  which  really  feceo  the  west    Sumatra,  indeed,  is  so  land-locked  that  it  might 
'^easily  enough  have  been  taken  for  a  part  of  the  continent,  and  have  been  called  the  Golden 
'Chersonese.    But  it  seems  inconceivable  how  the  straits  of  Malacca  and  of  Sunda,  so  im- 
ort-nt  and  so  critical  to  navigators,  and  by  one  or  tlie  other  of  which  they  musv  have 
.ed  the  sea  of  Chma,  could  have  been  overlooked.    On  this  supposition,  indeed,  the 
sts  are  swelled  very  far  beyond  their  due  dimensions ;  but  we  have  often  remarked  how 
norjiously  this  is  apt  to  be  the  case,  in  regard  to  routes,  and  above  all  coasts  which  are 
aversed  for  the  first  time,  and  by  inexperienced  navigators.    Ptolemy,  as  we  have  seen, 
ler  retrenching  the  eastern  itineraries  of  Marinus  one  half,  left  them  still  greatly  too  large ; 
nd  he  does  not  mention  any  similar  retrenchment  in  regard  to  the  coasts.    If,  on  the  odier 
fcand,  tliose  of  Ptolemy  extend  to  tlie  Chmese  sea  and  to  China,  then,  contrary  to  every 
incient  example,  he  must  have  immensely  underrated  the  extent  of  these  imperfectly  dis- 
covered tracts;  an  error  which  would  be  contrary  to  all  precedent: — this,  however,  does  not 
Umply  that  there  may  not,  within  this  line  of  positive  knowledge,  have  been  a  confused 
"blending  of  features  Uiat  lay  in  reality  beyond. 

The  mcreased  knowledge  of  Ptolemy  respecting  the  eastern  part  of  the  Asiatic  continent  was 
Schiefly  derived,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  fi:>.>m  the  great  caravan  which  proceeded  from 
IByzantium,  having  the  country  of  Serica  for  its  ultimate  destination.    This  caravan,  having 
Straversed  Asia  Minor,  crossed  the  Euphrates  at  Hierapolis,  and  journeyed  through  Medio, 
[by  way  of  Ecbatana  (Hamadan),  to  Hecatompylos  (Baumghaun),  tlie  capital  of  Parthia.    It 
[then  advanced  north  to  Hyrcania  (Horkan  or  Jorjan),  mence  south,  to  take  in  the  fine 
iprovuice  of  Aria  (Herat).    It  now  again  turned  north,  to  include  the  capital  of  Margiana 
%';  (Mem  Rood),  thence  due  east  to  Bactria  (Balk),  which  then  formed,  as  at  present,  the  main 
centre  of  the  commerce  of  interior  Asia.    The  caravan  now  quitted  the  eauy  and  level  tract 
'  through  which  its  route  had  hitherto  lei,  and  began  to  ascend  that  vast  and  rugged  mountain 
world  which  fills  the  eastern  interior  of  Asia.    After  occomplishing  the  steep  ascent  of  the 
Montes  Comedorum,  which  seems  to  be  the  chain  of  the  Beloor,  it  reached  a  station  called 
the  "  Stone  Tower,"  which  there  is  nothing  to  identify,  except  tiiat  the  direction  towards  it 
is  north-east,  and  it  may  be  either  Ladauk  or  Yarcund,  the  great  modem  emporium  of  this 
part  of  the  East.  From  the  Stone  Tower  to  the  frontier  of  ^rica,  Marinus,  on  the  authority 
of  the  merchants,  reported  a  journey  of  seven  months,  which  Ptolemy  considers  as  monstrous 
and  incredible,  though  he  admits  that  the  road  is  exposed  to  the  greatest  hardships  and  diffi- 
culties.   The  (;ueBtion,  what  is  the  country  described  by  Ptolemy  and  his  contemporaries  as 
Serica,  is  the  most  curious  in  the  ancient  geograpliy  of  Asii>.    The  earliest  modem  opinion 
identified  Serica  with  northem  China,  whfle  the  country  of  the  Sine  composed  the  southern 
part.    D'Anville,  however,  who  transported  the  Suioe  into  the  coast  of  Cambodia,  carried 
westward  also  the  Seres  into  the  country  of  the  Igours,  or  Eygurs,  including  in  their  terri- 
tory only  the  small  projecting  portion  of*^  the  Chinese  province  of  Shensee.     Mr.  Pinkerton 
places  it  still  fiirther  west,  in  Little  Eucharia.    M.  Gosselin,  followed  generally  by  the 
present  French  school,  contends  that  Sermagur,  in  the  north  of  Hindostan,  is  the  real  yera 
metropolis  of  Ptolemy.    I  can  see  no  reason  for  altering  the  grounds  on  which  I  concluded 
formerly,  and  endeavoured  to  prove,  Serica  to  be  simply  China.  (See  Edinburg  Phil.  Trans 
vol.  viii.    On  the  ancient  Geography  of  Central  and  Eastern  Asia.)    AH  tlie  natives  of  India 
whom  Ptole;-^  saw  assured  hun  that  the  Seres  lay  beyond  the  Sine,  and  China  is  beyond 
Siam.    The  Sinte  (Siam)  had  to  the  nortli  Scytliia  beyond  Imaus,  which  country  had  Serica 
on  the  east.     Serica  is  described  as  traversed  by  two  great  rivers,  flowing  eastward,  as  the 
Hoang-hi  and  Yang-tse-kiang  actually  do.    Serica,  according  to  Ptolemy's  graduation  was 
Vol.  I.  H 


^ 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«tI 


fourteen  hundred  milea  from  north  to  south,  and  eleven  hundred  from  eiust  to  west,  a  very 
clooe  approach  to  the  dimensions  of  modem  China.    Serica,  then,  in  form,  extent,  geogttf 

Shical  features,  and  relations  to  the  neighbo  g  countries,  exactly  corresponds  to  Uie  mo- 
em  China.  Not  less  conformable  is  the  repoi  l  given  of  the  national  character.  The  Seres 
are  represented  as  frugal,  quiet,  sedate,  and  tranquil  beyond  all  other  nations ;  as  of  all 
others  the  most  unwarlike,  and  the  most  avena  to  the  use  of  arms;  as  shunning,  with  the 
most  studious  care,  tlie  society  and  intercourse  of  strangers,  and  scarcely  ever  allowing 
them  to  enter  their  territory ;  as  carrying  on  trade  at  a  fixed  frontier  station  only,  and  under 
the  strictest  precautions ;  as  selling  their  o\fn  cor.imoditie8  without  receiving  the  comnxv 
dities  of  other  nations  in  return.  Silk  was  the  staple  of  Serica,  and  it  in  of  China.  With 
regard  to  M.  Gosselin'a  Indian  theory,  it  must  now,  wo  mippose,  be  on  all  hands  given  ap^ 
since  Thibet  and  Northern  India,  instead  of  being  connected  by  the  valley  of  the  Ganges, 
have  been  found  separated  by  the  unbroken  continuity  of  the  loftiest  ridge  of  the  Himmaleh, 
which  can  be  penetrated  only  by  a  few  mrat  perilous  imd  tremendous  passes. 

Respecting  Hindostan,  and  its  limitary  regions,  thei  details  given  by  Ptolemy  include  a 
great  mass  of  sound  information.  In  some  important  particulars,  mdeed,  his  map  is  decidedly 
superior  to  those  possessed  by  the  moderns,  previous  to  the  late  important  accessions  to  their 
knowledge.  He  describes  the  Granges  rising,  as  it  really  does,  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Himmaleh,  and  in  the  outer  limits  of  Hindostan,  while,  prior  to  the  mission  sent  by  CoL 
Colebrooke,  in  1808,  its  origin,  and  a  considerable  part  of  its  early  course,  were  supposed  to 
be  in  Little  Thibet  The  mission  to  Caubul  first  found  that  all  the  great  western  rivers 
emptied  themselves  bv  one  channel  into  the  Indus,  as  they  hod  been  represented  by  Ptolemy, 
while  modem  maps  had  exhibited  them  entering  by  two  great  separate  channels.  The 
same  mission  discovered  two  very  considerable  rivers,  westem  tributaries  of  the  Indus, 
the  Kaumeh  and  the  Suaut,  of  which  no  trace  had  yet  appeared  in  modern  delineation; 
but,  on  turning  to  Ptolemy,  we  find  them  accurately  traced  under  the  names  of  the  Coe  and 
the  Suaste.  Thus  we  find  him  delineating  with  success  geographical  features  in  the  most 
secret  recesf-:<s  of  Asia,  which  remained  unknown  till  lately  to  the  best-informed  of  modem 
geographers. 

The  site  of  Palibothra  is  one  main  point  in  which,  after  much  discussion,  geographers 
have  in  vain  endeavoured  to  form  ah  unc  iimous  opinion.  It  was  found  by  Megasthenes  the 
proud  capital  of  the  Gangetic  kingdom,  and  the  greatest  city  of  all  India.  Yet  modem 
geographers  have  not  been  able  to  agree  within  several  hundred  miles  upon  this  marked 
and  celebrated  position.  Arrian  states  that  it  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Ganges  with 
the  Erranaboas,  the  third  river  of  India  as  to  magnitude,  being  surpassed  only  by  the  Ganges 
and  the  Indus.  This  scale  of  magnitude  suggests  the  Jumna,  and  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Jumna  with  the  Ganges  actually  stands  Allahabad,  a  city  of  great  magnitude  and  high  anti- 
quity, which  is  even  revered  by  the  Hindoos  as  the  "  king  of  noly  cities."  Upon  this  ^neral 
idea  D'Anville  and,  after  him,  Robertson,  have  considerM  Allakalmd  as  occupying  uie  site 
of  Palibothra.  On  examination,  however,  this  is  found  in  contradiction  to  the  most  positive 
statements  of  Pliny  and  Ptolemy.  Pliny,  in  express  words,  states  Palibothra  to  be  425  miles 
distant  from  the  junction  of  these  two  rivers.  Ptolemy  makes  the  distance  somewhat  greater 
still.  In  considering  Allahabad,  then,  as  Palibothra,  we  abandon  altogether  the  authority  of 
these  two  great  geographers,  a  step  in  which  we  should  be  very  little  justified,  either  by  a 
reference  to  their  general  character,  or  by  our  knowledge  of  their  remarkable  accuracy  with 
regard  to  the  other  features  of  central  and  northern  India.  Their  account  of  Palibothra,  too, 
is  given  upon  the  authority  of  Greek  ambassadora,  who  actually  visited  that  capital.  The 
river  next  in  magnitude  is  the  Gogra  or  Sarayu.  But  the  junction  of  this  river  with  the 
Ganges  is  not  nearly  so  far  from  that  of  the  Jumna  as  tlie  above  statements  would  require. 
Besides,  Ptolemy  actually  gives  us  the  Sarabus  (Sarayu),  with  its  junction  in  the  due  relative 
position  to  that  of  the  Jumna,  but  Palibothra  much  fhrther  down.  Major  Rennel  has  made 
choice  of  Patna,  and  considers  the  junction  of  the  Soane,  at  present  thirty  miles  above  that 
city,  as  having  taken  place  formerly  by  a  different  and  nearer  channel.  This  theory  stands 
on  much  higher  ^und  than  the  other ;  yet  it  by  no  means  closely  corresponds  with  the 
ancient  data.  Plmy  mentions  both  the  Sonus  and  the  Erranaboas  as  quite  distinct  tributaries 
of  the  Ganges,  and  he  places  the  city  considerably  farther  down  than  Patna  is.  Ptolemy, 
also,  in  giving  the  junction  of  the  Soa  and  the  Ganges,  places  Palibothra  more  than  two 
hundred  miles  below.  Major  Rennell's  theory,  then,  brings  us  considerably  short  of  the 
point  at  which  this  great  capital  ought  to  be  situated. 

Another  point  which  appeared  to  me  to  unite  the  name  and  position  of  Paliboth  a  has 
been  mentioned  (Discoveriea  in  Atia,  v.  i.  p.  491.),  and,  without  being  inclined  very  confi- 
dently to  dogmatize,  it  still  appears  to  me  to  combine  better  the  different  rec[uisites  than 
any  other  yet  named.  The  name  of  BogUpoor  may  be  considered  identical  with  Paliboor; 
for,  in  transferring  Indian  terms  into  our  characters,  P  and  B,  O  and  A,  are  always  used 
promiscuously ;  and  the  termination  attached  by  the  Romans  is  evidently  according  to  their 
system  of  harmonizing  foreign  sounds  with  their  own.  A  name  is  of  little  consequence 
nrhcn  it  is  not  accompanied  with  a  corresponding  position ;  but  here  this  appears  to  coincide 


PaitI 

(1  fliurt  to  west,  a  very 
fonn,  extent,  ^gn- 
orrc  spends  to  Uie  mo 
haracter.  The  Seres 
er  nations ;  as  of  all 
18  shunning,  with  the 
aresly  ever  allowing 
tation  only,  and  under 
receiving  the  comnxv 
t  in  of  China.  With 
n  all  hands  given  op^ 
alley  of  the  Gangei^ 
dge  of  the  Himmaleh, 
jasses. 

)y  Ptolemy  include  a 
,  his  map  is  decidedly 
int  accessions  to  their 
3  southern  side  of  the 
!  mission  sent  by  CoL 
rse,  were  supposed  to 

great  western  rivers 
jresented  by  Ptolemy, 
urate  channels.  The 
utaries  of  the  Indus, 

modern  delineation; 
names  of  the  Coe  and 
I  features  in  the  most 
it-informed  of  modem 

scussion,  geographers 
1  by  Megasthenes  the 
India.  Yet  modem 
iles  upon  this  marked 
n  of  the  Ganges  with 
d  only  by  the  Cranges 
he  confluence  of  the 
nitude  and  high  anti- 
I."  Upon  this  general 
s  occupying  me  site 
1  to  the  most  positive 
othra  to  be  425  miles 
ico  somewhat  greater 
ther  the  authority  of 
justified,  either  by  a 
rkable  accuracy  with 
int  of  Palibothra,  too, 

that  capital.  The 
this  river  with  the 
nents  would  require. 
m  in  the  due  relative 
jor  Rennel  has  made 
rty  miles  above  that 

This  theory  stands 
orresponds  with  the 
e  distinct  tributaries 
Patna  is.  Ptolemy, 
othra  more  than  two 
derably  short  of  the 

on  of  Paliboth  a  has 
inclined  very  confi- 
;rent  rejiuisites  than 

itical  With  PaiiboOrJ 

A,  are  always  used 

y  according  to  their 

f  little  consequence 

appears  to  coincide 


Dock  L 


V  PTOLEMY— AFRlCA.«yr 


M 


nearly,  though  not  irideed  quite  exactly,  with  Pliny.    He  makes  Palibothra  430  miles  from 
the  junction  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and  600  from  Gange,  a  capital  situated  at  th  >  mouth 
of  the  former.  Boglipoor,  however,  instead  of  being  only  two-fifths  of  the  distance  between 
these  two  points,  is  about  exactly  midway.    The  space  lower  down  the  river,  being  less 
known,  might  more  readily  have  been  exaggerate)^,  and  Gange  being  on  the  moat  easterly 
branch  of  we  Ganges,  might  occupy  nearly  the  position  of  Islanoabaa.    The  place  assigned 
by  Ptolemy  is  exactly  midway,  and  therefore  coincides  strictly  with  the      iition  of  &jgli- 
poor.    Near  it  the  Ganges  receives  the  Cooay,  or  river  of  Nepaul,  oerta     /  not  the  third 
r  in  India  as  to  magnitude ;  but  the  ambassadors  might  not  have  very  precise  means  of  as- 
i  certaining  the  relative  dimensions  of  the  Indian  rivers.  There  is,  therefore,  a  great  weight 
[of  evidence,  as  to  name  and  position,  in  fiivour  of  the  theory  he:e  proposed.  I  must  confess, 
Ibowever,  that  I  find  no  description  of  any  monuments,  such  a'j  might  be  expected  to  mark 
the  ancient  site  of  so  splenaid  a  capital.    Indian  structures,  however,  are  not  usually 
composed  of  materials  sufiiciently  solid  to  resist  the  ravages  of  sixteen  centuries.    If  the 
^.^  local  data  could  at  all  have  allowed  us  to  fix  upon  the  thrice  ancient  and  holy  Benares,  its 
l^character  would  have  given  it  at  once  a  pre-eminence;  but  this  is  impossible.    Ra^ 
Ijemahl,  suggested,  is  not  very  distant  from  Boglipoor;  but  besides  losmg  the  coin- 
cidence of  name,  it  agrees  less  Uian  the  other  position  with  the  statements  both  of  Ptolemy 
nd  Pliny. 

'  V'    .      i.if  '•      SuBSECT.  3. — AJrica.  •■'•'••i     •    '  •     . 

In  the  delineation  of  Africa,  Ptolemy,  himself  an  African,  had  obvious  advantages.  Ac- 
cordingly his  delineations  of  several  of  the  most  interior  features  have,  as  in  the  case  of 
juthem  India,  proved  to  bo  more  accurate  than  those  givon  by  modern  geographers  down 
i  a  very  recent  period.  The  course  of  the  Nile,  up  to  its  highest  probable  source  in  the 
mtral  range  of  the  mountains  of  the  Moon,  has  been  justified  by  recent  inquiry,  in  oppo- 
tion  to  the  Portuguese  missionaries,  who  drew  it  from  the  mountains  and  lakes  of  Abyi^ 
tia.  This  original  fountain-head  has  not  yot  been  traced  by  the  daring  foot  of  the  modem 
iveller;  but  &e  description  given  to  Brown,  of  its  descent  from  the  great  mountain  chain 
>uth  of  Darfoor,  corresponds  very  exactly  with  Ptolemy,  making  allowance  only  for  his 
Erroneous  ^rraduation.  With  equal  fidelity,  he  delineates  the  Astaboros,  or  Atbara,  tlie  As- 
ipus,  or  river  of  Abyssinia,  successively  falling  iuto  it  from  the  east  He  has,  indeed,  made 
leroe  an  island,  enclosed  by  branches  of  the  Nile ;  but  modem  discovery  has  shown  it  to 
so  very  nearly  insular,  in  consequence  of  the  great  bend  taken  to  the  south,  tliat  the 
srror  cannot  be  considered  excessive. 
In  regard  to  central  Africa,  Ptolemy  had  not  equal  advantages,  on  account  of  the  dis- 
ice,  because  no  track  had  yet  been  formed  across  the  vast  ocean  of  desert  which  inter- 
rened.  It  appears  to  n  3  a  matter  of  some  difBculty  to  ascertain  the  precise  extent  of  hie 
lowledge  as  to  this  region.  M.  Gosselin  has  not  hesitated  to  assert,  that  he  knew  nothing 
)f  Africa  south  of  the  dosert,  and  that  all  the  features  which  he  has  assigned  to  interior 
"iibya,  and  the  course  of  the  Niger,  belong  in  fact  to  Fezzan  and  that  region  behind  the 
itlas  which  we  coll  the  B'led-el-Jereede,  or  Land  of  Dates.  This  opinion  certainly  receives 
luch  countenance  when  we  find  the  Garamantes  and  the  Garamantica  vallis  placed  on  the 
ime  line  with  the  Niger,  the  lake  of  Nigritia,  and  the  other  leadmg  central  features.  I 
till,  however,  think  it  probable  that  Ptolemy  might,  by  way  of  the  Upper  Nile,  have  ob- 
lined  intelligence  respecting  a  portion  at  least  of  these  vast  regions,  the  approach  to  which 
by  way  of  Dongola  and  Sennoar  was  not  obstructed  by  any  very  insurmountable  barriers. 
Besides  the  agreement  of  several  names,  as  Gano,  Tagana,  Panagra,  the  general  picture 
of  this  region  as  one  of  lakes,  rivers,  and  mountains,  agrees  much  better  with  tlie  interior 
than  with  the  arid  tract  between  Atlas  and  the  desert.  My  suspicion  therefore  is,  tliat,  Ptol- 
emy, unacquainted  with  any  route  across  the  great  desert,  was  not  aware  of  the  wide  in- 
terval between  the  features  to  the  north  and  those  to  the  south  of  it,  and  linked  them  to- 
gether in  his  description  as  contiguous  and  connected.  As  his  knowledge  of  central  Africa 
was  thus  obtained  only  in  a  westerly  course  Trom  the  Nile,  it  was  not  likely  to  extend  be- 
yond the  eastern  part  of  the  vast  breadth  between  the  Nile  and  the  ocean.  The  Mons  Man- 
dras,  his  most  western  feature,  with  a  great  river  flowing  from  it  into  the  lake  of  Nigritia, 
may  perhaps  be  recognized  in  the  mighty  range  of  the  mountains  of  Mandara  and  the  river 
Shary  flowing  from  them  into  the  lake  or  sea  of  the  Tchad.  About  this  quarter  I  should 
conceive  the  knowledge  which  reached  Ptolemy  by  inland  channels  probably  termuiated ; 
and  the  Atlantic  coast,  known  to  exist  by  the  voyages  of  Hanno,  Scylax,  and  Polybius,  was 
united  to  these  objects  by  a  merely  hypothetical  construction.  In  regard  to  the  course  of 
the  Niger,  it  is  difficult  to  say  very  precisely  whai  were  Ptolemy's  views,  and  we  only  per- 
ceive that  ho  made  it  "ui  inland  river,  neiilier  flowing  into  the  Atlantic,  nor  by  the  Nile  into 
the  Mediterranean. 

Respectiiig  this  greait  central  region  of  Africa,  however,  Ptolemy  had  obtained  some  no- 
tices from  which  he  might  have  estimated  its  magnitude.  Two  Roman  expeditions  had 
been  reported  to  him,  one  made  by  Scptimius  Flaccus  from  Garama,  and  Uie  other  bv  Juliiis 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaktI 


Matemus  from  the  coast  of  Cyreno.  The  former  in  three,  and  the  latter  in  four  moutha, 
had  penetrated  into  tlie  country  of  the  Ethiopians.  Ptolemy  expresses  himself  very  sceptic 
cal  as  to  the  possible  length  of  this  march ;  nevertheless  he  lays  down  the  country  of 
Agisymba  as  tnat  farthest  region  of  interior  Ethiopia  into  which  those  commanders  had 
penetrated.  Affisymba  we  suspect  to  be  Agodez ;  at  least  as  the  march  cconprehends  no 
rivers  or  lakes,  it  cannot  well  have  reached  the  line  of  the  Niffer.  Nevertheless  Ptolemy 
places  it  considerably  to  the  south  of  Nigritia ;  which  is  donbtlesa  in  &vour  of  the  limited 
exiflot  which  M.  Goeselin  allow.)  to  his  infonnation.  But  we  may  observe  that,  suppoiiing 
Ptolemy  to  have  formed,  in  the  manner  above  supposed,  his  idea  of  the  plain  of  the  Nu[er 
OS  little  removed  to  the  south  of  Fezzan,  he  must,  in  protracting  marches  of  three  or  max 
months,  necessarily  have  carried  the  lino  much  farther  to  the  south. 

In  regard  to  the  western  coasts  of  Africa,  Ptolemy's  delineation  is  not  very  luminous,  but 
appears  on  the  whole  to  flivour  M.  Oosselin's  views  respecting  the  extent  of  Hanno's  Toy* 
age  and  of  the  knowledge  of  the  ancients.  He  does  indeed  present  two  rivers,  the  Daradua 
and  the  Stachir,  flowing  on  a  line  with  the  plain  of  Nigritia.  But  I  have  no  idea  iiuX 
Ptolemy  could  have  any  precise  infonnation  reaching  across  the  entire  breadth  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  conceive,. as  already  hinted,  that  the  coast  and  interior  were  here  hypothetically 
united.  As  Ptolemy  placed  the  plain  of  the  Niger  much  too  tiir  north,  he  might  make 
these  rivers  on  a  line  with  it,  without  identifying  them  witli  the  Senegal  ana  Gambia. 
His  position  of  the  Fortunate  Islands  (Canaries)  opposite  to  their  mouths,  and  south  of 
Ceme,  is  not  at  all  in  &vour  of  the  opinion  wniCh  carries  these  last  features  deep  into  een- 
tral  Africa. 

On  the  eastern  coa-rt  of  Africa,  Ptolemy  adds  to  the  line  described  by  the  author  of  the 
Periplus  a  coast  extending  from  the  promontory  of  Rhaptum  to  that  of  Prasum.  At  thia 
pomt  the  coast,  hitherto  running  south-west,  changes  to  south-oast  No  details  are  given 
of  this  coast,  which  is  described  as  rough  and  difficult  to  navigate.  We  can  neither,  with 
M.  Goeselin,  limit  Prasum  to  Brava,  nor  with  Vincent  cany  it  so  far  as  Mosambique.  There 
is  no  part  of  the  coast  to  which  the  direction  assigned  to  it  belongs,  except  from  Quiloa 
to  Cape  Delgudo ;  and  if  Rhaptum  be  at  or  near  Quiloa,  the  latter,  allowing  for  some  exag- 
geration of  distance  on  a  coast  so  little  known,  will  be  the  promontory  Prasum.  Five  de- 
Sees  east  and  three  degrees  south  of  this  promontory  is  uie  island  of  Menuthioa.  The 
enouthesias  of  the  Periplus  appeared  pretty  plainly  to  be  one  of  the  smaller  islands  near 
the  African  coast,  and  probably  Zanzibar ;  but  none  of  these  could  be,  the  Menuthias  of 
Ptolemy,  which  is  manifestly  Madagascar. 

.fej--* ■'-'■;'^- ■■•-?« :■■■■* 


:•!■)■, 


«.^ 


BOOK    II 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


Under  the  "geography  of  the  middle  ages"  may  be  comprehended  that  of  the  Arabian  or 
Saracen  nations,  during  uie  period  when  science  was  successfully  cultivated  among  them; 
and  Uie  geographical  ideas  prevalent  in  Europe,  during  that  long  darkness  which  preceded 
the  revival  of  learning,  and  the  commencement  of  maritime  discovery. 


-/'\.    '::■'::'■:'[  -     chapter  i. 

ARABIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Arabs  were  for  some  time  the  most  learned  of  nations.  As  the  mantle  of  science 
dropped  from  the  sages  of  Greece  and  Rome,  it  fell  upon  this  wild  and  stranffe  race,  sprung 
from  the  bosom  of  bigotry  and  barbarism.  The  fiinatic  hordes,  who,  under  wa  guidance  of 
ttitsir  fidse  prophet,  rushed  from  the  heart  of  Arabia,  at  first  owned  no  law  but  the  Koran  and 
the  sword.  When  they  hod  conquered  half  the  world,  however,  and  founded  splendid  capi- 
tals cm  the  banks  of  the  Euphra.tes  and  the  Guadalquivir,  there  aioee  a  race  of  humane  and 
polished  princes,  who  studiously  sought  to  relumine  the  almost  extinguished  lamp  of  science. 
Almamoun  above  all,  in  the  ninth  century,  may  rank  among  the  most  distingui^ed  of  its 
pptrons  who  have  ever  filled  a  throne. 

Geography  among  the  A^^bian  states,  appeara  to  have  been  studied  with  greater  ardour 
than  at  any  other  place  or  country,  except  at  Alexandria-  It  employed  the  pens  of  severs! 
of  their  most  eminent  writers;  Masudi  and  Ebn  Haukal  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries; 
Abulfeda  and  Edrisi  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth ;  to  whom  may  be  added  the  respectable 
names  of  Ibn-al-Vardi,  Bakoui,  and  Scheabeddin.  Although  none  of  their  works  have  be- 
come  at  all  familiar  to  the  European  reader,  yet  learned  men  have  translated  portions,  whicb 


Pa»tI 

ttter  in  four  mouths, 
r  himself  very  acepti- 
lown  the  country  of 
[*86  commanders  had 
iirch  comprehfinds  no 
evertheless  Ptolemy 
fiivour  of  the  limited 
serve  that,  ■uppoainf 
)  plain  of  the  Niffer 
ches  of  three  or  &ax 

}t  very  lumlnoua,  but 
tent  of  Hanno'a  voy- 

0  rivers,  the  Daradu 

1  have  no  idea  itM 
0  breadth  of  the  coa< 
3  here  h}rpothetically 
)rth,  he  miffht  make 
ene^ral  and  Gambia, 
ouths,  and  south  of 
atures  deep  into  een- 

W  the  author  of  the 
of  Prasum.  At  this 
N^o  details  are  given 
N'e  can  neither,  with 
Mosambique.  There 
,  except  from  Quiloa 
>wing  for  some  exag- 
y  Pnsum.  Five  de- 
of  Menuthias.  The 
smaller  islands  near 
be,  the  Menuthias  of 


hat  of  the  Arabian  or 
ivated  among  them; 
ness  which  preceded 


'■!■'     ,'      I'-''-    , 


le  mantle  of  science 
strange  race,  sprung 
der  me  guidance  of 
w  but  the  Koran  and 
)unded  splendid  capi- 

race  of  humane  and 
shed  lamp  of  science. 

distinguished  of  ite 

with  greater  ardour 

the  nma  nf  onygml 

and  tenth  centuries; 
Ided  the  respectable 
heir  works  have  be< 
lated  portions,  whicb 


BookIL 


::^t  ARABIAN  GEvOGRAPHY. 


01 


not  onl^  convey  a  general  idea  of  their  system,  but  have  enabled  geographers  to  del'neatc 
some  dMtriots  of  the  globe  which  otherwise  would  have  long  remaineo  unknown. 

Sect.  I. — Qeneral  System.  Fig.  11. 
The  mathematical  sciences,  and  above  all  astronomy,  were  among  the  most  favourite  our- 
Buits  of  the  court  of  Bagdad ;  and  the  ample  resources  which  they  afforded  were  applied 
with  considerable  care  to  the  improvement  of  geography.  In  633,  the  caliph  Almamoun  en- 
deavoured, by  observations  of  latitude  made  at  Kufa,  and  at  a  point  in  the  desert  of  Pal- 
myra, to  measure  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  In  all  ttie  countries  subject  to  the  Maho- 
medan  arms,  numerous  observations  are  recorded  which,  though  not  always  rigorously  cor- 
rect, appear  at  least  to  have  been  real,  and  not  merely  calculated  out  of  itineraries,  like  those 
of  the  Alexandrian  geographers.  The  tables  of  Abulfeda,  of  Ulug  Beg,  ai^d  of  Nazir  Ed- 
din,  edited  by  Gnevms,  anu  republiuiicd  by  Hudson,  afford  materius  that  are  still  useful  for 
the  construction  of  the  maps  of  interior  Asia. 

,«V>  It-MAP  OP  THE  WORLD  TAKEN  FROM  AN  ARABIAN  MANUSCRIPT  OF  AL  EI>RI8I,  IN  THE 

BODLEIAN  LIBRARY. 


,  HiHintf'.ni  of  the 
Moon  and  Bouiaef 
of  thaNila 
Be  rbsra  ,(kio(dom 


of  Adal 
»■  AlZuni 

4.  Sefah 

5.  Al-W_ 

6.  Serandeeb  (Cerlon) 

7.  Al-Comor  (Hada- 


Al  Nuba 
Al  Taideen 
Al-Bqah 
Al-Hani 


(Nubia) 


30.  Afreekeea  (Africa) 

31.  BeladelGerid(Date 
Country) 


sfflW"' 


l-8anoed  (Uppot    32.  Sehaiee,B«raneeli(or 

:)  19,  AittSffi  (Oa-  33.  sPffifc*''^ 
W.  AlvSham  (9»rfa) 
35.  Al-lrak  (Penian 


aaacar) 
\-Dai 


If 


■) 


8.  A-- 

9.  AbY^mao  (Arabia 

10.  Tehama  "" 

11.  Al-Hqai  (Arabia:     37. 

DoKrta)  SS. 

19.  AfShiuar,(Betor)    ,  99. 

13.  A|-iraaina(Yiinama) 

14.  Ai-Hab«>h  ^opia. 

Abyainia) 

VouL 


Kanun  empire) 

Belad  Al-Iomlum  35.  Fan  (Pemia  Propff) 

Be  ad  Muftada  37.  Kirman  (Cannania) 

Belad  Nemanoh  38.  Alfazeh 


itfu  Sinbajali 

Knmie) 
Nanolanfl 
Al-Boui  Nera 
Al-¥u|hrub  Al 

Amkoen  (Mogrsb 

the  Weit) 


37.  Kirman  (Cannania) 

38.  Alfazeh 
SO.  Hiu(han 

w.  Ai-bumia  (Scindi) 
41.  Al-Hind  (India)  ' 
43.  Al-Baeo  (China) 

43.  Khoraian 

44.  At-Bc)umia 

t  ^Sfli^atf  ■*" 

•6 


47.  Al-Shash 
4a  Kbirkeex 
49.  Al-Selur 

SI.  Al-Nufuz  In 

53.  Kuijeea  (Ceorcia) 
a.  Keyniak 

54.  Kulhiaa 

55.  Iizea 

S7.torkMh 
^.  Iturab 

Bnljihar  (Bolcaiia) 


lo«)    J 
uaua) 


gu.  AKpiutenah 


1.  Yajooi 
Si.  Majod 
1.  Aiiatic 


64.  _., 

63.  Al-Almaa 


66.  Al-Khuuua  Show 
„  _(CBipian  Oea) 

67.  Turkea  Turkey) 

68.  Albeian  (Albania) 
60.  Hakedunceah  (Ma- 

cadonia) 

70.  BalucS-m 

71.  Jenubea  (ptobabir 
„  ^  Sweden) 

73.  uermaniacaermUT) 

73.  Denmark 

74.  Arranaeeah  (Franca) 

75.  Felowiah  (Norwa*) 
70.  Burtea  or  B>«t«iMii 
_      (Britam) 

n  Coni(»,8aid(ida,fte 


/    =1 


02 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  I. 


Many  couc'rios,  hitherto  unknown  and  barbarouB,  were  explored,  and  in  Mne  dej^rec 
civilized,  by  Uio  Moelem  amu.  Thow  on  the  Oxua  and  the  Jaxartei,  the  Aiiatic  Scythia  of 
the  ancients,  and  occupied  then  only  by  Nomadic  hordes,  were  covered  by  them  with  gnt' 
and  flourishing  cities.  Among  tJiese,  Samarcand  became  atlcrwards  the  capital  of  an  empire 
that  extended  over  half  of  Asia.  At  the  opposite  extremity,  Mauritania,  which  hod  bficn 
regarded  by  the  Romans  as  almost  beyond  tiie  limits  of  social  existence,  became  a  flourishing 
kingdom,  uid  possessed  in  Fez  an  eminent  school  of  learning.  Even  beyond  the  limits  or 
the  Mahomedan  world,  misBiona  wero  sent  to  explore  the  remotest  limits  of  the  east  and 
west  One  interesting  result  of  these  lias  been  communicated  in  the  relation  of  two  Maho- 
medan travellen,  Wahad  and  Abuzaid,  who  in  the  ninth  century  penetrated  into  China;  and 
gave  a  description  of  that  country ;  which,  though  only  recently  known  to  us  by  the  transla- 
tion of  Renaudot,  must  have  been  the  earliest  over  cc^mmuninatod  to  the  natitms  of  the  west. 
Ttata  Lisbon,  also,  the  brothers  Almagrurim  sailed,  endeavouring  to  anticipate  the  discoveries 
of  Columbus,  by  exploring  unknown  countries  beyond  "  the  sea  of  darkness."  For  ten  or 
eleven  days  they  steered  westward;  hut  seeing  n  Btorm  approaching,  the  light  &int,  and  tlio 
•ea  tempestuous,  they  dreaded  havinj^  cnno  to  the  dark  boundaries  of  the  earth.  They  turned 
therefore  south,  sailed  twelve  days  in  that  u;i,.v!l>-..,  ;•"'  "ame  to  an  island,  which  they  called 
Ganam,  or  the  island  of  birds ;  but  the  floNh  of  these  birds  '•  m  too  bitter  to  be  eaten.  They 
■ail^  on  twelve  days  farther,  and  came  lo  another  island,  the  king  of  which  assured  them 
that  their  pursuit  was  vain:  tiiat  his  father  had  sent  nn  expedition  ror  the  same  purpose ;  but 
that,  afler  a  month's  sail,  the  light  had  wholly  fliiled,  and  they  had  been  obliged  to  return.  The 
adventurers,  therefore,  made  their  way  back  to  thf'  coast  of  Africa,  which  they  reached  ii; 
three  days.  The  bearings  stated  seem  to  jioint  out  Madeira  and  the  Canaries  as  the  two 
islands  visited  in  this  expedition. 

In  regard  to  the  general  outline  of  the  earth,  the  Arabs  seem  to  have  closely  adhered  to 
ancient  theories.  They  revived  the  early  mipressioii  of  an  ocean,  which,  like  a  zone,  encom- 
passed the  whole  earth.  This,  according  to  a  natural  feeling,  was  characterized  as  the  "  Sea 
of  Darkness,"  an  appellation  most  usually  given  to  the  AUontic ;  but  the  northern  sea  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  mspirin^  still  more  mysterious  and  gloomy  ideas,  is  called  the  "  Sea  of 
pitchy  Darkness."  Edrisi  has  even  imagined  the  land  as  floating  in  the  sea,  and  only  port 
appearing  above,  like  an  egg  in  a  basin  of  water.  At  tho  same  time  he  divides  it  into  seven 
seas,  ftnciflilly  appropriated  to  the  seven  climates  into  which  the  earth  was  divided.  Ac< 
cording  to  these  climates,  he  describes  the  earth  beginning  at  the  western  and  proceeding  to 
the  eastern  extremity ;  an  ill-judged  arrangement,  wiiich,  by  a  mechanical  section,  separates 
portions  of  territory  the  most  intunately  connected.  The  knowledge  of  the  Arabs  was  sub- 
jected to  another  and  a  voluntary  limitation.  They  studiously  desisted  from  all  inouiry 
respecting  those  blmded  nations,  whose  minds  had  never  been  illummed  by  the  light  ot  the 
Koran.  Ibn  Haukal  even  makes  it  a  subject  of  glory,  that  he  had  found  nothing  worthy  of 
remark  among  nations  who  could  not  be  viewed  without  horror  by  men  who  had  any  innate 
principles  of  virtue,  wisdom,  or  religion.  These  views  of  the  subject  greatly  restricted  their 
means  of  knowledge  in  respect  to  Europe,  and  rendered  it  of  little  value,  imless  with  regard 
to  those  two  continents,  which  their  arms  had  rendered  to  a  great  extent  Mahomedan. 

S\xrT.  U. — Asia. 

The  Asia  of  the  Arabs  comprised  a  wider  range  than  had  belonged  to  that  coatinent  under 
any  former  system.  China  b  distinctly  marked,  partly  under  the  appellation  of  Seen,  and 
partly  under  that  of  Cathay ;  the  former  term  appearmg  to  comprenend  Lidia  beyond  the 
Ganges.  Lamery,  productive  in  camphor,  gold,  ivory,  and  dye-woods,  appears  by  these 
products  to  be  Sumatra,  and  mention  is  even  mode  of  Al  Djavah.  The  countries  on  the 
Oxus  and  Joxartes  having  become  the  seat  of  an  extended  Moslem  empire,  of  which  Samar- 
cand vras  the  capital,  Tartary,  both  eastern  and  western,  was,  for  the  first  time,  delineated 
with  tolerable  accuracy ;  many  of  the  leading  positions,  in  this  hitherto  inaccessible  part  of 
the  continent,  were  even  fixed  bv  astronomical  observation ;  and  some  positive  though  &int 
and  indistinct  notice  appears  to  have  been  received  respecting  the  people  situated  along  the 
shores  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  Unfortunately  the  main  objects  of  curiosity  and  inquiry  were 
Gog  and  Magog.  The  authentic  application  of  these  names  has  been  observed  under  the 
Hebrew  system  as  belonging  to  a  devastating  race  from  the  shores  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian. 
Oriental  mncy  had  transformed  them  into  two  enormous  giants,  who  had  erected  an  impreg- 
nable castle  on  the  borders  of  Scythia.  The  oflTorts  made  by  the  court  of  ^gdad  in  pursuit 
of  this  chimera  were  very  extraordinanr.  The  first  expedition  was  undertaken  with  the 
hope  of  finding  it  somewhere  on  the  wores  of  the  Caspian ;  but  as  their  conquests  soon 
embraced  the  'whole  of  that  region,  without  the  slightest  trace  of  diis  U^mendous  castle,  the 
more  southern  country  of  Boklura  was  the  next  object  of  search.  When  that  alao  bad  been 
surveyed  in  vain,  the  court  was  involved  in  much  perplexity,  and  scarcely  knew  to  What 
ulterior  region  their  view  was  to  be  du-ected.  At  length  one  of  the  caliphs  dispatched  a 
mission,  with  strict  injunctions  on  no  account  to  return  without  having  discovered  the  castle 
of  Gog.    The  envoys,  according  to  Edrisi's  report,  proceeded  first  along  the  shores  of  the 


.*:«L 


»n. 


IN  ELUOPE  DURING  THE  DARK  AGES. 


69 


and  in  Hme  degnt 
he  Aiiatic  Scythia  of 
d  by  them  with  gn^ 

0  capital  of  an  empire 
inia,  which  hod  Ixicn 

became  a  flourishing 
beyond  the  limits  or 
mita  of  the  east  and 
elation  of  two  Maho- 
rated  into  China ;  and 

1  to  UB  by  the  transl&' 
J  nationa  of  the  west. 
icipate  thediscoveriea 
rknew."  For  ten  ot 
le  lieht  fiiint,  and  tlio 

earth.  They  turned 
ind,  which  they  called 
r  to  bo  eaten.  They 
which  assured  them 
le  same  purpose ;  but 
li^ed  to  return.  The 
^ich  they  reached  ii: 
I  Canaries  as  the  two 

e  closely  adhered  to 
I,  like  a  zone,  encom- 
icterized  as  the  "  Sea 

the  northern  sea  of 

called  the  "  Sea  of 
le  sea,  and  only  port 

divides  it  into  seven 
Lh  was  divided.  Ac< 
m  and  proceeding  to 
:al  section,  separatca 
'  the  Arabs  was  cub- 
ed ftom  all  inquiry 

by  the  light  of  the 
d  nothing  worthy  of 

who  had  any  innate 
eatly  restricted  their 
!,  unless  with  regard 
t  Mahomedan. 


that  continent  under 
llation  of  Seen,  and 
d  India  beyond  the 
appears  by  these 
le  countries  on  the 
re,  of  which  Samar- 
rst  time,  delineated 
inaccessible  part  of 
ositive  though  feint 
9  situated  along  the 
ty  and  inquiry  were 
observed  under  the 
luxine  and  Caspiaa 
erected  an  impreg- 
r  Bagdad  in  pursuit 
idertaken  with  the 
eir  conquests  soon 
mendous  castle,  the 
1  umi  oiBu  uoa  neen 


Caspian,  then  through  a  vost  extent  of  desert,  probably  the  country  of  the  Kirghises,  when 
Hey  arrived  at  a  stupendous  range  of  mountains,  which  must  have  been  the  Altai.  Hero 
hey  did  actually  fina  or  pretend  to  And  something  which  they  concluded  to  be  the  castle  of 
'og  and  Magog.  Perhaps  they  reached  some  of  those  ancient  monuments  which  have  been 
'  along  this  range,  and  gladly  enibracod  this  pretext  to  rid  therasolves  of  so  troublesome 
,  commission.  The  picture  they  drf</v  of  it  was  certainly  very  highly, coloured,  according 
I  Oriental  taste.  The  walls  were  of  iron  cemented  with  orass,  and  a  gate  fifty  cubits  high 
.  _j  secured  by  bolts  and  bora  of  enormous  magnitude.  Tho  minds  of  the  Arabs  wore  thus 
et  at  rest,  ana  in  all  the  future  delineations  of  Asia  this  mighty  castle  was  seen  towering  at 
I  fkrthest  extremity. 

Sbot.  hi. — Africa. 

In  regard  to  AfVica,  the  wido^xtendcd  settlements  of  tho  Arabs  afTordod  them  now  sources 
"  infbrmation.    The  Meditcrrauean  coast,  indeed,  as  fkr  as  Niimidia,  had  been  fblly  explored 
■  the  ancients,  and  had  even  formed  ii  more  intimate  part  of  their  political  system  tnan  it 
1  done  of  tlsat  of  tho  moderns.     By  tlio  Arabs,  however,  who  had  establislied  here  a  suc- 
bion  of  kingdoms,  it  was  described  in  greater  detail  than  ovor ;  and  as  the  most  western 
'  these  kingdon  ~  vvas  tiie  flour'shing  one  of  Morocco,  this  region,  comprising  tho  nearly 
iknown  tiacts  of  ancient  Mauritaniu,  formed  an  almost  entirely  new  acquisition  to  know- 
fe.    But  their  grandest  achievomont  coiisisted  in  fonniiig  a  ri«ul  across  the  Great  Desert, 
,  in  colonising  a  considerable  part  of  the  cenliu!  regions  of  Africa.    They  here  fbiindwl  a 
ies  of  powerful  kingdoms :  Ghana,  tho  modem  Kano ;  Tocntr,  which  wo  conceive  to  be 
ckatoo;  Kuku  and  Kauga,  which  recent  travellers  havu  found  in  and  near  tho  modem 
lion  called  Bornou.    They  described  those  countries  as  situated  on  the  Nile  of  the  No- 
es, which,  contrary  to  ancient  opinions,  they  represented  as  rising  indeed  fVom  the  same 
ntain  with  the  Nile ;  but  as  flowing  westwara  across  all  Africa,  and  falling  into  the 
intic  ocean  or  sea  of  darkness.    At  its  mouth  they  placed  the  island  of  Ulil,  whence  salt 
I  conveyed  to  all  the  Negro  territories,  which  were  entirely  destitute  of  that  necessary 
ife.    This  view  of  the  subject,  though  erroneous,  was  naturally  suggested  by  the  course 
'  tiie  rivers  within  the  region  with  which  they  were  alone  intimately  acquainted ;  but  we 
erve  this  discussion  for  a  separate  chapter,  v/hen  we  propose  to  give  a  succinct  view  of 
successive  theories  respecting  this  groat  AfVicon  river.    We  shall  at  present  onl^ 
serve,  that,  as  Tocrur  is  described  to  be  only  eighteen  days'  journey  from  tho  ocean,  it  is 
im  that  the  knowledge  of  the  Arabs  did  not  extend  to  Tombuctoo ;  that  they  knew  nothing 
'the  Senegal  or  Gambia,  or  tho  countries  upon  these  rivers;  and  that  the  ocean  into  which 
BV  represented  the  Nile  of  the  Negroes  as  falling  was  either  a  hypothetical  feature  alto- 
ither,  or  was  at  least  hypothetically  connected  with  all  that  they  knew  of  the  eastern  tracts 
'  interior  Africa. 


Bries 


CHAPTER  H. 


EUROPEAN  GEOGRAPHY  DURING  TIIE  DARK  AGE8. 

Even  the  imperfect  knowledge  possessed  by  tho  ancient  geographers  became  involved  in 

|lhe  general  progress  of  that  intellectual  darkness,  which  ensued  on  the  decline  of  the  Roman 

l^tmpire.    Europe,  overwhelmed  with  a  deluge  of  barbarism,  no  longer  cultivated  art  or 

^lieience;  and  the  rude  states  into  which  it  was  divided  had  only  a  vague  idea  of  each  other's 

'^tdtuation.     The  advance  of  this  darkness  may  be  observed  in  an  anonymous  work,  published 

It  Ravenna  in  the  eighth  century.    The  writer  presents  only  confused  fragments  of  the 

information  contained  in  Ptolemy  and  Pliny.    The  coast  of  India,  indeed,  the  mercantile 

■Dute  to  which  appears  to  have  been  kept  open,  is  still  delineated  with  some  degree  of  cor- 

tectness.    But  the  whole  interior  of  AJsio,  from  China  to  Bactriana,  is  included  under  tho 

•ame  of  "Seric  India:"  the  Caspian  re-appears  as  a  gulf  of  the  Northern  Ocean;  in  short, 

•11  these  distant  regions  are  viewed,  in  the  manner  natural  to  ignorance,  as  a  dim  and  inde- 

(finite  expanse,  the  features  of  which  were  all  confusedly  blended  with  each  other. 

The  monasteries  during  the  dark  ages  afforded  an  asylum  for  all  that  remained  of  ancient 
knowledjre;  in  them  the  manuscripts  ff  many  of  the  classic  writers  were  still  preserved, 
though  little  consulted.  The  reading  aloud  of  histories,  and  descriptions  of  neighbouring, 
and  even  of  distant  countries,  formed  a  mode  of  beguilinnr  the  tedious  hours;  but  these  being 
recorded  under  the  title  of  "  Wonders  of  the  World,"  and  crowded  with  the  most  extrava- 
gant febles,  served  rather  fbr  the  amusement  of  the  fire-side,  than  for  any  real  instruction. 

The  missions  undertaken  for  the  conversion  of  the  northern  pagans  were  the  principal 
channel  by  which  any  geographical  knowledge  was  conveyed.  The  missionaries  did  not,  at 
this  time,  attemnt  to  ™«s  the  limits  of  Earope ;  but  directed  their  efforts  towards  tlie  coii- 
version  of  the  Slavonic  tribes,  who  occupied  Poland,  Prussia  and  Livonia.  Other  appears 
even  to  have  penetrated  through  the  interior  of  Russia  to  the  White  Sea;  he  undertook  also 
an  extensive  voyrf^  along  the  coae^  of  Norway.  The  AngKSaxcn  Wilfrid,  named  by  the 
pope  the  apostle  of  the  Germans,  appears  to  have  been  the  perxjn  who  transmitted  the  most 


<u 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  I, 


fbll  detaili  rotative  to  tho  Slavonic  tribei.  St.  Otto,  biahop  of  Bamborg,  and  Anacaire,  a 
monk  of  Corbie,  pt^nctratcd  to  the  kingdotna  of  Sweden  and  Denmark ;  but  the  details  of 
their  miiwion  have  oot  born  iirnmrvod.  Although,  however,  the  monka  thus  did  aomething 
to  iliustmta  the  goograplty  of  Rurope,  there  ia  aufficient  evidence  that  they  laboured,  in 
many  instances,  under  the  grocNcst  ignorance ;  some  of  ttium  know  not  even  the  capital  of 
their  own  country,  or  the  citioH  noareat  to  their  own. 

Tho  great  monarcliH  mado  aome  efTorta  to  reacue  the  age  fVom  thia  atate  of  profound  igno 
ranee.  Tho  two  illuatrioua  monarcha,  Charlemagne  and  Alfred,  diatinguiahed  themaeiVM 
by  their  endeavours  to  promote  geography :  the  former  conatructod  a  silver  table  of  larve 
dimenaiona,  on  which  waa  delineated  tne  whole  world  ao  fiir  aa  known  to  him ;  unfortunately 
tho  matoriala  were  too  rnetly,  and  the  ailver  world  waa  aoon  melted  down  to  aupply  tho 
uccoaaitiea  of  one  of  ita  kiniftloma.  Alfred  produced  a  more  valuable  monument  in  a  deacrip- 
tion  of  the  north  of  Europe,  from  the  beat  materiala  which  could  be  then  collected,  and  which 
fbrms  atill  the  boat  recom  of  the  geographical  knowledge  of  that  age.  Under  the  direction 
of  William  the  Conqueror  vfn»  drown  up  that  important  document  called  Doomaday  Book,  in 
whicn  the  population,  the  culture,  and  tho  taxes  paid  by  each  district,  are  exhibited  in  the 
^eateat  detail.  A  similar  aurvev  of  Denmark  waa  made  in  the  tliirteonth  century,  by  iu 
aovoreign  Waldemar  IL;  and  of  tne  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  by  the 
emperor  Charles  FV. 

The  Danea  and  Norwegians,  the  Northmen  as  they  were  called,  while  under  their  mighty 
sea-kings  Uiey  spread  desolation  over  the  maritime  diatricts  of  Europe,  necessarily  acquired 
a  very  extensive  knowledge  of  ita  acaa  and  coasts.  Such  knowledge,  tho  jgh  nowhere  ibrmed 
into  any  regular  ayatem,  may  be  traced  in  the  aagaa,  or  ni<  'Heal  histories  in  which  thev 
celebrate  the  gallant  exploits  of  their  countrymen.  They  w.  •"  couiae,  familiar  with  all 
the  countriea  bordering  on  tho  Baltic.  They  knew  by  conquust  v  >rkney,  Shetland,  the  Ho- 
bridca,  and  the  western  cooat  of  Ireland.  Their  fleets  reached  even  the  ahoreo  of  Italy  and 
Sicily.  Towards  the  north,  they  eatabliahed  coloniea  in  Iceland  and  Greenland.  But  the 
most  important  discovery  of  the  Northmen  was,  undoubtedly,  America,  if  their  claun  to  the 
merit  of  that  discovery  shall  be  admitted  to  be  mode  good.  In  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh 
century,  Thorwald  and  Leif,  two  nativea  of  Icelanfl,  having  sailed  far  to  the  south-west,  came 
to  a  country  which  appeared  to  them,  doubtless  by  comparison,  to  be  mild  and  n<rrceablo; 
the  natives  were  of  dwarfish  stature,  and  maintained  with  them  aometimcs  a  hostile,  but 
oftener  a  friendly  intercourse.  Finding  that  the  rivers  abounded  with  fish,  and  that  the  finest 
furs  could  be  procured,  they  and  their  countrymen  repeated  their  visits;  and  in  1211,  Bishop 
Eric  is  said  to  have  repaired  thither  with  the  view  of  converting  the  natives.  The  name 
given  to  the  region  is  Vinland,  from  tho  vtnes  growing  in  it ;  a  feature  which  certainly 
occurs  to  us  as  very  foreign  to  thia  part  of  tlie  world ;  but,  in  fact,  wild  vmes  are  found 
growing  in  all  the  most  northerly  diatricts  of  America.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  conti- 
nent was  not  reached  by  the  Icelandic  adventurers,  and  that  Vinland  was  merely  a  southerly 
district  of  Greenland. 


,?;*..,/  CHAPTER  m.  ^..,v 

'       '  GEOGRAPHICAL  KNOWLEDGE  DERIVED  FROM  THE  CRUSADES. 

Thb  crusades  formed  a  series  of  events  which  roused  the  European  mind  from  its  local  and 
limited  range,  and  directed  its  ken  into  the  regions  of  another  continent  The  high-wrought 
enthusiasm  which  impelled  Europe  to  pour  itself;  as  it  were,  in  one  mass  on  the  eastern 
world,  however  blind  might  have  been  the  zeal  which  inspired  it,  was,  on  the  whole,  highly 
beneficial :  it  drove  back  the  tide  of  Saracen  and  Turkish  conquest,  which  might  have  swat 
lowed  up  the  whole  West,  and  involved  it  in  the  same  gloom  of  barborism  and  superstiticm 
that  pervaded  the  East  Above  all,  the  crusades  had  a  powerful  influence  in  dispelling  the 
mental  darkness  in  which  the  western  regions  were  involved,  and  inpreparing  that  ligut  of 
science  and  intelligence  which  was  so  soon  to  dawn  upon  them.  The  attention  of  Europe 
was  thus  directed  to  these  interesting  and  memorable  regions,  known  hitherto  only  by  the 
meagre  report  of  some  occasional  pilgrims.  Not  only  the  Holy  Land,  with  the  kingdoms  of 
Jerusalem  and  Edessa,  founded  by  the  victorious  crusaders,  but  the  extensive  domains 
belonging  to  the  Saracen  and  Turlush  empires,  became  objects  of  inquiry ;  search  was  now 
made  in  the  writings  of  the  ancient  geographers,  and  perhaps  some  liebts  were  derived  even 
firom  the  Arabian  writers.  Sanudo  compiled  a  map  of  the  world,  annexed  to  Bongar's 
"  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,"  (Jig.  12.)  in  which  the  ideas  formed  out  of  the  crusading  expedi- 
tions are  fully  exemplified :  Jerusalem  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  world,  as  the  point  to 
which  every  other  object  is  to  be  referred;  the  earth  is  made  a  circle  surrounded  by  the 
ocean,  the  shores  of  which  are  represented  as  everywhere  nearly  equidistant  fhHU  that 
spiritual  capital,  the  site  of  which  is,  indeed,  remarkable  K>r  its  telAtion  to  the  three  conti- 
nents, Asia,  Europe,  and  Africa.  Persia  stands  in  its  proper  place ;  but  India,  under  the 
modifications  of  Greater  and  Lesser,  is  confusedly  repeated  at  diflereQt  points,  while  tiie 
river  Indus  is  mentioned  in  the  text  as  the  eastern  tioundaiy  of  Asia.    To  the  nwth,  the 


Boos  n. 


KNOWLEDGE  PROM  THE  CRUSADES. 
ng.  it,-«ABruDO'a  map  or  thb  woiut. 

OrtaM 


68 


OecUtM 


castle  of  Gog  and  Magog,  an  Arabian  feature,  crowns  a  vast  range  of  mountauu,  within 
which  it  is  said  that  the  Tartars  had  been  imprisoned  by  Alexander  the  Great  The  Cas- 
pian appears,  with  the  bordering  countries  of  Georgia,  Hjrrcania,  and  Albania ;  but  these 
features  stand  nearly  at  the  northern  boundary  of  the  habitable  earth.  Africa  has  a  sea  to 
the  south,  stated,  however,  to  be  inaccessible,  on  account  of  the  intensi^  of  the  heat  The 
European  countries  stand  in  their  due  place,  not  even  excepting  Russia  and  Scandinavia; 
thouffh  some  oversights  are  observable  in  the  manner  in  which  ic  two  are  connected 
togeuer. 


'>,''^*^. 


,f..|^ 


•■J- 


CHAPTER  IV. 

TAETAB  OKOGRAPHT. 


The  revolutions  of  the  north  of  Asia  next  attracted  the  eyes  of  Europeans  to  the  distant 
quarters  of  the  world.  The  roamin?  tenants  of  those  boundless  wilds,  known  under  the 
ancient  name  of  Scythia,  and  the  mDUcm  one  of  Tartary,  have  at  various  periods  conquered 
and  desolated  the  civilized  world  of  Asia.  The  ofispring  of  Tartar  chiefs  sat  for  many  cen- 
turies on  the  thrones  of  Pekin,  of  Delhi,  of  Ispahan,  and  of  Constantinople :  but,  of  the 
Tartar  rulers,  none  ever  raised  bo  terrible  a  name,  or  established  so  wide  an  empire,  a 
Gengis  or  Zinsis ;  originally  an  individual  chief  of  the  Monguls,  he  attained  the  general  swa, 
over  that  warlike  race,  and  led  them  as  conquerors  fknn  empire  to  empire.  His  first  ana 
meet  signal  exploit  was  the  conquest  of  China ;  having  thence  crossed  the  whole  breadth  of 
Asia,  he  died  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian.  His  successors  pressed  on  westward,  overran  Russia, 
and  penetrated  through  Poland  into  Hungary  and  Silesia ;  their  approach,  their  rapid  mov^ 
ments,  and  the  exaffgerated  rennrta  of  their  ravajjes*  strack  the  nations  of  Europe  with  iaes 
pressible  terror;  this  was  greasy  heightened  by  tiie  prevailing  ignorance  of  geography,  which 
was  such  that  none  knew  when  they  might  arrive,  or  where  mey  might  be  encountered.  The 

VoTh  I.  6*    J>  ..v-.ff'T?,-?,' ^  ■;>;-»,  ff  .■■'■,  :',  .  '  ■    ■■'■iV'fT^??''!-^;-''  ' 


08 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  I. 


IP 

■|1,        ;j)l[ 


Danes  were  thus  deterred  one  season  even  from  going  to  the  herring-fishery,  on  the  coast  of 
Scotland.  The  Tartars  defeated  and  killed  the  Dule  of  Silesia ;  but  a  general  muster  of 
the  German  chivalry  being  made  to  oppose  them,  thf  y  retreated  into  the  mterior  of  Poland, 
said  even  further  to  the  east,  leaving  only  a  nn'^cious  vanguard;  but  it  was  suspected  that 
they  were  only  mustermg  their  strength,  again  to  invade  Europe,  in  more  dreadful  and 
destructive  array. 

Embassy,  at  this  crisis,  was  deemed  the  expedient  most  likely  to  appease  the  fury  of  these 
dreaded  invaders.  According  to  tlie  ideas  of  the  age,  the  pope  appeared  the  most  respectable 
character,  in  whose  name  a  mission  could  be  undertaken,  and  monks  *he  most  fitting  ambas- 
eadors.  The  choice  was  injudicious :  these  envoys.  Ignorant  of  the  political  relations  of 
countries,  of  the  usages  of  society,  and  the  mode  of  treating  with  mankind,  obtained  no 
respect  in  the  eyes  of  the  fierce  conquerors  of  Asia.  They  returned  without  fulfilling  any 
object  of  their  mission ;  and  if  Europe  was  not  again  exposed  to  this  barbarous  inundation,  it 
owed  its  safety  only  to  the  division  of  the  immense  empire  of  Kaptchak,  and  the  dissensions 
among  its  princes.  These  ambassadors,  however,  traversed  a  large  portion  of  the  continent, 
l>efore  unknown  to  Europeans.  One  mission,  indeed,  under  Ascelm,  which  met  the  Monguls 
on  the  frontier  of  Persia,  does  not  communicate  any  geographical  information;  but  the 
journey  of  Carpini,  and  aJfler  him  of  Rubruquis,  (Jig.  13.)  led  them  through  the  north  of 


Fig.  13— MAP  OF  THK  JOURNEY  OF  RUBRUQUIS. 


Russia,  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Caspian,  and  thence  into  the  very  heart 
of  the  immense  plains  of  interior  Asia,  where  they  found  the  great  Tartar  capital  of  Kara- 
korum,  the  chief  seat  of  the  posterity  of  Zingis.  Here  the  masters  of  the  world,  while 
embassies  and  presents  were  waiting  them  fi*om  all  the  courts  of  southern  Asia,  were  living 
in  the  rudest  Scythian  fashion,  feeding  scantily  on  horse-flesh  and  mares'  milk,  roving  aboui 
in  tents,  destitute  of  arts,  and  occupied  only  with  war  and  plunder.  The  Tartars,  however, 
treated  with  a  proud  disdain  all  other  natiors,  over  whom  they  held  themselves  as  commis- 
Bioned  by  heaven  to  rule,  while  they  paid  the  most  abject  submission  to  their  own  Khan,  re- 
vering him  OS  the  appointed  representative  of  the  deity  on  earth. 

Karakorum  was  found  scarcely  entitled  to  the  name  of  city,  being  little  larger  than  one 
of  the  suburbs  of  Paris,  and  its  most  sumptuous  edifices  scarcely  suitable  to  a  European 
country  town.  The  situation  of  this  capital  of  so  great  an  empire  has  been  a  subject  of  some 
controversy.  D'Anville  places  it  at  a  pouit  to  the  north  of  China,  near  the  eastern  limit  of 
the  great  desert  of  Shamo  or  Cobi,  while  Fischer  fixes  it  on  tlie  Orchon,  one  of  the  rivers 
whicn  unite  in  forming  the  Selingha.  I  have  elsewhere  endeavoured  to  show  (Discoveries 
in  Asia,  I.)  that  both  these  positions  must  be  about  a  thousand  miles  to  the  eastward  of  Uie 
real  site.  It  is  true  that  upwards  of  four  months  was  occupied  in  passing  from  the  western 
frontier  of  Russia  to  this  capital ;  and  the  missionaries  complain  of  the  grievous  rapidity  with 
which  they  were  conveyed.  They  estimate  the  daily  rate  as  equal  to  the  distance  fi'om  Paris 
to  Orleans,  or  about  seventy  miles ;  and  this  tune  and  route  would  doubtless  be  sufficient  to 
carry  them  to  the  most  eastern  extremity  of  the  continent  But  whenever  they  g've  us  the 
time  actually  employed  in  travelling  between  known  points,  a  rate  is  found  which  does  not 
even  approach  to  the  above.  Two  months  are  spent  by  Carpmi  in  travelling  from  the  Dnieper 
to  the  Volga,  and  by  Rubruquis  from  the  Danube  to  the  Don,  "  riding  post  as  the  Tartars 
do ;"  yet  neither  of  these  spaces  exceeds  in  direct  distance  six  hundred  miles.  Then  from 
the  Volga  to  the  Ural,  which  may  be  two  hundred  and  fifly  miles,  we  have  twelve  days; 
while  the  journey  from  the  Ural  to  the  inland  sea  of  Balkash,  or  Palcati,  occupied  above 
forty-three  days.  Thus  down  to  that  point  it  required  four  months  to  travel  not  quite  eighteen 
himdred  miles.  From  the  Balkash  to  Karakorum,  the  journey  was  performed  in  three  weeksi 


■•': 


Part  I. 

Iiery,  on  the  coast  of 
a  general  muster  of 

0  interior  of  Poland, 
it  was  suspected  that 

1  more  dreadful  and 

ase  tlie  fury  of  these 
tlie  most  respectable 
i  most  fitting  amba» 
jolitical  relations  of 
lankind,  obtained  no 
vitiiout  fulfilling  any 
rbarous  inundation,  it 
>,  and  the  dissensions 
iion  of  the  continent, 
ich  met  the  Monguls 
nfonnation;  but  the 
through  the  north  of 


Book  U. 


VENETIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


67 


no 


1» 

a. 


L\«*     }  Karakiiio 
-ySitJKIali.r) 

Kir&ium 
D'AoflUe) 


n 


into  tlie  very  heart 
rtar  capital  of  Kara- 
of  the  world,  while 
n  Asia,  were  living 
'  milk,  roving  about 
e  Tartars,  however, 
mselves  as  commis- 
heir  own  Khan,  re- 

ttle  larger  than  one 

ible  to  a  European 

n  a  subject  of  some 

the  eastern  limit  of 

one  of  the  rivers 

)  show  (Discoveries 

the  eastward  of  the 

from  the  western 

:evous  rapidity  with 

distance  from  Paris 

less  be  sufficient  to 

er  they  g've  us  the 

und  which  does  not 

g  from  the  Dnieper 

post  as  the  Tartars 

niles.    Then  from 

have  twelve  days; 

iti,  occupied  above 

not  quite  eighteen 

led  in  three  weeks. 


[s  it  possible  to  suppose  that  they  could  in  that  time  have  travelled  fifteen  hundred  mucs,  the 
space  which  would  be  necessary  to  enable  them  to  reach  the  Karakorum  either  of  D'Anville 
or  of  Fischer  1  They  could  not  have  passed  tlie  great  table  plain  of  Soongaria,  compared  by 
the  Oriental  histories  to  a  great  sea  of  verdure,  and  consequently  of  all  ouers  the  best  fitted 
to  form  tlie  central  encampment  of  this  great  pastoral  and  military  empire.  All  the  geo- 
graphical indications  given  by  Rubruquis  agree  with  this  position ;  and  disagree  wholly  v/ith 
the  other  two.  He  says  all  the  rivers  observed  by  him  flowed  to  the  westward,  which  is  true 
as  far  as  Soongaria,  but,directly  contrary  to  what  takes  place  in  the  other  positions,  bo;h  of 
which  are  even  placed  upon  rivers  that  flow  to  the  eastward.  China  is  said  to  lie  'o  the 
south-east,  as  it  does  from  Soongana ;  but  from  the  two  other  positions  it  wquld  be  directly 
south.  The  Kirghises  are  said  to  Tie  to  the  north,  and  the  Baschkirs  to  the  west ;  but  these, 
according  to  the  ordinary  site,  would  have  been  at  a  distance  quite  immense,  and  could  have 
had  no  relations  with  Karakorum.  The  hypothesis  which  places  that  city  in  Mongolia  is 
founded  upon  the  latter  having  been  the  original  seat  of  Zingis;  but  Rubruquis  expressly 
states,  that  this  arrangement  had  now  ceased,  and  that  Tartaria  was  "  the  chief  and  royal 
city."  Such  a  change  was,  indeed,  almost  necessary  to  an  empire  which  was  to  embrace  at 
once  'no  East  and  the  West;  to  bold  China  in  one  hand,  and  Russia  w  the  other. 


CHAPTER  V. 
VENETIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  republics  of  Italy,  and  above  all  that  ofVenice,  were  the  states  in  which  the  spirit  of 
commerce  and  inquiry,  after  being  long  dormant,  revived  with  the  most  brilliant  lustre. 
The  commerce  which  they  carried  on  was  one  which  connected  them  with  the  most  distant 
regions:  they  traded  m  tiie  jewels,  the  spices,  and  the  fine  cloths  of  India,  a  country  situated 
at  a  distance  really  vast,  and  which  then  appeared  almost  immeasurable.  It  was  not  by 
Venetians,  however,  or  by  any  Europeans,  that  the  vast  intervening  space  waa  traversed. 
They  found  the  Indian  commodities  m  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean  or  the  Black  Sea,  to 
which  they  were  brought  by  the  Arabs  up  the  Red  Sea,  or  by  the  interior  caravans  across 
central  Asia.  It  was  impossible,  however,  that  they  could  see  these  precious  and  profitable 
commotlities  continuing  to  enter  their  ports,  without  feeling  some  curiosi^as  to  the  splendid 
and  beautiful  regions  whence  th^  came ;  and,  in  that  age  of  enterprise,  it  was  likely  that 
some  would  be  impelled  to  brave  even  the  obstacles  presented  by  this  vast  unknown  space, 
occupied  by  people  of  a  hostile  and  bigoted  fkith.  The  Abbe  Zurla  has  collected  notices  of 
a  considerable  number  who,  actuated  by  this  spirit  of  discovery,  penetrated  to  a  considerable 
depth  into  the  interior  of  Asia.  But  the  fkme  of  all  these  is  eclipsed  by  one,  whose  travels 
extended  far  beyond  the  rest,  and  AVho  haa  always  ranked  among  the  greatest  of  discoverers 
of  any  age. 

Marco  Polo  vraa  a  noble  Venetian,  whose  fiimily,  like  many  others  of  the  same  rank,  waa 
engaged  in  extensive  commerce.  His  uncles,  Mafleo  and  Nicole,  had  visited  Tartary,  and 
afterwards  China,  though  without  leavmg  any  narrative  of  their  observations.  The  pope, 
however,  being  apprized  of  their  discoveries,  sent  out  an  ecclesiastical  mission,  accompanied 
by  the  young  Marco  Polo,  then  only  nineteen.  They  spent  twenty-fi)ur  years  in  traversing 
the  most  remote  regions  of  Asia.  The  result  of  their  religious  mission  is  not  stated ;  but  they 
returned  laden  with  precious  jewels,  with  which  they  dazzled  the  eyes  of  their  countrymen, 
by  whom  they  were  not  at  firat  recognised.  Marco  being  afterwards  made  prisoner  by  the 
Genoese,  was  persuaded  to  amuse  the  hours  of  confinement  by  dictating  a  narrative  of  his 
travels,  which  was  read  with  avidity,  and  soon  translated  into  all  the,  European  languages. 
He  has  suflTered  like  many  other  eminent  travellers,  under  those  injurious  suspicions  which 
arise  in  the  minds  of  persons  unwilling  to  believe  any  event  or  object  which  goes  beyond 
the  sphere  of  tlieir  ordinary  experience.  His  name  even  furnished  the  nickname  given  to  a 
personage  introduced  into  the  comedies  of  the  age,  to  recite  every  species  of  extravagant 
fablp.  But  modem  uiformation  has  verified  in  all  its  most  essential  points  the  narrative  of 
r.Iarco  Polo,  leaving  only  a  slight  tincture  of  that  credulity  which  was  characteristic  of  the 
age,  and  is  confined  to  what  was  told  bun  by  otliers  of  countries  which  he  did  not  himself 
visit.  He  appears  to  have  first  proceeded  along  the  northern  shore  of  Asia  Minor,  then  the 
seat  of  a  flourishing  Turkish  dynasty.  He  passed  through  Armenia,  along  the  lofty  ridgea 
of  Ararat,  and  descending  the  Euphrates  through  Curdistan  came  to  Bagdad,  no  longer  the 
capital  of  the  caliphate,  but  still  a  flourishing  and  civilized  city  imder  its  Tartar  conquerors. 
He  visited  the  great  commercial  capital  of  Ormuz,  and  thence  proceeded  eastward  through 
the  southern  part  of  Persia  by  Kerman  and  Kubbees,  across  the  great  salt  desert.  At  length 
he  reached  Balkh,  which,  though  still  a  coasiderable  emporium  of  central  Asia,  presented 
only  in  its  ruined  temples  and  spacious  squares  the  vestiges  of  its  ancient  grandeur.    Then 

Eassing  along  the  borders  of  Cashmire  and  the  mountain  tract  of  Bala8han(Badakshan),  cele- 
rated  for  its  mines  of  rubies,  he  ascended  to  the  elevated  plain  of  Pamere,  forming  the  sum- 
mit of  that  CI)  >ss  branch  of  tlie  Himmaleh  called  the  Beloor,    On  this,  which  appeared  to  him 


lUSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1. 


the  highest  ground  in  the  world,  he  felt  that  difficulty  in  reapiraticn,  and  in  producing  com' 
bustion,  which  ia  peculiar  to  the  most  elevated  mountain  eitea.  He  afterwards  readied  the 
large  Tartar  cities  of  Yarkund  and  Cashgar,  and  entered  on  that  great  eastern  table-land 
which,  before  and  since,  has  formed  the  Tar  a  Incognita  of  Asia.  He  then  entered  Northern 
China,  which  he  calls  Cathay,  and  visited  its  capital  Cambalu,  his  description  of  which  strik- 
ingly coincides  with  that  of  Uie  modem  Pekin.  He  afterwards  visited  Mangi  or  Southern 
China,  and  found  in  its  capital,  Quinsai,  a  scene  eclipsing  all  that  he  had  beheld  either  in 
Eurq)e  or  in  the  East  It  is  described  as  a  most  immense,  and,  firam  its  splendour  and  the 
beauty  of  its  situation,  almost  a  magic  city.  In  fact  Hangtchoofbo,  which  corresponds  with 
Quinsai,  though  it  has  long  ceased  to  be  the  capital  of  Qhina,  is  still  a  very  large  city,  very 
charmingly  situated.  From  China,  Marco  Polo  passed  through  the  Indian  Archipelago,  hear- 
ing only  of  Great  Java,  but  visiting  Sumatra,  which  he  caUs  Little  Java.  He  touched  at 
the  coasts  both  of  Malabar  and  Coromandel,  and  learned  many  particulars  respecting  India 
and  its  people,  which  have  since  been  confirmed  by  modem  observation.  He  returned  by 
the  Red  Sea  to  Europe. 

A  map  of  the  world  on  a  large  scale,  (Jig.  14.)  by  Fra  Mauro,  which  is  preserved  at  Venice, 
and  of  which  a  highly  finished  copy  exists  in  the  British  Museum,  exhibits  a  view  of  the 
geographical  ideas  formed  by  the  Venetians,  founded  upon  the  information  derived  from  their 
Asiatic  travellers,  and  prior  to  the  discovery  of  America. 

Fig,  14. — Map  or  the  World  bt  Fra  Mavro. 


1.  Barara 
3.  Dsfur 

3.  FuDdan 

4.  Marocho 

5.  Sieno 

6.  Heoha 
Thaai 

s  ■4aiQ 

.  Soltaoflu 
10,  PelUgomii 
U.  BiNnMa 
IS  TurmUU 
13.  DeU 
14  Ara 


IS.  Charazan 
IS.  Charaian 

17.  Mihen 

18.  Mognan 

19.  Siachone 
SO  Belfetoo 
SI.  Candai 

xt,  Thymchain 
S3.  Babilonia 
34.  Moaopotamia 
23.  Arcba  No« 
36.  Tiphilii 
87.  Armenia 
aa  Bpahan 


SB.  Zaidaro 

30.  Here 

31.  Baleh 
33.  Tangul 

33.  rhaiuay 

34.  Nangio 
33.  Quantu 
M.  uambalu 
37.  Arehanafa 
3a  Bilan 

SB.  Olrar 

40.  Chataio 

41.  Baganaeh 
43.  Sepultuia 


43.  Sepoiero  Uneam 

44.  Bamaigant 
43.  Nogra 

46.  Moachovia 

47.  Permia 

48.  Novocrado 
¥.  RUta 

SO.  Fraca. 

Rivirs,  Laket,  i/t- 
a  Galla 
b  Xebe 
0  ATan 
bAbavi 


Eufti 


ralea 


h  Indua 

IMandua 
Gangea 
Uniitn 

i  Mare  Braunto 

m  Amu 

n  roliianohin 

o  MataBioncha 

p  glU 

q  Tanai 

r  uanubio. 


Part  1. 

1  producing^  coiH' 
ards  reached  the 
astern  table-land 
entered  Northern 
m  of  which  strik- 
[angi  or  Southern 

beheld  either  in 
plendour  and  the 

corresponds  with 

y  large  city,  very 

^hipelago,  hear> 

He  touched  at 

respecting  India 
He  returned  by 

;served  at  Venice, 
fits  a  view  of  the 
derived  from  their 


Book  IIL  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY. 


BOOK  III. 

MODERN   GEOGRAPHY. 

Geography  was  now  to  assume  a  new  aspect,  and  worlds  bctbre  unknown  were  to  be  com- 
prehended within  her  domain.  Although  the  Italian  states  produced,  almost  exclusively,  emi- 
nent astronomers,  skilful  pilots,  and  hardy  navigators,  their  attention  was  nearly  engrossed 
by  land  conveyance,  and  the  navigation  of  the  interior  seas  of  Europe :  they  did  pot  originate, 
or  even  attempt  to  follow  out,  any  trains  of  oceanic  discovery.  The  rulers  of  the  exterior 
coasts  of  Europe,  and  especially  of  the  Iberian  peninsula,  carried  off  all  the  prizes  in  this 
new  and  brilliant  career.  Between  1492  and  1498,  the  AmericaL  contuient,  and  the  passage 
to  India  by  the  Cape,  were  discovered  by  Gama  and  Columbus :  the  face  of  the  world  was 
changed ;  and  all  the  daring  and  enterprising  spirits  of  the  age  embarked  in  this  career  of 
discover}',  conquest,  and  commerce. 


M.Atttnt. 


Muocbo 


lipasit  1 


v^ 


Si«i» 


f  Euftatei 

RTiirii 
Indtu 
IMtndui 
Oangei 
Qllinn 

r  flBre  Bieunto 

m  Amu 

n  Poliianchin 

0  Mara  BiaooM 
p  lEAU 

q  Tana'. 

1  uanobiot 


CHAPTER  I. 
DISCOVERY  OP  AMERICA  AND  THE  EAST  INDIEa 

The  progress  of  discovery  over  the  globe,  when  the  first  steps  had  been  taken,  waa 
astonishingly  rapid ;  no  cost,  no  peril,  deterred  even  private  adventurers  from  equippmg 
fleets,  crossing  the  oceans,  and  far'ng  Uie  rage  of  savage  nations  in  the  remotest  extremities 
of  the  earth.  Columbus  had  not  yet  seen  the  American  continent,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Ormoco,  when  Cabot,  of  Venetian  descent,  but  sailing  under  English  auspices,  discovered 
Newfoundland,  and  coasted  along  the  present  territory  of  the  United  States,  probably  as 
iar  as  Virginia.  In  the  next  two  or  three  years,  the  Cortereals,  a  daring  family  of  Portu- 
guese navigators,  began  the  long  and  vain  search  of  a  passage  round  the  north  of  America: 
the^  sailed  along  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  entered  the  spacious  inlet  of  Hudson's  ^y, 
which  tliey  seem  to  have  mistaken  for  the  sea  between  Africa  and  America ;  but  two  of 
them  unhappily  perished.  In  1501,  Cabral,  destined  for  India,  struck  unexpectedly  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  which  he  claimed  for  Portugal.  Amerigo  Vespucci  had  sailed  along  a  great 
part  of  Terra  Firma,  and  Guiana,  and  he  now  made  two  extensive  voyages  along  the  coast 
of  Brazil ;  services  which  obtained  for  him  the  high  honour  of  giving  his  name  to  the  whole 
continent.  Grijalva  and  Ojeda  went  round  a  great  part  of  the  circuit  of  the  coasts  of  the 
gulf  of  Mexico.  In  1513,  Nunez  Balboa,  crossing  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Panama,  beheld  the 
boundless  expanse  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  These  discoveries  afforded  the  impulse  which 
prompted  Cortez  and  Pizarro  to  engage  in  their  adventurous  and  sanguinary  career ;  in  which, 
with  a  handful  of  darmg  followers,  they  subverted  the  extensive  and  populous  empires  of 
Mexico  and  Peru.  Expeditions  wore  soon  pushed  forward  on  one  side  to  Chili,  and  on  tiip 
other  to  California,  and  the  regions  to  the  north.  Nearly  a  full  view  was  thus  obtained,  both 
of  the  great  mterior  breadth  of  America,  and  of  that  amazing  range  of  coast  which  it  pre- 
sents to  the  southern  ocean. 

In  the  Eastern  world,  the  domain  which  the  papal  grant  had  assigne '  to  Portugal,  dis- 
covery was  alike  rapid.  Twenty  years  had  not  elapsed  from  the  landing  of  Vasco  da 
Gama,  when  Albuquerque,  Almeida,  Castro,  Sequeira,  Perez,  and  many  others,  as  navigators 
or  as  conquerors,  had  explored  all  the  coasts  of  Hindostan,  those  of  Eastern  Africa,  of  Ara- 
bia, of  Persia;  had  penetrated  to  Malacca  and  the  Spice  Islands;  learned  the  existence  of 
Siam  and  Pegu ;  and  even  attempted  to  enter  *Jie  ports  of  China.  But  the  characteristic 
jealousy  of  that  power  was  soon  awakened :  the  Portuguese  embassy  was  not  admitted  into 
the  presence  of  the  emperor ;  and  a  maiid;i*«  was  issued,  that  none  of  the  men  with  long 
beards  and  large  eyes  should  enter  the  havens  of  the  celestial  empire.  Afler  all  these  dis- 
coveries, the  grand  achievement  yet  remained,  of  connecting  together  the  ranges  of  eastern 
and  western  discovery;  and  of  laying  open  to  the  wondering  eyes  of  mankind  that  ytructure 
of  the  globe,  which,  though  demonstrated  by  the  astronomer,  seemed  to  the  generality  of 
mankind  contrary  to  the  testimony  of  their  senses. 

Magellan,  ui  1520,  undertook,  by  circumnavigating  the  earth,  to  solve  this  mighty  problem: 
he  passed  through  the  straits  which  bear  his  name,  and  crossed  the  entire  breadth  of  the 
Pacific.  He  himself  was  unhappily  killed  at  the  Philippine  Islands,  but  his  companions 
sailed  on,  and  presented  themselves  to  the  astonished  eyes  of  the  Portuguese  at  the  Moluc- 
cas. They  arrived  in  Europe,  after  a  vo3rage  of  three  years ;  and  it  could  no  longer  be 
doubted  by  the  most  sceptical  that  the  earth  was  a  spherical  body. 


litii^rri'':!;'!!*'; 


H  ii;;^' 


TO  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I 

CHAPTER  n. 

EABLY  BYBTEM  OP  MODERN  GEOORAFIIY. 

The  Bystcinatic  arrangement  of  the  immense  regions  thus  discovered,  their  adjustment  to 
each  other,  and  to  the  mass  of  knowledge  previously  possessed,  was  a  task  as  yet  beyond  the 
resources  of  modern  geography.  It  was  to  Venice  that  the  results  of  discovery  were  otill 
referred  to  be  arranged  and  systematised ;  but  the  Venetian  geographers,  however  skilful, 
laboured  under  many  difficulties.  Tlie  navigators  seldom  furnished  tlicm  with  any  celestial 
observations,  or  even  accurate  surveys ;  for  which,  indeed,  science  had  as  yet  provided  no 
suitable  instruments :  they  gave  only  rride  delineations,  on  which  the  geographer  was  obliged 
to  trace  his  uncertain  way ;  most  of  the  countries  formerly  known  were  touched  at  new 
points,  and  recognised  under  new  names ;  and  the  continents,  being  made  to  contain  both  the 
old  and  tlie  new  features,  were  swelled  to  a  preposterous  magnitude.  The  en^t  of  Asia 
was  obliged  to  contain  at  once  the  Serica  of  Ptolemy,  the  Mangi  and  Cathay  of  Marco  Polo, 
and  the  China  of  the  Portuguese,  all  as  separate  empires.  The  relative  site  of  the  two 
continents  of  Asia  and  America,  tlie  presentation  of  the  west  coast  of  the  one  to  the  east 
coast  of  the  other,  was  of  course  the  problem  which  they  had  the  fewest  means  of  solving. 
In  a  series  of  Venetian  maps,  preserved  in  the  king's  library,  the  two  continents  are  de- 
scribed throughout  their  whole  extent  as  either  united  or  separated  only  by  the  narrow  Strait 
of  Anion :  the  former  delineation  is  retained  even  in  a  map  by  Bertelli,  dated  1571 ;  and  in 
one  by  Cimertinus  (1566),  Cathay  is  placed  upon  the  Giulf  of  Mexico.  The  expedition 
of  Magellan,  it  might  be  supposed,  would  already  have  opened  their  eyes  to  tlie  extent  of  that 
vast  ocean  which  here  intervened :  but  Magellan  scarcely  penetrated  into  the  northern 
Pacific ;  and  his  Ul-understood  course  was  probably  supposed  to  reach  direct  from  Cape 
Horn  to  tlie  Moluccas,  wiiich  did  not  interfere  with  the  hypothesis  of  tlin  two  continents 
meeting  each  other  in  a  different  latitude.  The  breadth  of  America,  like  all  unknown 
spaces,  was  vastly  exaggerated  in  the  early  maps;  while  eastern  Asia,  by  the  process  above 

g)inted  out,  was  tripled  in  all  dimensions,  and  tlius  made  to  cover  an  ample  portion  of  the 
acific. 

Sebastian  Munster,  in  1572,  produced  a  delineation  of  the  world,  which  is  cleared  of 
some  of  the  grossest  mistakes,  and  which  very  tolerably  delineates  the  general  outline  of  the 
earth.  He  commits,  however,  a  very  discreditable  mistake,  in  taking  Ptolemy  for  his  guide 
in  regard  to  Scotland,  and  consequently  representing  that  country  as  extending  from  west  to 
east ;  a  blunder  themore  singular,  as  his  forms  of  Scandinavia  and  Ireland  are  liable  to  little 
exception.  Singular  flights  of  fancy  are  found  in  the  works  of  these  early  geographers. 
Munster  underbdces  to  describe,  not  only  the  surihce  of  the  earth,  but  also  its  interior :  this 
is  stated  to  be  occupied  by  hell,  a  huge  cavern  two  or  three  thousrnd  German  miles  in  length 
and  breadtii,  and  "  capable  oi  holding  many  millions  of  damned  souls."  Its  existence  was 
proved  by  the  spirits  which,  in  the  depth  of^mineral  caverns,  as  he  had  been  assured  by  Cor- 
nelius Agrippa,  often  killeid  instantly  a  great  number  of  men.  The  inflammatory  gases, 
which  are  still  frequently  producing  such  disasters,  affiird  certainly  no  un|>lausible  ground 
for  that  strange  conclusion. 

Ortelius,  in  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century,  exhibits  a  remarkable  im- 
provement in  geography.  In  his  maps,  all  the  parts  of  the  globe  begin  to  assume  tlieir  real 
form  and  dimensions;  America  and  Asia  are  widely  separated,  the  expanse  of  the  South  Sea 
interposing  between  them.  The  south  pole  is  invested  with  a  Terra  Anstralis  Incngnita; 
which,  as  it  relates  to  New  Holland,  is  said  to  rest  on  the  authority  of  Marco  Polo  and  Bar- 
thema,  and  in  regard  to  the  West,  on  that  of  Magellan.  Terra  del  Fiteffo  is  nindo  a  por- 
tion of  this  Austral  continent:  while  in  lat.  41°  S.,  Pud  long.  10"  westof  Ferro,  is  Promori' 
torium  Terrtr-  Australis.  There  is  a  Terra  Septentrionalis  Incognita,  nearly  as  extensive, 
and  Boeming  to  include  Nova  Zembla.  Greenland,  however,  exists  distinct  from  it.  In  the 
interior  of  Asia,  the  Caspian,  under  the  appellation  of  Mer  de  Bacha,  presents  the  same  form 
and  dimensions  aa  in  Ptolemy,  and  receives  all  the  rivers  filling  really  into  the  Aral,  the 
existence  of  which  seems  not  to  be  suspected  by  this  geograpi^er. 

Mercator  advanced  considerably  farther,  particularly  by  shewing  the  imperfections  rf 
Ptolemy,  and  the  injudicious  manner  in  which  the  delineations  given  by  him  had  been  mixed 
with  those  furnished  by  modem  authority.  Mercator  retains  the  Austral  continent,  includ- 
ing in  it  Terra  del  Fuego.  The  lakes  of  Canada  appear  for  the  first  time  in  his  maps,  as  a 
sea  of  fresh  water,  the  termination  of  which  is  unknown.  In  Africa,  Abyssinia,  enormously 
amplified,  is  made  the  principal  and  almost  sole  feature ;  it  extends  southward  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  Cape,  comprehending  Mosambique,  and  bordering  on  CafTraria :  the  Nile  rises  only 
about  ten  degrees  north  of  the  Cape,  and  consequently  traverses  all  Africa  from  south  to  north. 
With  respect  to  the  extreme  northern  regions,  this  very  learned  man  has  indulged  in  some 
extraordinary  flights  of  imagination.  The  ocean  resumes,  as  in  Homer,  the  character  of  a 
river,  and  is  seen  rushing  by  four  mouths  into  the  Polar  Gulf,  to  be  absorbed,  it  is  said,  into 
the  bowels  of  the  earth.    On  one  of  the  river  branches  are  placed  pigmies,  scarcely  four 


tl 


&■ ,!? 


A^ 


7''f'''t^'"''^'^"''-.I  - '^TT^Wf'  ■^»W'i-'?"">TJ' 


Part  1. 


hoir  adjustment  to 
OS  yet  beyond  the 
scovery  were  otill 
,  however  Bkilfiil, 
with  Dny  celestial 
18  yet  provided  no 
rapher  was  obliged 
e  touched  at  new 
to  contain  both  the 
The  ep*t  of  Asia 
day  of  Marco  Polo, 
fe  site  of  the  two 
ho  one  to  the  east 
,  means  of  solving, 
continents  are  de- 
y  the  nnrrow  Strait 
lated  1571 ;  and  in 
.     The  expedition 
otlie  extent  of  that 
into  the  northern 
direct  from  Cape 
the  two  continents 
like  all  unknown 
y  the  process  above 
mple  portion  of  the 

hich  is  cleared  of 

meral  outline  of  the 

ilemy  for  his  guide 

mding  from  west  to 

are  liable  to  little 

early  geographers. 

its  interior :  this 

nan  miles  in  length 

!ts  existence  was 

n  assured  by  Cor- 

iflammatory  gases, 

m.Jausible  ground 

remarkable  im- 

assume  tlieir  real 

of  the  South  Sea 

straits  Incognita ; 

arco  Polo  and  Bar- 

fiffo  is  made  a  per- 

~  Ferro,  is  Promon- 

learly  as  extensive, 

ct  from  it.    In  the 

n(s  the  same  form 

into  the  Aral,  the 

imperfections  {£ 
m  had  been  mixed 
continent,  includ- 

in  his  maps,  as  a 
ssinia,  enormously 
rard  to  the  vicinity 
e  Nile  rises  only 
•om  south  to  north, 

indulged  in  some 
the  character  of  8 
od,  it  is  said,  into 
nes,  scarcely  fniif 


Book  HI. 


MODERN  ASTRONOMICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


71 


feet  high ;  a  notion  suggested,  perhaps,  by  the  diminutive  stature  of  the  Laplanders  and  Sa- 
moyedes:  on  anotiior  is  placed  a  sort  of  northern  paradise,  while  the  Pole  iteelf,  a  black  and 
immense  rock,  towers  *o  a  prodigious  height. 

From  the  time  of  Mercator  moth'm  geography  made  rapid  and  continued  progress,  till  it 
attained  tlio  state  approaching  towards  perfection,  in  which  it  now  exists :  tliis  will  appear, 
when  we  consider  it  as  astronomic. :.,  critical,  or  statistical;  and  when  we  view  it  in  its  rela 
Hon  to  the  different  quarters  of  the  globe. 


CHAPTER  in. 

MODERN  ASTRONOMICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  astronomicol  geography  of  the  Greeks  rested  on  a  basis  exceedingly  narrow.  It  was 
only  at  Alexandria,  Syeno,  Rliodes,  and  a  few  other  leading  points,  that  observations  of  lati- 
tude appeal  to  have  been  made  with  a  tolerable  approach  to  accuracy ;  all  the  others  seem  to 
have  been  only  extended  from  rude  itineraries.  With  regard  to  the  longitudes,  although  the 
mode  of  calculating  them  by  means  of  eclipses  appears  to  have  been  understood,  only  one  or 
two  actual  observations  of  this  nature  are  recorded ;  nor  does  it  seem  to  have  exerted  any 
important  influence  on  geography  in  general.  The  Arabs  made  much  greater  progress  in 
this  department ;  but,  through  tiie  snparation  produced  by  religious  antipathy,  their  works 
were  scarcely  at  all  known  in  Europe  at  the  period  of  the  revival  of  letters.  At  that  time, 
the  pompous  display  of  latitudes  and  longitud;;3  made  by  Ptolemy,  venerable  as  it  hod  become 
from  its  antiquity,  v-ommanded  univerrial  ossent. 

Modem  observations  have  groduaPj-  jhown  the  magnitude  of  Ptolemy's  errors.  The  first 
great  shock  to  his  authority  was  given  by  the  latitude  of  Constantinople,  which  Araurath  IIL 
caused  to  be  taken  in  1574,  when  it  proved  to  be  two  degrees  lower  than  ancient  authorities 
had  assigned :  the  idea  of  such  a  difference,  however,  was  treated  with  derision  by  some 
European  geographers,  till  it  was  confirmed,  in  1638,  by  Greaves,  who  had  been  sent  to  the 
East  by  Archbishop  Laud.  Even  then,  many,  rather  than  renounce  the  authority  of  Ptolemy, 
believed  that  a  change  had  taken  place  in  the  position  of  the  earth ;  but  this  notion  became 
no  longer  tenable  to  any  extent  when  Alexandria  and  other  points  were  found  very  nearly 
to  coincide  with  ancient  observation.  But  the  great  alarm  as  to  the  unsoundness  of  ancient 
graduation  was  given  in  1635,  when  M.  de  Peiresc  caused  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  to  be 
observed  at  Marseilles  and  at  Aleppo ;  and  the  difference  of  longitude,  instead  of  45°  as  it 
had  been  represented,  was  found  to  be  only  about  30° :  such  an  enormous  error,  in  a  dimen- 
sion which  ought  of  all  others  to  have  been  most  exactly  ascertained,  shook  altogether  the 
blind  confidence  hitherto  reposed  in  the  longitudes  of  Ptolemy.  It  was  at  last  perceived, 
that  an  entire  reform  of  his  graduations  must  be  effected,  before  geography  could  rest  on  any 
secure  basis.  Numerous  observations  upon  eclipses  now  began  to  be  made ;  but  it  was  then 
discovered,  that  this  only  known  mode  of  ascertaining  the  longitude  was  attended  with  many 
imperfections.  In  the  observation  of  fifty-six  eclipses,  collected  by  Ricciolus,  there  were 
no  two,  observed  in  the  same  two  places  by  the  same  men,  which  exhibited  the  same  quantity 
of  longitude :  even  the  same  eclipse  gave  different  results,  when  observed  at  its  four  critical 
periods.  As  it  was  found  impossible  to  guard  against  errors  amounting  even  to  three  or 
four  degrees,  an  opinion  became  prevalent,  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  that  unlesa 
for  very  great  distances,  even  itinerary  measures  would  give  the  result  with  :,  .ater  accu- 
racy; yet  Galileo,  in  1610,  had  already  pointed  out  a  source  of  more  accurate  «  lowledge: 
he  had  in  tliat  year  discovered  three  fl  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  in  his  Nuncius  Sidereus, 
pointed  out  thf  use  to  v/hich  they  might  be  applied.  As  his  hints  did  not  meet  with  the 
attention  they  merited,  he  communicated  them  more  fully,  in  1631,  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain ; 
but  that  bigoted  prince  was  unable  to  estimate  their  importance.  Galileo  met  with  a  more 
favourable  reception  fi-om  the  Dutch,  who  sent  Hortensius  and  Bleau  to  Florence,  to  commu- 
nicate with  him  on  the  subject.  They  found  t!  ;;  great  man  involved  in  the  storm  of 
persecution  which  the  ignorant  bigotry  of  the  Romish  church  had  rai "d  agamst  huii:  he 
was  tlirown  into  prison ;  and,  after  having  asked  pardon  on  his  knees,  •  asserting  that  the 
earth  moved  round  the  sun,  obtained  only  a  mitigation  of  his  confinement.  This  discoveiy 
was  therefore  of  little  ufe  till  1G68,  when'Cassini  published  his  tables  of  the  revolutions  and 
elipses  of  these  satellit'js ;  and  three  vears  afterwards,  he  and  Picard  made  joint  observations 
at  Paris,  and  in  the  observatories  of  Tycho  Brahe  at  Copenhagen,  by  which  the  longitude 
of  these  two  important  points,  which  had  been  the  subject  of  long  controversy,  was  finally 
fixed. 

The  French  government  no\,'  took  the  most  active  measures  for  extending  geographical 
observation.  Two  academicians,  Picard  and  De  la  Hire,  v.'ere  employed  to  eonatruci  a  now 
map  of  France  upon  astronomical  principles.  In  this  operation  they  almost  everywhere 
reduced  the  previous  dimensions,  which  had  been  founded  upon  itinerary  measures,  and  were 
liable  to  their  usual  excess :  they  took  off  a  whole  degree  fi-om  the  western  coast  between 
Britany  and  Gascony,  and  half  a  degree  fi*om  the  coasts  of  lianguedoc  and  Piovence;  so  itaX 


n 


HiSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  f. 


ii    |i:-:|; 


'r    ^k 


on  tlieir  return,  Louis  XIV.  fiu:ov;  msly  reproached  tliem  with  having  robbed  him  of  a  part 
of  hi:  kinpfiom.  Other  academic,  tans  were  employed  to  determme  the  lon^^itude  of  Goree 
on  :1m  -M!':*  i>{  Africa,  and  of  Guodaloupo  and  Martinico  in  tho  West  Indies;  and  M.  Cha> 
zelleo  '  ^  >vr.t  up  the  Levant  on  a  similar'mission.  Expeditions  on  a  much  grar  .br  scale 
were  l  <;«[>»<  jhed,  under  Maupertuis  to  the  Arctic  circle,  and  Condamino  tr  the  equator 
The  primary  object  of  these  was  to  determine  the  figure  of  the  earth  by  tii.;  ai)plic3.n(in  of 
the  pendulum;  b;t  the  opportunity  was  taken  of  making  various  obseiviMions  of  Jon,j:;itudo 
and  latitude,  in  regions  wnich  lir^l  been  formerly  delineated  only  by  procifsc  a  of  the  most 
vuffue  description. 

In  the  operation  of  determining  the  position  of  places  on  the  glotr .  jmj.  :n-jit  improve" 
ments  have  been  made  fiuce  the  tbovo  eras.  Although  thero  can  be  no  move  ac;5»<ratf?  j^nde 
of  determining  the  longli,ade,  than  by  the  eclipses  of  JupiUr's  satoi''  ra,  tiicr  •  are  vt  too 
unfrequent  occurrence  to  answer  tJ;«  practical  piirpostisrequi  ud.  Observations  of  the  transits 
of  Mercury  and  Venus  over  the  sun,  of  the  occultiitiojis  of  the  fixed  sti'i  i.  and  of  what  are 
called  luiiar  distances;  processes,  th'-  nature  of  whic'i  will  be  fbllyexplainod  in  the  following 
book,  have  been  employed  witli  succes.''.  Nay,  to  s!i:  H  perfectioii  have  chronometers  been 
brought,  that,  by  sUowmg  the  differpnoo  if  time  belv.ocu  known  and  unknown  points,  they 
fai^rve  many  of  the  ordinary  purposes  of  navigation.  Tho  voi-npes  undertaken  by  Ca'Jt.  t  oo! , 
under  the  auspices  of  George  III.,  afforded  the  means  nov  on)  v  !  f  expk;/ijig  many  islands  a. id 
rtirions  of  the  Pacilio  and  Polar  seas,  but  o'  throwing  uiuoh  Tiji-ht  vyon  the  gem^ml  slrurture 
v?  (he  efirth.  The  expalit  io.is  of  Capt.  Parry,  and  the  nautical  wivevs  executed  f.'r  the 
dircstior  cf  ^.lo  Tlritiah  gov  .-inment  by  Flinders,  King,  Ower,  and  ctlier  oftii.ers,  ha\^  gone 
far  to  fi,v  the  ■>\i'!iuv^?  of  the  ^jreat  continont?.  The  trigoiiomotrical  surveys  oi'  France  and 
England,  f^x.e«  if  y.l  wi'Jiin  Oic  la£t  thirty  years,  have  almost  completed  the  delineation  of 
those  cauntrie.     »l!;iU  I.  •.■  bmncb  oi  giiography  remains  very  imperfect. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
MODERN  CPITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  application  of  a  sound  criticism  tj  geograpliical  materials  c&iinot  be  discerned  in  the 
rude  and  mfant  stajros  of  the  science.  There  is  no  branch  in  whicli  tiie  inquirer  is  so  likely 
to  bo  misled  by  fuJlfce  and  fabulous  nunours.  The  persons  from  whom  he  must  draw  his 
infl)rm^,t  on, — liie  navigator,  the  merchant,  the  traveller, — make  observations  often  only  in  a 
rough  anrt  superficial  mamier,  and  nre  swayed  in  their  reports  by  fiirxy  or  vanity.  The  results 
of  Sieir  o-n:  observation,  or  the  authentic  relations  of  well-informed  persons,  are  confounded 
with  the  zijost  vague  rumours  which  float  among  the  vulgar,  Hence  almost  all  tho  early 
systems  have  a  portion  of  truth,  mingled  "'itb  many  ideal  and  fabulous  creations.  The  human 
mind  umvillingly  owns  it3  ignorarce  even  to  itself.  The  geographer  wtis  reluctant  to  stop 
short  at  the  pomt  where  his  au  Jientic  information  ceased.  Having  to  delineate  a  kingdom 
or  a  continent,  he  filled  up  the  really  unknown  parts  fi*om  vague  rumour,  or  a  fenciflil  pro- 
longation of  those  that  were  known.  Whatever  object  had  once  found  a  place  was  copied 
mechanically  without  any  inquiry,  until  modem  maps  and  deaicriptions  became  crowded  with 
objects,  for  ihe  position  cf  which  no  reason  could  be  assigned. 

Stralio,  among  the  ancient  geographers,  was  alone  endowed  with  a  critical  spirit :  but  not 
having  a  sufficiently  ample  stock  of  materials,  he  exercised  his  judgment  with  a  blind  severity, 
which  appears  to  have  done  injustice  to  several  individuals  whose  exertions  in  the  infant 
cause  of  discovery  were  highly  meritorious.  This  extreme  of  scepticism,  opposite  to  that 
of  credulity,  has  mdeed  tlirown  unjustly  into  shade  the  merits  of  some  of  the  most  eminen* 
disc'iverers,  both  ancient  and  modem.  It  is  only  by  the  collation  of  numerous  authorities, 
accumulated  by  time  and  extended  intercourse,  diet  the  just  medium  can  be  observed,  and 
an  equitable  sentence  pronounced  on  the  reports  of  each  party. 

D'Anville,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  possessed  of  ample  materials,  endued  with  indefk* 
tigable  patience  and  sound  judgment,  undertook  to  rev^ise  the  whole  system,  upon  which  the 
worli  and  its  regions  bad  lieen  hitherto  delineated.  The  maps  of  the  ?gewere  still  covered 
with  many  obsolete  and  many  fanciful  particulars;  and  large  port,!,  i.?  -^f  the  world,  con- 
cerning which  absolutely  nothmg  was  known,  were  filled  with  imagi  .  v  ciries  and  countries. 
D'Anville  subjected  every  geographical  feature  to  the  strictest  rui,  and  expunged 

without  mercy  those  which  rested  on  no  positive  and  actual  autl   ■     .     The  world,  un^er 
Ids  hands,  assumed  a  n»- ".  and  in  some  respects,  a  less  flat'  ^-ng  „     Maps,  which  bad 

before  been  amply  and      .  ,larly  covered,  now  exhibited  vu^         •      .aeemly  blanks,  which 
amid  the  boasted  learn'      :i  this  age,  implied  a  mortifying       v. 
impossible,  however,  i^.  tit-ay,  that  this  was  the  sound  tj  ;    ".) 
Geography  rested  at  last  upon  sure  bases,  and  proceeded  ixi  a  tr;   , 

Major  Rennell,  with  a  skill  and  sagacity  not  inferior  to  ti:>^<   <• 
illinrcr Ated  the  mass  of  important  materials  collected  respecting  lad 


.  1  of  ignorance.    It  was 
jpon  which  to  proceed. 


*"ville,  arranged  and 
Afirica;  and,  though 


Part  I. 

)bed  him  of  a  part 
longitude  of  Goree 
(lies ;  and  M.  Cha« 
lucli  grar  .'or  acalo 
10  tc  the  equator 
'  tji.'  aoplicaf  ici  of 
ntions  of  Jongitudo 
iC'jssc'a  of  Uk.  iAost 

imji'!nL"Jit  improve" 
noie  acf.i'ratf!  ip^ndo 
s,  thun?  -  are  o;  too 
tioHH  of  thb  transit? 
,1.  Bnd  of  what  are 
od  in  the  following 
chronometers  been 
laicwn  points,  they 
ikon  by  Ca')t,  t:oo! , 
g  many  islands  avid 
c  general  elrurtufe 
pxecut;;(i       '^'Ttho 

ofeiiers,  ha^^  gone 
'cys  aC  France  and 

the  delineation  of 


Book  III. 


MODERN  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


be  discerned  in  the 
inquirer  is  so  likely 
he  must  draw  his 
ions  oilen  only  in  a 
vanity.  The  results 
ms,  are  confounded 
ilmoet  all  the  early 
tions.  The  human 
;s  reluctant  to  stop 
elineate  a  kingdom 
r,  or  a  fanciful  pn> 
1  place  was  copied 
jame  crowded  with 

cal  spirit :  but  not 
kh  a  blind  severity, 
ions  in  the  in&nt 
nn,  opposite  to  that 
'  the  most  eminen* 
lercus  authorities, 
a  be  observed,  and 

idued  with  indefe* 
m,  upon  which  the 
were  still  covered 
^f  the  world,  con- 
I  Ties  and  countries. 
ii,  and  expunged 
The  world,  un^er 
Maps,  which  had 
nly  blanks,  which 
gnorance.  It  was 
vhich  to  proceed 
ie  of  iuiofcv^meni. 
ille,  arranged  and 
.frica ;  and,  though 


^V*  '■ 


additional  contributions  of  vast  importance  have  in  some  degree  superseded  his  actual  delinea- 
tion, his  example  has  introduced  a  still  greater  precision  into  the  mode  of  treating  the  subject. 
The  compariDoii  of  ancient  and  modern  geography,  and  tlie  tracing  of  the  infant  steps  of 
early  discovery,  constitute  an  interest-  ig  field  of  inquiry,  which  has  been  much  cultivated 
during  the  present  age.  Vossius,  Bochart,  and  other  learned  scholars  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, liad  exercised  much  dUigence  in  these  researches ;  but  they  were  not  always  guided 
by  the  soundest  judgment,  nor  were  they  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  objects  actually 
existing,  to  be  able  to  recognise  them  under  the  early  descriptions.  Rennell,  Vincent,  and 
Mannert,  seemed  to  have  carried  this  research  nearly  aa  far  as  it  can  go,  though  without 
being  a'/le  to  dispel  that  impenetrable  darkness  in  which  some  questions  are  still  involved. 
Qosseli  1  has  applied  to  the  science  an  extent  of  investigation,  and  a  critical  acumen,  which, 
peiaapt ,  none  of  his  predecessors  have  equalled ;  but  animated  by  too  Strabonic  a  spirit,  and 
seeking  to  subvert  all  the  bases  on  which  ancient  geography  had  before  rested,  he  has  in 
many  instanccE  rather  given  lustre  to  bold  and  ingenious  paradoxes,  than  made  solid  addi- 
tions to  the  science. 

CHAPTER  V. 
MODERN  DESCRIPTIVE  AND  STATISTICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  mere  outline  of  the  globe,  its  continents  and  countries,  the  leading  features  of  moun- 
tains, rivers,  and  cities,  their  distance  and  position  with  respect  to  each  other,  constitute  all 
that  in  the  very  strictest  sense  can  be  called  geography.  But  the  mind  cannot  pass  these  in 
review,  without  feeling  its  interest  excited,  in  even  a  superior  degree,  by  other  objects,  for 
which  these  only  serve  as  the  basis.  The  productions  of  the  earth,  whether  natural  or  arti- 
ficial ;  the  treasures  hid  in  its  bosom ;  the  animals  which  room  or  are  bred  on  its  surface ; 
above  all,  the  men  by  whom  each  region  is  peopled, — then:  manners,  laws,  industry,  com- 
merce, the  revolutions  through  which  they  have  passed, — these  possess  the  strongest  claim 
on  our  attention,  and  are  of  an  importance  superior  to  that  of  the  mere  geometrical  outline. 

The  ancients  did  not  occupy  themselves  with  much  more  than  the  simple  and  fundamental 
bases  of  the  science.  The  delineation  of  these  formed  alone  an  arduous  task,  which  the 
geographer  was  required  to  accomplish  before  he  could  attend  to  the  accessary  and  orna- 
mental parts.  Eratosthenes  does  not  appear  to  have  extended  his  research  beyond  those 
branches  which  were  connected  with  astronomy.  The  work  of  Ptolemy  forms  a  mere  naked 
tabular  list  of  positions,  rarely  enlivened  by  any  historical  or  descriptive  notices.  Pliny  does 
not  go  much  farther.  Strabo  alone  has  enriched  his  work  with  numerous  anecdotes  and  de- 
scriptions which,  though  not  given  on  any  complete  or  systematic  principle,  constitute  a 
great  portion  of  its  value. 

Early  modem  writers  confined  themselves,  like  the  ancient  geographers,  to  mere  outlines. 
All  the  first  treatises  were  formed  on  the  model  of  Ptolemy ;  D'Anville,  the  head  of  the 
French  school,  applied  himself  solely  to  the  boundaries  and  positions  of  countries,  which  he 
fixed  with  a  precision  before  unknown,  but  without  directing  much  attention  to  their  physical 
and  social  relations. 

Statistics,  the  science  which  treats  of  kingdoms  and  states  in  their  relations  of  population, 
wealth,  productions,  commerce,  and  public  force,  is,  as  a  separate  branch  of  Imowledge,  only 
of  recent  origm.  From  the  first  it  had  a  natural  alliance  with  geography.  Busching  may 
be  considorr  il  as  the  father  of  statistical  geography :  his  vast  research,  strict  fidelity,  and 
access  to  the  best  sources,  enabled  him,  in  his  description  of  Europe,  to  assemble  a  mass  of 
information  unequalled  by  any  of  hia  predecessors.  He  has  arranged  it,  however,  nearly  in 
the  same  mechanical  manner  in  which  they  had  drawn  the  maUiematical  outlines  of  the 
globe.  His  writings,  instead  of  conveying  to  the  mind  striking  general  views,  are  loaded 
with  minute  and  burdensome  details,  which  can  be  useful  only  as  matter  of  reference,  and 
would  therefore  have  most  properly  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  dictionary.  His  successors  have 
been  numerous,  and  their  labours  are  of  sunilar  character  and  value.  Bruns,  with  regard  to 
Afirica,  and  Ebelin?  to  Asia,  coniin  'ed  the  series.  The  great  geographical  work  recently 
completed  by  H"  ^  s;!,  C  r.iKbich,  G.u  pari,  and  Gutsmuth,  in  twenty-five  octavo  volumes,  each 
equal  to  three  '  ^jor  of  ordiriry  size,  comprises,  probably,  the  largest  mass  of  statistical 
information  <■.    ,,■  assembled  into  out   vork. 

The  E'  ijh  compilations  of  Bowei,,  Guthrie,  Salmon,  and  others  of  the  same  school  were, 
perhaps,  i'.m  first  works  wiiich  embraced  nearly  all  be  objects  that  can  give  interest  to  a 
system  of  geography;  and  though  indiflerently  ex»  ated,  and  devoid  of  any  charms  of  style, 
they  acquired  a  very  extensive  popularity.  Mr.  Pinkerton  hr  j  executed  a  work  on  the  same 
plan,  in  a  superior  nianner,  adding  notices  of  the  difilerent  branches  of  natural  history,  and 
of  the  difierent  languages  of  nationa  M.  Malte-Brun,  by  his  acquaintance  v/ith  the  eastern 
and  rMrthiim  literature  of  Europe,  and  by  an  snimated  and  interebting  style,  has  produced  a 
work  in  seme  respects  superior.  M.  Balbi  has  distinguished  himself  by  tiie  industry  wit* 
which  he  has  collected  geographical  facts. 

We  sha'l  now  ^eke  a  view  of  modem  discovery  in  the  remoter  quarters  of  the  globe. 
Vol.  1.  7  K 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  L 


'■]\    Vi.,, 


V'   'fh- 


•  )  CHAPTER  VI.  ,i 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  ABIA. 

Asia  wau  the  first  continent  which  attracted  the  attention  of  Europeans,  and  the  joumeya 
of  all  the  early  travellers.  The  enterprise  of  the  Venetians  penetrated  into  some  of  tna 
wide  and  perilous  tracts  of  its  interior,  which  the  boldest  of  more  modem  travellers  have  in 
vain  essayed  to  reacj^i.  Since  the  passage  of  the  Cape,  the  career  of  discovery  has  been 
chiefly  maritime.  We  have  seen  how  rapidly  the  Portuguese  fleets  explored  all  the  80uUi< 
em  coasts  and  islands.  The  eastem  shores  beyond  Japan,  as  they  presented  nothing  tempt* 
•ng  to  commercial  avidity,  were  left  to  be  examined  by  expeditions  having  science  and  curi- 
osity for  their  object  I'liis  task  was  efiected  by  Cook,  Perouse,  Broughton,  and  Krusenstem. 
Jesso,  which  hadf  figured  as  a  large  continental  tract,  stretching  between  Asia  and  America, 
was  reduced  by  them  to  its  insular  form  and  dimensions,  and  its  separation  from  Saghalien 
established ;  the  range  of  the  Kurile  islands  was  also  traced ;  but  some  questions  respecting 
this  very  remote  ana  irregular  coast  remain  yet  to  be  solved.  Along  its  northern  boundary, 
beset  by  the  almost  perpetual  ices  of  the  polar  sea,  the  progress  of  navigation  was  slow  and 
laborious.  The  English  and  Dutch,  the  chief  maritime  states,  made  extraordinary  efibrta 
and  braved  fearflil  disasters,  in  the  hopeless  attempt  to  effect  by  this  route  a  nearer  passage 
to  India ;  but  though  they  penetrated  beyond  Nova  Zcmbla,  they  never  could  pass  the  formi- 
dable  promontory  of  Severovostochnoi,  the  most  northem  point  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  The 
Russians  now  claimed  for  themselves  the  task  of  advancing  farther.  They  had  most  rapidly 
discovered,  and  conquered  the  whole  south  and  centre  of  Siberia,  and  reached  the  eastern 
ocean  at  Ochotzk ;  but  the  ftozen  bounds  of  the  north  for  some  time  defied  their  investiga- 
tion. Proceeding  in  little  barks,  however,  they  worked  their  way  fVom  promontory  to  pro- 
montory. Behring  and  Tchirikoif,  early  in  the  last  century,  sailed  Uirough  the  Northern 
Pacific,  discovered  the  American  coast,  and  the  straits,  bearing  the  name  of  3ie  former,  which 
divide  Asia  from  America.  Deschnew  and  Shalaurof,  by  rounding  the  Asiatic  side  of  tliis 
Cape,  and  discovering  the  coast  stretching  away  to  the  westward,  were  supposed  to  have  es- 
tablished the  fact  of  the  entire  separation  of  the  two  contbents.  There  still  remained  a 
portion  of  coast  on  the  side  of  Asia,  which,  it  was  alleged,  might,  by  an  immense  circuit, 
nave  connected  the  two  together;  but  the  late  voyage  of  Baron  Wrangle  seems  to  have  re- 
moved every  ground  on  which  such  conjecture  could  rest,  and  to  have  astablished  beyond 
doubt  or  dispute,  the  existence  of  Asia  and  America  as  continents  altogether  distinct. 

Respecting  the  interior  of  Asia,  the  British  obtained  much  additional  information  iirom 
India,  after  mey  became  undisputed  masters  of  that  region.  This  information  was  in  many 
respects  only  a  revival  of  ancient  knowledge.  The  mountain  boundary  of  India  was  traced, 
and  found  to  rise  to  a  height  before  unsuspected.  The  sources  and  early  courses  of  the 
Ganges  and  the  Indus,  were  foimd  in  quartera  quite  diflferent  iirom  those  which  modem 
geography  had  long  assinied  to  them.  The  mountain  territories  of  Cabul  and  Candahar, 
5ife  vast  sandy  plains  of  Mekran,  were  illustrated  by  the  missions  of  Elphinstone  and  Pottin- 
ger ;  while  Turner  and  Moorcroft  penetrated  into  the  high  interior  table-land  of  Thibet 
Recent  and  authentic  information  has  also  been  fiimished  by  Burnes  respecting  Bochara  and 
Samarcand,  those  celebrated  capitals  of  the  early  masters  of  Asia :  but  th.;  e  remains  still  a 
great  central  Terra  Incognita,  respecting  which  our  information  rests  chiefly  upon  the  desul- 
tory and  somewhat  clouded  reports  of  Marco  Polo,  and  the  meagre  narrative  of  Goez ;  though 
some  important  and  more  precise  information  has  recently  been  afforded  by  tlie  researches  of 
Humboldt  and  Klaproth. 

CHAPTER  Vn. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  AFRICA. 

Africa,  more  than  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe,  has  defied  the  research,  and  humbled  the 
pride,  of  modem  inquiry.  After  accurate  surveys  had  been  made  of  the  remotest  oceans  and 
shores,  this  continent,  placed  almost  in  view  of  Europe,  still  baffled  every  attempt  to  pene- 
trate the  mighty  secrets  which  it  held  in  its  bosom.  This  vast  and  unbroken  region  enclosed 
by  huge  expanses  of  desert,  and  occupied  by  barbarous  and  predatory  tribes,  for  a  long 
period  proved  fatal  to  every  daring  mortal  who  attempted  to  penetrate  into  its  depths.  The 
Portuguese,  however,  at  an  early  period,  made  very  extraordinary  exertions,  impelled  by  the 
odd  chimera  of  Prestier  John,  a  Christian  prince,  whom  they  expected  to  find  la  the  interior. 
With  this  view  they  explored  Abyssinia,  of  which  they  vastly  exaggerated  the  dimensions, 
making  it  extend  even  to  the  Cfape,  in  the  vicinity  of  which,  according  to  their  idea,  the 
MUe  took  its  origin.  In  their  progress  also  along  the  westem  coast,  they  sent  .epeated  em- 
bassies into  the  mterior,  to  discover,  if  possible,  Uie  abode  of  Prester  John ;  ai.J  though  that 
fiivourite  object  always  eluded  their  searrh,  they  appear  to  have  reached  on  one  occasion  as 
far  as  Timbuctoo,  and  learned  at  Benin  some  particul3urs  respecting  the  great  Ulterior  king 
dom  of  Ogane  or  Ghana. 


Part  L 


ins,  and  tho  journevi 
ed  into  some  of  tha 
m  travellers  have  in 
'  discovery  has  been 
plored  all  the  aouUi* 
)nted  nothing  tempi- 
ng science  and  curi- 
on,  and  Krusenstem. 
n  Asia  and  America, 
tion  from  Saghalien 
questions  respecting 
8  northern  boundary, 
gation  was  slow  and 
extraordinary  efforts 
te  a  nearer  passage 
could  pass  the  formi- 
atic  continent.  The 
hey  had  most  rapidly 
reached  the  eastern 
lied  their  investiga* 
n  promontory  to  pro- 
rough  the  Northern 
of  the  former,  which 
Asiatic  side  of  tlus 
supposed  to  have  es- 
ere  still  remained  a 
an  immense  circuit, 
fie  seems  to  have  re- 
i  3stablished  beyond 
3ther  distinct, 
al  information  froio 
mation  was  in  many 
of  India  was  traced, 
larly  courses  of  tho 
dose  which  modem 
ibul  and  Candahar, 
hinstone  and  Pottin- 
ible-land  of  Thibet, 
ting  Bochara  and 
e  remains  still  a 
efly  upon  the  desul- 
Iveof  Goez;  though 
ly  tlie  researches  of 


Book  IIT. 


MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  AFRICA. 


75 


ject 


1,  and  humbled  the 
emotcst  oceans  and 
Y  attempt  to  pene- 
:en  region  enclosed 
tribes,  for  a  long 
0  its  depths.  The 
ns,  impelled  by  the 
ind  io  the  interior, 
d  the  dimensions, 
to  their  idea,  the 
sent  lepeated  em- 
oiiJ  though  that 
i'l  one  occasion  as 
eat  ulterior  king 


Tho  great  interior  river  called  by  Ptolemy  the  Niger,  was  the  object  which  from  the  first 
excited  tho  chief  interest  in  respect  to  t\}e  African  interior.  All  the  early  European  navi- 
gators, on  coming  to  tho  two  broad  estuaries  of  the  Senegal  and  Gambia,  concluded  that  one 
or  both  formed  the  termination  of  tho  long  course  wljich  the  Niger  had  been  described  as 
taking  across  the  entire  breadth  of  Africa.  For  several  centuries  tho  European  nations, 
intent  only  on  tho  trade  in  slaves,  merely  touched  at  ''.itibrent  pomts  of  tho  roast,  to  which 
those  unhippy  victims  were  brought  down  by  large  caravans.  In  tho  beginning  of  the 
seventeenlh  centurj',  however,  the  French  and  English  having  respectively  settled  on  the 
Senegal  and  Gambia,  were  tempted,  by  the  report  and  view  of  tho  gold  brought  from  the 
interior,  to  push  up  these  rivers  and  endeavour  to  reach  Timbuctoo.  They  had  not  ascended 
far,  when  they  became  sensible  that  the  extraordinary  magnitude  and  distant  origin  ascribed 
to  both  was  altogether  chimerical.  They  were  traced  so  near  to  their  sources  as  to  be 
little  moro  than  rivulets ;  yet  still  the  explorers  were  fiir  from  Timbuctoo,  and  from  the 
great  central  plain,  througli  which  the  main  course  of  tlie  Niger  was  understood  to  flow. 
At  tlie  same  time,  notices  were  transmitted  to  the  French  geographers  Delislc  and  D'Anville, 
which  led  them  to  infbr  that  there  was  in  that  region  another  and  greater  river,  which 
flowed  eastward  towards  tho  interior,  and  of  which  they  were  unable  to  learn  the  termintu- 
tion.  Yet  this  delineation  of  these  great  geographers  had  been  in  a  great  measure  lost 
sight  of,  even  among  their  own  countrymen. 

Tho  information  obtained  by  the  African  Association  at  first  tended  to  confirm  this  impres- 
sion. The  persons  who  had  crossed  the  Niger  at  the  most  eastern  part  of  tho  control  Afri- 
can plain,  described  it  to  Mr.  Lucas  as  flowing  westward :  but  these  conflicting  statements 
wore  silenced  by  tho  first  expedition  of  Mr.  Park,  who  at  Sego  beheld  it  a  broad  and  majes- 
tic stream,  flowmg  through  the  plain  of  Bambarra  from  west  to  east,  and  directing  its  course 
into  the  depths  of  interior  Africa.  From  that  time,  tlio  termination  of  the  Niger  became 
the  grand  problem  which  the  science  and  the  enterprise  of  the  age  were  exerted  to  solve. 
A  boundless  field  v/as  open  to  conjecture.  By  one  theory,  the  Niger  was  lost  in  some  great 
inland  seas  or  lakes  of  the  interior ;  by  another,  it  bent  to  the  south  and  west,  and  reached 
the  Atlti  '  ic  either  in  tho  Gulf  of  Benin,  or  by  tlie  estuary  of  the  Congo ;  lastly,  it  rolled  to 
the  eastward,  till,  under  the  name  of  the  Abiad,  or  White  River,  it  became  the  principal 
head  of  the  Nile  of  Egypt.  At  last,  by  the  persevering  exertions  of  the  British  govern- 
ment, an  expedition  fairly  succeeded  in  penetrating  into  the  hitlierto  unknown  interior  (f 
Africa,  and  m  throwing  a  wonderful  addition  of  light  upon  its  structure.  This  mission,  ho\i 
ever,  broke  up  the  grand  question.  They  discovered,  flowin  •  through  the  great  African 
plain,  not  one  river  in  one  direction,  but  several  in  different  directions ;  all  of  which,  it 
appears,  nave  been  considered  at  different  times,  and  under  different  circumstances,  as  the 
Niger.  These  rivers  are  four : — 1.  The  Senegal,  considered  by  the  Arabiaiu  and  modem 
Europeans  as  the  embouchure  by  which  the  Ni^er  entered  the  ocean,  2.  The  Joliba,  which 
"ver  since  it  was  visited,  and  its  course  ascertained,  by  Park,  has  been  fixed  in  the  mind  of 
Europeans  as  the  only  Niger ;  thougli  probably  not  known  to  any  of  tlie  ancient  geographers 
who  used  that  term.  3.  The  Quorrama,  or  river  of  Zirmie,  first  discovered  by  the  late 
mistiion,  flowing  from  east  to  west,  and  falling  into  the  Joliba  or  Quolla,  This  is  evidently 
the  Arabian  Nile  of  the  negroes,  on  or  near  which  are  situated  all  their  great  cities — Ghana, 
now  known  under  the  name  of  Cano ;  Berissa,  imder  that  of  Bershee ;  Tocrur,  as  I  appre- 
liend,  under  that  of  Sackatoo.  4.  The  Yeou,  flowmg  eastward  into  the  great  lake  of  Boriiou, 
and  whiph  appears  to  have  been  the  western  Nile  of  Herodotus,  visited  by  the  Nasamonian 
adventurers  from  Tripoli.  The  mission  also  ascertained  the  site  of  the  kingdom  of  Bomou, 
which  had  been  very  erroneously  placed ;  tliey  discovered  tlie  fertile  kingdom  of  Loggun, 
perhaps  the  Cauga  of  Edrisi,  and  the  great  mountain  region  of  Mandara,  which  appear 
be  the  Mons  Mandrua  of  Ptolemy.  The  subsequent  expedition  of  Clapperton  from  ti.  . 
Gulf  of  Benin  showed  the  connexion  between  the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  mterior,  and  com- 
pleted the  diagonal  section  made  across  the  greatest  breadth  of  the  African  continent.  It 
eiiowed  also  the  continuity  of  large  and  populous  kingdoms  extending  in  this  direction : 
Eyeo,  the  Gago  of  Leo  and  the  early  geographers ;  Zegzeg,  with  its  large  capital  Zaria ; 
ISfyffe,  the  most  industrious  of  the  African  states ;  Boussa,  Koolfu,  and  other  flourishing 
cities.  The  Niger  of  Park  was  here  seen  holding  a  southerly  direction  towards  the  Gulf 
of  Benin ;  but  it  was  reserved  for  Lander  finally  to  solve  the  grand  problem  by  tracing  the 
Niger  down  to  its  tennir.?tion  in  the  Gulf  of  Benin.  This  discovery,  witli  that  of  its  numer- 
ous tributaries,  oper.-  ^  nmerce  the  prospect  of  being  able  to  penetrate  into  the  most 
interior  and  finest  i>^  of  the  African  continent. 

Among  partial  but  i  uportont  contributions  to  tho  knowledge  of  Africa,  may  be  mentioned 
V  T  observations  of  Bruue  and  Salt  in  Abyssinia;  those  of  Brown  in  Darfur ;  of  Waddington 
a. J  Caillaud  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Nile;  and,  lastly,  of  Liciiienstein,  Campbell,  and 
Burchell,  upon  the  countries  which  lie  in  the  interior  northward  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  Yet  a  vast  field  still  remains  for  future  discovery.  In  particular,  all  the  eoutiiera 
interior,  from  the  ec^  ■  /or  nearly  to  tlie  Cape,  has  scarcely  been  the  subject  even  of  rumour. 
The  sources  of  the  1  'h,  after  the  search  of  so  mv    '  afres,  are  yet  unexplored:  as  well  as 


76 


HISTORY  OF  GKOGRAPIIY. 


Part  L 


'&  i 


liil;'l;i'v 


Ihat  wide  range  /  territory;  whicli  intervenes  between  it  and  tlie  Bcries  of  rivers  wliicli  we 
have  just  noticed  as  ussutningf  the  name  of  Niger.  Tiie  continuity  and  structure  also  of 
tliat  vast  chain  of  mountains,  which,  according  lo  rrcr  nt  travellers,  appears  to  cross  Africa 
at  its  greatest  breadth,  and  gives  rise  to  so  many  mighty  8tream8,have  yot  by  nomeans  been 
completely  traced. 


'^APTERVIII. 
MOi>rRi<J  «}£OOEAPHY  Of  AMERICA. 


Tub  discovery  of  Ameilou,  as  formerly  observed,  was  made  in  the  first  instance  with 
extraordinary  rapiility.  The  thirst  for  gold  and  tho  spirit  of  adventure  urged  nation  after 
nation  to  explore  its  coasts,  and  penetrate  its  interior.  Within  twenty  years  was  formed 
a  full  and  tolerably  precise  outline  of  tho  whole  eastern  coast,  fVom  tho  mouth  of  Hudson's 
Bay  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  conquest  of  Cortez,  of  Pizarro,  and  of  their  im- 
mediate succoasors,  soon  conveyed  a  pretty  accurate  idea  of  the  western  coast  of  South 
America,  of  '^Icxico,  and  even  of  the  poni   '  If  .ornia.    But  the  northern  regions, 

stretchinjcr  into  tho  jces  of  the  Pole,  ri  tfeouted  barriers  of  a  lonnidablo  description,  which 
long  baincd  the  utmost  efforts  of  navigators.  America  on  tliis  side  resisted  for  a  longer 
time  tlie  attempts  to  complete  its  delineation  thi  n  any  other  continent. 

To  explore  the  north-western  coast  seems  to  have  been  an  undertaking  properly  belong- 
ing t '  Spain,  the  possessor  of  all  the  vast  and  opulent  regions  which  extend  along  the 
Pacifi'*  Recent  notices  have  shown  that  they  did  not  neglect  that  inquiry,  for  Cortez  and 
severai  jf  tho  other  viceroys  sent  expeditions  along  this  coast,  to  which  they  gave  the  name 
of  Ne  .  -?.Iexico.  The  Spaniards,  howcvt  as  usual,  shrouded  in  deep  mystery  even  these 
lir  itrd  discoveries,  and  were  long  able  to  prevent  tiie  other  nations  of  Europe  from  visiting 
tliis  coast,  the  most  remote  and  inaccessible  of  any  in  the  circuit  of  tlie  globe.  Furopeana. 
therefore,  were  not  aware  of  the  vast  breadth  to  which  this  continent  expanded  towards  the 
north.  They  rather  suppoEod  that,  like  South  America,  it  narrowed  to  a  point  or  cape, 
upon  rxissing  which  the  navigator  would  enter  upon  the  expanse  of  the  Pacinc,  and  might 
boar  down  upon  Japan,  China,  and  the  East  Indies.  The  commercial  nations  therefore, 
made  vigorous  and  almost  ceaseless  eflibrts  to  ^um  this  point,  and  effect,  as  they  imagined,  a 
nearer  and  mort  direct  route  into  the  eastern  sea?. 

The  English  took  the  lead  in  this  important  career.  Under  the  reign  cl  ,ueen  Eliza- 
beth, Frobisher  and  Davis  made  each  three  successive  voyages.  One  discovered  the 
entrance  into  Hudson's  Baj%  the  other  found  the  entrance  into  the  great  sea  which  bears 
th('  name  of  Ballin's  Bay ;  but,  partly  arrested  by  the  well  known  obstructions  to  which 
these  seas  are  liable,  partly  diverted  by  a  chimerical  search  after  gold,  they  could  not  pene- 
trate beyond  the  numerous  islands  and  inlets  by  tvhich  these  entrances  are  beset.  Hudson, 
in  1610,  steered  a  bolder  courso,  and  entered  the  vast  bay,  which  has  received  its  appella- 
tion from  that  great  navigator,  who  there  unfortunately  terminated  his  adventurous  career. 
The  treachery  of  a  ferocious  and  mutinous  crew  exposed  him  on  these  frozen  and  desolate 
shores,  where  he  miserably  perisheu.  Sii  Thomas  Button  followed  in  1612,  and  finding 
himself  in  the  middle  of  this  capacious  basin,  iir  gined  himself  already  in  the  Pacific,  and 
stood  1  '1  sail  to  the  wPivvard.  Tt  his  utter  '1  may  he  c;  me  to  the  long  continuous  line 
of  shore  which  forms  th  :  estem  !.jundary  of  j  ison's  Bay.  He  expressed  his  disappoint- 
ment by  giving  to  the  coast  the  name  of  "  Hope  checked."  Bylot  and  BaSin,  who  followed 
three  years  after,  were  stopped  by  the  ice  at  Southampton  Jpinnd.  Baffin,  liowever,  made 
afterwards  a  more  important  vovage,  in  which  he  completelv  rounded  the  shores  of  that 
great  sea  which  bears  hip  'ai.i; ,  and  which,  app"?aring[  to  him  m  be  inclosed  on  all  sides  by 
land,  has  been  denominated  Pnffin's  Bay.  The  error  involved  in  this  appellation  deterred 
subsequent  navigators  from  any  fiirther  attempt ;  for  Baffin,  in  passing  ihe  great  opening 
of  Ijancaster  sound,  had  concluded  it  to  be  mer^^'v  i  gulf.  From  that  pericl  tho  Englisfi 
navigators,  though  they  ceased  not  to  viev  i.his  c  j  't  with  ardour,  hoped  to  fulfil  it  only  by 
the  channel  of  Hudson  s  Bay.  In  1631,  t"  vessels  ere  sent  thither  under  Fox  and  James. 
The  latter,  entangled  in  some  of  the  scu  bay 
the  cold  of  the  wmter;  but  the  former.  a.i  ly  < 
part  of  th!?t  great  opening  callod  Sir  Tlior  las  Roe'.'; 

almost  the  only  hope  of  a  passage ;  but  he  stopped  siiort  at  a  point  which  he  termed  "  Fox's 
farthest"  Under  Charles  IT.  a  company  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  settlement  and 
commerce  in  Hudson's  Bay,  and  engaged  to  make  the  most  strenuous  exertions  to  discover 

western  passage ;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  only  exertions  really  made  by  the  Company 
ended  to  prevent  any  such  discovery.  Middleton,  an  officer  in  their  service,  was  sent  out 
in  1741,  sailed  up  the  Welcome,  and  believed  himself  to  have  discovered  that  the  head  of 
that  channel  was  completely  closed.  He  was  strongly  charged  with  having  received  a  high 
bribe  from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  stifle  the  discovery,  and  Moor  and  Smith  were 
Knt  out  in  the  following  year  with  the  most  sanguine  hopes;  but  when  they  returned  with' 


returned  after  dreadfiil  sufferings  from 
ing  himself  North-west  Fox,  explored  a 
Velcome,  which  appeared  now  to  aflfbrd 


Book  IIT. 


TIIE  AUSTRAL  SEAS      \D  ISLANDS. 


»7 


of  rivers  whicli  we 
1  Btructure  also  of 
ears  to  croes  Africa 
ot  by  no  moans  been 


first  instance  with 
I  urged  nation  after 
y  years  was  formed 

mouth  of  Hudson's 
J,  and  of  their  im- 
tem  coast  of  South 
3  northern  regions, 
I  description,  which 
resisted  for  a  longer 

ng  properly  bclong- 
i  extend  along  the 
uiry,  for  Cortez  and 
they  gave  the  name 
mystery  even  these 
Europe  from  visiting 

globe.  Europeans, 
cpanded  towards  the 
I  to  a  point  or  cape, 

Pacific,  and  might 
.1  nations  therefore, 
as  they  imagined,  a 

gn  cl  ...ueen  Eliza- 

5ne  discoverer]  the 

;at  sea  which  bears 

structioiis  to  wliich 

hey  could  not  pene- 

Lre  beset.    Hudson, 

ceived  its  appelk- 

advonturous  career. 

07t  n  and  desolate 

1612,  and  finding 

in  the  Pacific,  ana 

ing  continuous  line 

sscd  his  disappoint- 

JaSin,  who  followed 

(fin,  however,  made 

the  shores  of  that 

nsed  on  all  sides  by 

ppellation  deterred 

ihe  great  opening 

peric;']  the  EngliM 

to  ftilfil  it  only  by 

lor  Fox  and  Jamea 

fill  Buflerings  from 

est  Fox,  explored  a 

eared  now  to  afl!brd 

he  termed  "  Fox's 

of  settlement  and 

:ertions  to  discover 

e  by  the  Company 

ice,  was  sent  out 

(d  that  the  head  of 

ng  received  a  high 

and  Smith  were 

ley  returned  with' 


out  having  effi  cted  any  thing,  the  public  expectii  us  were  greatly  ubatea.  It  bccani*^  the 
ffencral  imprc^s.on  that  America,  on  this  side,  formod  a  mass  of  unbroken  land,  and  that  the 
long  sought  passage  had  no  existence. 

New  views  of  Uie  extent  and  form  of  the  northern  extremities  of  America  were  opened 
by  the  discoveries  of  Cook,  corroborated  by  those  of  some  other  Englisli  navigators  in  the 
Northern  Pacific.  It  appeared  that  America  there  stretched  away  to  the  north-west,  till  it 
reached  a  breadth  equal  to  one-fourth  part  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  Cook  pene- 
trated, indeed,  through  the  strait  which  bounds  the  continent  and  separates  it  from  Asia ;  but 
the  coast  appeared  there  extending  indefinitely  nortli ;  and  it  bncanie  a  general  impression 
that  America  formed  a  huge  unbroken  mass  of  land  approaciiing  the  Pole,  and  perhaps 
reaching  that  ultimate  point  of  the  globe.  This  belief  received  a  sudden  shock  fi-om 
Heame^s  voyage  down  the  Copper  Mine  River,  and  his  discovery  of  the  sea  into  which  it 
fell,  in  a  latitude  not  higher  than  tliat  of  the  north  of  Hudson's  Bay.  Soon  after,  Sir 
Alexander  Mackenzie  traced  also  to  the  sea  another  river  twenty  degrees  farther  west. 
There  was  now  a  strong  presumption  that  a  sea  bounded  the  whole  of  America  to  the  north, 
and  that  there  really  was  such  a  passage  as  had  been  so  long  sought,  and  might  be  found, 
were  it  not  too  closely  barred  by  ice  and  tempest.  The  British  administration,  animated 
with  an  active  and  laudable  zeal  m  the  cause  of  discovery,  determined  that  no  possi'Je  effort 
should  be  omitted  by  v/hich  this  important  and  long  agitated  question  might  bo  brought  to  a 
final  decision. 

A  Buries  of  exploratory  voyaj^es  was  now  begun.  Capt.  Ross,  in  1818,  made  the  circuit 
of  Boffin's  Bay,  and  returned  with  the  belief  that  no  opening  existed:  Lieut  Parry,  second 
in  command,  formed  a  different  judgment,  nnd  having  satisfied  the  Admiralty  as  to  his 
grounds  of  belief,  was  sent  out  with  the  cor  and  of  a  new  expedition.  In  this  memorable 
voyage,  Capt.  Parry  penetrated  through  Lam  ister  Sound,  which  he  found  to  widen  gradually, 
until  it  opened  into  the  expanse  of  the  Polar  Sea.  He  did  not  touch  on  any  part  of  the 
iVmerican  coast,  but  found  parallel  to  it  a  chain  of  large  islands;  and  his  progress  through 
the^■e  was  arrested,  not  by  land,  but  by  straits  and  channels  encumbered  with  ice.  In  con- 
sideration of  these  obstacles,  his  next  attempt  was  made  through  Hudson's  Bay,  by  the  yet 
imperfectly  explored  channel  of  the  Welcome.  Struggling  through  various  obstacles,  he 
reached  at  length  a  point  considerably  beyond  that  where  Middleton  had  stopped,  and 
found  a  strait  opening  from  Hudson's  Bay  into  the  Polar  Sea.  This  strait  was,  however,  so 
-larrow,  and  so  mi  iplotoly  blocked  with  ice,  that  there  appeared  no  room  to  hope  that  it 
1  uld  ever  aflbnl  "  ,-on  passage.  Capt  Parry  was  therefore  again  sent  out  in  Iiis  first 
ction ;  but  h  ide  no  material  addition  to  his  former  discoveries.  Meantime  a  land 
ney,  under  ipt  Franklin,  following  in  the  footsteps  of  Heame,  reached  the  sea,  and 
discovered  a  coi.iiderable  extent  of  the  hitherto  unknown  northern  coast  of  the  American 
conti'  rit.  A  tolerably  clear  glimpse  was  thus  obtained  of  its  extent  and  boundaries;  and 
the  z.  IS  efforts  of  govemmc,iit  were  employed  to  verify  the  whole  by  actual  survey.  A 
second  cxpediti  n  under  Capt  Franklin  extended  this  survey  over  three-fourths  of  this 
boundary  coa.  t ,  '  reached  beyond  the  140th  degree  of  longitude.  Meantime  an  expedi- 
tion, under  Cap  Becchy,  sent  to  meet  Captain  Franklin  froiii  the  westward,  passed  the 
Icy  Cn\)c  of  Coo.  and  arrived  at  nearly  156°  W.  longitude;  between  which  point  and 
Coptam  Franklin's  farthest  limit  there  intervened  only  7°,  or  150  miles. 

■jPhe  belief  was  hence  entertained,  that  the  whole  coast  extended  in  a  line  not  varying 
much  fi-om  the  70th  degree  of  latitude ;  but  the  important  expedition  which  Captain  Ross 
has  just  achieved  through  so  many  difficulties,  proves  the  existence  of  a  large  peninsula, 
extending  as  far  north  as  74°  N.  latitude.  It  remains  still  probable  that  a  naval  passage 
may  exist  farther  north,  in  the  line  of  Captain  Parry's  first  voyage.  But  the  encumb.ring 
ice  is  so  thick,  and  so  wedged  into  various  straits  and  channels,  5iat  probably  v/y  vosse!  will 
ever  be  able  even  once  to  work  its  way  through ;  and  certainly  a  ship  could  iievi<r  si^t  out 
with  anj  assurance  of  thus  finding  its  way  from  the  Atlantic  into  the  Pacific.  Britain  has, 
however,  reaped  an  ample  share  of  glory  in  contributing  so  essentially  to  delineate  the 
boundaries  and  dimensions  of  this  great  and  important  continent 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OP  THE  AUSTRAL  BEAS  AND  ISLANDS. 

More  than  half  the  surface  of  the  globe,  including  long  groups  of  islands  and  vast 
expanses  of  ocean,  remained  unexplored,  even  after  regular  naval  routes  had  been  formed 
roimd  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  Cape  Horn;  yet  there  soon  arose  the  belief  of  an  Austral 
continent,  as  extensive  and  as  abound  in  jr  in  wealth  as  that  which  had  been  discovered  by 
Columbus.  An  idenl  balance  was  fanci;  1,  which  it  was  supposed  must  exist  between  the 
lands  of  the  northern  and  those  of  the  southern  hemispheres;  and  the  more  disproportionate 
the  extent  of  sea  which  existed  in  the  known  parts  of  the  latter,  the  greater  it  was  sup- 
po»^  must  be  the  mass  of  southern  continent  which  was  to  establish  this  ideal,  imaginary 


78 


HISTORY  OF  GKOORAPIIY. 


Part  I.  Book  III. 


i^r 


!f!ll' 


balance.  In  all  tho  cnrly  maps,  a  huge  contiix  iitul  luas.^  cncirclort  the  Au  ic  rxtlu,  aini 
prcMcntM  to  the  groat  ocean  a  cuntinuouM  circuit  of  aliore  roacluug  ruun'i  ino  gtulM:  tlit' 
above  lumlogiea  were  doubtleoii  aided  by  dixcovoriuu  mode  on  great  insular  tracta  of  the 
Snutli  Sea,  ao  partial  that  they  niigltt  bo  uiiHtakon  fur  pruniuntoriuM,  or  portionn  of  u  i(rcat 
Riaiw  of  Antarctic  land. 

Tho  Portuguese,  so  long  tho  mout  skilful  and  intrepid  navigators  of  tho  ocean,  appear  to 
havo  been  the  firat  who  threw  any  light  u|)un  tliin  Hllh  and  niuut  remote  portion  of  the  earth; 
in  leMS  than  twenty  yeurH  atler  their  pstiuge  of  the  Cupe  Uiey  had  reached  tho  most  extreme 
islandii  of  the  Oriental  Archipelago,  mcluuing  Java  and  tho  Moluccas,  and  ap|)car  even  tu 
havo  observed  some  parts  of  the  coast  of  New  Guinea.  There  are  uo  recurds  of  tliuir  having 
proceeded  further ;  but  maps  have  been  found  in  tho  British  Museum,  and  other  cuUectionn, 
which  exhibit  an  extensive  land  to  the  south  of  Java,  under  tlie  title  of  Java  Major,  on 
which  occur  a  number  of  names,  souie  of  them  Portuguese :  one  of  these  maps,  partly 
translated  into  French,  has  the  "  CU(e  dca  Herbages"  a  name  somewhat  curiously  coincid- 
ing with  Botany  Bay.  Nono  of  those  discoveries,  however,  havo  been  embodied  in  any 
known  narration. 

The  Hpuniards  also,  during  their  early  and  adventurous  career,  made  strenuous  efTorts  tu 
explore  the  southern  seas:  Magellan,  as  already  observed,  by  his  first  circumnavigation  of 
tlie  globe,  effected  a  grand  step  in  geographical  diiicovory.  Alvaro  Mendana,  in  1566, 
sailed  from  Lima,  and,  afler  crossing  tho  ureodth  of  tiio  Pacific,  discovered  a  group  of  large 
maritime  lands,  to  which,  from  a  chimerical  reference  to  Ophir,  he  gave  the  name  of 
"  Islands  of  Solomon :"  they  appear  to  bo  part  of  that  great  group  whica  forms  the  outer 
range  of  Australasia.  Mendana  set  out  on  a  second  voyage,  and  reached  tlii^  same  quarter, 
but,  by  some  fatality,  could  not  again  find  tho  islands  formerly  discovered.  Quires  made  a 
still  more  important  expedition  ;  he  passed  through  the  Polynesian  group ;  and  Sagittarin, 
one  of  tho  islands  discovered  by  him,  appears  clearly  identified  witli  Otohcito ;  ho  ter- 
minated his  voyage,  like  Mendana,  among  tlic  exterior  islands  of  Australasia ;  and  with 
him  expired  tlie  spirit  of  Spanish  enterprise. 

The  Dutch,  when  they  had  expelled  the  Portuguese  from  Java  and  tho  Spice  Islands,  and 
had  establishcil  in  them  the  centre  of  their  Indian  dominion,  were  placed  in  such  close 
proximity  with  Now  Holland,  that  it  was  scarcely  possible  for  a  great  maritime  nation  to 
avoid  extending  their  search  to  that  region.  Van  Diemeii,  the  Dutch  governor  of  India 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  greatly  promoted  this  object,  and  sent  successive 
vessels  to  exphjro  the  coast  of  New  Holland,  ilertog.  Carpenter,  Nuytz,  and  Ulaming 
made  very  extensive  observations  on  tho  northern  and  western  shores,  but  found  tliem  so 
dreary  and  unpromising,  that  no  settlement  of  any  description  was  ever  attempted.  Abel 
Tasman,  however,  wont  beyond  his  predecessors ;  he  reached  tlie  southern  extremity  of  this 
great  mass  of  land,  to  which  he  gave  tho  name  of  Von  Diemen,  witliout  discovering  it  to  be 
an  island :  he  then  sailed  across,  surveyed  the  western  coast  of  Now  Zealand,  and  returned 
homo  by  the  Friendly  Islands,  This  important  range  of  discovery  was  not  followed  up ;  it 
refuted,  however,  the  delineation  by  which  New  Holland  had  been  made  part  of  the  imagined 
Austral  continent.  In  the  newly  arranged  charts,  that  continent  still  remained,  but  witii 
its  position  shifted  fiirther  to  tlie  south,  and  New  Zealand  probably  contributing  to  form  port 
of  its  fancied  outline. 

The  English  nation,  by  the  voyages  of  several  navigators,  and  particularly  of  Cook,  secured 
the  glory  of  fully  exploring  the  depths  of  the  great  Pacific.  The  previous  voyages  of  Byron, 
Wallis,  and  Carteret  had  already  made  known  some  of  the  interesting  groups  of  islands 
with  which  ite  vast  surface  is  studded.  Cook  fully  traced  the  ffreat  chains  of  the  Society 
Islands,  and  of  the  Friendly  Islands ;  he  discovered  and  surveyed  the  eastern  coasts  of  New 
Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  He  settled  tlie  form  and  relations  of  New  Zealand,  New 
Caledonia,  and  the  other  great  Australasian  lands  and  islands.  This  side  he  passed  thrice  the 
Antarctic  circle,  and  ranging  along  the  yet  unvisited  borders  of  the  southern  pole,  solved,  by 
refuting,  the  fiimous  modem  hypofiesis  of  an  Austral  continent.  He  navigated  also  through 
the  northern  Pacific,  observed  carefully  tlie  group  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  established, 
in  the  manner  before  pointed  out,  the  relation  between  the  continents  of  Asia  and  America. 
Many  eminent  navigators,  among  tho  French,  La  Perouse,  Marchand,  D'Entrecasteaux; 
among  the  Russians,  Kotzcl3ue  and  Krusenstcrn ;  among  the  English,  Vancouver  and  Beechey, 
followed ;  and,  though  the  grand  prizes  of  discovery  had  been  carried  off,  found  still  some 
gleanings  in  so  vast  a  field.  The  circumnavigation  of  the  globe  has  ended  in  becoming  a 
mere  trading  voyage,  which  conveys  neither  name  nor  glory  to  him  by  whom  it  is  achieved. 
Captain  Weddell,  however,  has  lately,  in  New  South  Shetland,  found  a  tract  of  land  situated 
nearer  to  the  Antarctic  pole  than  any  previously  supposed  to  exist 

New  Holland,  much  the  most  extensive  of  the  lands  belonging  to  the  southern  hemisphere, 
and  rendered  doubly  interesting  by  its  recent  relations  with  Europe,  has  formed  the  tlieatre 
of  late  southerii  uiscoveries.  Buss,  in  uu  open  boat,  found  the  strait  which  bears  his 
name,  separating  New  Holland  from  Van  Diemen's  land,  and  making  the  latter  a  separate 
island.    Baudia  and  Flinders,  contemporaiu "usly  employed  by  the  French  and  Englisl 


Part  I.  Book  HI. 

Aii  :■••;  ic  jX)le,  wul 
lUii'l  lao  gmto :  tlie 
iiiiulur  tracU  of  tho 
portiouH  of  a  groat 

lio  ocoon,  ttpiKior  to 
|)ortion  of  the  earth ; 
od  tlio  most  extreme 
and  appear  even  to 
cordu  ot  tliuir  liavin|] 
jid  other  collections', 
a  of  Java  Major,  on 
these  maps,  partly 
at  curiously  coinciJ- 
en  ombodiod  in  any 

)  fitrenuoua  efforts  to 
circumnavigation  of 
Mcndana,  in  1568, 
cred  a  group  of  largo 
e  gave  the  name  of 
iiich  forms  tlie  outer 
led  tli'i  Bamo  quarter, 
red.  Quiros  made  a 
oup;  and  Sagittaria, 
ith  Otaheito  ;  he  tcr- 
Lustraloaia;  and  with 

tho  Spice  Islands,  and 
placed  in  such  close 
it  maritime  nation  to 
tch  governor  of  India 
ct,  and  sent  successive 
iNuytz,  and  Ulammg 
09,  but  found  tliem  so 
ver  attempted.  Abel 
lem  extremity  of  this 
ut  discovering  it  to  be 
Zealand,  and  returned 
as  not  followed  up;  it 
0  port  of  the  imagined 
jU  remained,  but  with 
itributing  to  form  part 

arlyof  Cook,  secured 
ous  voyages  of  Byron, 
ing  groups  of  islands 
choms  of  the  Society 
lastem  coasts  of  New 

New  Zealand,  New 
.  he  passed  thrice  the 
ithem  pole,  solved,  by 
avigated  also  through 
inds,  and  established, 
of  Asia  and  America. 
,nd,  D'Entrecasteaux; 
ncouver  and  Beechey, 
id  off,  found  still  some 

ended  in  becoming  a 

whom  it  is  achieved. 

tract  of  land  situated 


southern  hemisphere. 

formed  the  theatrp 

it  which  bears  his 

the  latter  a  separate 

French  and  Englisl 


Pabt  11. 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


T» 


nations,  mndo  a  continuous  survey  of  tlio  vast  circuit  of  its  coasts,  which  had  been  before 
touched  only  at  partial  points.  At  a  later  period,  Freycinct  made  some  additional  obscrva< 
tiona;  and  King  found  still  a  great  extent  of  north  and  nortli- .<  cstern  coast  to  survey  for  tha 
first  time.  More  recently,  tlio  discovery  of  Swan  River  and  its  shores  promises  to  redeem 
the  reproach  of  sterility  which  had  l)ccn  attached  to  tho  wholo  wostom  coast  of  this  conti* 
nont ;  tho  interior  on  the  eastern  side  also,  tliough  guarded  by  steep  and  lof\y  barriers,  hot 
been  penetrated  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  found  to  contain  extensive  plains  travorsod  by 
large  rivers.  Still  tho  explored  tracts  form  only  a  small  proportion  of  tho  vast  surface  of 
Uiis  southern  continent 


PART  II. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

Amono  the  various  branches  of  human  knowledge  there  is  so  intinute  a  connexion,  that 
no  science  can  bo  truly  said  to  be  independent  of  all  others.  Some,  indeed,  may  bo  regarded 
as  primary,  because,  to  a  certain  extent,  they  have  had  an  independent  existence,  and  be- 
cause other  sciences  have  sprung  from  them.  Such,  for  example,  are  arithmutic  and 
geometry,  tho  prolific  parents  of  all  tho  branches  of  modern  mathematics.  Other  Hciences, 
again,  aro  connected  by  collateral  relationship,  in  respect  of  their  affording  mutual  aid:  and 
in  this  manner  all  the  branches  of  human  knowledge  depend  one  on  another,  each  repaying 
the  advantajros  which  it  has  received. 

The  subject  of  this  treatise.  Geography,  which  in  common  with  other  sciences  owes  its 
origin  tu  the  wants  of  man,  joined  with  his  inherent  desire  of  knowledge,  has  arrived  at  its 
present  state  of  improvement  by  the  aid  of  several  sciences,  and  of  a  very  great  number  of 
tho  arts  which  are  the  fruit  of  human  ingenuity.  It  is  more  particularly  indebted  to  the 
mathematical  sciences,  either  directly,  as  furnishing  rules  and  methods  by  which  tho  mag- 
nitude  of  the  earth,  its  figure,  and  the  position  of  tho  different  parts  of  its  surface,  may  be 
determined ;  or  indirectly,  inasmuch  as  it  has  been  improved  by  astronomy,  navigation,  and 
other  sciences  which  owe  their  perfection  to  the  mathematics.  To  the  arts  its  obligations 
are  innumerable :  for  every  step  of  progress  which  has  been  made  in  the  construction  and 
management  of  ships,  in  the  fabrication  of  mathematical,  optical,  and  nautical  instruments, 
and  in  the  collateral  arts  on  which  tlicse  depend,  has  contributed  to  the  advancement  of 
geographical  knowledge. 

The  doctrines  of  e;eography  strongly  support,  and  have  a  close  affinity  with,  those  of 
astronomy.  It  is  only  by  the  application  of  this  latter  science  that  we  have  been  able  to 
discover  the  true  figure  of  the  earth,  and  its  magnitude :  and  some  of  the  most  important 
divisions  of  the  earth's  surface  are  marked  out  by  astronomical  phenomena.  On  the  other 
hand,  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  is  of  the  highest  import- 
ance  in  the  explication  of  the  moro  recondite  doctrmes  of  astronomy.  Hence,  while  tho 
doctrines  of  astronomy  involve  the  principles  of  geography,  it  holds  equally  true  that  tho 
principles  of  geography  can  only  be  understood  by  a  due  application  of  some  of  the  more 
sinmle  theories  ot  astronomy. 

The  science  of  geology  has,  if  possible,  a  still  more  intimate  connexion  with  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  earth.  While  astronomy  delineates  the  form  and  movements  of  that  planet,  and 
its  relation  to  other  bodies  in  the  universe,  geology  describes  the  materials  which  compose 
its  surface,  and  the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged,  with  the  composition  and  phenomena 
of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  Tho  various  mequalities  into  which  it  is  formed,  the  dis- 
tuiction  of  land  and  sea,  with  their  origin  and  efi'ects,  come  all  within  the  sphere  of  this 
important  science. 

The  organized  and  living  beings  which  cover  the  surface  of  our  planet,  form  a  most  in- 
teresting feature  in  its  delineation.  For  the  support  and  nourishment  of  these,  the  whole 
of  its  vast  structure  was  originally  destined.  In  taking  a  survey  of  this  interesting  range 
of  objects,  we  may  begin  with  plants;  then  ascend  to  animals;  and,  lastly,  to  man,  who 
holds  the  chief  rank  in  the  constitution  of  this  lower  world. 

Three  divisions,  comprehending  each  a  separate  book,  will,  on  the  grounds  now  stated, 
comprehend  the  Principles  of  Geography :  these  are — ^I.  Astronomical  Principles.     II.  Geo- 
logical principles.    III.  Geography  considered  in  relation  to  the  organized  living  and  rationa 
natures  whicn  cover  the  surrace  of  the  earth.* 


■■"■--.I    m,^  ,i 


} 


mh 


mi' 


i'l'^wh^A 


I /I   V 


nnri 


') 


eo 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

BOOK    I. 

ASTRONOMICAL   PRINCIPLES. 


PiATlL 


CHAPTER  I. 

OENERAL  VIEW  OP  THE  PHENOMENA  OP  THE  HEAVENS,  APPAEENT  MOTIONS,  FIXED 

STARS,  PLANETS,  io. 

The  succession  of  day  and  night  brings  under  our  observation  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  an 
innumerable  multitude  of  luminous  bodies,  which  appear  like  points  on  the  concave  surface 
of  tlie  heavens.  Of  these  the  sun  and  tlie  moon  are  the  most  remarkable.  The  sun  at  all 
times  presents  to  us  a  circular  disc :  the  disc  of  the  moon  Is  also  at  certain  periods  circular, 
but  she  undergoes  a  succession  of  changes  in  the  appearances  of  her  luminous  part,  which 
are  denominate  phases.  With  regard  to  the  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  from  this  earth, 
we  are  certain  tiiat  they  are  very  remote ;  for  we  observe  that  their  apparent  magnitude  is 
not  sensibly  affected  by  any  change  in  our  local  position.  We  may  with  probability  supple 
the  stars  to  be  bodies  of  the  same  nature  with  the  sun  and  moon,  appming  smaller  only 
because  they  are  at  a  greater  distance. 

The  apparent  motion  of  the  heavens  from  east  to  west  about  a  fixed  point  in  the  northern 
quarter  of  the  sky,  as  seen  in  this  country,  is  a  phenomenon  quite  fiimiliar  to  every  one.  If 
we  change  our  position  on  the  earth  by  going  always  south,  this  fixed  point  appears  to  de- 
scend, and  at  last  it  sinks  below  the  horizon :  but  we  now  perceive  that  there  is  another 
fixed  point  in  the  southern  region  of  the  heavens,  exactly  opposite  to  the  former,  about 
which  the  diurnal  motion  is  also  in  like  manner  performed.  These  two  points  are  the  north 
and  SOUTH,  or  the  arctic  and  antarctic  poles  of  the  heavens. 

From  what  we  see  on  the  earth's  surface,  we  learn  by  experience  that  the  real  and  ap- 
parent motions  of  bodies  may  be  very  different.  An  observer  in  a  vessel  carried  along  by 
the  current  of  a  river,  will  feel  disposed  to  believe  himself  at  rest ;  and  then,  if  he  were  to 
judge  from  appearances,  he  would  suppose  that  trees  and  fixed  objects  on  the  banks  were 
m  motion,  because  of  the  apparent  chenge  in  their  relative  positions.  Hence  we  may  infer, 
that  we  cannot  judge  immediately  respecting  the  absolute  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
from  their  apparent  motions.  It  has  only  been  by  a  series  of  nice  observations,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  doctrines  of  mathematics,  that  the  former  have  with  absolute  certainty  been 
deduced  from  the  latter. 

The  general  phenomena  of  the  apparent  motions  have,  however,  been  discovered  by  the 
ordinary  observation  of  mankind  from  the  remotest  ages.  To  a  spectator  in  any  place  of 
the  earth,  the  whole  system  of  the  celestial  bodies  appears  as  if  placed  on  the  surface  of  a 
concave  sphere,  the  centre  of  which  is  the  place  where  he  stands ;  and  this  sphere  appears 
to  revolve  daily  on  an  ideal  lino  which  passes  through  the  poles  of  tbe  heavens,  and  is  called 
the  AXIS  of  the  world.  Although  the  supposition  ^at  the  celestial  bodies  are  all  situated  in 
the  surfiice  of  a  sphere,  of  which  the  eye  is  the  centre,  be  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
appearance  of  the  heavens,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  this  may  be  a  consequence  of  their 
in..nense  distances.  To  an  observer  standing  on  an  extensive  plain,  objects  very  remote 
around  him,  though  at  unequal  distances,  would  appear  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle 
having  his  eye  in  the  centre. 

Besides  tlie  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  is  common  to  them  all,  we  dis- 
cover that  some  of  them  have  pectdiar  motions  by  which  they  chaufre  their  apparent  placet 
in  respect  of  one  another.  Thus  we  see  the  moon  in  the  course  of  about  a  month  describe 
p  circle  quite  round  the  heavens  from  west  to  east.  The  sun  also  appears  to  change  his 
'/jsition  daily,  and  to  go  round  the  heavens  from  west  to  east  in  a  year.  It  is  in  consequence 
of  this  peculiar  motion  of  the  sun,  that  we  find  different  stars  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year  set  immediately  after  him,  or  rise  immediately  before  him ;  and  that  tlie  appearance  of 
the  heavens  through  the  course  of  the  year  is  continually  changing. 

From  the  remotest  antiquity  ^re  stars  had  been  observed  to  change  their  position ;  and  in 
modern  times  five  others  have  been  discovered.  These  "  wander-ng  stars  "  have  been  appro- 
priately denominated  planets  ;  and,  generally  speaking,  they  can  he  seen  at  all  times,  except 
when  tlieir  feeble  light  is  rendered  msensible  by  the  eflulgence  of  the  sun.  The  planets 
have  received  particular  names,  and  are  distinguished  by  particular  characters ;  these  are 
Mercury  ?,  Venus  ?,  Mars  i,  Vesta  g,  Juno  $,  Ceres  ?,  Pallas  $,  Jupiter  4,  Saturn  b, 
Uranus  'J'. 

There  are  other  himinoua  bodies  havin;T  a  proper  motion,  which  ar  -.en  for  a  short  time 
and  afterwards  disappear.  Their  existence,  however,  is  permpiftrt.  >  iioy  are  distinguished 
fiom  the  planets  by  their  being  visiule  only  for  a  sliiirt  peri',  i,       '  "''  -—■—    ;•  i—i.* 

proceeding  from  them  on  one  side,  rorming  a  tail;  these  boo', 
number  is  not  known,  but  it  appears  to  be  very  considerable. 


niRr)  hy  n  trim  of  light 
caikd  coMETi^.    Thai' 


5?vTrnT^7"'™T^^-^^T 


PaatD. 


[OTIONB,  FIXED 

,  the  moon,  and  an 
Jie  concave  Burface 
e.  The  sun  at  all 
in  periods  circular, 
iminous  part,  which 
oon  from  this  earth, 
larent  magnitude  is 
.  probability  suppose 
learing  smaller  only 

oint  in  the  northern 
ar  to  every  one.  If 
point  appears  to  de- 
lat  there  is  another 

0  the  former,  about 
points  are  the  noeth 

hat  the  real  and  ap- 
sel  canied  along  by 

1  then,  if  he  were  to 
;s  on  the  banks  were 
lence  we  may  infer, 

the  heavenly  bodies 
itions,  and  the  appli- 
wlute  certainty  been 

en  discovered  by  the 

Ltor  in  any  place  of 

on  the  surface  of  a 

„  this  sphere  appears 

[eavcns,  and  is  called 

IS  are  all  situated  in 

consistent  with  the 

onsequence  of  their 

objects  very  remote 

iference  of  a  circle 

to  them  all,  we  di* 

'leir  apparent  placet 
|ut  a  month  describe 

)pears  to  change  his 
[It  is  in  consequence 
lerent  seasons  of  the 

^t  tlie  appearance  of 

leir  position ;  and  in 

|s  "  have  been  appro- 

I  at  all  times,  except 

sun.    The  planets 

liaracters;  these  are 

apiter  4,  Saturn  h, 

„en  for  a  short  time 
ley  are  distinguished 
I  hy  n  train  of  iiglj* 
lied  COMETS.    Thei' 


Book  I.         THE  HEAVENS  AS  SEEN  THROUGH  THE  TELESCOPE.  81 

Besides  tlio  sun,  moon,  planets,  and  comets,  there  are  other  luminous  bodies  visible  every 
clear  night ;  these  retain  always  the  same  position  in  reepect  of  each  other,  and  for  this 
leason  are  denominated  fixed  stars.  Their  apparent  moticn  about  the  axis  of  the  celestial 
sphere  is  perfectly  uniform,  and  a  complete  revolution  is  performed  in  about  23  hours  56 
minutes. 

By  the  permanence  of  the  relative  situations  of  the  fixed  stars  on  the  concavity  of  the 
celestial  sphere,  we  are  enabled  to  determine  the  apparent  motions  of  the  other  heavenly 
bodies.  Of  these  the  motions  of  i,he  sun  and  moon  are  the  most  conspicuous  and  simple. 
The  motions  of  the  planets  appear  more  complicated,  and  are  considerably  different  from 
one  another.  This  dissimilarity  might  well  lead  to  a  conjecture,  that  the  real  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  are  very  different  from  the  apparent  motions,  and  that  these  last  are 
modified  by  the  real  motion  of  the  earth.  This  conjecture  we  shall  afterwards  find  fully 
verified. 

All  the  heavenly  bodies  which  this  general  survey  has  brought  under  our  notice,  with 
their  motions  and  mutual  relations,  form  the  subject  of  astronomy,  which  of  all  tiie  natural 
sciences  presents  the  most  extensive  series  of  discoveries.  By  observing  for  ages,  and  deter- 
mming  v/ith  exactness,  the  positions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars ;  by  tracing  and  measuring 
with  precision  their  various  motions ;  and  by  employmg  all  the  resources  of  mathematical 
science  in  investigating  the  constant  laws  to  which  these  motions  are  subject,  the  human 
mind  has  buc<  ceded  in  passing  from  the  first  cursory  view  of  the  heavens,  to  that  compre- 
hensive survey  by  which,  in  the  present  state  of  astronomical  science,  we  contemplate  Uie 
past  and  future  states  of  the  system  of  the  universe. 


CHAPTER  XL  , 

THE  HEAVENS  AS  SEEN  THROUGH  THE  TELESCOPE. 

From  the  aisccvrery  of  the  telescope,  and  its  application  to  the  purposes  of  astronomy,  a  new 
era  may  be  dated  in  that  science.  The  number  of  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  is  about  three 
thousand,  wliich  appear  scattered  over  the  concave  surface  of  the  heavens.  Even  in  the 
clearest  night,  and  in  the  absence  of  the  moon,  seldom  more  than  two  thousand  are  seen  at 
once.  They  are  not  distributed  indiscruninately  over  tlie  heavens,  but  are  disposed  in  groups, 
which  fh>m  the  remotest  antiquity  have  received  distinct  names,  and  these  have  been  em- 
ployed to  facilitate  the  description  of  the  heavens,  and  the  reference  to  any  particular  stac 
The  ancients  imagmedthe  figures  of  various  personages  of  their  mythology,  and  of  animals, 
&c.  to  be  traced  on  the  concave  surface :  these  figures  they  called  constellations,  and  con- 
sidered a  group  of  stars  to  belong  to  each.  To  some  of  tlie  brighter  stars,  and  to  those  more 
remarkable  for  their  position,  proper  names  have  been  given. 

The  distinction  founded  on  the  different  degrees  of  brightness  of  the  fixed  stars,  is  the 
moat  obvious  which  occurs  to  the  spectator  while  his  vision  is  unassisted  iy  the  telescope, 
and  has  accordingly  been  employed  for  the  purpose  of  classifying  them.  The  stars  visible 
to  the  naked  eye  have  been,  on  this  principle,  arranged  under  six  magnitudes.  The  bright- 
est are  reckoned  to  be  of  the  fi.st  magnitude,  the  next  m  brightness  of  the  second,  and  so  on 
to  the  sixth  magnitude.  The  arrangement  of  the  stars  has  been  still  fiurther  facilitated  by 
combinmg  the  principle  of  this  last-mentioned  arrangement  with  the  method  of  constellations. 
Inmapsof  the  heavens  and  on  celestial  globes  the  constellations  are  deluieated,  and  the  stars 
in  each  constellation  are  marked  with  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet  according  to  their 
degrees  of  brightness. 

The  use  "of  the  telescope  has  greatly  increased  the  number  of  visible  stars ;  and  has  at 
the  same  time  discovered  to  us  many  particulars  before  unknown  respecting  those  that  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Many  of  the  stars  which  to  unaided  vision  appear  single,  are 
found,  when  observed  through  a  telescope  of  high  magnifying  powers,  to  consist  of  two, 
sometimes  of  three  or  more  stars  extremely  near  to  one  another.  Seven  hundred  of  these 
multiple  stars  were  observed  by  Sir  William  Herschel,  and  the  number  has  been  increased 
by  the  joint  labours  of  his  son  and  Sir  James  South,  also  by  the  German  astronomer  Struve. 
In  some  of  them  the  small  stars  are  different  in  brightness  and  in  tlie  colour  of  their  light. 
Thus  o  Herculis  is  double ;  the  larger  of  the  stars  is  red,  the  smaller  blue :  t  Lyree  is 
composed  of  four  stars;  three  white,  and  one  red:  y  Andromeda  consists  of  two  stars  very 
unequal,  the  largest  a  reddish  white,  the  smallest  a  sky-blue  inclining  to  green.  Some 
single  stars  evidently  differ  in  their  colour:  Aldebaran  is  red,  Sirius  of  a  brilliant  white. 

Nebulae  are  small  lumuious  spots  of  a  cloudy  appearance  and  irregular  shape,  seen  in 
many  places  of  the  heavens.  The  most  remarkable  appearance  of  this  kind  is  the  Galaxy, 
or  MUky  Way,  which  encompasses  the  whole  heavens,  and  is  vibible  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  Sword  of  Orion  contams  a  beautifiil  nebula.  Two  occur  in  the  head  of  the  Great 
Bear,  one  of  an  oval  shape  tlie  other  round  like  a  comet  without  a  tail.  Viewed  through 
a  telescope  of  great  magnifying  power,  these  luminous  spots  are  resolved  into  a  multituae 
nf  small  stars,  distinctly  separate,  but  apparently  very  near  one  another,  whose  light  being 

Vol.  1.  L 


62 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPin'. 


Pa?t  n. 


III 


'fi^' 


blended  together  produces  the  luminous  appearance.  In  a  portkn  of  the  Galaxy,  about 
tifteen  degrees  in  length,  and  two  in  breadth.  Dr.  Herschel  found  rio  fewer  tlianfifly  thousand 
stars  large  enough  to  be  distinctly  counted.  The  number  of  nebulee  is  very  considerable. 
Herschel  discovered  two  thousand ;  before  his  time  only  one  hundred  and  three  were  known. 

Continued  observation  has  shown  that  the  fixed  stars  are  not  altogether  exempt  from 
change.  Several  stars  meitioned  by  the  ancient  astronomers  are  no  longer  visible,  while 
some  are  now  seen  by  the  naked  eye  which  are  not  in  the  ancient  catalogues.  Some  stars 
have  suddenly  appeared,  and  after  having  been  seen  for  a  short  tune  have  ceased  to  be  visi- 
ble. In  1572  a  new  star  appeared  in  Cassiopeia's  Chair;  and  in  1604  another  appeared  in 
Serpentarius.  These  stara  did  not  change  their  i>laces :  but  having  gradually  increased  in 
brilliancy,  until  they  exceeded  Venus  or  Jupiter  in  brightness,  ana  were  even  seen  in  the 
day-time,  they  diminished  in  the  same  gradual  manner,  and  in  a  few  months  enl  irely  disap- 
peared. Some  stars  are  observed  to  have  periodical  changes  of  brightness.  Of  this  descrip- 
tion is  Algol,  or  |J  Persei:  when  brightest  it  is  of  the  second,  and  when  least  'jright  of' the 
fourth  magnitude.  It  goes  through  all  its  changes  of  lustre  in  four  days,  twenty-one  hours. 
Other  stars  like  f3  in  the  Whale,  have  gradually  increased  in  brilliancy ;  or,  like  6  in  the 
Great  Bear,  have  continually  diminished  in  brightness. 

The  fixed  stars,  when  viewed  through  the  telescope,  appear  like  luminous  points  on  the 
concave  surfece  of  the  heavens ;  but  the  planets  are  found  to  exhibit  the  appearance  of  disc3 
of  greater  or  less  diameter.  Mercury  and  Venus  accompany  the  sun,  appearing  at  one  time 
on  the  east,  and  at  another  time  on  the  west  of  that  lummary,  and  never  receding  from  him 
beyond  a  certain  distance.  The  other  planets  recede  from  the  sun  to  all  possiMe  angular 
distances.  Connected  with  this  circumstance  is  a  distinction  which  it  is  usefiil  to  make  of 
inferior  planets  and  superior  planets ;  the  former  appellation  being  applied  to  Mercury  and 
V<WMi«,  and  the  latter  to  the  remaining  planets. 

Mercury  and  Venus,  as  they  oscillate  about  the  sun,  exhibit  all  the  phases  of  the  moon. 
From  having  the  appearance  of  a  crescent,  tliey  gradually  assume  that  of  the  half-moon. 
The  illuminated  part  of  the  disc  increasing,  they  become  gibbous,  and  at  last  present  a  com- 
plete circular  disc,  like  the  full  T>oon.  From  this  state  of  illumination  they  again  pass 
throug  the  same  appearances  in  ai  inverted  order,  until  they  disappear  altogether.  Some- 
times these  planets  are  seen  like  black  spots  in  the  sun ;  these  appearances  are  called  tran- 
sits  of  the  plarif  ts  over  the  sun's  disc.  They  are  rare,  but  when  observed,  particularly  the 
transit  of  Venus,  they  give  the  best  means  of  determining  the  magnitude  of  tJie  solar  system. 
In  all  the  phases  of  Mercury  and  Venus  the  convexity  of  the  illuminated  portion  of  the  dist 
is  turned  towards  the  sun. 

The  discs  of  the  other  planets  are  always  nearly  circular.  Mars,  however,  in  certaJTi  posi- 
tions with  regard  to  the  sun,  assumes  a  gibbous  appearance ;  but  he  never  becomes  comicu* 
lar  like  Venus.  He  has  no  satellite.  As  viewed  from  the  earth,  he  is  kno'Aoi  by  his  red 
and  fiery  appearance.  Dr.  Herschel  observed  that  the  polar  regions  of  Mars,  after  having 
been  turned  from  the  sun,  appeared  brighter  than  the  rest  of  the  planetary  disc ;  just  as  if 
these  regions  iiad  in  the  absence  of  the  sun's  heat  been  covered  with  snow. 

Certam  spots  appear  on  the  discs  of  the  sun  and  the  four  planets  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and 
Saturn,  when  they  are  viewed  through  the  telescope,  and  are  distinguished  fiom  other  paits 
of  the  discs  by  the  colour  or  intensity  of  their  light.  Similar  spots  are  seen  on  the  moon 
with  the  naked  eye.  Jupiter  has  also  his  disc  marked  with  several  parallel  belts  or  stripes, 
which  stretch  across  it.  They  are  subject  to  considerable  variation  with  regard  to  number, 
breadth,  and  distance  f5x)m  each  other.  Mercury  is  too  much  immersed  hi  the  solar  rays ; 
Vesta,  Ceres,  Juno,  and  Pallas,  are  too  small ;  and  Uranus  is  too  distant  to  allow  points  of 
unequal  brilliancy  to  be  obsenred  on  their  surface.  The  spots  upon  the  sun  aio  verj'  varia- 
able  in  their  number,  position,  and  magnitude.  Often  they  are  numerous,  and  of  great  extent 
Each  of  them,  in  general,  consists  of  a  dark  space,  or  umbra,  surrounded  by  a  penumbra, 
or  fainter  shade,  beyond  which  is  a  border  of  light  more  brilliant  than  the  rest  of  the  smi's 
disc.  Sometimes,  though  seldom,  the  sun  has  teen  without  sjwts  for  several  years ;  this  was 
the  case  from  1676  to  1684  The  dark  nucleus  of  the  spot  is  seen  to  form  and  disappear 
amidst  the  greater  brilliancy  that  surrounds  it.  After  the  nucleus  ceases  to  be  seen,  the 
umbra  continues  visible  for  some  time :  the  place  where  it  at  length  disappears  becomes 
like  the  other  parts  of  the  solar  surface,  unless  it  be  succeeded,  which  is  sometimes  the  case, 
by  a  lummous  spot.  UnibreB  of  great  extent  have,  with  few  exceptions,  a  nucleas  m  their 
centre ;  but  small  umbra  are  often  seen  without  it. 

The  solar  spots  are  never  stationary,  but  are  seen  to  move  slowly  over  the  sun's  disc  firom 
east  to  west  Their  paths  across  the  disc,  when  accurately  traced,  are  found  to  be  rectili- 
neal in  the  beginning  of  June,  and  in  the  begimmg  of  December ;  but  in  the  intermediate 
seasons  they  are  found  to  be  elliptic.  Between  June  and  December  the  convexity  of  the 
path  is  towards  the  upper  part  of  the  disc,  and  between  December  and  June  it  is  towards 
the  lower  part 

Tiie  planet  Jupiter,  when  viewed  through  the  telescope,  appears  to  be  attended  by  fbu 
imall  stars,  ranged  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  which  are  seen  sometimes  on  the  same  side, 


k...   :  . 


Pa?tIL 

e  Galaxy,  about 
lan  fifty  uiousaod 
jry  considerable, 
ree  were  known. 
«r  exempt  from 
er  visible,  while 
les.    Some  stara 
ceased  to  be  viri- 
ither  appeared  ia 
ally  increased  in 
even  seen  in  the 
18  ent  irely  disap- 
Oftiiisdescrip- 
>ast  bright  of"  the 
we:ity-one  hours, 
or,  like  8  in  the 

ous  points  on  the 
ppearance  of  discs 
laring  at  one  time 
eceding  from  him 
.  possime  angular 
uaefiil  to  make  of 
■d  to  Mercury  and 

ases  of  the  moon, 
of  the  half-moon, 
last  present  a  coni- 
n  they  again  pass 
Itogether.  Some- 
es  are  called  tratv-  , 
id,  particularly  the  | 
of  tlie  solar  system.  | 
portion  of  the  disc     1 

■er,  in  certain  posi- 
r  becomes  comicu- 
known  by  his  red 
Alars,  after  havinfj 
fry  disc ;  just  as  ii 

[Mars,  Jupiter,  and 
W  from  other  paits 
I  seen  on  the  moon 
lei  belts  or  stripes, 
regard  to  number, 
,  iu  the  solar  rays; 
to  allow  points  of 
bun  aTO  jery  varia- 
Ind  of  great  extent 
[d  by  a  penumbrOi 
e  rest  of  the  sun's 
[al  years ;  this  was 
brm  and  disappear 
ses  to  be  seen,  the 
lisappears  becomea 
jmetimes  the  case, 
nucleaq  in  their 

de  sun's  disc  from 

Ifound  to  be  rectili- 

.  the  intermediate 

convexity  of  the 

I  June  it  is  towards 

1  attended  by  fou 
I  on  the  same  side. 


Boon  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


8» 


and  at  other  times  on  opposite  sides  of  the  planet.  These  small  stars  occasionally  pass 
between  us  and  Jupiter,  and  then  they  are  found  to  project  shadows  which  are  seen  to  tra- 
verse his  disc.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  often  immersed  in  the  shadow  of  Jupiter,  and 
exhibit  the  phenomenon  called  an  eclipse.  Tl  j  planets  Saturn  and  Uranus  are  also  simi- 
larly attended,  the  former  by  seven,  and  the  latter  by  six,  little  stars.  These  accompanying 
stars  ore  called  satellites,  and  also  secondary  planets,  in  contradistinction  to  the  others, 
whi  ^h  r  re  called  primary. 

Saturn  is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  planets,  in  bebg  surrounded  by  a  circular  ruig 
concentric  with  itself.  When  first  examined  by  the  telescope,  this  planet  was  almost 
always  seen  between  two  small  luminous  bodies  of  an  irregular  form,  which  seemed  to  be 
attached  to  it,  ond  which,  as  they  suggested  the  idea  of  handles,  were  denominated  ansa. 
Sometimes  the  ansse  disappeared,  and  then  Saturn  appeared  roimd  like  the  other  planets. 
By  tracing  with  care  these  singulor  appearances,  and  combining  them  with  the  positions  ot 
Saturn  relatively  to  the  sun  and  the  earth,  Huygens  at  last  discovered  that  they  are  pro- 
duced by  a  ring  which  encompasses  the  body  of  the  planet,  and  which  is  everywhere  sepa- 
rated from  it.  Being  seen  obliquely,  the  ring  appears  of  an  oval  or  elliptic  form.  Before 
the  time  of  Herschel  the  ring  of  Saturn  was  supposed  to  be  single ;  but  this  distinguishea 
astronomer  discovered  that  it  is  double :  so  that  two  rings  concentric,  and  in  the  same  plane, 
constitute  what  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  single  ring.  Thp  ring,  which  is  very  thin,  is 
inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  It  revolves  from  west  to  east  in  10''  39'  54".  Its 
breadth  is  nearly  equal  to  its  distance  from  Saturn ;  that  is,  about  one  third  of  the  diameter 
of  the  planet.  The  interval  between  the  rings  is  very  little ;  yet  Dr.  Herschel  saw  a  star 
through  it.    The  iimer  ring  is  somewhat  broader  than  the  outer. 


CHAPTER  m. 
APPROXIMATION  TO  THE  FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 

I'HB  true  figure  anJ  exact  magnitude  of  th'3  earth  are  elements  of  the  highest  importance 
in  geography.  Their  determination,  however,  has  required  the  aid  of  astronomy  in  its  most 
improved  state ;  yet  it  is  necessary,  tothe  explanation  of  the  general  doctrines  of  astronomy, 
that  we  should,  in  the  outset,  know  nearly  its  figure  and  magnitude :  we  shall  afterwards 
explain  by  what  means  the  first  conceptions  have  been  corrected,  and  its  true  figure  and 
magnitude  found.  Having  now  pointed  out,  generally,  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens — 
takmg  into  view  the  more  remarkable  discoveries  made  by  aid  of  the  telescope — we  are  next 
to  consider  the  causes  and  mutual  dependence  of  these  phenomena.  The  first  step  towards 
obtaiiilng  an  explication  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  to  form  some  notion  of  the 
figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  which  we  inhabit,  and  from  which  all  the  celestial  phe- 
nomena are  observed.  To  a  person  placed  in  an  elevated  siiaation  in  an  open  country, 
where  the  view  is  unconfined  on  all  sides,  the  earth  appears  ar.  extended  plane,  with  the 
concave  sphere  of  the  heavens  resting  upon  it, — the  horizon  being  the  common  boundary. 
This  appearance  is,  however,  altogether  illusory. 

The  earth  is  a  round  body,  and  is  isolated  in  space.  This  is  sufliciently  established  by 
the  following  facts : — 

1.  To  an  observer  who  travels  from  north  to  Bouth  the  nocta'-nal  heavens  appear  conti 
nually  to  change  their  aspect.  The  stars,  indeed,  retain  the  same  relative  position  in 
respret  of  each  other,  and  the  pomts  ou  which  the  heavens  appear  to  revolve  remain 
unchanged ;  but  the  angle,  which  the  axis  of  their  motion  forms  with  the  horizon,  continually 
decreases;  so  that  stars  which,  at  the  place  from  which  he  set  out,  appeared  to  reach  their 
ereatest  elevation  to  the  south  of  the  point  directly  over  his  head,  now  that  he  has  changed 
His  position,  appear,  when  highest,  on  the  north  of  that  point.  This  clearly  indicates  mat 
his  path  on  the  earth's  surfiice  has  not  been  a  straight  line,  but  a  curve  of  which  the  con- 
vexity is  turned  towards  the  sky. 

2.  The  convexity  of  the  earth  is  quite  apparent  to  a  spectator  in  a  ship  receding  from  the 
shore.  At  first  low  objects  disappear;  then  those  more  elevated;  and  at  last  the  highest 
points  of  the  land  sink  in  the  horizon,  on  account  of  the  direct  vLjual  ray  being  broken  by 
the  interposed  curved  surface  of  the  ocean.  In  like  manner,  when  two  ships  approach  each 
other,  the  navigators  in  each  see  at  first  the  upper  part  of  the  rigging  of  the  ot!icr  vessel 
the  hull  being  still  invisible :  as  the  distance  becomes  less  the  Imy  of  each  vessel  comes 
^rradually  imo  view.  The  reverse  happens  if  tlie  distance  between  the  vessels  is  increasing. 
Fro.n  these  appearances  it  is  evident,  that  a  straight  line  joining  any  two  points  of  tlie 
earth's  surfaces  pas&es  within  the  body  of  the  earth. 

3.  That  the  horizon  of  the  sea,  which,  to  the  eye,  terminates  its  suriace,  is  only  an  appa- 
rent limit  in  reference  to  the  position  of  the  observer,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  if  we 
advance  towards  it  we  find  it  recede ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  wa  still  imagine  ourselves 
placed  in  the  centre  of  an  extended  pi  me,  bounded  by  the  line  in  which  the  heavens  and 


// 

// 

Vi/ 


n 


"i*s!^ 


,iiH 


9\ 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IL 


eartii  appear  to  meet.  This  ia  what  the  navigator  uniformly  experiences ;  wliilc,  to  an 
observer  on  the  shore,  his  vessel  appears  to  sink  below  the  horizon ;  and  by  continuing  to 
sail  in  tlio  same  direction,  he  will  at  last  arrive  at  the  same  port  from  which  he  set  out, — 
having^  thus  circumnavigated  the  earth.  This  enterprise  has,  it  is  well  known,  in  numerous 
instances,  been  accomplished  by  navigators,  who  have  left  the  shores  of  Europe  and  returned 
home,  some  by  sailing  always  towards  the  wost,  and  others  by  holding  an  easterly  course. 
This  great  experiment  demonstrates  that  tho  sea  and  land  have  a  curved  surface  which 
returns  into  itself,  so  that  no  part  of  it  is  touc'.ied  by  the  heavens. 

There  are  other  phenomena  which  prove  that  the  earth,  if  not  an  exact  sphere,  is  at  least 
nearly  of  that  figure.  The  various  appearunces  of  tlie  moon,  in  the  course  of  her  revolution 
round  the  earth,  e'low  that  she  is  an  opaque  body,  and  is  visible  only  by  the  reflected  light 
of  the  sun.  The  earth  being  also  an  opaque  body,  must  project  a  shadow  in  a  direction 
opposite  to  the  sun.  It  will  afterwards  be  shown  that  the  moon,  when  full,  must  sometimes 
pass  through  this  shadow.  In  this  case,  when  the  moon  begins  to  penetrate,  or  is  about  to 
leave,  the  shadow,  the  greater  part  of  the  disc  is  still  illuminated  by  the  sun ;  and  it  is 
found  that  this  luminous  part  is  always  of  the  form  of  a  crescent,  having  its  concave  side 
bounded  by  an  arch  cf  a  circle.  The  section  of  the  earth's  shadow,  shown  by  its  projection 
on  the  moon,  is,  therefore,  as  to  sense,  circular, — a  proof  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  or  nearly 
of  a  spherical  figure ;  whence  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  a  point  within  the  earth  which 
is  its  centre. 

That  the  earth  is  a  round  body,  is  thus  completely  proved  by  experience  and  observation ; 
yet,  when  this  doctrine  is  presented  to  the  mind  for  the  first  time,  there  is  some  difficulty 
m  believing  that  the  earth  is  balaneed,  as  it  were,  on  its  centre,  without  any  visible  sup. 
port ;  while  all  things  at  rest  on  it"?  surface  require  to  be  supported.  We  must,  however, 
consider  that  the  bodies  which  v/e  see  fall  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth  are  mere  atoms 
in  comparison  to  the  earth  itse!tf ;  and  that,  although  their  tendency  to  its  centre  is  another 
fact  e  jtablished  by  experience,  yet  ^t  does  not  thence  follow  that  the  earth  itself  should  move 
towrrds  one  p^'nt  of  space  rather  than  towards  another.  A  little  reflection  will  show  that 
the?  e  is  no  inconsistency  in  supposing  the  earth,  an  immense  mass,  to  be  at  rest,  and  all 
things  to  be  retained  on  its  surface  by  some  force  analogous  to  that  by  which  a  piece  of  iron 
is  drawn  towards  a  magnet.  This  is  really  the  fact ;  and  a  consequence  of  it  is,  that  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  earth  its  inhabitants  stand  in  opposite  directions,  with  their  feet  towards 
f;ach  other,  fnr  which  reason  they  are  called  Antipodes ;  and  every  country  has  its  own 
Antipodes. 

The  knowledge  of  the  true  figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  geography,  and  on  this  account  we  shall  treat  of  them  in  a  particular  manner.  In  the 
mean  time,  as  a  near  approximation  to  the  truth,  the  earth  may  be  considered  as  differing 
but  little  from  a  sphere,  7916  miles  ui  diameter,  and  consequently  nearly  24,870  miles  in 
circumference.  In  geometry,  the  circumference  of  every  circle  is  supposed  to  be  divided 
into  360  equal  parts,  calleu  degrees;  and  each  of  these  ir*'^  60  equal  parts,  called  minutes, 
and  so  on.  A  degree,  therefore,  of  any  circle  on  the  ei  I's  surface,  whose  centre  is  the 
same  with  that  of  the  earth,  will  be  rather  more  than  69  miles ;  and  a  minute  of  a  degree 
will  be  about  Ij^j  mile. 


n  ■«:■ 


11     Iv 


':t^ 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DOCTRINE  OP  THE   SPHERE. 

The  motions  of  the  celestial  bodies  being  in  appearance  all  performed  on  a  spiiere,  of 
which  the  eye  of  the  spectator  is  the  centre ;  with  a  view  to  describe  the  nature  of  these 
motions,  it  has  been  found  expedient  to  suppose  certain  circles  to  be  traced  on  this  sphere, 
to  which,  also,  the  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  in  space  are  refemd. 

The  distance  of  tlie  fixed  stars  is  immensely  great  in  respect  of  the  earth's  seir.i-dlameter; 
for  it  is  found  that,  when  viewed  from  any  two  points  of  the  earth'f  surface,  they  have  tho 
ve'>;  same  relative  position,  and  the  same  apparent  distances,  at  a  given  instant  of  time. 
Hence  it  follows,  that  the  appearance  of  the  heavens,  and  the  angular  distances  of  the  fijced 
stars,  will  be,  as  to  sense,  the  same,  whether  they  be  viewed  from  the  centre  of  the  earth, 
or  from  a  pomt  on  its  surface.  We  may,  therefore,  conceive  the  axis  of  the  diurnal  revo- 
lution to  pass  through  the  centre  of  the  earth,  which  will  be  also  the  centre  of  tiie  celestial 
sphere. 

DEninTicm. 

A  great  circle  of  the  sphere  is  that  whose  plane  passes  through  its  centre ;  and  all  others 
are  called  small  circles. 

A  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere,  whc«e  plane  passes  through  the  earth's  centre,  and  id 
perpendicular  to  the  axis,  is  caiied  the  JtXirATOR.  The  line  in  which  this  plane  meets  tho 
t-nrth's  surface  is  called  the  Equator  of  the  earth,  or  the  Equinoctial. 


T      p.    If", 


BooeI. 


DOCTRINE  OF  TIIE  SPHERE. 


R» 


tre ;  and  all  others 


To  illustiate  this  by  a  diagram,  let  c  be  the  centre  of  tlie  sphere  (Jig.  15.)»  which 

we  suppose  to  coincide  with  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  and  let  Pep  be  the  axis;  then  the  cir- 
cle, whose  diameter  is  E  Q,  which  passes  through 
c,  and  is  perpendicular  to  P|),  is  the  Equator. 
The  circles  which  the  stars  deuiribe  by  the 
diurnal  revolution,  are  all  parallel  to  the  £(ma- 
tor.    Such  is  the  circle  whose  diemeter  is  AB. 

A  circle,  whose  plane  passes  Uirough  the 
poles,  is  called  the  Meridian,  and  Uie  section 
of  the  earth's  surface  made  by  this  plane  is  call- 
ed the  Meridian  of  all  the  places  through  which 
it  passes.  Thus  PEj>Q  is  a  meridian  circle 
in  the  heavens.  The  number  of  these  circles 
is  indefinite. 

By  the  geometrical  properties  of  a  sphere, 
the  plane  of  any  meridian  cuts  the  planes  or 
the  equator  and  all  circles  parallel  to  it  at  right 
angles. 

We  know  by  observation,  that  any  body  at  rest,  and  let  fall  from  a  point  above  the  earth, 
will,  by  its  weight  or  gravity,  descend  in  a  straight  line.  This  line  is  the  direction  of 
gravity:  it  is  also  indicated  by  the  direction  of  a  cord  to  which  a  plummet  is  suspended, 
and  is  everywhere  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  water  at  rest  If,  now,  a  line  in  the 
direction  of  gravity  at  any  point  on  the  earth's  sur&ce  be  produced  indefinitely  upward  and 
downward,  this  line,  called  a  vertical,  will  mark,  on  the  celestial  sphere,  two  pomts  called 
the  Zenith  and  Nadir.  The  former  is  the  point  in  the  heavens  immediately  over  head.  A 
plane  conceived  to  pass  through  any  plane  on  the  earth's  surfiice  at  right  angles  to  the  line 
joining  its  zenith  and  nadir,  will,  when  extended  to  the  heavens,  meet  the  sphere  in  a  circle, 
which  is  the  Horizon  of  that  place.  A  plane  that  passes  through  the  earth's  centre,  and  is 
parallel  to  the  plane  just  now  defined,  will  meet  the  sphere  in  a  circle,  which  is  also  called 
the  Horizon,  but,  to  distinguish  the  one  firom  the  other,  the  former  is  called  the  Sensible, 
and  the  latter  the  Rational  Horizon.  On  account,  however,  of  the  smallness  of  the  earth's 
semidiameter,  when  compared  with  the  immense  distances  of  the  fixed  stars,  the  two  horizons 
are,  as  to  sense,  the  same. 
The  zenith  is  at  Z  (Jig.  15.),  and  nadir  at  N.  The  circle  H  O  R  is  the  horizon. 
If  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  the  direction  of  gravity  being  everywhere  perpendicu- 
lar to  its  surface,  all  bodies  would  tend  towards  its  centre.  But  if  there  be  any  deviation 
from  the  exact  spherical  figure,  (and  this  is  really  the  case,)  then  the  direction  of  gravity 
will  not,  in  general,  pass  tlirough  the  centre ;  though,  if  the  deviation  be  small,  it  will  nearly 
pass  through  that  point. 

The  plane  of  the  horizon  of  any  place  touches  the  earth's  surface,  and  divides  the  whole 
expanse  of  the  heavens  into  two  Hemispheres  ;  one  of  which,  viz.  that  above  the  norizon, 
is  Visible,  and  the  other  Invisible.  To  an  eye  placed  close  to  the  earth's  surface,  or  to  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  the  two  hemispheres  will  appear  exactly  equal.  A  spectator,  however,  on 
the  top  of  a  mountain,  can  see  more  than  half  of  the  heavens;  because,  if  a  line  drawn  from 
his  eye  to  touch  the  earth's  surface  were  carried  round,  it  would  generate  the  surface  of  a 
cone.  The  portion  of  the  heavens  within  this  cone  would  be  invisible ;  but  he  would  see  all 
the  space  without  the  cone,  which  would  manifestly  be  the  larger  portion.  His  apparent  hori- 
zon would  still  be  a  circle ;  but  it  would  be  below  the  plane  passuig  through  his  eye  perpen- 
dicular to  the  vertical.  The  depression  of  the  horizon  of  a  spectator  so  sithated  below  this 
plans  is  called  the  Dip. 

Circles  whose  planes  pass  through  the  zenith  and  nadir  of  any  place  are  called  Vertical 
CrRCLES.  Such,  for  example,  as  the  circle  Z  O  N.  These,  by  the  properties  of  a  sphere, 
are  all  perpendicular  to  the  horizon.  Tlio  meridian  is,  of  course,  a  vertical  circle;  and 
the  vertical  circle  wliose  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  meridian  is  called  the  Prime 
Vertical. 

The  meridian  cuts  the  horizon  in  the  North  and  South  points,  and  tlie  prime  vertical 
cuts  it  in  the  East  and  West.  These  four  are  the  Cardinal  Points.  They  divide  the  horizon 
into  four  equal  parts. 

Let  a  vertical  circle  be  supposed  to  pass  continually  through  a  star,  or  any  pomt  of  the 
heavens,  the  arc  of  that  circle  between  the  star  and  the  horizon  is  called  the  Altitude  of 
the  star ;  and  the  arc  of  the  hoi  izon  between  the  vertical  circle  and  the  meridian  is  called  its 
Azimuth,  which  may  be  measured  either  from  tlie  north  or  south.  Thus,  in  fig.  \o.,  suppose 
a  star  at  S,  then  its  altitude  is  the  arc  S  O,  and  its  azimuth  the  arc  H  O, 
Vertical  circles  are  called  Circles  of  Azi  iuth. 

The  altitude  of  a  star  will  evidently  be  greatest  when  it  is  on  the  meridian,  and  it  will 
Vol.  I.  8 


86 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paay  U. 


have  equal  altitudes  when  it  ia  at  equal  distances  from  the  meridian ;  tliat  is,  when  ita  caatern 
and  western  azimuths  are  equal. 

Suppose  a  meridian  to  pass  through  a  star,  then  the  arc  intercepted  between  the  star 
and  the  equator  is  called  the  Declination  of  the  star.  Thus  P  S^  beinsf  a  meridian  that 
passes  through  the  star  S,  and  meets  the  equator  in  K,  the  arc  S  K  is  tlie  declination  of  the 
star. 

If  the  meridian  circle  pass  tlirough  the  zenith  of  any  place,  the  arc  intercepted  between 
the  zenith  and  the  equator  is  called  the  Latitvde  of  that  place.  Thus  Z  being  the  zenith  of 
any  place,  and  E  K  Q  the  equator,  the  latitude  of  the  place  is  the  arc  Z  E. 

Assuming  the  meridian  circle  that  passes  tiirough  the  zenith  of  any  particular  place  as  tiie 
First  Meridian,  the  arc  of  the  equator  intercepted  between  the  first  meridian  and  the  meri- 
dian circle  passing  through  the  zenith  of  any  other  place,  is  called  the  Longitude  of  tliat 
place.  It  b  usual,  in  Uiia  country,  to  reckon  the  longitude  of  places  from  the  meridian  circle 
that  passes  through  the  zenith  of  the  Observatory  at  Greenwich. 

Because  the  arcs  Z  R,  the  distance  of  the  zemth  from  the  horizon,  and  P  E,  the  distance 
of  the  pole  from  the  equator,  are  each  onc-fburtli  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  or  a 
quadrant,  they  are  equal,  and  consequently,  leaving  out  the  common  arc  P  Z,  the  arcs  ZE 
and  P  R  ore  equal.  Hence  it  appears  tliat  P  R,  the  distance  of  the  pole  from  the  horizon  of 
any  place,  called  the  elevation  or  altitude  of  the  pole,  is  equal  to  the  latitude  of  that  place. 


CHAPTER  V. 


iiii 


ROTATION  OP  THE  SUN,  MOON,  AND  PLANETS  ON  THEIR  AXES.   THSTil  PIOURE. 

From  the  phenomena  of  the  spots  which,  by  aid  of  the  telescope,  lire  visible  on  his  disc, 
we  are  led  to  conclude  that  the  sun  revolves  from  west  tt  east  on  an  axis,  in  about  twenty- 
five  days  and  a  half.  Though  these  spots  are  subject  to  m!,ny  variations,  they  are  suffi- 
ciently permanent  to  enable  us  to  discover  that  they  have  regular  motions  across  the  disc, 
exactly  the  same  as  must  belong  to  corresponding  points  on  tlie  sur&ce  of  the  sun,  supposuig 
him  actually  to  have  a  motion  of  rotation  from  west  to  east  on  on  axis  nearly  perpendiculu 
to  the  plane  of  the  path  or  orbit,  which,  in  virtue  of  his  apparent  motion,  he  describes 
round  the  heavens  in  tlie  course  of  a  year.  When  a  spot  is  first  discovered  on  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  disc,  it  appears  like  a  fine  line :  as  it  approaches  the  centre  of  the  disc  its 
breadth  increases ;  as  it  advances  towards  the  western  edge  the  breadth  again  diminishes, 
until  the  spot  at  length  entirely  disappears.  The  same  spot  is  sometimes  again  observed, 
after  fourteen  days,  on  the  east  side  of  the  disc ;  but  more  frequentlv  the  spot  is  dissolved, 
and  is  no  more  seen.  By  careful  observation  of  the  time  occupied  by  a  spot  in  crossing 
the  disc,  taking  also  into  account  the  proper  motion  of  the  sun  fh>m  west  to  east  during 
that  period,  the  time  of  the  sun's  rotation  on  his  axis  is  found  to  be  about  twenty-five  and  a 
half  days. 

That  the  moon,  and  the  planets  Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn,  have  each  a 
motion  of  rotation  from  west  to  east,  on  an  axis  inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  sun's  orbit,  is 
inferred  in  like  manner  from  the  spots  that  are  seen  to  traverse  their  discs.  The  moon  pre- 
sents always  nearly  the  same  side  to  the  earth ;  and  must,  therefore,  revolve  on  her  axis  in 
the  same  time  in  which  she  is  carried  round  the  heavens  by  her  apparent  motion,  namely,  in 
27  d  7  m  43 .  Mercury  revolves  in  24  *  5  " ;  Venus  in  23 "  30 "" ;  Mars  in  24 ''  39  " ;  Jupiter  in 
9''  56";  Saturn  in  10  ^  29".  In  the  remaining  planets  no  appearances  have  been  discovered 
which  enable  us  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  Oiey  revolve  on  axes ;  though,  from  analogy,  it 
is  highly  probable  that  tliey  do. 

With  regard  to  the  figure  of  the  sun  and  of  Ihose  planets  which  are  known  to  revolve  on 
axes,  we  may  conclude  that  they  are  nearly  spherical ;  because  no  other  but  a  spherical  body 
cai,  when  revolving  on  on  axis  in  the  manner  of  the  planets  (with  the  exception  of  the 
moon),  present  in  every  position  the  appearance  of  a  circular  disc.  The  spherical  figure  of 
Uie  moon,  and,  indeed,  of  the  other  p'aneta  which  exhibit  phases,  may  be  mferred  from  the 
fiict,  that  the  concavity  of  the  crescoLi;  which  they  from  time  to  time  I'ltplny  is  bounded  by 
an  elliptic  line.  The  planet  Uranus  always  presents  a  disc  tliat  is  r  jorly  circuiar,  and  it  has 
not  been  ascertained  that  he  revolves  on  an  axis ;  but  it  is  very  improhable,  when  we  con 
aider  how  very  irregular  hu?  motions  among  the  fixed  stars  appear  when  seen  from  the  earth, 
that  he  should  keep  the  same  side  always  turned  towards  us.  His  apparent  motion  is  some- 
times direct,  that  is  from  west  to  east,  sometimes  retrograde,  or  in  the  contrary  direction ;  so 
that  to  present  constantly  the  appearance  of  a  circular  disc,  the  planet  would  require,  were 
it  not  spherical,  to  have  motions  in  opposite  directions  about  the  same  axis.  The  same  rea- 
soning will  apply  to  the  remaining  planets.  We  may  conclude,  tlierefore,  tiiat  the  sun, 
moon,  and  planets,  are  bodies  nearly  spherical. 


t  is,  when  its  outern 

ed  between  the  Rtu 
erne  a  meridian  that 
le  declination  of  Uie 

intercepted  between 
S  being  the  zenith  of 

(irticul&r  place  as  tiic 
eridion  and  the  meri- 
I  LoNoiTVDE  of  that 
n  the  meridian  circle 

nd  P  E,  the  distance 
Qce  of  a  circle  or  n 
ircPZ,  the  arcs  ZE 
3  from  the  horizon  of 
ititude  of  that  place. 


riffiifl  FIGURE. 

:e  visible  on  his  disc, 
xis,  in  about  twenty- 
itions,  they  are  sum- 
tions  across  the  disc, 
of  the  snn,  supposing 
nearly  perpendicular 
motion,  he  describes 
ered  on  the  eastern 
entre  of  the  disc  its 
1th  again  diminishes, 
mes  again  observed, 
he  spot  is  dissolved, 
y  a  spot  in  crossing 
west  to  east  during 
twenty-five  and  a 

Saturn,  have  each  a 
"  the  sun's  orbit,  is 
The  moon  pre- 
olve  or  her  axis  in 
motion,  namely,  in 
4  ■'39°';  Jupiter  in 
ave  been  discovered 
jh,  from  analogy,  it 


nown  to  revolve  on 
but  a  spherical  body 
e  exception  of  the 
spherical  figure  of 
mferred  fi-om  the 
^■Iny  is  bounded  by 
circular,  and  it  has 
ble,  when  we  con 
een  from  the  earth, 
mt  motion  is  some- 
itrary  direction ;  so 
ould  require,  were 
I.  The  same  rea- 
fnre,  that  the  sun, 


;3oox  L  DISTANCES,  ETC.  OF  THE  HEAVENLY  BODIES.  87 

CHAPTER  VI.  S- 

'  '  J.-.,     .•  '-..■' 

DIBTANCEB  AND  MAQMTUDES  OF  THE  HEAVENLY  BODIES. 

DuTAMOia  of  the  fixed  stars.  From  whatever  point  of  the  earth's  surface  we  observe  the 
fixed  stars,  they  always  appear  to  preserve  the  very  same  relative  positions.  We  may  henco 
conclude  Uiat  these  bodies  are  situated  at  immeasurable  distances  fi-om  the  earth ;  and  that 
though  to  us  who  inhabit  it  the  dimensions  of  the  earth  appear  very  great,  they  are  insensi- 
ble when  compared  with  these  immense  distances.  The  earth  is  in  reality  but  as  a  point  in 
roace.  But  though  the  fixed  stars  are  vastly  too  remote  to  admit  of  their  distances  being 
determined,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  they  are  placed  at  very  different  degrees  of 
remoteness.  They  shine  with  very  various  degrees  of  brilliancy ;  multitudes  are  not  visible 
without  the  aid  of  the  telescope,  and  it  may  reasonably  be  supposed  that  many  more  have 
not  yet  been  discovered  by  the  most  powerful  instruments  which  have  been  directed  to  the 
heavens. 

The  distances  of  the  fixed  stars  being  unknown,  we  can  only  form  conjectures  fi-om 
hypothesis  and  analogy  respecting  their  true  magnitudes.  When  viewed  through  the  best 
telescopes,  they  have  no  apparent  diameter,  but  appear  like  points  m  the  heavens. 

Mode  of  determining  the  distance  of  the  sun,  moon,  ana  planets.  In  reference  to  the 
sphere  of  the  fixed  stars,  then,  the  earth  is  to  bo  regarded  as  a  point.  To  a  spectator,  at  the 
sun,  moon,  and  planets,  however,  it  would  present  a  disc  subtending  an  angle  of  greater  or 
less  magnitude,  and,  even  when  smallest,  admitting  of  measurement.  This  angle  can  be 
determined  by  an  observer  on  the  earth's  surface ;  and  as  we  know  the  true  magnitude  of  the 
earth,  it  afibrds  us  the  means  of  estimating  the  distances  of  these  bodies.  Let  O  0  (fig.  16)  be 
the  places  of  two  observers  under  the  same  meridian,  but  very  distant  firom  each  other.  Let  P 
be  a  planet  in  the  meridian  of  these  places,  and  let  some  fixed  star  which  comes  to  the  meri- 
dian at  the  same  time  with  the  planet,  be  seen  by  the  observers  at  O  and  0,  in  the  directions 
0  S,  0  s.  Join  O  P,  0  P,  and  produce  O  P,  to  meet  0  s  in  A.  Then,  because  O  S,  0  s,  are 
parallel  (the  distance  of  the  star  S  being  regarded  as  infinite),  the  angles  O  A  0,  A  O  S  are 
equal ;  and,  because  O  P  0  is  the  exterior  angle  of  the  triangle  0  A  P,  it  is  equal  to  the  sum 
or  toe  two  interior  and  opposite  angles  A  0  P,  o  A  P.  Wherefore  the  angle  O  P  0  is  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  angles  A  0  P,  P  O  S ;  that  is,  the  angle  subtended  at  the  planet  by  the 
chord  of  the  terrestrial  arc  intercepted  between  the  points  of  observation,  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  apparent  distances  of  the  planet  firom  the  star,  provided  the  planet  is  seen  (as  we  have 
here  supposed)  on  opposite  sides  of  the  star  by  the  two  observers.  If  the  star  is  seen  on  the 
same  side  by  both,  the  angle  at  the  planet  will  tJien  be  equal  to  the  difiTerence  of  the  appa- 
rent distances. 

If  the  observers  are  so  situated  that  P  O,  P  0  (fig.  17)  are  tangents  to  the  circle  O  E  0  at  the 
points  0  and  0,  the  angle  O  P  0  will  be  the  angle  subtended  by  the  disc  of  the  earth  at  the  planet. 


But  if  P  O,  P  0  are  not  tangents,  draw  P  0'  and  P  6  tangents  to  the  circle  O  E  0,  and  fit)m 
C  the  centre  draw  C  C,  C  ^  to  the  points  of  contact:  draw  aluo  the  vertical  lines  C  Z  and 
C  Z'  through  O  and  0  the  places  of  the  observers,  and  produce  P  O,  P  0  to  meet  C  C,  C  tf 
in  B  and  D.  Now,  for  the  sun  and  planets  the  angle  O  P  o  is  very  small,  and  even  for  the 
moon  it  is  not  very  considerable.  The  distance  P  C  may  therefore  be  regarded,  in  every 
case,  as  much  greater  than  C  0',  or  C  6.  Hence  the  lines  C  0',  C  B,JII  D  may  without  sen- 
sible  error  be  considered  as  proportional  to  the  angles  C  P  O',  C  f  B,  V  f  U ;  so  that  we 
nave  ZCPO':  ZCP0  =  C0':  CBand  ZCPO:  ZCPo  =  CO':  CD;  where- 
fore  ZCPO':  ZCPO  +  ZCPo  or  ZOPo  =  CO':  CB  +  CD     But  the  angles 


88 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


m 


at  B  and  D  aro  very  nearly  right  angles,  and  therefore,  to  radius  C  0',  we  have  C  B  = 
Sin.  C  0  B  =  Sin.  P  O  Z ;  and  C  D  =  Sin.  C  o  D  =  Sin.  P  o  Z' :  Hence  we  obtain 
ZCPO':  ZOPo  =  CCO:CB+  CD=)Rad.:  Sin.  POZ  +  Sin.  P  o  Z:  And2^ 

CPO'orZO'P.  =  2ZOPoXg.^pQ^^a.^p^,^-, 

If  the  planet  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  zenith  to  both  oltservers,  then  the  difference, 
instead  ot  the  sum  of  the  sines  of  the  zenith  distances,  must  b<i  taken  for  the  denominator. 
Expressing  the  above  formula  in  words,  we  give  the  following  simple  rule : — Divide  the  arc, 
(expressed  in  parti  of  the  radius,)  whicii  measures  the  observed  angle  at  the  plawt,  bu  the 
sum  of  the  sines  of  the  zenith  distances  of  the  planet,  tf  it  is  between  the  zeniths  of  the 
two  observers ;  or  by  the  difference  of  these  sines  if  the  planet  is  on  the  same  side  of  the 
zenith  to  both  observers ;  and  tunce  the  result  wUl  be  tne  arc,  expressed  in  parts  of  thit 
radius,  that  measures  the  angle  subtended  at  the  planet  by  the  disc  of  the  earth. 

Since  small  angles,  that  require  for  their  measurement  only  the  use  of  the  micrometer 
can  be  determined  with  much  more  accuracy  than  large  angles  requiring  the  whole  telescope 
to  be  moved,  it  is  best  to  employ,  in  finding  the  angle  O  P  o  a  star  which  is  near  the  planet; 
a  small  error  in  taking  the  zenith  distances  of  the  planet  will  produce  no  sensible  error  in 
the  result 

Another  method  of  determining  this  angle,  is  by  observations  on  the  transit  of  Venus  over 
the  disc  of  the  sun ;  a  phenomenon  in  which  the  planet  is  seen  like  a  dark  spot  on  the  disc; 
but  the  method  now  explained  is  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose. 

The  followmg  are  the  angles  subtended  by  the  earth's  disc  at  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets, 
when  the  earth  is  nearest  to  each : 

SecoiiJi.  Second!. 

=  17  Angle  at  Uranus    =       1 

=  28  Vesta   ^ 

=  62  Juno 

=  42  Ceres 

=    4  Pallas 

=   2  Moor 

To  determine,  now,  the  distance  of  the  sun  or  moon,  or  of  a  planet :  —In  tlie  right  angled 

triangle  P  O  C  we  have  given  the  angle  P  equal  to 
half  the  angle  subtended  by  the  earth's  disc  at  the 
body  whose  distance  is  to  be  found ;  also  O  C  the 
earth's  semi-diameter:  therefore  *Jie  distance  P  C 
may  be  determined  by  the  proper*  ion  Sin.  P :  Rad.= 
C  O  :  P  C.  Since  the  angle  P  is  small,  its  sme 
must  be  nearly  equal  to  the  arc  which  measures  it 
Observing  tiherefore  that  the  arc  to  which  the  radius 
is  equal,  expressed  in  seconds,  is  206265"  we  have 
Z  P  (in  seconds)  :  206265  =  C  O  :  P  C.    Hence 


Angle  at  the  Sun 

Mercury 

Venus 

Mars 

Jupiter 

Saturn 


=       9 


=  2°  2' 


rc  =  2co  X 


206265 
'  2P 


Whence  we  derive  the  following  rule: — Divide  the  constant 


number  206265  by  the  number  of  seconds  in  the  angle  subtended  by  the  earth's  disc  as  seen 

from  the  body  whose  distance  is  to  be  determined ;  miUtiply  the  result  by  the  diameter  of 

the  earth,  and  the  product  is  the  distance  required.    In  me  case  of  the  sun ;  assuming  the 

206235 
diameter  of  the  earth  as  unity,  we  have  the  distance  equal  to  — — —  or  12133  diameters  of 

the  earth.  In  like  manner,  taking  4",  2",  1"  for  the  angles  subtended  by  the  esj-th's  disc  at 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  the  distances  of  these  planets  from  the  earth,  when  least,  will 
be  51566,  103132,  206265  diameters  of  the  earth  respectively.  The  mean  distance  of  the 
moon  is  about  sixty  semi-diameters  of  the  earth. 

The  apparent  diameter  of  any  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  the  number  of  seconds  in  the 
measure  of  the  angle  under  which  its  circular  disc  is  seen  by  a  spectator  upon  the  earth. 
When  measured  by  a  micrometer,  the  apparent  diameters  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  are 
found  to  be.  when  greatest,  as  follows : 

Scconda.  Secondi>, 

Diameter  of  the  Sun         =  1923  Diameter  of  Jupiter  =     46 

Mercury  =     12  Saturn  =     18 

Venus      =     61  Uranus  =       4 

Mars       =     18  Moon    =2020 

The  four  remaining  planets,  according  to  the  most  careftd  observations,  appear  to  iubtenJ 
only  a  small  part  of  a  second. 

Now,  for  deducmg  the  real  diameters  from  the  apparent,  we  have  this  rtHe : — As  the 
apparent  diameter  of  the  earth,  (or  the  seconds  in  the  angle  which  its  disc  subtendt,)  at 


mmm 


,  moon,  and  planeti, 


Boo>  I. 


ROTATION  OF  THE  EARTIL 


uen  from  the  planet,  is  to  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  planet  as  seen  from  the  earth,  «« 
is  Uie  true  diameter  of  the  earth  to  the  true  diameter  of  the  planet. 
Cdling  the  diameter  of  the  earth  unity,  or  8000  miles  in  round  numbers,  we  obtain,   ' 

Dianxlan  of 
tha  Earth.  MUm.  - ,         ■  •    ,> 

Diameter  of  the  Sun  =  111.454  =  882,000  nearly.        '   . 

■  •  V                                   Mercu'"-  =  0.898  =  3,140  ~ 

Venui  -  0.9  =  7,200  —                        ,. 

;;    Mors  =  0.517  =  4,100  — 

Jupiter  =  10.860  =  87,000  — 

;      Saturn  =  9.182  =  70,068  —                     ,, 

Uranus  =  4.332  =  84,500  — 

Moon  =  0.273  =  2,160    —        '          ' 


My 


Ab  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  are  spherical  bodies,  their  magnitudes  compared  with  the 
magnitude  of  the  earth,  may  be  found  upon  the  principle  that  similar  solids  are  to  one 
another  as  the  cubes  of  their  similar  dimensions ;  so  that  as  the  cube  of  the  diameter  of  the 
earth  is  to  the  cilbe  of  the  diameter  of  the  sun,  moon,  or  a  planet,  so  is  the  magnitude  of 
the  former  to  the  magnitude  of  the  latter. 

Assuming  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  as  unity : 

The  magnitude  of  the  Sua  =  1384472.000 

Mercury     =  .063 


Venus 
Mars 



.987 
.189 

Jupiter 

= 

1280.900 

Saturn 

::= 

995.000 

Uranus 

= 

80.490 

Moon 

== 

.020 

Having  now  ascertained  the  distances  and  magnitudes  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  we  proceed 
to  inquire  whether  the  diurnal  motion  which  we  observe  in  them  be  a  real  or  only  an  ap- 
parent motion ;  and  whether  the  earth  is  the  centre  to  which  the  proper  motion  of  any  of 
them  is  to  be  referred. 


"Hvide  the  constant 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

ROTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

The  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  suggests  the  existence  of  some  cause,  under 
the  influence  of  which  they  either  perform  or  appear  to  perform  a  revolution  from  east  to 
west  round  the  axis  of  the  celestial  sphere  in  the  space  of  t,  .'"v  and  a  night.  Now,  there 
are  two  suppositions,  on  either  of  which  the  diurnal  motion  •  j.y  be  explained.  We  may 
suppose  the  heavens  to  be  carried  round  the  earth,  while  the  la  '  ir  remains  immoveable  in 
the  centre ;  or  we  may  suppose  the  heavens  to  be  at  rest,  and  the  earth  to  revolve  on  an 
axis  in  an  opposite  direction ;  that  is,  from  west  to  east.  To  which  of  these  hypotheses  the 
preference  is  due,  will  be  evident  if  we  consider  that  the  heavenly  bodies  are  mdependent 
one  of  another,  and  are  placed  at  very  different  distances  from  the  earth ;  that  variations  in 
the  apparent  diameters  of  the  planets  indicate  great  changes  in  their  dismnces,  while  the 
comets  traverse  the  heavens  in  all  directions ;  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  that  one  and 
the  same  cause  should  impress  on  all  these  bodies  a  common  .notion  of  rotation. 

Since  the  eartli  is  a  globe  of  about  8000  mues  diameter,  it  is  small  when  cMnpared  with 
the  immense  mass  of  the  sun.  Were  the  centres  of  the  sun  and  earth  brought  mto  coinci- 
dence, the  former  body  would  fill  the  orbit  of  the  moon  am'  extend  as  far  again  beyond  it 
Besides,  the  sim  is  distant  from  us  about  twel"e  thousand  uiameters  of  the  earth;  so  that  to 
revolve  round  the  heavens  in  the  interval  of  twenty-four  hours,  he  must  move  at  the  im- 
mense velocity  of  about  twenty-five  millions  of  miles  in  an  hour.  It  is  therefore  more 
reasonable  to  suppose  the  earth  to  have  a  motion  of  rotation  on  "n  axis,  than  to  suppose  the 
sun,  a  body  so  distant  and  of  such  immense  magnitude,  to  mov^-  "ith  the  vast  rapidity  that 
would  be  requisite  to  carry  him  round  the  heavens  in  so  short  an  interval.  With  regard  to 
the  fixed  stars,  we  may  reason  in  the  same  manner  with  still  greater  Ifarce :  for  the  velocity 
necessary  to  carry  the  sun  round  in  twenty-four  hours  is  really  insensible  when  compared 
with  the  rapidity  with  which  the  fixed  stars  must  move  to  accomplish  a  like  revolution.  In 
order  to  account  for  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  earth  is 
at  rest^  it  must  be  supposed  that  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  have  their  velocities  so  adapted 
to  their  respective  distances,  that  all  of  them  con"^l' '  ^rir  revolutions  round  the  earth 
in  exactly  the  some  number  of  seconds.     Such  an  a*   •  among  innumerable  indepen* 

dont  bodies,  placed  at  such  a  variety  of  distances,  it  is      ,      iblc  to  admit. 

inere  are  other  phenomena  of  the  heavens  which  serv  '^  farther  to  coniirm  the  con- 
elusion,  that  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  uot  •  .  al  motion.  Every  difilculty, 

Vol  I,  S*"  M 


00 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


PahtII 


liowevor  diBappean,  if  we  suppose  tlie  eailh  to  have  a  motion  of  rotation  ijn  an  axis  iVom 
west  to  east  Carried  round  with  a  velocity  common  to  all  tho  objects  which  aurrouQd  ui 
on  the  earth's  surface,  we  are  in  a  situation  similar  to  that  of  a  spectator  placed  in  a  vesMJ 
in  motion.  At  the  fi'nt  r.iri,l'!S8  (glance  ho  imaffines  himself  at  rest,  while  tho  shore,  and 
all  tho  objects  whic'i  a  bees,  unconnected  wiUi  the  vessel,  appear  to  bu  in  motion.  By 
reflecting;,  however,  on  the  extent  of  tlic  shore,  on  tho  mapnitud  he  mountains,  and 

other  objer's  on  land,  when  compared  with  the  vessel  from  which  he  '  .ea  them,  he  fteei 
bis  miua  from  this  momentary  ilhision,  and  becomes  convinced  ti-.at  the  motion  of  these 
objects  is  only  apparent,  and  Uiat  it  is  produced  by  t'lO  real  motion  of  the  ^ciscl.  Th? 
multitude  of  stars  scattered  over  the  heavens  are,  with  respect  to  us,  what  liio  shore  am! 
the  objects  upon  it  are  with  regard  to  tho  spectator  placed  in  the  vessel :  and  l)y  the  same 
considerations,  by  which  his  first  impressions  are  so  corrected  that  ho  becomen  assured  of 
the  reality  of  his  motion,  wo  arc  led  to  tlic  conclusion  that  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  an 
axis  produces  the  apparent  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens. 

An  argument  for  the  rotation  of  the  curth  may  also  be  drawn  from  analogy.  Several  of 
the  planets  are  known  to  have  a  motion  on  an  axis  similar  to  that  which  we  have  supposed 
to  belong  to  tho  earth.  Jupiter,  for  example,  which  is  many  times  greater  than  the  earth, 
revolves  on  his  axis  from  west  to  east  in  less  than  half  a  day*  aiul  to  an  observer  on  his 
Burfiice,  the  heavens  would  appear  to  revolve  round  tliat  planet  in  tie  samr  mfinner  as  we 
see  them  revolve  round  tho  earth,  but  in  about  half  the  tune.  This  motion  of  the  heaven 
in  reference  to  a  spectator  on  the  planet  Jupitor  would,  however,  bo  only  apparent ;  and 
hence  we  may  reasonably  conclude,  that  the  cose  is  the  same  in  reference  to  a  spectator  on 
the  earth. 

Lastly,  if  the  earth  is  actually  in  motion,  there  will  be  generated  a  <  .Urifugal  force,  or 
a  tendency  to  throw  off  objects  from  its  surface,  which  must  diminish  the  torce  of  gravity, 
particularly  at  the  equator,  where  the  motion  is  most  rapid.  Now,  by  observations  mane 
with  the  pendulum,  this  diminution  of  the  force  of  grav'ty  has  been  found  to  exist.  The 
same  cause  affects  also  the  figure  of  the  earth,  which  has  been  found  to  be  flattened  some- 
what at  the  points  of  rotation,  and  elevated  at  the  equatorial  regions.  The  same  is  observed 
to  be  the  flgure  of  Jupiter, — a  circumstance  which  greatly  strengthens  the  argument  drawn 
from  analogy.  The  evidence  which  has  now  been  adduced  leaves  no  doubt  respecting  tho 
earth's  motion  of  rotation;  and  thus  we  are  enabled  to  ascertain  the  true  place  which  the 
globe  that  we  inhnbit  holds  in  the  universe. 

The  points  in  vhic^  the  axis  of  rotation  meets  the  surface  are  called  the  poles  of  tho 
earth ;  and  it  iii  evident  that  the  axis,  if  produced,  must  pass  through  the  poles  of  the 
heavens. 


;  ill 


m  jihiii 


i|f):-: 


Ihlii'ii: 


CHAPTER  Vm. 
APFABENT  ANNUAL  MOTION  OP  THE  SUN.    VICISSITtTOB  OP  SEASONS. 

While  the  sun  participates  in  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens,  he  also  appears  to  move 
eastward  among  the  fixed  stars.  This  motion  it  will  be  of  importance  now  to  trace  out, 
and  to  explain  3ie  change  of  seasons  to  which  it  gives  rise.  If  we  observe  each  day  of  the 
year  the  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun,  and  note  the  time  which  elapses  between  his  passage 
over  the  meridian  and  the  passage  of  any  particular  star,  we  shall  have  the  apparent  motion 
of  tiie  sun  in  the  direction  of  Uie  meridian,  and  of  the  circles  parallel  to  tlie  equator  in 
which  he  appears  daily  to  be  carried  by  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens.  The  result  of 
the  composition  of  these  two  motions  will  give  the  true  motion  for  each  day.  In  this  manner 
it  has  been  found  that  the  sun  moves  in  a.  path  or  orbit  which  cuts  the  equator  in  two  oppo- 
site points,  and  makes  with  it  an  angle  equal  to  28°  28'  nearly. 

The  name  of  ecliptic  is  given  to  Sie  circle  which  the  plane  of  this  orbit  marks  out  on  the 
sphere  of  the  heavens.  It  passes  through  twelve  constellations,  which  are  cdled  the 
TWELVE  SIGNS.  ThLs  has  given  rise  to  the  division  of  the  ecliptic  into  twelve  equal  parts, 
called  sioNs,  each  containing,  of  course,  80°.  The  twelve  signs  are  contained  in  a  zone  of 
the  starry  heavens,  called  the  Zodiac.  The  names  of  these  constellationH,  with  the  charac- 
ters by  which  they  are  usually  denoted,  are  as  follow : — Aries  T,  Taurus  y,  Gemini  11,  Cancer 
2S,  Leo  SI,  Virgo  W,  Libra  =2:,  Scorpio  l^i  Sagittarius  t,  Capricomus  yf,  Aquarius  x:,  Pisces  X- 

The  vicissitude  of  seasons  arises  fix)m  the  combination  of  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun 
in  the  ecliptic  with  his  apparent  diurnal  motion.  When  the  sun  is  in  either  of  the  pomts 
in  which  the  ecliptic  intersects  the  equator,  he  describes  the  e(}uator  on  that  day  in  virtue 
of  his  diurnal  motion ;  and  as  by  the  properties  of  the  sphere  this  circle  is  divided  into  two 
equal  parts  by  the  horizon,  at  whatever  point  of  the  earth's  sur&ce  tlie  spectator  is  situated, 
the  day  is  then  equal  to  the  night  over  all  the  globe. 

The  points  of  intersection  of  Ov^uator  and  ecliptic  are  called  the  Equinoctial  Points. 
The  first  pouit  of  the  sign  Aries  is  supposed  to  coincide  with  the  point  of  the  vernal  equinox ; 
»nd  from  that  point  the  signs  of  the  ecliptic  are  reckoned :  the  first  point  of  tiie  sign  Libra 


Si'-i;"; 


PahtII 

Jon  on  an  axis  ttom 

which  aurrouQd  ua 

r  placed  in  a  vencl 

hile  the  shore,  and 

bo  in  motion.    By 

he  mountains,  and 

,C3  them,  ho  iVeea 

he  motion  of  these 

)f  the  \(s8ol.    The 

vhat  ilif)  shore  and 

1 :  and  by  the  same 

becomes  assured  of 

I  of  the  earth  on  an 

lalogy.  Several  of 
\  we  have  supposed 
iter  than  the  earth, 
3  an  olicrver  on  his 
samr  manner  as  we 
rtion  of  the  heaven 
only  apparent;  and 
ice  to  a  spectator  on 

utrifugal  force,  or 
the  rorce  of  gravity, 
f  observations  mane 
bund  to  exist.  The 
o  be  flattened  some. 
!'he  same  is  observed 
the  argument  drawn 
ioubt  respecting  the 
ue  place  which  the 

led  the  poles  of  tlu 
rh  the  poles  of  the 


3EAS0NS. 

Iso  appears  to  move 
now  to  trace  out, 
rve  each  day  of  the 
etween  his  passage 
le  apparent  motion 
j1  to  tlie  equator  in 
ns.  The  result  of 
[ay.  In  this  manner 
quator  in  two  oppo 

it  marks  out  on  the 
ch  are  called  the 
twelve  equal  parts, 
tained  in  a  zone  of 
H,  with  the  charac- 

Gemini  IT,  Cancer 
jarius  'XC,  Pisces  X- 

motion  of  the  sun 
ither  of  the  points 

Uiat  day  in  virtue 
is  divided  into  two 
ectator  is  situated, 

uiNocTiAi.  Points. 

je  vernal  cqainos ; 
of  the  sign  lAbra 


Book  I 


VICISSITUDE  OP  SEASONS. 


V  iil  therefore  coincide  with  the  point  of  tlio  autumnal  equinox.  As  the  sun,  when  he  1ea>ei 
the  pobt  of  tho  vernal  equinox  advances  in  tho  ecliptic,  hia  meridian  altitude  ubovo  our 
horizon  daily  increases,  and  a  larger  portion  of  tlie  parallel  which  he  daily  describes  becomes 
visible.  Ilunco  arises  a  gradual  increase  in  the  length  of  the  day  in  all  countries  to  the 
north  of  tho  equator ;  imtu  the  sun  having  reached  his  greatest  altitude,  the  day  acauires  its 
greatest  len^^th,  and  begins  to  shorten.  As  tho  variations  of  the  altitude  on  each  siae  of  the 
points  at  which  it  is  greatest  are  insensible,  the  sun,  '**  we  attend  only  to  hia  altitude,  appcum 
stationary,  and  the  day  continues,  for  some  time,  very  nearly  of  the  sain  ngth.  The  point 
of  the  ecliptic  at  which  the  maximum  takes  place  is  therefore  'Icnomiu  d  the  point  of  the 
Summer  Solsiick.  The  sun,  having  reached  this  point,  n(>\^  turns  towards  the  equator, 
which  he  crosses  at  the  point  of  the  autumnal  equinox.  lis  m  idian  altitude  ^^adually 
diminishes  until  it  roaches  tlie  minimum  at  thi'       nt  <>t'  the  Wintke  Solstiob.    The  day, 

shortest  in  the 
again  gradually 


th< 


ovu, 


he  Riccession  of  the 

>.  cm.      f  spring  equinox, 

apjcns about  the  21st 

which  falls  about  the 

.ainox  and  the  winter 

aiia,  lastly,  tlie  Winteb 

equinox. 


which  has  been  gradually  shortening  from  the  sumni'  sol 
year,  and  for  some  time  does  not  sensibly  lengthen  Ti 
approaches  the  equator,  and  reaches  it  at  the  vernal  equi<  ox. 

Such  is  the  constant  progress  of  the  sun  in  the  heav  ns.  ■ 
seasons  of  the  year.    The  Spbino  is  the  tune  comprised  V 
wiiich  fulls  about  the  2)6t  of  March,  and  the  summer  soi      u, 
of  Juno :  the  inter\'al  between  the  solstice  and  the  autunn:  !  - 
23d  of  September  is  the  Summer  :  the  time  between  the  auti 
Bolstico,  which  occurs  about  the  22d  of  December,  is  the  AurvM., 
is  the  time  tliat  elapses  between  the  winter  solstice  and  the  spring 

The  two  circles  parallel  to  the  equator,  which  the  sim  describes  on  the  longest  and 
shortest  days,  are  called,  one  the  summer  or  northern  Tropic,  and  the  other  tho  winter  or 
southoin  Tropic.  They  are  also  respective!  /  denominated  tlie  tropic  of  Cancer  and  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn,  in  reference  tx>  tlie  points  in  which  they  touch  the  ecliptic. 

The  presence  of  the  sun  above  the  horizon  being  the  cause  of  heat,  and  the  temperature 
increasing  as  the  altitude  increases,  it  might  be  inrerred  that  the  temperature  should  be  the 
same  in  summer  as  in  sprmg,  and  in  winter  a?  in  autumn ;  because  the  altitudes  of  the  sun 
in  these  seasons  exactly  correspond.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  temperature  is  not  an 
i.'stantaneous  effect  of  the  suns  presence;  but  is  the  result  of  the  continued  action  of  hia 
rays.  On  this  account  it  is  not  greatest  on  the  day  when  the  altitude  is  greatest,  but  some 
time  between  the  summer  solstice  and  autumnal  equinox.  In  like  manner,  the  greatest  cold 
of  winter  does  not  occur  on  the  shortest  day,  but  some  time  between  the  winter  solstice  and 
the  spring  equinox. 

With  regard  both  to  temperature  and  the  length  of  the  day,  great  differences  arise  from 
the  different  elevations  of  the  polu  above  the  norizon,  as  we  proceed  from  the  equator 
towards  either  of  the  poles.  The  horizon  of  an  observer  at  the  equator  passes  through  the 
poles,  and  by  the  geometrical  properties  of  the  sphere  it  divides  the  equator  and  all  the  circles, 
parallel  to  it  into  two  equal  parts.  It  also  cuts  them  at  right  angles ;  and  hence  the  position 
of  the  celestial  sphere,  m  reference  to  the  horizon  of  an  ol»erver  at  the  equator,  is  called  the 
Right  position  of  the  sphere.  In  whatever  point  of  the  ecliptic  the  sun  is  situated,  his 
diurnal  course  is  therefore  at  right  angles  to  the  horizon,  and  one  half  of  it  is  in  the  visible 
hemisphere,  and  the  other  half  in  the  invisible ;  hence,  at  the  equator,  the  day  is  at  dl 
seasons  equal  to  the  night 

When  the  sun  is  in  either  of  the  equinoctial  points,  he  passes  through  tlie  zenith  at 
mid-day.  When  he  is  in  either  of  the  solstitial  points  his  meridian  altitude  is  the  least,  and 
is  equal  to  the  complement  of  the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator.  In  these  two 
positions  of  the  sun  the  shadows  of  objects  fall,  at  mid-day,  in  opposite  durections, — a  pheno- 
menon which  at  no  season  occurs  in  our  climate,  where  the  solar  shadows  are  at  mid-day 
always  directed  towards  the  north :  there  are,  then,  properly  speakmg,  two  sununers  and 
two  winters  in  the  year  at  the  equator.  The  same  thing  takes  place  in  all  the  countries 
where  the  elevation  of  the  pole  above  the  horizon  is  less  than  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 
In  every  country  beyond  this  region  there  is  only  one  summer  and  one  winter  in  the  year, 
with  the  intervening  seasons  of  spring  and  autumn :  the  sun  is  never  in  the  zenith :  ^e 
length  of  the  longest  day  increases,  and  that  of  the  shortest  day  diminishes,  as  we  advance 
towards  either  of  the  poles ;  and  when  we  have  reached  such  a  position,  that  the  zenith  is 
distant  from  the  pole  by  an  arc  of  the  meridian  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  the 
sun  does  not  set  at  the  summer  solstice,  nor  rise  at  the  winter  solstice. 

The  polar  circles.  About  each  of  the  poles  of  the  celestial  sphere,  suppose  a  circle  to  be 
described  distant  from  it  by  an  arc  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic ;  these  two  circles 
are  called  the  Polar  Circles.  In  the  region  of  the  earth  situated  around  either  of  its 
poles,  at  every  point  whose  zenith  lines  within  the  polar  circle,  the  time  of  the  sun's  presence 
above  the  horizon  and  of  his  absence  below  it,  at  certain  seasons,  exceeds  twenty-four  hours: 
it  increases  as  we  approach  the  pole,  and  may  amount  to  days  or  even  to  months.  Thus, 
when  the  sun's  declination  north,  increasing,  becomes  equal  to  the  distance  of  the  zenith  of 
any  place  in  the  northern  polar  regk>n  firom  the  north  pole  of  the  heavens,  he  ceases  to  set 


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92 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  H. 


at  that  place,  and  continues  above  the  horieon  until  he  ha<,  reached  the  same  declination  in 
retuminff  towards  the  equator.  From  that  time  the  sun  rises  and  sets  in  the  course  of 
twenty-tour  hours,  until  the  sun's  declination  south  becomes  equal  to  the  distance  of  the 
zenith  ficm  the  pole,  and  then  he  ceases  to  rise  and  continues  below  the  horizon  til^  he  has 
Again  acquired  the  same  declination  in  returning  northward. 

At  the  polo,  the  equator  coincides  with  the  horicon,  nn^  all  the  circles  parallel  to  the 
equator  are  also  parallel  to  the  horizon.  This  is  called  tiie  Pabaixxl  position  of  the  sphere. 
To  an  observer,  placed  at  the  pole,  the  heavenly  bodija  would  appear  to  move  round,  eitlter 
in  the  horizon  or  parallel  to  it  Hence  the  sun  is  constantlv  above  the  horizon  when  he  is 
on  the  same  side  of  the  eouator  with  the  pole,  and  constantly  below  it  when  on  the  other 
aide ;  so  that  at  either  of  tne  poles  of  the  earth  there  is  only  one  day  and  one  night  in  the 
year. 

At  any  point  on  the  earth's  surftce,  between  the  equator  and  either  of  the  poles,  the 
equator  and  the  circles  parallel  to  it,  are  oblique  to  the  horizon.  This  is  called  the  Obuqvb 
position  of  the  sphere;  and  by  the  eeometrical  properties  of  the  i^phere,  the  harikon,  in  this 
position,  divides  all  the  circles  partulel  to  the  equatu^  into  two  unsq;-  il  parts ;  hence  arises 
the  inequality  of  the  days  and  nights  at  all  places  between  the  equator  and  either  pole.  In 
this  county,  ftr  example,  in  summer,  when  the  sun  is  on  the  north  side  of  'iie  equator,  the 
larger  portion  of  his  diurnal  course  lies  in  the  visible  hemisphere,  and  die  less  in  the  invisible, 
so  uat  the  day  is  longer  than  the  night  The  reverse  is  the  case  in  the  winter  when  the 
sun  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  equator. 

If  two  places  are  situated  on  opposite  sides  Oi.  he  equator,  the  spring  and  summer  of  the 
one  will,  it  is  evident,  correspond  to  the  autumn  and  wmter  <^  the  other. 

With  regard  to  the  temperature,  it  is  higher  in  the  equatorial  regions  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  earth,  because  there  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  is  most  direct  To  every  point 
of  tlie  earth's  surface,  whose  zenith  lies  between  the  tropics,  tka  sun  is  vertical  twice  in  the 
year ;  so  that  his  rays,  acting  perpendicularly,  produce  their  greatest  efSact.  In  the  polar 
regions  the  temperature  is  lowest,  in  ccmsequence  of  the  obliquity  with  which  the  ten's  rays 
fidl  on  the  earth's  surikce,  and  the  great  length  of  the  winter  night  In  the  countries  situated 
between  the  equatorial  region  and  the  two  polar  regions,  there  prevails  a  medium  tempera^ 
tuie,  increasing  as  the  zenith  approaches  the  nearer  of  the  two  tropics,  and  diminishing  as 
it  approaches  uie  nearer  of  the  polar  ciroles. 
A  division  of  the  earth's  sur&ce  into  five  zones  has  been  suggested  by  this  difl^rence  «• 

temperature  from  the  equator  towards  either  poia 
In  uie  a^oining  figure  let  P  p  represent  the  earth's 
axis,  P  Ef  j>  Q,  a  meridian,  and  E  Q  the  equatorial 
diameter.  Let  E  G  Q  be  the  representation  of  a 
circle  on  the  eatth's  surflice  equally  distant  ihnn 
the  poles,  which  vill  therefore  be  the  equator: 
and  F  G  H,  fg  h  circles  on  the  earth's  suriiice 
mrallel  to  the  equator,  and  at  the  distance  of  about 
29j^  degrees;  on  eadi  side  of  it  and  A  B  D,  a  6  d 
circles  round  the  poles  P,  p,  and  at  the  same  dis- 
tance of  Wit  degrees. 

At  the  times  of  the  ;^ear  when  the  sun  is  in  the 
trop'e  of  Cancer,  he  will,  in  his  apparent  revolu* 
tion,  be  vertical  to  all  places  on  the  circle  F  G  H; 
and  when  he  is  in  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  he  will 
be  vertical  to  tiie  ciicle  fg  h.  The  space  on  the 
earth's  sur&ce  between  these  circles  is  the  Torrid 

When  the  stm  is  m  the  southern  tropic  he  will  not  be  seen  airewhere  in  the  qnce  bounded 
by  the  circle  A  B  D  "IJ^is  is,*therefore,  the  northern  Frigid  Zone:  and  when  he  is  in  the 
northern  tropic  there  is  a  like  tract  bounded  by  the  cirele  0hd,  round  the  south  pole,  where 
he  will  then  be  invisible.  This  is  the  southern  Frigid  Zone.  The  two  tracts  between  the 
torrid  zone  and  tiie  frigid  zones  are  the  temperate  zones. 

Another  division  of  the  earth  into  zones  was  used  by  the  ancient  geographers,  founded  on 
the  difl!erent  lengths  of  tlie  longest  day,  as  we  proceed  from  the  equator  towards  either  of 
tibe  poles.  These  zones  were  denominated  Cumatbs,  and  were  each  of  such  a  breadth,  that 
the  longest  day  at  the  boundary  nearer  the  pole  exceeded  the  longest  day  at  the  bounduy 
nearer  the  equator  by.  some  certain  space  of  time,  as  half  an  hour  or  an  hour.  Within  the 
polar  circle,  the  climates  were  supposed  of  such  a  breadth  as  to  make  the  longest  day  at  the 
opposite  sides  dififer  \sv  a  month. 

The  points  in  which  the  equator  and  ecliptic  intersect  each  other  are  not  immoveable,  but 
appear,  with  respect  to  the  fixed  stars,  to  recede  towards  the  west  at  the  rate  of  60iV'' 
nearly,  annually,  or  about  1°  in  72  years.    This  motion  is  called  the  Pawj^ioH  of  the 


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Equinoxes.    Whet  the  constellations  of  the  zodiac  were  first  delineated  bv  the  ancient 


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utronomers,  the  middle  of  the  sign  Ariei  was  at  the  point  of  tlie  vernal  equinox,  fiom  which 
it  is  now  distant  more  than  58°  to^murds  the  east  In  consequence  of  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  the  time  in  which  the  sun  moves  from  the  vernal  equinox  to  the  vernal  equinox 
a^un,  is  less  than  the  time  in  which  be  moves  from  any  star  to  the  same  star  again; — ^the 
point  of  the  vernal  equinox  moving  we'jtwaid,  so  as  to  meet  the  sun,  and  thus  anticipate  the 
time  of  his  crossing  uie  eouator  in  the  precedinjj  year. 

The  intervtJs  of  time  which  separate  tiie  equmoxes  or  the  solstices  are  unequal  Almott 
eight  days  more  elapse  from  the  spring  to  the  autumnal  equinox,  than  from  the  latter  to  the 
former.  We  may  therefore  conclude,  that  the  motion  of  the  sun  is  not  uniform.  From 
precise  and  multiplied  observations,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  his  motion  is  most  rapid  at 
a  point  of  the  ecliptic  situated  near  the  winter  solsticial  point,  and  slowest  at  the  opposite 
pomt  towuds  the  summer  solstice.  At  die  former  point  the  sun  describes  doily  1°  1'  10", 
at  the  latter  only  67'  11V'>  The  distance  of  the  sun  fitim  the  earth  is  also  variable.  This 
is  proved  by  variations  observed  in  his  apparent  diameter,  which  increases  and  duninishcs  at 
tlie  same  time  with  his  angular  velocity,  out  not  in  the  same  ratia  The  angular  velocities 
at  any  two  instants  of  time  are,  to  one  another,  as  the  squares  of  the  apparent  diameters. 

If  V  and  v'  be  the  angular  velocities  of  the  sun,  «r  his  daily  advances  in  the  ecliptic  at  any 
two  seasons  of  the  year,  and  d  and  d'  Ids  apparent  diameters  at  ihe  same  time,  then  v :  v'  = 

To  diminish  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  suppose  that  body 
removed  to  a  greater  distance  fixim  die  earth,  without  altering  his  true  angular  velocity. 
But  if  the  dunmution  of  his  motion  depended  entirely  on  this  cause,  the  apparent  velocity 
would  diminish  m  the  same  ratio  with  die  apparent  diameter.  Since  it  diminubes,  however, 
as  the  square  of  the  diameter,  there  must  necessarily  be  an  actual  diminuticQ  of  the 
velocity  (a  the  sun  while  he  recedes  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  earth. 

His  distance  being  reciprocally  as  his  appvent  diameter,  if  D  and  D'  be  his  distances  at 
the  two  seasons  when  his  diameters  are  d  and  d',  we  have  «  :  v'  =  D**:  D*;  and  viy=v'iy*. 
Hence  it  appears,  that  from  the  combined  efiect  of  die  two  causes  influencing  the  sun's 
apparent  motions, — ^namely,  the  diminution  of  his  velocity  and  the  increase  of  his  distance, — 
his  daily  angular  motion  diminishes  as  the  square  of  his  distance  increases ;  so  that  the  pro* 
duct  of  the  BQjaire  of  the  distance  by  the  velocity  is  a  constant  quantity. 

Let  us  imagine  a  straight  line  to  join  the  centres  of  the  sun  uid  of  the  earth.  This  line 
is  usually  called  the  Radivs  Vbctob.  It  is  not  difficult  to  prove  that  the  small  sector,  or 
the  area  which  the  Radius  Vector  traces  in  a  day,  in  consequence  of  the  sun's  motion,  is 
pr^rtional  to  the  product  of  the  square  of  this  radius  by  the  sun's  daily  motion,  that  is,  to 
V  Dr.  This  area  is  therefore  constant ;  and  the  whole  area,  described  by  the  Radius  Vector, 
setting  out  from  a  fixed  radius,  increases  as  the  number  of  days  reckoned  from  the  epoch 
when  the  sun  was  at  the  fixed  radius. 

Since  vD''=  v'D**,  we  have  D'  =  D^/S    Assuming,  therefore,  any  line  whatever  tea:  D, 

and  finding,  by  observation,  the  sun's  angular  velocity  for  every  day  of  the  year,  the  value 
of  D'  for  each  day  may  be  found. 

Thus  we  shall  be'  able  to  trace  a  curve  line  representing  the  orbit  of  the  sun.  This  curve 
is  fiiund  to  be  not  exactfy  circular,  but  a  litde  elongated  m  the  direcdim  of  the  straight  lin? 
passing  through  the  centre  of  the  eajth,  and  joining  the  points  in  the  orbit  at  which  th ':  sun 
18  at  its  greatest  and  least  distances.  The  resemblance  of  this  curve  to  an  elUp$e  hvving 
given  rise  to  a  comparison  between  them,  their  identity  has  been  discovered.  Hence  we 
conclude,  that  the  apparetU  tolar  orbit  it  an  eUipte  having  the  centre  of  the  earth  in  one 
<if  it$  foci. 

The  solar  ellipse  is  not  much  di^rent  firom  a  circle ;  for  its  eccentricity,  which,  ttom  the 
geometrical  properties  of  the  ellipse,  is  equal  to  half  the  difference  of  the  sun's  greatest  and 
Feast  distances  from  the  earth,  is  a  quantity  which  bears  but  a  very  small  proportion  to  the 
distance  of  the  sun.  It  appears,  fhnn  observation,  that  there, is  a  small  dunmution  of  the 
eccentricity, — so  small,  inaeed,  ao  scarcely  to  be  perceptible  in  a  century. 

The  position  of 'the  greater  axis  of  the  solar  ellipse  is  not  constandy  the  same.  Its 
extremities  have  an  annual  motion  eastward,  in  reference  to  the  fixed  stars,  of  about  12^  in 
the  direction  of  the  sun's  motion. 

The  Obliquity  of  the  sun's  orbit,  or  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator,  is  also  subject  to  change, 
and  appe^  j  to  have  been  continually  diminishing  fh>m  the  remotest  date  of  aatroncHnical 
observation.    Its  present  rate  of  dimmution  may  be  stated  at  nearly  48"  in  r.  century. 

The  apparent  elliptic  motion  of  the  sun  does  not  represent,  with  perfisc';  exactness,  the 
results  of  modem  observation.  The  great  precision  now  attained  in  the  art  of  observing 
has  made  known  to  us  small  inequalities,  the  laws  of  which  it  would  have  been  ahnost 
impossible  to  determine  by  mere  bbeervatirn.  These  laws  can  be  investigated  only  aftor 
tht  physical  cnuse  has  been  discovered  upon  which  the  phenomena  depend.  ti^  < 


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ilf  PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY.  Pabt  O. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

DIVISION  AND  MEAHUBB  OF  TIME. 

Taa  notion  of  time  is  suggfested  by  th«  succession  of  phenomena  in  the  universe.  When 
two  events  exactly  correspond  in  all  Ibeir  circumstances,  they  are  conceived  to  occupy 
e^ual  portions  of  time.    The  descent  of  a  heavy  body  to  the  earth,  for  example,  from  a 

given  height,  if  repeated  under  precisely  similar  circumstances,  will  in  every  case  be  per- 
rmed  in  the  same  interval  of  tune.  Suppose  then  that  a  number  of  heavy  bodies  fall  to 
the  ground  one  after  another  from  the  same  height, — the  descent  of  the  second  and  of  each 
succeedinff  body  conunencing  at  the  instant  in  which  the  bodv  that  preceded  it  had  reached 
the  ground ;  the  whole  time  occupied  by  the  &11  of  these  bodies  will  be  divided  into  equal 
portions,  one  of  which  may  be  assumed  as  the  measuring  unit  of  time.  The  vibrations  of 
a  pendulum,  performed  under  precisely  the  same  circumstances,  are  employed  for  estimating 
the  smaller  portions  of  time :  the  larger  portions  are  deterniined  by  the  motions  of  the  sun ; 
from  which  arise  the  vicissitude  of  day  and  night,  and  the  change  of  seasons. 

The  Day,  in  civil  life,  is  the  time  that  elapses  between  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun ; 
and  the  Nioht  the  time  between  his  setting  and  risinff.  The  Astbonoiuoal  or  Solas  Day, 
on  the  other  hand,  comprehends  the  whole  period  of  the  sun's  diurnal  revolution,  and  is 
reckoned  from  the  time  of  his  passing  any  particular  meridian,  to  the  time  of  his  returning 
to  the  same  meridian.  Tlie  pendulum  usually  employed  is  of  such  a  length  as  to  divide  the 
mean  astronomical  day  into  24X60X60=86400  equal  parts  called  seconds;  60  of  these 
parts  make  a  minute ;  60  minutes  make  an  hour ;  and  24  hours  complete  the  day. 

As  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  carries  him  eastward  among  tne  fixed  stare,  the  time 
that  elapses  between  his  passing  the  meridian,  and  his  retumins  to  it  again,  is  longer  than 
the  time  that  intervenes  between  two  successive  passaees  (called  transits)  of  any  particular 
star.  This  latter  period  is  the  exact  time  of  the  earth  s  revolution  on  its  axis,  and  is  called 
a  Sidebeal  day :  it  is  about  23"  66"  4'  in  length. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  being  perfectly  uniftrm,  the  length  of  the  sidereal  day 
is  always  the  same.  This  is  not,  however,  the  case  with  rcmect  to  the  astronomical  or  solar 
day,  which  is  affected  by  the  unequable  motion  of  the  sun,  ana  by  the  obli(}uity  of  the  ecliptic. 
At  the  summer  solstice,  towai  ds  which  the  sun's  motion  in  the  ecliptic  is  slowest,  the  solar 
day  is  more  nearly  equal  to  the  sidereal  day  than  at  the  winter  solstice,  when  the  sun's  motion 
is  quickest 

With  regard  to  the  effect  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  in  reference  to  the  length  of  the 
sular  day,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that,  by  the  geometrical  properties  of  the  sphere,  equeu  portions 
of  any  circle,  whose  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  revolution,  pass  over  the  meridian 
in  equal  times;  but  if  the  plane  oi*'a  circle  is  oblique  to  the  axis,  the  arcs  that  pass  ov"  '^^he 
meridian  in  equal  times  are  not  equal.    Hence,  if  the  sun  moved  uniformly  in  the  i  ', 

the  solar  day  would  be  always  of  the  same  length :  but  as  he  moves  in  the  ecliptic  j 

plane  is  oblique  to  the  axis,  even  if  he  did  proceed  with  a  uniform  motion,  the  equui  <.:cs 
which  he  daily  described  would  pass  over  the  meridian  in  unequal  times ;  so  that  the  solar 
daywould  be  longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  sun's  place  in  the  ecliptic. 

The  motion  of  the  shadow  on  a  sun-duJ.  marks  out  time  as  measured  by  the  sun's  motion 
in  the  ecliptic :  but  if  the  sun  moved  uniformly  in  the  equator  at  such  a  rate  as  to  complete 
the  annual  circuit  qf  the  heavens,  in  the  same  time  as  he  does  by  hir  actual  motion  in  the 
ecliptic,  time  measured  by  his  motion  would  then  correspond  with  that  of  a  well-regulated 
clock. 

The  difierence  between  the  time  shown  by  the  sun-dial,  and  that  shown  by  the  clock,  is 
called  the  Eqcatioii  or  Tnu.  The  part  of  this  equation  which  depends  on  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic,  vanishes  at  the  equinoxes  and  at  the  solstices ;  because  at  these  seasons  the  sun 
C(Hnes  to  the  meridian  at  the  same  moment  as  he  would  do  if  he  moved  in  the  etjuator. 
*  From  the  vernal  ec|uinox  till  pie  summer  solstice,  and  fr(Kn  the  autumnal  equmox  till  the 
winter  solstice,  the  tune  as  shown  by  the  sun-dial  is  in  tudvance  of  that  indicated  by  the 
clock;  because  then  the  sun's  distance  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  and  first  pomt  of  Libra, 
passes  sooner  over  the  meridian  than  the  equal  arc  upon  the  equator,  which  the  sun  would 
have  described  had  he  moved  in  that  circle. 

Again,  the  hour  shown  by  the  sun-dial  is  behind  that  shown  by  the  clock,  fh>m  the  simmer 
and  winter  solstices,  till  me  autumnal  and  vernal  equinoxes ;  because  at  these  two  seasons 
the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  first  point  of  Arte*,  and  from  the  first  point  of  LU>ra,  re- 
quires longer  time  to  pass  over  the  meridian,  than  the  equal  arc  upon  the  equator. 

The  part  of  the  equation  of  time  which  arises  from  the  unequable  motion  of  the  sun,  will 
vanish  when  he  is  at  his  greatest  and  least  distances  from  tlie  earth ;  because  he  is  in  these 
two  points  of  his  orbit  at  the  same  instants  of  time  as  he  would  be  if  he  moved  uniformly 
with  his  mean  velocity ;  itat  is,  with  a  rate  of  motion  by  which  he  would  describe  equally 
the  ecliptic  in  the  same  time  in  which  he  describes  it  by  his  unequable  motion. 

The  dial,  during  the  tune  when  the  sun  is  movmg  fi?om  the  point  of  his  greatest,  to  tha 
point  of  his  least  oistance  from  the  earth,  is  &ster  than  the  clock ;  because  the  sun  is  then 


":;<;': 


Book  I. 


DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  OF  TIME. 


86 


at  no  instant  so  far  advanced  in  his  orbit,  as  lie  would  have  been  if  he  had  been  moving  ttni> 
formly  with  his  mean  velocity.  The  reverse  is  the  case  while  the  sun  is  movmff  tttm  the 
point  of  his  least  to  that  of  his  greatest  distance.  Time  measured  by  the  dial  is  called 
APPARBNT  time;  that  shown  by  a  well-rejrulated  clock  is  called  tbto  tune.  The  effect  of 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  that  of  the  sun's  unequable  motion,  in  rendering  the  dial 
faster  or  slower  than  the  clock,  sometimes  combine  with  and  at  other  times  counteract  each 
other.  The  amount  of  each  is  given  in  the  two  following  tables  for  eve^  fifth  day  of  the 
year;  and  by  taking  the  sum  or  difference,  according  as  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  and 
ihe  sun's  unequable  motion  pmduce  sunilar  or  opposite  efibcts,  a  table  may  be  formed  of 
ihe  equation  of  time< 


•  ^.IVf'-'^-'-i 


Table  showing  the  Part  qf  the  Equation  qf  Time  that  arises  from  the  Obliquity  qf    ^ 

the  Ecliptic. 


Dial  Falter. 

Dial  Blower. 

Dial  Falter. 

Dial  Blower.           i 

M. 

fl. 

M. 

& 

M. 

S3     0 

& 

M. 

& 

Much  •   • 

31 

0 

0 

^une     •   • 

SI 

0 

0 

September 

0 

December. 

31 

0 

0 

Vi 

1 

30 

an 

1 

48 

S8 

1 

39 

SA 

1 

48 

an 

3 

Iff 

July  •   •   • 

1 

3 

33 

October 

3 

3 

IS 

31 

3 

33 

April    •   • 

4 

4 

4A 

7 

5 

8 

8 

4 

46 

January   • 

S 

S 

8 

0 

A 

0 

13 

A 

33 

13 

0 

9 

10 

6 

3S 

~itht;*\' 

u 

7 

n 

'"<».!'■ 

17 

7 

48 

18 

7 

33 

IS 

7 

48 

19 

R 

S3 

S3 

8 

4S 

S3 

8 

S3 

so 

8 

4S 

94 

0 

0 

SR 

0 

SA 

S8 

9 

0 

ss 

9 

SA 

ao 

9 

40 

Augoil*   • 

a 

0 

49 

NoTembcr> 

S 

9 

40 

39 

0 

49 

v$r'  •  ' 

5 

8 

S3 

7 

0 

S3 

7 

9 

S3 

February  • 

3 

9 

S3 

10 

0 

40 

, 

13 

0 

40 

13 

0 

49 

8 

9 

40 

■^m>ri  ■ 

Iff 

0 

9A 

m-'-if'T- 

17 

0 

0 

17 

0 

36 

13 

0 

0 

;M'f  ■■'»{'>• 

SO 

8 

44 

S3 

e 

S3 

S3 

8 

4S 

18 

8 

S3 

M 

7 

48 

SR 

7 

S3 

37 

7 

48 

83 

7 

S3 

.;;<.i-:.>'.S-.! 

31 

A 

3S 

Beptember 

S 

6 

9 

December- 

3 

A 

3S 

38 

A 

9 

Jane    •  • 

a 

S 

R 

7 

4 

40 

7 

S 

8 

Uareli  •   • 

0 

4 

46 

10 

3 

33 

13 

3 

IS 

13 

3 

as 

10 

3 

M 

in 

1 

4R 

17 

1 

39 

17 

1 

48 

IS 

1 

39 

1 

SO 

0 

0 

TfMe  showing  the  Part  qf  the  Equation  of  Time  that  arises  from  the  Inequality  of  the 

■  mU  "fe"'  "■•'■■i"<^  "^'''  y-Ph--  •  Sun^s  M^Hon, 


Dial  Faiter  than  Clock. 

Dial  Slower  than  Clock. 

M. 

B. 

M. 

B. 

M. 

S. 

M. 

s. 

July  •   •    • 

1 

0 

0 

October     • 

3 

43 

December  • 

31 

0 

0 

March  •    • 

30 

43 

7 

40 

8 

43 

January   • 

S 

0 

41 

April    •    • 

4 

40 

13 

10 

13 

37 

10 

1 

S3 

9 

34 

17 

S7 

18 

89 

IS 

9 

8 

14 

34 

29 

3ff 

^«.  stfi 

S3 

18 

80 

3 

41 

19 

IS 

98 

13 

38 

3 

SS 

3 

19 

34 

36 

Aofuit-  • 

3 

47 

November* 

S 

4S 

SO 

3 

SA 

30 

36 

7 

31 

7 

34 

February  . 

3 

4 

30 

May-  •   • 

S 

14 

19 

ffS 

13 

39 

8 

5 

S 

10 

SO 

17 

S3 

f   ■■i.-L-  '■ 

17 

33 

13 

S 

33 

IS 

88 

39 

SO 

.  ■  • 

S3 

S 

18 

8 

39 

80 

n 

38 

14 

37 

4 

30 

S3 

a 

84 

96 

81 

Beptember 

3 

30 

December. 

S 

SA 

88 

6 

45 

31 

3 

47 

7 

SA 

7 

19 

March  •   • 

S 

7 

3 

June  -V   . 

S 

3 

13 

13 

13 

I  .m»'^ 

13 

41 

10 

7 

IR 

10 

9 

35 

17 

34 

17 

8 

15     7 

89 

16 

1 

S7 

S3 

34 

SI 

P9 

80     7 

37 

SI 

1 

19 

SS 

40 

SA 

41 

35     7 

48 

96 

0 

40 

The  difference  between  the  aj^parent  and  the  true  time,  is  very  observable  about  the 
season  when  the  day  is  lengthening  or  shortening  with  most  rapidity.  It  is  a  common 
remark,  that  when  the  day  is  shortening,  the  change  is  more  observable  in  the  evening  than 
in  the  morning;  but  that  the  reverse  is  the  case  when  the  day  is  lengthening.  This  arises 
from  the  clock  being  before  or  after  the  sun.  Thus,  in  the  end  of  October,  the  dial  is 
upwards  of  sixteen  minutes  foster  than  the  clock;  so  that  the  time  of  sun-rise,  and  the  time 
of  sun-set,  will  each,  as  indicated  by  the  clock,  appear  earlier  by  16  minutes,  than  as  indicated 
by  the  motion  of  the  solar  shadow.  Hence  me  instant  of  noon,  as  shown  by  the  clock, 
appears  not  to  divide  equally  the  time  during  which  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon :  the  time 
from  sun-rise  till  noon,  appears  longer  than  from  noon  till  sun-set  Agam,  about  the  middle 
of  February,  the  dial  is  about  15  nunutes  slower  than  the  clock;  so  that  the  time  of  sun-rise 
and  the  time  of  sun-set  will  each,  as  indicated  by  the  clock,  be  later  by  15  minutes  than  aa 
indicated  by  the  dial :  and  the  time  from  sun-rise  till  boob,  as  shown  by  the  clock,  will 
appear  shorter  than  the  time  ih>m  noon  till  sun-eet. 


eo 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  i/Tff 


pakt  n. 


h; 


E" 


As  the  return  of  the  mm  to  the  meridian  marks  out  the  day,  bo  his  return  to  the  same  . 
equinox  murks  out  attolher  portion  qf  time  of  much  importance  to  be  determined  witli 
accuracy ;  namely,  the  Ybar.  Thh  period  comprehends  the  seasons  which  divide  it  into 
four  ports.  Within  this  period  also,  the  moon  goes  twelve  times  through  all  her  phases, 
which  occupy  the  space  of  nearly  twenty-nine  and  a  half  days :  hence  the  year  has  been 
divided  into  twelve  months,  three  oi  which  are  aUotted  to  each  season.  By  accurate  obser* 
vatun  it  is  i^md,  that  the  time  which  elapses  between  the  instant  at  which  the  sun  passes 
the  vernal  equinox,  and  the  period  of  his  return  to  it,  is  S6S^  6^  48^  48*.  This  period  is 
called  the  Tbomcal  year.  It  is  found  to  be  shorter  than  the  interval  between  two  successive 
returns  of  the  sun  to  the  same  star  by  20^  2ff.  This  last-mentioned  period  is  called  the 
SiDKREAL  year,  and  consists  of  SBS^  6"  9"  11*. 

In  order  to  make  such  a  distribution  of  time  as  is  accommodated  to  the  purposes  of  lift, 
it  is  necessary  so  to  adjust  the  reckoning  of  the  solar  revolution  to  the  length  of  the  mr^zn 
solar  day,  that  the  beginning  of  the  yea.:  may  coincide  with  the  beginning  of  the  day,  and 
the  seasons  may  always  recur  in  the  same  months.  If  the  solar  revolution  consisted  of  an 
exact  number  of  days,  there  would  be  no  difficulty ;  but  as  it  includes  a  fraction  of  a  day, 
it  is  evident  that  one  year  cannot  be  made  equal  to  one  revolution,  without  incurring  the 
inconvenience  of  making  the  year  commence  at  a  different  point  of  tine  from  the  beginning 
of  the  day.  But  though  one  year  cannot  be  made  equal  to  one  revolution,  a  certain  number 
of  years  may  be  made  equal  to  a  like  number  of  revolutions. 

Julius  CflBsar  introduced  the  first  near  approximation  to  accuracy  on  this  subject,  in  the 
45th  year  before  the  commencement  of  tho  Christian  era.  The  Romans  had  before  that 
time  estimated  the  year  according  to  the  course  of  the  moon,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks ; 
dividing  it  into  twelve  months,  which  consisted  in  all  of  354  days;  but  lu  an  odd  number 
was  thought  the  more  fortunate,  one  day  was  added  which  made  the  year  consist  of  355 
days.  To  make  the  lunar  year  correspond  with  the  course  of  the  son,  on  which  depends 
the  vicissitude  of  seasons,  an  intercalary  month  was  inserted  every  other  year,  between  the 
28d  and  24th  day  of  February.  The  intercalation  of  this  month  was  leit  to  the  discretion 
of  the  priests,  who,  firom  interested  motives,  inserted  often  more  or  fbwer  than  the  ftopm 
number  of  days,  so  as  to  make  the  year  longer  or  shorter,  according  as  it  suited  their  own 
purposes.  This  caused  the  months  to  be  transposed  firom  their  stated  seasons,  the  winter 
months  being  carried  back  into  autumn,  and  the  autumnal  months  into  summer.  When  Julius 
Cesar  became  master  of  the  state,  he  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  this  disorder,  by  abolishing 
the  use  of  intercalations  which  had  been  the  source  of  it;  and  for  that  purpose,  by  the 
assistance  of  Sosigenes,  a  celebrated  astronomer  of  Alexandria,  he  adjusted  the  year  to  the 
course  of  the  sun,  and  assigned  to  *he  respective  months  the  number  of  days  which  they 
still  contain.  That  matters  might  ph)ceed  with  regularity  firom  the  beginning  of  the  ensuins 
January,  he  made  the  current  year,  which  was  called  the  last  year  of  confution,  consist  m 
fifteen  months,  or  445  days. 

The  JuuAN  year  is  founded  upon  the  supposition  that  the  solar  revolution  is  exactly 
SSS**  6\  For  three  successive  years  the  six  hours  are  omitted ;  but  in  the  fiHirth  year  an 
additional  day  is  inserted  in  the  mmth  of  February,  which  makes  the  four  years  correspond 
with  four  solar  revolutions.  This  fourth  year,  consisting  c^  366  days,  is  called  Bissextiu 
or  Leap  year.  But  as  the  true  length  of  the  solar  revolution  is  not  365'*  6\  but  only 
369^  5^  48"  48^,  the  Julian  year  b  too  lon^  by  11"  12*;  so  that  before  a  new  year  begins, 
the  sun  has  passed  the  point  of  the  ecliptic  where  the  preceding  year  began.  The  error 
thence  arising  is,  however,  so  small,  that  it  was  long  before  it  was  observed.  The  Julian 
Calendar  was  introduced  into  the  church  at  the  time  <»  the  Council  t^Nice,  in  the  vear  325 
of  the  Christian  era ;  and  the  vernal  equinox  was  at  that  time  lixed  to  the  21st  or  March. 
In  the  year  1582,  however,  it  was  found  that  the  vernal  equinox  fell,  not  on  the  2lBt  of 
March,  but  on  the  11th  of  that  month ;  so  that  the  Julian  year  had  ftllen  about  ten  days 
behind  the  sun.  If  this  erroneous  reckoning  had  been  contmued,  the  seasons  would  have 
entirely  changed  their  places.  It  was  therefore  resolved  tu  rtform  the  calendar^  which  was 
done  by  Pope  Gregory  Xm.,  and  the  first  step  was  to  correct  the  loss  of  the  ten  ^ys,  by 
countmg  the  day  after  the  4th  of  October,  not  the  5th,  but  the  15th  day  of  the  month.  The 
error  in  the  Julian  year  reckoning,  being  about  eleven  minutes  yearly,  amounts  to  nearly 
three  days  in  four  centuries.  Hence  to  prevent  its  accumulation  in  future,  it  was  agreed  to 
suppress  three  intercalary  days  in  the  course  of  four  hundred  years,  by  ccmsidering  the  last 
of  uiree  successive  centuries  common,  instead  of  leap  years.  The  years  in  which  ue  inter 
calary  davs  are  omitted  are  1700, 1800, 1900 :  and,  in  general,  the  last  year  df  every  century 
not  divisible  by  four,  is  reckoned  a  common  year,  which  in  the  Julian  account  is  bissextile. 
The  degree  of  accu|ucy  thus  attained  is  very  considerable  \  for  taking  the  annual  error  at  11| 
minutes,  in  four  centaries,  it  vrill  amount  to  4480  minutes,  or  to  3^2^  40".  Of  this  error, 
the  fractional  part,  2**  40",  is  all  that  remains  uncorrected;  and  this  error  wfll  require  the 
lapse  of  3600  years  before  it  amounto  to  a  day^. 

Other  modes  of  intercalation.    If  the  tropical  year  were  369'  S**  40"  12^,  the  Gregorian 
intercalation  would  be  perfectly  exact  Accurate  observation  proves,  however,  that  Uia  yea; 


0OOK  L 


DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  OP  TIME. 


IS  ghortor  by  about  24  nconda.  If  Kiontific  principles  hod  been  strictly  followed,  thuj  ^oold 
have  pointed  out  other  modes  of  intercalation  still  more  accurate,  thouffh  perhaps  not  mora 
convenient,  than  that  which  has  been  adopted.  The  determination  of  the  methods  of  inter* 
calation  best  suited  to  make  the  computations  in  the  calendar  correspcntd  as  nearly  as  possible 
with  the  real  motions  of  the  sun,  requires  all  the  integer  numbers  to  be  fiHmd,  which  most 
nearly  express  the  ratio  of  5**  48"  48*  to  a  day.  These  numbers  are  easily  determined  by  the 
method  of  continued  fractiom.  In  the  Gregorian  calendar,  97  days  are  intercalated  in  the 
course  of  400  years ;  but  it  would  be  much  more  exact  to  intercalate  109  days  in  the  course 
of  450  years.  If  the  tropical  year  were  preciselv  36S'  6**  48'"  48*,  this  intercalation  would,  in* 
deed,  lie  quite  accurate :  for  S**  48"  48*,  multiplied  by  450,  give  exactly  109  days. 

The  reformation  of  the  calendar,  or  the  change  from  the  Out  Sttub  to  the  New  Sttu, 
did  n«  take  place  tn  England,  till  the  year  1752,  at  which  time  it  was  established  by  an 
act  of  parliament  The  alteration  was  radered  to  be  made  on  the  2d  of  September ;  and  as 
I  he  error  of  the  Julian  reokoning  now  amounted  to  11  days,  the  8d  was  to  be  counted  the 
14ta  of  September. 

Correspondence  between  the  daw  qfthe  week  and  month.  As  the  common  year  consists 
of  52  weeks  and  one  day,  it  is  evident  that  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  common  year  will 
fidl  on  the  same  day  of  the  week.  In  a  series  of  years,  therefore,  if  no  leap  years  occurred, 
the  first  day  of  each  month  would,  year  after  year,  be  one  day  farther  advanced  in  the  week, 
till,  in  the  course  of  seven  years,  the  same  days  of  the  month  would  return  to  the  same  days 
of  the  week.  But  since  leap  year  contains  62  weeks  and  2  davs,  and  occurs  every  fourth 
year,  it  follows  that  the  days  of  the  week  cannot  correspraid  to  the  same  days  of  the  month, 
till  after  the  lapse  of  four  times  seven  or  twenty-eight  years.  This  period  is  called  the 
Otclh  of  tub  Sun.  When  this  period  is  completed,  the  sun's  place  in  the  ecliptic  returns 
to  the  same  signs  and  degrees  on  tne  same  months  and  days,  so  as  not  to  difier  a  degree  in 
a  century ;  and  the  leap  years,  as  well  as  the  common  years,  begin  the  same  course  over 
again  with  respect  to  the  days  of  the  week  on  which  the  days  of  the  month  fall  The  year 
of  our  Saviours  birth,  accoroing  to  Uie  vulgar  era,  was  the  ninth  year  of  the  solar  cycle : 
hence,  to  find  the  current  year  of  that  cycle,  we  must  add  nine  to  the  given  year  of  the 
Christian  era,  and  divide  the  sum  by  twenty-eight ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  cycles 
which  have  been  completed  since  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  cureent 
year  of  the  present  cycle.  Thus,  for  tJie  year  1829,  the  cycle  of  the  sun  is  found  to  be  '*''. 
The  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  have  been  employed  to  mark  the  several  days  of  the 
week.  As  one  of  those  seven  letters  must  necessarily  stand  against  Sunday,  it  is  printed  in 
the  calendar  in  a  capital  form,  and  called  the  Dohinioal  Letter  :  the  other  six  letters  are 
inswted  in  a  difierent  character,  to  denote  the  other  six  days  of  the  week.  When  January 
begins  on  Sunday,  A  is  the  Dominical  letter  for  that  year :  but  because  the  next  year  begins 
on  Monday,  the  Sunday  will  of  course  &11  on  the  seventh  day,  to  which  is  annexed  the 
seventh  letter  G,  which  will  tiierefore  be  the  Dominical  letter  wt  all  that  year:  and  as  the 
third  year  will  begin  on  Tuesday,  Sunday  will  fall  on  the  sixth  day,  so  that  F  will  be  the 
Dominical  letter  ror  that  year,  and  so  on.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  Dominical  letters 
will  succeed  each  other  in  a  retrograde  order,  viz.  G,  P,  E,  D,  C,  B,  A.  As  the  days  of  the 
week  correspond  to  the  same  days  of  the  month  only  once  in  twenty-eight  years,  it  follows 
that  it  is  only  after  the  lapse  of  the  same  period,  that  the  series  of  Dominical  letters  can 
mroceed  in  the  same  order  m  reference  to  the  days  of  the  month.  Every  leap  year  has  two 
Dominical  letters;  one  answering  from  the  beginning  of  January  till  the  end  of  Pebruary; 
the  other  being  the  letter  immediately  preceding,  answering  for  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
The  Dominicd  letter  may  be  fbund  for  any  year  of  any  centunr  by  the  following  rule : 
divide  tJie  centuries  by  4,  and  take  twice  what  remains  from  6:  then  add  together  this  last 
remainder,  the  odd  years  above  the  even  centuries,  and  the  fourth  part  of  these  odd  years, 
neglecting  the  remainder  if  any :  divide  the  sum  by  7,  and  the  excess  qf  7  above  the 
remainder  is  the  number  answering  to  the  letter  required.  Thus,  for  the  year  1830,  the 
Dominical  letter  is  C.  Por  the  centuries  18  divided  by  4  leave  2 ;  and  twice  this  remainder 
taken  firom  6  also  leaves  2 ;  by  adding  to  which  the  odd  number  (^  years  80,  and  their  fourth 
part  7,  we  obtain  89:  this  sum  dimed  by  7  leaves  the  remainder  4,  which  taken  fron  7 
leaves  8,  answering  to  C,  the  third  letter  of  the  alphabet 


CHAPTER  X. 


.r,>-:/f 

"/  V:J'^'-«i«SJi^: 

-.^A*    ^; 

h-k'i.ui^-ir.  <'k  \ 

c  „«    . 

...;.  .:....i..-.  -^^f^ 

PROPER  MOTION  OF  THB  MOON.    HER  PHASES.    ECLIPSES  OF  THE  SUN  AND  MOON. 

The  moon,  next  to  the  sun,  is  the  most  interesting  to  us  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies.  Her 
phases,  or  that  series  of  changes  in  her  figure  and  illumination  which  she  undergoes  in  the 
course  of  about  a  month,  are  one  of  the  mo^  striking  of  the  celestial  phenomena ;  tuid  presen 
n  division  of  time  so  remarfeible  that  it  has  been  the  first  in  use  among  all  nations. 

The  moon  has  an  apparent  motion  among  the  fixed  stars  similar  to  that  of  tiie  sun,  tR< 
Vol.  L  0  N 


M  pRLXCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  L. 


I' 


20 


nCi 


much  mora  npid :  it  carries  her  eastward  i  the  rate  of  nearly  13°  10}',  at  an  average,  in 
224  hours.  Wnon  this  motion  is  accurately  traced  out,  it  is  found,  that  the  moon  describe* 
round  the  earth,  in  27*  7**  43",  a  path  or  orbit  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  at  an  an^le  of  nearly 
5°  9'.  The  line  in  which  the  plane  of  the  orbit  cuts  the  plane  or  the  ecliptic  is  called  the 
LiNB  or  THB  NoDn.  The  point  in  which  the  moon  crosses  the  ecliptic  when  aieendint 
to  the  north,  is  called  the  asokhdimo  node ;  and  the  opposite  point,  in  which  she  crossoa  ft 
when  deietnditur  to  the  south,  is  called  the  DnoiNDiNo  node. 

The  figure  of  the  lunar  orbit  is  determined  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  solar,  by 
ofaserying  the  changes  in  the  apporant  diameter  of  the  moon,  and  comparina  these  with  the 
variations  in  her  angular  velocity.  It  is  thus  found,  that  the  moon's  orbit,  like  that  of  the 
sun,  is  in  appearance  an  ellipee,  having  the  centre  of  the  earth  in  one  of  the  foci,  and  that 
the  radius  vector,  or  the  line  joining  the  centres  of  the  earth  and  moon,  describes  areas  pro- 
portional to  the  times.  Neither  the  Ibe  of  the  nodes  nor  the  greater  axis  of  the  lunar  orbit 
u  fixed.  The  former  has  a  slow  retrograde  motion,  by  which  It  makes  an  entire  revolution 
in  something  moro  than  16i  years ;  the  latter  has  a  progressive  motion,  by  which  it  com- 
pletes a  revolution  in  somethmg  less  than  0  years.  The  elliptic  orbit  is  liable,  indeed,  to  so 
many  changes,  that  the  fiill  investigation  of  the  lunar  motion  has  been  found  one  of  the  most 
difficult  prralema  in  astronomy.  At  the  same  time  it  is  one  of  the  most  usoftil,  as  connected 
with  the  finding  of  the  longitude  of  places  on  the  surfiice  of  the  earth.  Accordingly,  the 
effi>rt8  of  astronomers  have  beon  assiduously  directed  to  the  perfecting  of  the  lunar  theory; 
and  by  employmg  the  resources  of  modem  science,  and  combming  these  with  continued  and 
accurate  ooservation,  their  labours  have  been  crowned  with  wonderfiil  success. 
The  phases  of  the  moon  depend  on  her  position  with  regard  to  the  sun.    Let  E  be  the 

earth,  M  the  moon  revolving  in  her  orbit 
round  the  earth,  E  S  the  direction  of  the  sun, 
and  let  us  suppose  all  the  solar  ra^s  which 
illuminate  the  moon  to  proceed  in  straight  lines 
parallel  to  S  E.  The  moon  is  an  opaque  body 
like  the  earth,  and  is  visible  only  in  consc*- 

Suence  of  reflecting  the  light  of  the  sun.  When 
lie  comes  to  the  meridian,  therefore,  about  the 
same  time  with  the  sun,  that  is,  when  she  is  at 
M,  she  must  be  invisible,  on  account  of  the 
unenlightened  side  being  turned  towards  ns. 
It  is  then  said  to  be  raw  moon :  and,  in  refer- 
ence  to  her  position  with  regard  to  the  sun,  Uie 
moon  is  said  to  be  in  coiumioTioN.  Again, 
when  the  moon  comes  to  the  meridian  about 
midnigfht,  tiiat  is,  when  she  is  at  m,  she  is  said 
to  be  in  opposition,  and  in  that  position  she 
presents  an  entire  circular  disc;  because  the 
whole  of  the  enlightened  side  is  then  turned 
towards  the  earth.  It  is  then  said  to  be  vvu. 
moon.  At  any  point  of  her  orbit,  between  the 
points  of  conjunction  and  opposition,  the  moon 
turns  more  or  less  of  her  enlightened  side  towards  the  earth,  according  to  her  anffular  dis> 
tance  from  the  sun,  and  presents  exactly  the  same  appearances  as  an  opaque  spherical  body, 
of  which  one  side  is  illuminated,  would  exhibit,  if  viewed  flmai  a  distance,  and  in  the  same 
positions  in  which  the  moon  is  seen  from  the  earth.  After  the  conjunction,  as  soon  as  she 
lu^  emerged  sufficiently  flrom  the  solar  rays,  she  is  seen  in  the  western  sky,  after  sunset,  in 
the  form  of  a  Cnnoswr,  as  at  M',  having  the  convex  side  turned  towards  the  sun,  and  the 
concave  bounded  by  an  elliptic  line.  On  every  succeeding  night  the  luminous  part  increases, 
while  the  elliptic  boundary  continually  approaches  to  a  straight  line.  On  the  seventh  night 
from  the  time  of  new  moon,  the  moon  reaches  the  position  M",  where  her  distance  fh>m  the 
sun  is  90° :  she  is  then  said  to  be  in  her  first  Qcadbatvbb,  and  exhibits  the  appearance  of 
HALF  moon ;  that  is,  the  disc  is  a  semicircle.  The  enlightened  port  still  continuing  tc 
increase  on  the  some  side,  the  rectilineal  boundary  of  the  semicircular  disc  passes  again 
into  an  elliptic  line,  and  the  moon  becomes  oibboto,  as  at  M'":  on  all  sides  the  disc  is  con- 
vex, though  it  does  not  become  entirely  fbll  orbed  until  she  reaches  the  point  of  opposition, 
at  m,  about  the  end  of  seven  days  from  the  time  of  half  moou.  From  the  instant  of  opposi- 
tion the  moon  begins  to  return  to  the  sun  on  the  western  side ;  and  in  her  progress  towards 
the  conjunction  she  goes  through  the  same  series  of  changes  in  an  inverted  order,  becoming 
first  gfibbous,  as  at  ffi* ;  then  hdf  moon  at  the  time  when  she  reaches  the  position  m",  her 
second  quo^ture ;  then  a  crescent,  as  at  m'",  which,  contmually  diminishing,  at  last  dis- 
appears altogether.  Thus,  on  the  supposition  that  the  moon  is  an  opaque  body  and  nearly 
spherical,  and  that  die  revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  earUi,  the  phenomena  of  her  phases 
•re  easily  explained. 


u^       r ' 

A 

Vlft-           \                         jT 

r\ 

« 

.••*?.'          v3v.           ^ 

i.    Jo 

■m^^             ^^^^ 

fccr"^ 

>:•«.!  ■:;  v-i'V   r:  w        V" 

'.^ti.':-.  :,,.••.-,<.> 

r 

^iiV-   ...■  -  ^  ..,.;      ..; 

,»'*           •    i                 it 

.<r#'-iH*,.^   -- 

■;M^,!i:\>-  M.-.  ■     J,,'-- 

B 

I 


Book  L 


PHASES  OF  THE  MOON. 


09 


at  an  avenge,  in 
e  moon  desoribM 
an^le  of  nearly 
tic  ifl  called  the 
when  aicending 
:h  ahe  croMoa  » 

t  of  the  Bolar,  by 
ff  these  with  the 
like  that  of  the 
the  feci,  and  that 
icribea  areaa  pro* 
>f  the  lunar  orbit 
entire  revolution 
>y  which  it  com- 
ible,  indeed,  to  ao 
d  one  of  the  most 
jftil,  as  connected 
Accordingly,  the 
the  lunar  theory : 
ith  continued  ud 

IGM* 

in.    Let  E  be  the 

ng  in  her  orbit 

iction  of  the  snn, 

solar  rays  which 

id  in  straight  lines 

is  an  opaque  body 

le  only  in  conao* 

of  the  sun.  When 

erefore,  about  the 

is,  whon  she  is  at 

n  account  of  the 

med  towards  ns. 

)n :  and,  in  refer* 

ird  to  the  sun,  the 

mioTioN.    Again, 

e  meridian  about 

at  m,  she  is  said 

that  position  she 

isc;  because  the 

e  is  then  turned 

in  said  to  be  rvhi 

rbit,  between  the 

Msition,  the  moon 

)  her  anf^ar  dis- 

le  spherical  body, 

and  in  the  same 

n,  as  soon  as  she 

jr,  miter  sunset,  in 

the  sun,  and  the 

us  part  increases, 

he  seventh  night 

distance  from  the 

le  appearance  of 

ill  continuing  tc 

isc  passes  again 

i  the  disc  is  con- 

int  of  opposition, 

instant  of  opposi* 

progress  towards 

order,  becoming 

I  position  m",  her 

ihing,  at  last  dis* 

I  body  and  nearly 

una  of  her  phases 


Strictly  speaking,  the  moon  is  not  exactly  90  degrees  distant  fliom  the  sun  when  she  pre 

sents  the  appearance  of  half  moon.  This  phads 
occurs  at  the  moment  when  the  moon  is  in  such  a 
position  that  two  straight  lines  drawn  from  her 
centre, — the  one  to  the  centre  of  the  earth,  the 
other  to  the  centre  of  the  sun, — form  a  right  angle. 
By  observing,  therefore,  the  moon's  distance  mm 
the  sun,  at  the  instant  when  the  boundary  between 
the  enlif^tened  and  dark  part  exaedy  bisects  tho 
lunar  disc,  we  should  have  in  the  right-anf^led  tri- 

angle  S  M  F  the  angle  at  F;  and  hence,  smce  the 

side  F  M  is  also  known,  S  F,  the  distance  of  the  sun  may  be  determined.  This  was  the 
first  method  employed  for  finding  the  tun's  distance  from  the  earth ;  but,  from  the  nicety  of 
the  observatkms  required,  it  cannot  be  expected  to  lead  to  any  very  sati^ctory  result 

To  a  spectator  on  tho  moon  the  earth  must  evidendy  exhibit  a  series  of  changes  similar 
to  the  lunar  phases  as  scon  from  the  earth.  At  the  time  of  coi\junction  the  moon  is  on  the 
illuminated  side  of  the  earth,  so  that  the  earth  must  then  appear,  as  seen  from  the  moon, 
an  entire  circular  disc.  Again,  at  the  time  of  opposition,  the  moon  is  on  the  dark  side  Ol 
the  earth ;  so  that  the  earth  must  then  be  invisible.  When  the  moon  is  seen  as  a  crescent, 
the  earth  will  appear  gibbous ;  and  when  the  moon  appears  gibbous,  the  earth  will  be  seen 
as  a  crescent 

Tho  fact  of  the  earth  appearing  to  a  spectator  on  the  moon  an  entire  luminous  disc,  at 
tho  time  of  the  moon's  conjunction  with  the  sun,  iiimishes  an  explanation  of  a  phenomenon 
with  which  every  one  is  fiuniliar.  In  clear  weather,  when  the  moon  is  three  or  foot  days 
old,  her  whole  body  is  visible.  The  horns  of  the  enliffhtened  crescent  appear  to  project 
beyond  the  old  moon  as  if  they  were  part  of  a  sphere  of  considerably  larger  diameter  than 
the  unenlightened  part  Now,  the  pe^  of  the  moon  not  direcdy  illuminated  by  the  sun  is 
seen  by  the  light  reflected  from  the  earth.  The  appearance  of  a  lucid  bow,  connecting  the 
horns  of  the  crescent  is  produced  by  the  circumstance  of  the  eastern  edge  of  the  moon's 
disc  being  more  luminous  than  the  adjacent  regions  towards  the  centre.  With  regard  to 
the  enlightened  crescent  appearing  a  portion  of  a  hirger  sphere,  this  is  an  opUcal  deception, 
and  furnishes  a  remarkable  proof  that  of  two  objects  of  equal  magnitude,  but  of  different 
degrees  of  brightness,  the  brighter  appears  larger. 

A  lunation  or  lunai  month  is  formed  by  tho  time  that  elapses  between  one  new  moon 
and  another.  It  consists  of  29^  12"  44"  9  nearly :  and  therefore  exceeds  the  period  of  her 
mean  sidereal  revolution,  which  is  27^  T*  43°*  ll|'.  This  excess  arises  from  the  proper 
motion  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic ;  for  it  is  evident  that  the  period  in  which  the  moon  goes 
through  all  her  phases  must  be  equal  to  the  time  required  to  describe  360°,  with  an  angular 
velocitv  equal  to  the  dilFei-ence  between  angular  velocities  of  moon  and  sun. 

Cycle  of  the  moon.  In  19  Juliiai  solar  years  there  are  235  lunations,  and  about  one 
hour  and  a  half  more  Hence,  after  19  years,  the  conjunctions,  oppositions,  and  other 
aspects  of  the  moon  recur  on  the  same  days  of  the  month,  and  onl}  about  an  hour  and  a 
half  sooner.  This  period  ia  accordingly  called  the  Cyolk  or  tbb  Moon,  and  has  been 
found  of  so  much  use  in  adjusting  the  lunar  to  the  solar  year,  in  order  to  know  the  time  of 
new  and  full  mooii,  and  to  determine  the  time  of  Easter,  and  other  moveable  feasts,  that  the 
numbers  of  it  have  been  called  GroLDEii  Nvmbkrs.  The  year  of  our  Saviour's  birth,  accord* 
ing  to  the  vulgar  era,  was  the  first  year  of  the  lunar  cycle :  hence,  to  find  the  golden 
number,  or  the  current  year  of  that  cycle,  we  must  add  one  to  the  year  of  Christ  for  which 
the  golden  number  is  required,  and  divide  the  sum  by  19 :  the  quotient  will  be  the  number 
of  cycles  which  have  elapsed  since  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  golden 
nnmber  or  current  year  of  the  cycle. 

The  epact  is  the  difference  between  the  solar  and  lunar  periods  at  the  end  of  each  year, 
or  the  moon's  age  on  the  first  of  January.  Since  the  Julian  solar  year  is  365'  6',  and  the 
luna**  year,  or  twelve  lunations,  354'  8"  48"  36',  if  we  suppose  new  moon  to  have  happened 
on  the  first  of  January,  so  that  the  epact  for  that  year  is  0,  it  follows  that  the  epact  ror  the 
next  succeeding  year  will  be  19'  21'  11"  24*,  or  nearly  11  days.  For  the  third  year,  the 
epact  will  be  nearly  22  daya  For  the  fourth  year  it  will  be  S3  days,  or  (rejectmg  30  days 
for  a  complete  lunation)  8  days,  and  so  on. 

The  annexed  table  contains  the  golden  num- 
bers with  the  corresponding  epact$  adapted 
to  the  Gregorian  calendar,  tUl  the  year  1900. 
The  epact  for  each  month  of  the  year  is,  in 
like  manner,  the  moon's  age  on  the  first  day 
of  the  mondi,  supposiiur  new  moon  to  have 
liappened  on  die  first  or  January.  *<'fi;  -i 

'»"-'■■•■ 


OoMen 
Hninbcn. 

Epwdb 

Ookln 
NoBba*. 

BpMll. 

Oolctai 
Nmabm. 

Eiaeti.  ' 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

v. 

VI. 
VII. 

0 

11 

99 

3 
14 
35 

0 

vm. 

IX. 

x. 

XI. 
XII. 
XIII. 
XIV. 

17 
38 

9 
80 

1 

IS 
93 

XV. 

XVI. 

xvu. 

XVIII. 
XIX. 

I. 

4 
IS 
96 

7 
IS 

0 

,      .1 

Dee. 
0. 
10, 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Pam  II, 

The  epocta  for  the  montha  of  the  common  and  leap  year  are  aa  follow* :—  »«*^'>  ^^tit^ 

Jan.    r«b,    Mar.    Apr.    Miy.    June.    July.    Auc.    Btp.    Oct.    Nov. 
Common  year  0,       1,        0,        i,        8,         3,         4,        S,        T,      7,        0, 

Uapyaar  0,       1,         1,        3,        3,         4,         5,        «,        8,       8,       10, 

It  ia  evident  that  the  moon's  age  will  In  found  by  adding  together  the  epact  of  the  year, 
the  epact  of  the  month,  and  the  day  of  the  month,  rejecting  thirty  if  the  sum  amount  to  that 
number.  Thus,  if  it  is  required  to  find  the  moon's  age  on  the  11th  November  1620;  by 
adding  1  to  1620  and  dividing  by  10,  we  obtain  a  remamder  6,  which  is  the  golden  number 
for  the  year  1820.  Now,  against  VI.  in  Uie  table,  we  find  25  for  the  epact  of  the  year,  and 
0  is  the  epact  for  November :  hence  25  +  0  +  11 — 80  =  16,  which  is  the  moon's  age ;  so 
that  the  moon  is  fiill  on  that  day. 

The  lunar  cycle  of  10  years,  though  remarkably  simple,  is  however  iiur  fVom  being  accu- 
late.  Nineteen  years  contain  about  an  hour  and  a  hiflf  more  than  235  lunations ;  so  that  at 
the  termination  of  that  period  the  moon  has  advanced  about  an  hour  and  a  half  in  the  next 
lunation.  This  error  amounts  to  a  d^iy  in  the  course  of  16  cycles,  or  about  800  years.  But, 
to  compensate  this  excess,  the  epocts  may  be  advanced  one  day  every  800  years,  and  in 
this  manner  the  lunar  and  solar  periods  will  be  made  to  agree.  In  consequence  of  her 
apparent  motion  eastward,  the  moon  is  about  48  minutes  later  after  every  diurnal  revolution 
of  coming  to  the  meridian.  As  46  minutes  is  equal  to  |  of  an  hour,  an  approximation  is 
mode  to  uie  time  of  her  southing,  by  multiplying  her  age  by  4,  and  dividing  by  5.  This 
gives  the  time,  nearly,  before  or  after  noon,  according  as  the  moon  is  past  the  opposition  or 
conjunction. 

The  time  of  her  rising  and  setting  is  afiected  by  the  same  cause.  In  one  part  of  the 
orbit,  however,  this  is  in  a  great  measure  counteracted  by  the  smaUness  of  the  angle  which 
the  orbit  makes  with  the  horizon.  For  facilitating  the  illustration  of  this  phenomenon,  let 
us  suppose  the  mo(»i  to  move  in  the  ecliptic,  firom  which  she  never  deviates  much  more 
than  5°.  By  turning  round  the  celestial  globe,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ecliptic  makes  with 
the  horizon  very  different  angles,  as  the  points  of  their  intersection  vary.  If  the  first  point 
otArieg  be  brought  to  coincide  with  the  east  point  of  the  horizon,  the  angle  which  the 
ecliptic  makes  with  the  horizon  is  equal  to  the  dinerence  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  and 
the  complement  of  the  latitude :  but  if  the  first  point  oilAbra  be  brought  into  coincidence 
with  the  east  point,  the  angle  between  the  ecliptic  and  the  horizon  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  oblic|uity  and  the  complement  of  the  latitude.  When  the  moon  is  in  Pisces  or  Arte*, 
her  motion  m  her  orbit  will  therefore  produce  a  considerable  change,  each  succeeding  night, 
on  the  distance  between  the  east  and  the  point  of  rising,  but  the  time  of  rising  wiU  not  be 
much  aflfbcted.  The  reverse  will  be  the  case  when  the  moon  is  in  Virgo  or  Lwra.  Hence 
it  is  obvious  that  in  every  lunation,  at  a  certain  time,  the  moon  must  rise  nearly  at  the  same 
hour  for  several  days  together.  This  phenomenon,  however,  for  the  most  part,  passes  unob- 
served ;  but  in  the  harvest  season  it  attracts  attention,  as  bemg  then  much  more  conspicuous 
than  at  anv  other  time  of  the  year.  In  the  autumnal  months  the  moon  is  full  in  the  signs 
Pisces  and  Aries,,  (the  sun  being  at  that  season  in  the  opposite  signs  Virgo  and  lAbra,)  and 
on  that  account  rises  an  entire  orb  (or  nearly  so)  for  about  a  week,  almost  at  the  time  of 
sunset,  thus  afibrding  a  supply  of  light  very  beneficial  to  the  husbandman,  in  gathering  in 
the  firuits  of  the  ear&.    This  lunation  has  accordingly  been  distinguished  by  the  name  of 

the  HABVKST  HOON. 

The  inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  makes  the  liarvest  moon  rise,  more  or 
less,  nearlv  at  the  same  time  that  she  would  if  she  moved  in  tiie  ecliptic,  according  to  the 
position  of  the  line  of  the  nodes.  If  we  suppose  the  ascending  node  to  be  in  Aries,  the 
moon's  orbit  makes  with  the  horizon  an  angle  upwards  of  5°  less  dian  the  angle  which  the 
ecliptic  makes  with  it,  and  consequently  the  harvest  moon  will  rise  more  nearly  at  the  same 
time  than  if  the  moon  had  been  in  the  ecliptic.  In  a  latle  less  than  9}  years,  however,  the 
line  of  the  nodes  will  have  made  half  a  revolution,  and  the  descending  node  will  be  in  Aries. 
The  moon's  orbit  will  then  make  with  the  horizon  an  angle  more  tfaon  5°  greater  than  that 
which  the  ecliptic  makes  with  it ;  and,  consequently,  the  harvest  moon  will  not  rise  so  nearly 
at  the  same  time  as  if  the  moon  had  been  in  the  ecliptic. 

The  quantity  of  moonlight  which  we  6i\joy  in  wmter  is  much  greater  than  in  summer. 
As  the  moon  is  always  on  the  same  side  m  the  heavens  with  the  sun,  at  the  time  of  new 
moon,  and  on  the  opposite  side  at  the  time  of  fiill  moon ;  it  is  evident  that  at  midsummer  the 
moon,  when  seen  as  a  crescent,  will  rise  at  a  point  of  Uie  horizon  to  the  north  o(  east,  and 
set  at  a  point  to  the  north  of  west,  and  will  be  seen  high  in  the  heavens  when  she  passes 
tlie  meruiian.  As  she  approaches  fiill  moon,  however,  she  will  rise  fortherand  fitrther  to  the 
south  of  east,  will  appear  low  in  the  heavens  when  on  the  meridian,  and  will  set  fiirther  and 
fiurther  to  the  south  of  west.  The  reverse  takes  place  at  mid-winter :  the  moon  is  low 
when  seen  as  a  crescent,  and  rises  higher  and  higher  in  the  heavens  as  she  approaches  fiill 
moon.  She  also  rises  to  the  south  of  east  when  a  crescent,  and  sets  to  the  south  of  west; 
but,  when  fiill,  rises  and  sets  to  the  north  of  these  points.  Thus  the  great  quantity  of  moon- 
light during  the  long  nightc  of  winter  arises  firom  the  moon  bemg  fiill  in  the  northern  signs 


Paiit  n. 


rov.    Dee. 
0,        B. 
10,       10. 

ict  of  the  year, 
amount  to  that 
mborl829;  by 
ffolden  number 
f  the  year,  and 
moon'i  age ;  lo 

om  being  accu- 
iona;  ao  that  at 
lalf  in  the  next 
M)  years.  But, 
10  years,  and  in 
lequence  of  her 
imal  revolution 
pproximation  ia 
ng  by  6.  This 
lie  opposition  or 

one  part  of  the 
he  angle  which 
ihenomenon,  let 
ites  much  more 
ptic  makes  with 
[f  the  first  point 
tngle  which  the 
the  ecliptic  and 
into  coincidence 
il  to  the  sum  of 
Puces  or  Ariett 
icceeding  night, 
sing  wiU  not  be 
iMra.  Hence 
urly  at  the  same 
jrt,  passes  unob- 
lore  coi^picuous 
itU  in  the  signs 
and  Libra,)  and 
t  at  the  time  of 
in  gathering  in 
by  the  name  of 

on  rise,  more  or 
Bcording  to  the 
»  in  Artes,  the 
ingle  which  the 
irly  at  the  same 
■s,  however,  the 
vill  be  in  Aries. 
reater  than  that 
ot  rise  so  nearly 

lan  in  summer, 
le  time  of  new 
midsummer  the 
rUi  of  east,  and 
rhen  she  passes 
id&rthertothe 
Iset&rtherand 
le  moon  is  low 
approaches  full 

south  of  west; 
mnti^ofmoon* 

northern  signn 


BookT. 


PHASES  OP  THE  MOON 


lUl 


of  the  ecliptic,  and  is  analofpous  to  that  of  sunshine  in  the  long  days  of  iummer,  As  we 
appioach  the  pole,  the  auantity  of  moonlight  in  winter  becomes  still  more  remarkable ;  and 
at  the  pole  itself,  at  mid-winter,  Uie  moon  does  not  set  for  fifteen  days  together,  namely,  flrom 
the  first  to  the  last  quarter. 

The  lunar  disc  is  diversiflod  with  a  great  variety  of  sjpots,  which  are  auite  permanent,  but 
differ  very  considerably  from  each  other  in  degrees  of  brightness.  These  inequalities  of 
illumination  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Since  the  discovery  of  the  telescope  they  have 
engaged  tihe  particular  attention  of  several  astronomers,  by  whom  their  relative  positions 
have  been  carefiilly  ascertained,  and  laid  down  in  maps  of  the  lunar  sur&ce.  From  an 
attentive  examination  of  the  lights  and  shades  seen  on  the  moon's  disc,  it  has  been  inferred 
^t  her  surface  is  very  irregular,  being  diversified  by  lofty  mountains,  precipitous  rocks,  and 
deep  caverns.  The  existence  of  these  irregularities  of  surface  is  strikmgly  evident  from  the 
serrated  appearance  of  the  line  which  separates  the  enlightened  flrom  the  dark  part  of  the 
moon,  and  by  a  variety  of  bright  detached  spots,  almost  always  visible  on  the  dark  part  and 
near  the  line  of  separation  between  light  and  darkness.  These  bright  spots  are  the  tops  of 
mountains  illuminated  by  the  sun,  while  his  rays  have  not  yet  reached  the  bottom  of  the 
intervening  valleys.  The  dark  spots  of  the  moon  are  smootn,  and  apparently  level,  while 
the  luminous  parts  are  elevated  regbns,  which  either  rise  into  hiffh  mountains  or  sink  into 
deep  and  immense  cavities.  The  general  smoothness  of  the  dark  spots  naturally  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  they  were  collections  of  water ;  but  more  carefiil  observatioi  has  made  it 
appear  that  the  line  which  separates  the  enlightened  fi-om  the  dark  part  of  the  moon  is  not 
smooth  and  regular,  even  when  it  passes  over  a  dark  spot ;  so  that  there  is  no  reason  to  sup 
puse  that  there  is  any  large  collection  of  water  in  the  moon :  and  this  conclusion  is  strenetn- 
ened  by  the  constant  serenity  of  her  appearance,  which  seems  undisturbed  bv  any  of  those 
atmospherical  phenomena  which  arise  on  our  globe  finm  the  existence  of  water.  The 
mountainous  scenerr  of  the  moon,  and  more  especially  the  immense  caverns  with  which  her 
sur&ce  is  broken,  bear  little  analogy  to  what  we  see  on  the  sur&ce  of  the  earth.  The 
resemblance  may,  however,  be  conceived  to  be  considerably  increased  if  all  the  waters  of 
the  earth  were  removed,  and  the  beds  of  the  ocean,  seas,  and  lakes  were  left  dry  with  all 
the  ine^qualities  of  their  surfiices  exposed  to  view.  The  earth  would  then  be  diversified,  not 
onl^  with  the  rocks  and  mountains  now  seen  upon  its  suriace,  but  likewise  with  deep  caverns 
of  immense  extent,  and  having  detached  mountains  and  rocks  rising  firom  the  bottom,  similar 
to  the  cavities  discovered  in  the  moon.  From  certain  light  spots  which  have  sometimes 
been  seen  on  the  dark  part  of  the  moon,  at  such  a  distance  fix)m  the  enlightened  portion 
that  they  could  not  arise  nrom  the  light  of  the  sun,  astronomers  have  inferred  the  existence 
of  volcanoes  in  the  moon.  Dr.  Herschel,  in  particular,  two  or  three  different  times,  observed 
such  spots. 
The  height  of  a  lunar  mountain  may  be  measured  by  the  following  method.    Let  DAE 

be  a  section  of  the  moon  maide  by  a  plane  passing 
through  O,  the  eye  of  an  observer  on  the  earth,  M  the 
summit  of  a  mountain  situated  in  the  dark  part  of  the 
lunar  disc,  and  S  the  sun.  It  is  evident  that  this  plane 
will  be  perpendicular  to  the  line  which  joins  the  horns 
'  of  the  moon.  Tiet  D  A  be  the  arch  of  the  circle 
D  A  F,  which  p  T-nes  over  the  visible  portion  of  tiie 
enlightened  hemisphere.  Whenever  the  point  M  be- 
comes visible  to  a  spectator  at  O,  it  must  be  illumi- 
nated by  a  ray  of  the  sun  SAM,  which  will  be  a 
tangent  to  the  circle  D  A  F  at  the  point  A,  and  there- 
fore at  right  angles  to  the  diameter  A  F.  Produce 
O  M  to  meet  the  diameter  D  E  in  m,  and  draw  A  r 
and  A  n  parallel  to  D  E  and  M  m ;  also  produce  E  D  to  meet  S  M  in  C.  Because  DAE 
is  a  section  of  that  hemisphere  of  the  moon  which  is  turned  towards  the  earUi,  the  visual 
ray  O  M  m  is  perpendicular  to  D  E:  hence  the  angles  m  M  C,  M  C  m  are  together  equal 
to  two  right  angles.  But  because  C  A  is  perpendicular  to  A  B,  the  angles  ABC  and  A  C  B 
(or  M  C  m)  are  also  together  equal  to  two  right  angles :  whence  it  is  evident  that  the  angle 
m  M  C  is  equal  to  A  B  C ;  and  that  the  triangles  A  M  r,  A  B  n  are  similar.    We  have, 

therefore.  An:  AB  =  Ar:  AM.    Hence  A  M  =  r • 

An 

Now,  A  r  is  the  projection  of  A  M  on  the  lunar  disc,  and  will  be  found  by  measuring, 
with  the  micrometer,  m  a  direction  perpendicular  to  a  line  joining  the  horns  of  the  moon, 

A.  tk 
the  distance  of  the  illuminated  summit  M  from  the  enlightened  disc  at  A ;  also  T~^=  Six. 

Z  A  B  C,  radius  being  unity,  the  angle  A  B  C  is  equal  to  S  M  m  the  rnocm's  distance  or 

eloDffation  from  the  sun :  wherefore  we  obtain  A  M  =  «■     ^i^^^;^,*  a  ifiven  quantitr.  . 

9*  .         .       . 


■                >v-i 

H"tl 

V     'Mfr     S 

^ 

^\ 

^ 

\ 

m 

«<ii'   vrf 

1 

PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PiUITlI. 


NMt,  let  A  G  H  Im  a  Motion  of  the  moon  mado  by  a  plane  MMing  along  the  tangent  A  M, 
and  through  the  centre  K :  draw  M  K  O ;  then,  by  a  well-known 
property  of  the  circle,  A  M»  =  O  M  X  M  H  =  M  H  X  (G  H-f  H  M), 
or,  H  M  being  much  unaller  than  G  H,  we  have  AM'  =  MHxGH, 

AM' 
and  M  H  =  q-tt  nearly.  Now,  A  M  and  G  H  are  both  given ;  there- 

ibre  H  M,  the  height  of  the  mountain  above  the  general  aurfiice,  may 
be  determined. 

Supjpoee,  for  example,  that  when  the  apparent  diameter  of  the 
moon  u  31'  15",  and  her  elunration  fVom  the  aun  03"  fi7Vf  the  dia- 
tance  between  Uio  enlightened  part  of  her  disc,  and  the  lummit  of  a 
mountain  situated  in  the  dark  part  of  it  ia  found  to  be  41^";  and  let 
it  be  required  thence  to  detemune  the  height  of  the  mountain. 
The  diameter  of  the  moon  ia  about  2180  milea;  hence  31'  16"  or  1875" :  414"  =  2180: 

48'25,  which  ia  the  number  of  milea  in  41|"  on  the  lunar  diac ;  ao  that  we  have  A  r  =  48125 

milea, 

Again,  the  Nat  Sin.  of  the  elongation  03'  57^  =  WJO ;  therefore  A  M  =  gin  eloogatkm 
BE  .QffjQ  =  48*36  miles. 


Lastly.    The  height 


_AM»     (48-36)» 


GH 


2180 


=  1-07  mile. 


1  t„*)  t-iil;    ><4-(«]4 
l-.tH-  i  -m    U  ■•.f.tt 


Thus  the  height  of  the  lunar  moimtain  in  question  is  found  to  be  about  a  mile.  The 
principle  now  explamed  is  correct  in  theory ;  but  with  regard  to  the  results  obtained  ftom 
the  practical  application  of  it,  a  greater  difference  of  opinion  exists  than  might  have  been 
expected.    These  results  are,  however,  highly  curious  and  interesting. 

MfMtCa  motion  round  the  earth.  TJie  moon's  surfiice,  when  viewra  through  a  telesoope, 
is  so  strongly  characterised  by  the  sjpots  visible  upon  it,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  ita  being 
tlways  the  same.  From  this  the  inference  is  obvious,  since  we  are  certain  fhun  the  tpQOira 
motion  round  the  earth,  that  she  must  revolve  on  an  axis  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  her  orbit  in  the  same  time  that  she  revolves  about  the  earth,  namely  in  27^  days  nearlr. 
Her  rotation  on  her  axis  is  equable ;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  her  motion  fai  her  orbft, 
which  is  periodically  variable :  and  hcnco  there  are  parts  of  the  eastern  and  western  edgea 
of  Uie  moon  which  are  seen  occasionally.  This  appearance  is  called  the  unuTioN  or  tbi 
Mooif  IN  LONorrvDi.  It  is  entirely  optical,  and  argues  no  inequality  in  the  moon's  motion 
on  her  axis. 

The  moon's  axis  of  rotation  is  not  altogether  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  her  orbit,  but 
inclined  to  it  at  an  angle  of  88"  29'  49".  In  consequence  of  this  position  of  her  axis  her 
poles  are  alternately  visible,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  polar  regions;  this  phenomenon  ia 
called  the  libration  or  thb  moon  in  latitudh. 

The  diurnal  libration  of  the  moon  is  another  optical  appearance  arising  iVom  the  moon 
bemg  viewed  fVom  the  surface  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  earth.  At  rising,  a  part  of  the 
western  edge  is  seen,  which  is  invisible  at  setting ;  and,  at  setting,  a  part  of  tne  eastern 
edge  is  seen,  which  is  invisible  at  rising. 

The  explication  of  the  lunar  phases  leads  to  that  of  Eouma — those  occasional  obscura- 
tions of  tiie  sun  and  moon  which  have,  m  ages  of  ignorance,  been  objects  of  superstitious 
terror  to  mankind,  and  at  all  times  objects  of  curiosity  to  the  philosopner.  At  the  time  of 
new  moon,  the  moon  is  upon  the  same  side  of  the  heavens  with  the  sun,  but,  ibr  the  most 
part,  passes  either  above  or  below  the  solar  disc  without  obscuring  any  part  of  it  This 
arises  fh>m  her  orbit  being  inclined  to  the  ecliptic :  for  it  is  evident  that  if  the  planes  of  the 
orbit  and  ecliptic  coincided,  the  centres  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  earth  would,  at  every  new 
moon,  be  in  the  same  straight  line ;  so  that  the  moon  would  be  seen  to  poss  over  the  sun's 
disc,  and  the  sun  would  appear  to  be  totally  or  partially  eclipsed,  according  to  the  position 
of  an  inhabitant  upon  the  earth's  surface.  Again,  at  the  time  of  full  moon,  the  moon  is  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  heavens  from  the  sun ;  and  therefore  she  is  on  the  same  side  of  the 
heavens  with  the  shadow,  which  the  earth,  as  an  opaque  body,  projects  into  space.  In  most 
cases,  however,  the  moon  passes  above  or  below  this  conical  shadow ;  so  that  she  is  not 
deprived  of  the  sun's  rays.  But  if  the  plane  of  the  orbit  coincided  with  that  of  the  ecliptic, 
•  die  centres  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  earth  would  evidently  be  in  the  same  straight  line  at  ev^rv 
ftill  moon  as  well  as  at  every  new  moon:  the  moon  would  therefore  fall  into  the  earths 
■hadow,  and  would  be  eclipsed  to  all  the  inhabitants  on  that  side  of  the  earth  which  is  tume4 
towards  the  moan  at  the  tune. 

Though  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  prevents  the  occurrence  at  every 
new  and  full  moon  of  these  phenomena,  there  are  certain  distances  fh)m  the  nodes  of  the 
moon's  orbit  called  aouFTio  umrs,  within  which,  if  the  moon  is  situated  at  the  time  of 
new  or  full  moon,  there  will  be  a  solar  or  lunar  eclipse. 


PabtII. 

9  tangent  A  M, 

a  well-known 

(OH+HM), 

=  MHX0H, 

li  given ;  there- 
d  Mirfiuse,  may 

iameter  of  the 
0  07i',  the  dia. 
he  lununit  of  a 
i  41i ";  and  let 
XNintain. 
414"  =  2180: 
re  Ar  =  48-85 

Af 
Sin.  eloiigatioD 

■  "rrfi^ 

>■•■<;']« 

t  a  mile.  The 
■  obtained  ftom 
ght  have  been 


Dooa  I. 


ECUPSEa 


101 


Ef 


h  a  teleagojte, 
'  of  ita  b^ing 
-om  the  qtooQ*! 
ar  to  the  plana 
fi  daya  nearlv. 
Dn  in  her  omt, 
western  edges 

ATION  or  TBM 

moon's  motion 

her  orbit,  but 
'  her  axis  her 
ihenomenon  is 

lk>m  the  moon 

a  part  of  the 

)f  the  eastern 

ional  obflcura» 

superstitious 

It  the  time  of 

ibr  the  most 

of  it.    This 

planes  of  the 

»t  every  new 

}ver  the  sun's 

o  the  ppeition 

le  mom  is  on 

16  side  of  the 

ce.    In  most 

at  she  is  not 

f  the  ecliptic, 

line  at  ev^ry 

o  the  earth  8 

uchistume4 

ince  at  every 
nodes  of  the 
t  the  time  of 


To  illustrate  the  general  phonomona  of  lunar  eclipses.    Let  A  B,  D  E  be  seotuxu  of  the 
son  and  earth,  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  piano  of  the  ecliptic.  Draw  A  V,  B  V  touching 


the  circles  A  B,  D  E  on  the  corresponding  sides  in  E  and  D,  and  meeting  each  other  m  V : 
also  draw  B  O,  A  H,  touching  Uicho  circles  on  tlio  opposite  miea  in  M  ana  N.  Then,  if  we 
suppose  the  figure  A  B  H  G  to  rovolve  about  tho  line  C  F,  wliich  joins  the  centres  of  the 
circles,  as  an  axis,  tho  cone  generated  by  the  lino  E  V  represents  the  shadow  which  the 
earth  projects  into  space ;  and  iVom  every  point  of  that  conical  shadow  the  lieht  of  the  sun 
is  entirely  excluded.  The  spaces  between  E  V,  M  G,  and  between  D  V,  N  H,  will  receive 
the  light  of  a  part  of  the  sun :  and  hence  the  space  round  the  shadow,  which  is  generated  by 
the  motion  of  the  lines  G  M,  E  V,  is  called  the  penumbra. 

Join  G  E.  It  is  evident  that  the  angle  E  V  F  is  equal  to  the  diflbrence  of  the  angles 
A  E  C,  E  C  F.  But  A  E  C  is  the  angle  under  which  the  sun's  semidiameter  is  seen  mm 
the  earth ;  and  E  C  F  is  the  angle  under  which  tho  earth's  semidiameter  is  seen  from  the 
sun.  BoUi  of  these  angles  being  known,  their  diflerence  E  V  F  is  a  given  angle.  Now,  in 
the  right  angled  triangle  E  V  F  we  have  given  the  angle  at  V,  and  Uie  side  E  F,  which  is 
the  earth's  semidiameter :  hence  F  V,  the  heif^ht  of  tlte  earth's  shadow,  may  bo  determined. 
"Die  height  of  the  shadow  varies  from  213  to  220  semidiamcters  of  the  earth. 

Again,  let  F  0  be  the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  earth :  draw  K  O  L  perpendicular 
to  F  V,  and  join  F  L.  The  angle  L  F  O,  under  which  tlie  semidiameter  of  the  section  of 
the  eartli's  shadow  is  seen  from  the  earth,  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  angles,  F  L  E, 
F  V  li.  But  F  L  E  is  the  angle  under  which  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth  is  seen  fitnn  the 
mom,  and  F  V  L  is,  as  has  Iwen  shown,  equal  to  the  diflerence  between  tho  angle  under 
which  the  sun's  semidiameter  is  seen  from  the  earth,  and  tho  angle  under  which  the  earth' 
semidiameter  is  seen  from  the  sun :  hence,  to  find  the  angle  under  which  the  section  of  the 
earth's  shadow  through  which  the  moon  passes  in  a  lunar  eclipse  is  seen  from  the  earth, 
we  must  add  together  the  two  angles  under  which  the  semidiameter  of  the  mrth  appears 
when  seen  from  the  sun  and  moon,  and  from  the  sum  subtract  the  sun's  apparent  semi- 
diameter,  the  remainder  is  the  angle  required.  The  angle  L  F  O,  when  greatest,  is  about 
46':  but  the  inclination  of  t!ie  lunar  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  is  upward  of  5°,  and  to  this  distance 
the  moon  may  recede  from  the  ecliptic.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  on  eclipse  of  the  moon 
can  take  place  only  when  she  is  near  her  nodes. 

Let  the  circle  A  H  B  be  the  section  of  the  earth's  shadow  at  the  moon ;  A  B  a  poirtioQ 
of  the  ecliptic,  and  D  F  a  portion  of  the  moon's  orbit  near  the  ascending  node.  Draw  C  Q 
from  the  centre  of  the  shadow,  (which  must  be  the  point  of  the  ecliptic  directly  opposite  the 
sun,)  perpendicular  to  A  B,  and  let  it  meet  D  F  in  G ;  then  G  is  the  point  of  op}K)sition  at 
which  the  moon  will  be  180  degrees  of  the  ecliptic  distant  finm  the  sun.    Now,  in  moving 

frran  D  to  G,  the  moon  must  enter  the  earth's  shadow, 
and  will  therefore  be  eclipsed.  The  beginning  of  the 
eclipse  will  be  the  moment  that  she  enters  on  the  shadow 
at  K :  the  middle  of  the  eclipse  will  be  the  moment  when 
her  centre  reaches  the  point  E,  the  extremity  of  the  per* 
pendicular  drawn  from  C  to  D  F;  and  the  end  of  the 
eclipse  will  be  the  moment  when  she  leaves  the  shadow 
at  the  point  L.  The  portion  of  the  moon's  disc  that  is 
obscured  will  depend  on  the  distance  between  E  and  C, 
which  w^ill  vanish  when  the  point  of  the  opposition  coin* 
cides  with  the  node.  It  is  evident  that  haid  the  eclipse 
happened  on  the  other  side  of  the  node,  the  opposite  edge  of  the  moon  would  have  been 
immersed  in  the  shadow. 

In  eclipses  there  are  various  degrees  of  immersion.  When  this  is  entire,  it  is  said  to  be 
total;  when  only  a  part  of  the  moon  is  immersed,  the  eclipse  is  said  to  be  partial;  and 
when  the  centre  of  the  moon  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  shadow,  the  eclipse  is  said 
to  be  central  and  total.  The  breadth  of  the  shadow  at  the  moon  is  about  three  times  her 
diameter,  so  that  in  the  case  of  a  total  central  eclipse,  the  moon  may  be  entirely  obscured 
for  nearly  two  hours. 


m 


nmwim  np  fiWfKUtAi'iiY. 


PANt  ii 


I'Itt*  Mmt*  wltt*N  ttt*1liwf<ii  Mlmll  lm|i|t«Mi  itmy  !•>«  tMi«t(|Htlr>tt  IVotii  llm  Ihwh  wltlfli  ftttftiliitn  (|ih 
imtllitttN  ttt  (lt>t  Mtit  nttil  iiiitttii.  I'IiIn  tiiiiM|iittitHim  rptittlfUM  nMitimititli'itl  tnltlxK,  himI  Im  \mt' 
iitt'tii)')!  Willi  t''HiP)l)lrimltU>  liilitMit.  iltil  II  iimv  Iim  tilM»>rv««il  lltnl:  In  UUIt  ltnMilltiti*<  iir  IN  vi>NrH 
Ui  tiny  0*1' 1 1  tiny*  Hi'i'ohllttM:  im  Ititif  or  iIvm  lmt|i  ^tmn  iiHMtr  In  llin  JitlnrliiO,  7  iMiiirit 
4H  liil'ltuloN,  Mti«  tttiMtii  intMi'im  III  llio  miiMi'  ihwHImii  tttMtilv  willi  fogmi  In  Him  himii  iitiit  i\m 


liiitnf  idhUim.  Hint  lliMMtifD  lli)>  t<i>ll|wDfi,  will  I'Hiifh  MPitHy  In  llin  wiHin  nnlt^r  MtiiMilriHini 
nlHiii'i^N.    1iiIm  Iw  lliiMi|tlit  (i)  tix  llin  (tMi'ltHl  tmllott  llm  Clmlilimn  Nrntm,  Mug  um\  Ity  tint 
(\Hli1«>iMiti  In  |ii')«)lli>llntt  t<(<ll|< 


\\mvn, 


iVln'ii  II  iw  hhitwn  tlinl  n  linmi'  w\\\*p  U  In  lin|ttiKn,  II  Ih  nHMy  In  iintniinln  IIm  itrttihrnl  v\r» 


V  ,  

ininif<ltiiii>«*i>.  Tlin  tllMtnu'c  nf  lln*  iidhmi  l\iini  llu>  i<i'll|illu  nl,  <t|i|Miii|tltin,  Itin  ihn»>  of  «i|i|N«i 
♦Inn,  ll»»>  «nitl»>i»  ninlm'  \vlili>li  lli»*  imilliV  M<niltlliinn'l»tr  In  wjuni  n\  Ihn  unit  itnil  iiinnn.  tilwi  Ihn 
tt|t|wi»>nt  tllitinitltM«  ol'llntmi  Ivvtt  Itnnlimtlnit,  tttn  knnwn  A'nitt  ilni  Ii«IiIph,  In  llin  rlultl  nntfli'tl 
hittttitlt'  ('  14  <l  \vi>  Itnvtt  ^\im  V  (I,  Hitit  lit))  Hntflti  (I  (I  M,  wliloli  In  ii<|tml  In  llin  nti'llliHlInn 
<\<t  ^\w  iti«i<m'i«  tti'ltil  In  ll)(t  iti'llnltts  ttt>titly  i  Innit'n  wn  (ttitt  (1  M  tititl  v\  U,  Kfnin  (1 1>]  nntl 
V  it\  \\\v>  m\\  nC  Mtt*  fttttnltllHinnlin-^  nl*  Ihrt  wM'lInn  nl'  llin  PitHlt'ii  Mimlnw  tttiit  lln<  iniNMti  wn 
fttttt  M  V\  \vltlt*li  in  t>i)n)tl  Ht  M  IM  lltrMii'n  UU.  (I  t>*  Immmmiip  htinwii.  Wn  t<nit  i>nni|inltt  mint 
<it««  IttMoN  Mi«>  tttttfVilHC  inntlntt  nt  lltn  tntttitt  In  In^t'  nilill  mlntlvnly  In  Hip  ninit  llin  liillnr  JKHly 


i»»»tl  M 


n 


iii«< 


ivIiIpiiIIv 

ItPtti't'  \v«>  rrtit  iln»»»Hnln*>  flif  llinnnfMnm'tlliiiiir  IMI  niiil  «  Ki  Itml  Ihi  llin  lltnn  (Iml,  plttjitdM 
JM^twonti  Ittn  l)r>tttnnltt((  ttl'  (Itn  »>t'll|wn  nntl  Itin  n|t|tnollinti,  nitii  ItPlWPnit  tlin  n|tiMH<illt)it  nittt 
tt\«>  f\\A  nf  llin  «>iMl|»n,  tttll  IIip  llinn  nl'  (tin  o|tn»*lllnn  In  kttttwn,  HiPfnIltrn  llin  ilinpii  »f  IliB 
lip^innlitD:  nilil  ntiil  nl'  llin  politimt  will  hImi  Iip  htinwtt. 

rN«'  nnVlninllnu;  llin  i|ii)inlily  nt  »tn  pi«tl|wn,  lli»«  illntiiPlPf  nl*  (lin  Mtlni-  ni-  liinttr  illwi  In  pimi- 
M\Pi\  In  lin  illviilnil  iiiln  Iwnlvp  «ii)iml  (mtif)  onilptl  iitni  iw  \  nitil  liponnlln^  In  llin  nninlipr  tii' 
tittwp  mf\*  \vltli>ii  siT'  nl»w'ini>»l,  ms  \m\\\  A\\ii\\n  itfn  »«ltl  In  Im  ppIIiwpiI, 
Let  H  Iw  unjijKwwl  lltiil  tlin  i^ilnii*  nl'  ifin  nmnnV  iUw>  Inul  lnni>liPti  llin  piljcn  nt  IIip  (tpnllon 
\^  nC  llin  piittli'H  filmtlnw  nl  \\  itiiil  llinl  nl  llin  Minin  llnin 

Hip  illninnlpht  nl'  Hip  nuHin  nnil  KJinilnw  nrn  nnnli  nt  Hin 
wittV^HMtm.  Nitil  wn  nlinll  Itiiil  Hip  pi>li|illn  llnili  llir  Inntiy 
poliiMPit.  IHimIiiop  14  0  mill  11  A  In  iiippI  In  Ni  Uiph 
N  r  Im  Hip  tlinit  nl'  Hip  illdlnnnp  nl'  Hip  iiimIp  ilimi  tli« 
«i)i|inKUinn  ni  wliioli  nn  P(>li|WP  onn  liit|itipn.  Hinim  tlin 
'Xl  ^  ---'''—  Jtt  tiiiti  1,1  whtnli  Hip  onnlfp  nf  Hip  innnii  innvnn  (wIiIpIi  llir 

ft  olini'l  (linlnnop  nmy  Im  pniwlilptwl  nt*  n  nlftilttlil  linn) 
«inK«  lin  miiniiwpil  iwwiIIpI  to  Hip  t«n(tPiit  In  Hip  I'lrt'ln 
A  I*  11  Ml  Hip  (hiIiiI  V,  Hip  nn|{tp  nt  K  Is  n  riuflit  nndn. 
*riiP  nit^lp  N,  in  Hip  iiiplinnlinn  nC  Hin  liiiint'  nililt  In  tlin 
»s*U\vtW;  nU\  OK  in  t>\\m\  to  llin  wiin  nl  Hip  Hptiildlnniplpw  nt'  Hip  nuHin  nnil  nlmdnw. 
Uwn>p  \\\m  Hip  nj^hnvtenl  trinnftln  V  M  N,  V  N  nmy  lin  ilnlprniinpil  j  ninl  In  Itiimil  t»  Im 
•ImuI  \\{\  \f\\\<i^  \\\m\  Hip  nmlp  nnil  Hip  )*»lnt  of  n|i|Hitilllmi,  wIiIpIi  «vp  IkiHi  llnlilo 
tt^  «SM\t(H«nl  olim^iji*  «it'  |Vi*(ti»«»,  iHwnp  wlHiin  lliin  illiitniu!«»,  Hinrn  pnnnnt  ^Kuwlbly  Im  n 

{W\'\\\'Mmy  of  lomriimlpi    Tlip  |ipmiiiil>i«n  ninkpn  it  VPiy  illfllinilt  to  nhnpi-vp,  wlHi  prn- 


\^l«Kviu  tUn  l«*>i»n«intt  or  niwl  of  n  Imwi'  poliiw  j  no  Hint  thoniyh  tliwp  jiprliHlK  nmy  Im  phi 
i\K\Vw  t^w  «|pun'in(nri\ji;  tlip  UMinitinlo  ol'  j»l«i'ni«  on  IIip  nnrtlt,  nn  tfivnl  i|ptfr«'P  nrnnnnrnny  li 
h>  Iip  p\|HvtiHl>    TIip  li«*t  mpTliml  in  to  notp  tlip  tinip  of  tlin  nrnvnt  ol'  tlin  Imunilnry  of  Hit* 


•Iwilow  At  tl\p  ilitllMvnt  njiotn  \M»  Hip 
l[lill»»lt>»«  olwpiM^tioiw. 

Top  nu^Mi  w>l»Kw  ilii*mnH^n«  nitiivly  in  Innnv  po^i|>llp^  Init  \»  n^vw  ol'  n  (limky  iwl  cnlnur: 
ie\-v»w  tlip  )«|*»t»  \M»  tlip  lininr  wirltit'o  nm!j'  Ih>  »liptiiijniit»lip<l  tliiMiijili  Hin  i«limlo.  Tliid  pl^Pt  in 
ti^  W  »t»rilMHx>l  ^^  n  \M«ii<>n  ol'  tlio  mniV  U)j:lil,  wliioh  niitpi*  IIip  ooiilonl  ulinilnw  In  »innm»" 
!«w>iH'^  »\t'  lvii\>^  rpt^"«ott^l  l\v  lliP  ntnuwptipiv  ol'  tlie  p*rUi.  Tho  itainra  niul  ellbotn  oPttU»o»- 
jshptrix'^l  r^(\w»:'thM\  will  nItprwnftiK  I>p  nxpUinwI. 

K^M^|v<lK^^«  »\t'  tlip  win.  With  n^jjitiNl  to  Hi«»  jiPiiPtnl  uliPiioninnn  of  ni>l«r  ppll|HiPf.  wo  mny 
Wvjiin  Mitli  nMnnrkiivjt»  timt  wliPii  tlio  winV  litflit  in  intiTppntptl  liv  Hip  moon,  ko  Hint  nt  niiy 
pimv  on  tUp  o^rtir*  MirlHcp  Iip  Ihh\\iihv«  (ini'tTy  or  wholly  lnvi»il»lp,  |iro|iprly  nimnkiiig,  it  w 
»«  wl^wf  ot  tk^t  forftPM  nif  »*•»  tniik  on  wliioli  llip  nnmii'n  idindow  or  i^H'innnlim  thllt». 

Ttvp  iiviiii-Aiylp  nt  tliP  wrtPx  ol'  Hip  huhmvV  ulindow  in  «lolpiniin«Hl  in  n  niniilnr  innnnor 
tvN  thnt  <w  wliioK  thp  !«p«\i-ni\jjlp  nt  llio  xi^rtiw  of  tliP  i»nrih*ii  nlindow  wnn  Rinml.  It  In  tjqnni 
^^  tho  «lirt^wluv  »^f  tlip  ntVjfl<^  nihlpr  whioh  tlio  npnii-dinniPtPW  of  Hip  win  nml  moon  wonltl 
t»  wtMH  if  r>«ol\  v\f  tlnMip  bo»litN«  wt>r\>  vipwrti  tVv^u  tlin  oHinr  nt  tliP  timo  of  Hipir  ooi\jnno- 
twin;  nnni  wiii  tnrrrivMV  wH  tw  rrry  inf  tVvMn  itpiitft  P'jnni  K»  \hv  nnjinrrnt;  wmi-ciiomPipf  Oi 
tW  «>«  Ml  <iw»«  |Vm»«  thp  pnrth.  C^Mniwilinjr,  tlipn,  tho  loiijith  vit  tiiP  ponicnl  ntinilow  of  Uio 
n»vv«v,  wv  rtvnll  ^«A  it  vnry  iVom  nNxil  t^tV^  t«  ftS^  npmi^linniptpni  of  \\w  oarUi,  Tho  longtii 
«Nf  iht  sKoAnw  nt  tJ>p  ti«i<>  <^"  tho  «>^\|u«oti»>n  mny  tlipn^Rvw  nt  one  timo  oxoooH,  nnd  nt 
«jv>»hoT  liww  tJ»ll  nJhwt  x'A"  tho  HhN<M\V  uistniMH^  ftx^n  tlu>  tmrth,  whioh  varion  Ihvm  (W  to  Ofl 
«>m)^>«(«K>lx>nk    In  tW  l5>rmor  cnws  if  tho  coi\junclK>i)  hnpiH>n  when  tlio  moon  ia  witliin  a 


I'ANt  II 

I'll  f(«t|lllHlM  lllH 

\w,  Mti)l  IM  |)«r* 
Mm.  or  IM  vfttrit 
iiorliiO)  7  ftiMtrit 

llO  XMIt.  HtMl  tltn 

lur  mill  I'lrt'iiHi' 
liitf  tmnil  liy  ilio 

Km  umipwl  «'lr« 
«liti»«  of  lt|l|H«i- 
I  iiMNitii  ttlmi  lli« 

llM  rltfltt  NlltfllMl 

I  ilinTiii'litiNlliiit 
Kfiiiit  ('  t<)ntiil 
lit  tliti  iiiiNiii,  wn 
It)  t'litntiuln  mini 
(lin  liillnr  iMHly 
Ipittly  Uit'Mtiini 
iitm  (imt  ><li«|Mm 

I  it|i|Mwlllnii  mill 
llipiiiitt'Moi'  lltn 

itmr  iIIko  In  nitii- 

II  tliM  iiiiiiitmr  (it* 

(ti  I  if  IliP  npi'llon 
I  Ilin  KHtiin  limn 
nrw  I'Mi'li  *i  Ui» 
li<  lititli  (lif  lonnr 
it<ni  ill  Ni  ili'^ti 
h  iiihIb  rtimi  »h« 

i|««>||,      HIlHW  ill" 

iinviK  CwIiIj'Ii  1l»r 
n  Hlriiltflii  llii«) 
[(Hit  to  »li»»  clivltt 
in  n  riKlii  M\tt\«. 
mnt  iiriiH  li»  thw 
«iit  mill  climliw. 
I  \n  Itiiiitil  to  Im 
I  Hr0  IhiIIi  llnltin 
lit  jKwiillily  Im  ft 

wiivvp,  wltli  |»rp- 
loiln  limy  lin  pi"- 
nil  ot'mMMirmiy  Ik 
tunimlnry  of  ilio 
niiiil  M  m\  inntiy 

Hdkv  vivl  colour : 

Thw  I'rtt'Ct  in 

nlmilow  Ih  iionmv 

i<nt>t!tMoffttim)i>- 

■>cliniii«i".  wo  tnny 
III,  nt  ttint  lit  miv 
ly  ii)H>Kkin|r«  it  w 
innlirn  tHIlii. 
mniilnr  iimnncr 
mul.  It  in  wjimi 
nml  mi>oii  wmiM 
if  th«»ir  ooi\i«nc- 
ipnuMiininrtpf  ot 
il  nlmilow  of  tJio 
■til.  'rholonffth 
^  oxoowt,  mwl  «t 
ot  iVoni  (W  to  W 
inoon  k  wiUiin  • 


Owm  I) 


/  ij-«l  <  ^^^r>^  Bf'ilPHK^I.       f'#f# 


iiprlNlfi  (tlfrfMtmi*  rif  ttin  imhIa,  tlm  liiiMr  hIi>uI«>w  will  r«i«/ili  lh»  imrih.  tinA  «  M<;il//ri '/  it  wilt 
IritvnrMfl  n  pi»rtkifi  iif  tlin  mrtli'ii  NiirDui««  ytitAmlngt  wtmraynr  It  fttll««  «  U/t«l  Mili(Mn  </  ttwi 

Mill. 

Wlmr<iv«r  tlin  pflMiiirtlffft  flill««  tli«f  mim  will  niiiiAftr  (MrtiMlly  nolipNAdj  wurt  oi  (&wn 
iIIkUm  linliitf  ftitll|w>Ht  HiKMiritliitf  nn  tlift  |il<ui4  In  Iann  ttr  mtftt  tmvt<tnA  mmt  i\in  nStnAtim, 
n«ymi'1  llin  imiitiiiiltra  tlin  niiiiTn  mif,  nnlljmml  Nt  nil,  Tim  NM)tl<»i  <«f  tli«<  liirmr  NtM«l<fW  ki  m 
iipiir  tliM  ynt\m,  llmt,  nv«n  wli«ii  \iim\m..  \\m  pfrrtltm  'if  flw  «»rtli'N  NiirAi/iD  wtii«ti  it  v^ntitn 
In  lint  vi<ry  ii«l«>iiMlvn,  linltttf  mily  Mlnmt  \H)  iiiil«N  In  illMifint^r)  iiin  iwiiDiiil/fit,  \timwtst 
diit^MilN  iivr*r  It  <<otiHliii<rAliln  |wrt  iif  tlint  lmirilN|ili««rn  t^  tlin  nnrtli  wlii/tli  In  tiiriin^l  UimnvSn 
tiw  Niiii.  A  t^ildl  »«i!ll|»N«  III  Niiy  iilwiw  iikiiimA  ««<!»m«I  7  W.  If  tlin  v«rt««  i/f  Hio  lurtiir 
Nlimtow  JiinI  ri'iiiilinN  tlm  Niirfiiiiii,  tiin  t/rfiil  k«iII|in«i  thim  (iroilimwl  will  \m  liMliiiitiirwyrtiN, 

Wliiiii  tliM  VMrlnK  of  ilin  liiiiitr  nIiiiiIow  IIiIIn  NlMirt  'if  tlm  nnrtliV  Niirfhrn,  nl  wtt  ^nm  will 
titnrn  Im  n,  lolnl  ni<ll|Mni  liiit  nt  |iIhiihn  ii'irr  (lin  ii«In  cf  ttin  v^nw^  tliiiri  will  Ui  Mvm  An 
ANttiiiiAN  fii'thinni  tliNt  In,  tlm  iimitriil  fmrlN  iif  tlm  niiii'n  dlwi  will  Im  «iliM;iiri«l.  liit  n  lirlvtit 
rliitf  will  Im  (lilt,  vlnlliln  roiiiiil  tlm  ilnrk  limly  of  tlm  uuum,  ThiM  lot  A  11,  C  1>  bo  HwAmim 
gf  Uio  NUti  Niiil  moon  nml  V  tlm  vtirt«x  of  tlm  liiniir 


•IiimIow  wIiIoIi  In  Nii|i|KtNi«l  tmt,  f<i  rniiuli  tlm  oiirtli,  Prmhtrn  V  V  tlm  iixIn  rrf"  tliA  nIhi^ow  to 
ttmnt  tlm  mirllKm  ol  tlm  nitrtli  In  ft.  Krmn  K  ilrnw  11  <*  d,  KUU  t<iii^ntit«  to  tlm  tnom, 
itml  liitdrNPiilliiif  tlm  NiiirNillNn  III  (i  mill  11,  Tlm  v.\ri:]n  iif  which  tlm  liim  J';lriirif(  O  II  In 
tlm  illniimlir,  innrkN  out  tlm  iiortloii  of  tlio  huh  timt  In  hlil  liy  thn  lioily  of  thn  mmm  f\nm  an 
olmnrvrir  at  I!,  miil  tlm  nnnulun,  of  whiiili  tlm  hmniltli  In  A  (I,  will  Im  vlNihlo, 

Tlm  KiiMnml  plri'iitnNtniinnN  of  n  Nolnr  ii(!li|wo  iiiny  bo  rii|irnN«mt.'!<l  liy  vrijmiUm ;  and  t 
itmi*  limy  Im  .loiiNti'iirtnil  u>  nIiow  tlm  |iro({r«iNN  of  tlm  nIin/Iow  ovor  tlm  Miirfimo  of  tlm  o«rth. 
Tlm  niimt  Nliti|iln  |iro|ttiitlim  In  tlint  which  Nii|i|NiNnN  thn  'ilmnrvnr  t/i  Iki  plni^il  in  tlm  win,  and 
to  Hon  llm  iHitli  which  nny  plncn  on  tlm  onrth'N  mirfii'm  iloNcrilmN  in  c^niwiiiimn'^n  of  tlio 
tlhiriinl  motion  tirojmit^il  liitii  mi  ti|ll|iNn  on  thn  nimm  of  tho  mrth'N  diw;,  whim  tho  |Mth  of 
thn  tnnon'N  nIiiuIow  In  itrojont^il  Into  it  NtrnlKht  linn  on  tho  Niirnn  iIInc,  Thn  ummuttrkh]  con* 
Htrimtlon  tliiiN  ntititlnnil  In  Niilllclnntly  nccnrntn  liir  tlm  (irnilictlon  of  ncli|wnN, 

Thn  clriMitiiNtmiciiN  of  it  wilnr  niOiiwo  iiiny,  hownvnr,  Im  cotnpiit^il  witli  cmNliloriihln  occti* 
rnoy.  TIihn,  IIikI  llir  tlm  ulvmi  iilncn,  IVotn  tlm  lAhlnN,  tlm  liiim  of  tho  coniiincti'm  of  tho 
mm  mill  niiNin.  Tlm  itoNltliin  of  tlm  himvculy  limlinN  in  rclbroncn  U>  tho  ocli|itic  In  deter* 
minnil  hy  Intitiuln  mid  lonKitiuIn,  In  tlm  Niiinn  innnnor  an  thn  piMition  of  a  pliu;a  on  tho  mif' 
fkcn  of  tlm  cnrtli  In  rntliroiicn  t^i  thn  ci|iintiir.  Plnd,  thnn,  foiftho  tirno  of  tlm  c.tiitinction, 
thn  liitltiido  mid  lonKltndn  of  thn  tnixiii,  nnd  nj)]ily  to  thorn  thn  Nninll  chan/^n  nriMUcnd  by 
tlm  Npnctntnr  Imititf  ptnnnd  on  tlm  Hiirfticn  itiNt/iad  of  thn  contro  of  tlm  oartji ;  n  cliango 
which  ilcpnndN  on  tlm  itn^ln  which  thn  nnrtli'N  Noniidimnnt^r  militomlH  nt  tlm  miri  nnd  moon 
nt  tlm  tinin:  thlH  will  uivn  iin  tlm  ftppnrcnt  Intitndn  nnd  lon{(itudn  of  tho  irioon  on  mum  m 
tlm  cimcnvo  Niirlhcn  of  thn  hnnvmiN.  (^nnpiitn  fVoin  thnMo  and  thn  hnffiUults  of  tho  Hun, 
tliiit  In,  IiIn  iliHtmicn  fVom  thn  llrNt  point  of  Aritm,  tlio  np|Miront  diKtancn  of  tlm  cciitroN  r;f  the 
mm  nnd  miHiti  nt  tlm  itiNtnnt  of  cotunnction ;  wimncn  wo  may  noarly  cmicludo  thn  time  of 
tho  ImKinninK  and  nndin((  of  thn  nclipmi,  hy  \nWmff  into  account  tho  apimront  horary  motioo 
of  thn  moon  In  Intitndn  nnd  Innuitiidn  nt  thn  tinin  of  conjunction,  notnptitnd  frrwi  tho  tabic*. 
Almnt  Ilin  C(in|ncturnd  tiinn  of  tlm  b(<)(innin(;  of  tho  oclipNO,  compiito  two  or  thrco  apparent 
IntitiidcN  mill  lonKitiidnH  of  tho  moon,  nnd  tlinncn,  coinbinod  with  tho  lon(;itudo  of  tho  nun, 
thn  npimrniit  diNtjiticoN  of  thn  cnntrcN,  From  tlicMo  romilta  tho  timo  may  bo  coniimtcd  by 
pro|mrtinn  when  thn  np|mront  diHtiinco  of  tlm  ccntroN  In  cr|Hal  to  tho  mim  of  tho  apparent 
■omi-dinmotnrN,  that  In,  thn  timn  of  tlm  bn)(iiinin(f  of  thn  cclipio. 

Tho  mnjfiiitudo  nlmi  of  thn  ndiiwo  nt  nny  tinin  may  Iw  IIiun  dotflrmincd :  let  H  K  (Jiff.  28,) 
bo  thn  computed  np|mrcnt  dilfornnco  of  lon((itudo  of  tno  controN  o,  Zl,  of  tho  nun  and  moon,  and 
M  R  thn  compiitod  npparont  latitudo  of  tho  moon.  In  the  riirht-aniflb;?  trianglo  M  E  S,  we 
have  thnmfom  ifivnn  thn  two  nidoH  to  And  tho  hypothonuNo  M  S,  which,  being  known^  we 
obtain  m  H  tmi  uciipiiod  part  of  tho  mm :  ibr  m  n=S  m+  M  n — 11  S. 

Thn  oclintio  limiti  of  tho  Bun  may  bo  determined  in  tho  following  ma'.iner:  let  S  and  M 
(120— ^/l/jf.  1.;  bn  tho  min  and  moon,  «nnn  f\tam  E  tho  centre  of  the  eartti  a*,  the  moment  of  con- 
junction ;  that  In,  whon  their  contrcH  are  in  tho  name  circle  S  B  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic. 
Lot  tho  nnufln  n  E  h,  formed  by  tanprnntfl  drawn  fVom  E  to  tho  a/ijaccnt  odgcs  of  the  solar 
ond  lunar  (Uhcn,  bo  equal  to  tlko  greateit  diiibronce  between  thd  true  pbco  B  and  apparent 

Vol.  I.  O 


lOB 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PJutT  IL 


>  '9^ 


1  1    (M  ' 


it!;  I- 


place  m  of  the  moon,  which  can  arise  flrom  her  being  viewed  fnim  the  surfiice  instead  of  the 
centre  of  the  earth.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  this  difference  will  be  greatest  when  the 
moon  is  in  the  horizon,  and  that  its  effect  will  be  to  depress  her  altitude.  The  distance  of 
the  sun  ic  so  great,  that  we  may  at  present  consider  his  true  and  apparent  place  as  coinci- 
dent  Suppose  now  an  observer  on  Uie  earth's  surfkce  at  A,  whose  horizon  is  at  right  angles 
to  S  B,  to  have  the  moon  in  his  horizon  at  the  moment  of  conjunction ;  it  is  evident  that  to 
him  tlie  two  discs  would  appear  to  be  in  contact:  but  to  an  observer  on  any  other  point  of 
the  earth's  surface,  the  discs  would  appear  asunder.  In  the  moment  of  conjunction,  there* 
fore,  the  penumbra  must  have  just  touched  the  earth  at  the  point  A ;  and  when  the  centres 
o(  the  sun  and  moon  approach  nearest  to  each  other  before  or  after  the  conjunction,  it  will 
spread  over  a  very  small  portion  of  the  earth's  sur&ce  near  A,  so  as  to  produce  barely  an 
eclipse.  Hence  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  node  at  the  time  of  conjunction  will  be 
the  solar  ecliptic  limit,  nearly.  In  the  right-angled  spherical  trianplo  S  m  N  ifig.  2.)  let 
N  S  be  a  portion  of  the  ecliptic,  and  N  m  a  portion  of  tlie  moon's  orbit,  N  being  the  node,  and 
let  the  perpendicular  S  m  be  equal  to  S  m  iafig,  1.  The  arc  N  S  is  the  ecliptic  limit  required : 
and  to  find  it,  we  have  given  the  angle  at  N  equal  to  the  inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit  to  the 
ucliptic,  and  S  m  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  apparent  diameters  of  the  sun  and  moon  together 
with  the  angle  6  E  a,  which  is  equal  toBMmorAME,the  angle  subtended  by  the  semi* 
diameter  of  the  eartii's  disc  as  seen  from  the  moon.  The  angle  N  and  the  peri)endicular 
8  m  being  known,  the  base  N  S  is  easily  determined.  The  thrse  quantities  to  the  sum  of 
which  S  ffl  is  equal,  ore  variable  in  their  values.  Taking  for  S  m  the  sum  of  the  semi* 
diameters  of  the  solar  and  lunar  disc,  and  of  the  disc  of  the  earth  as  seen  from  the  mocm 
when  they  are  greatest,  we  find  S  N  equal  to  17°  12'  nearly.  But  if  S  m  be  made  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  semidiameters  when  they  are  least,  S  N  is  found  to  be  nearly  equal  to 
16°  19'.  Withm  the  former  of  these  limits  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  may  happen,  within  thtf 
latter  it  must  happen. 

If  the  moon's  apparent  diameter  be  greater  than  or  equal  to  that  of  the  sun,  the  eclipse 
will  be  total  wherever  the  Iwar  shadow  falls.  But  if  the  sun's  apparent  diameter  be  greater 
Uian  that  of  the  moon,  the  eclipse  will  be  annular  within  the  lunar  shadow. 

Number  of  eclipses.  The  ecliptic  limits  of  the  sun  taken  on  each  side  of  the  node,  give 
an  arc  of  the  ecliptic  exceeding  30°,  so  that  the  sun  will  be  more  than  a  month  in  passing 
through  these  limita  Hence  there  must  be  two  ecli{)ses  of  the  sun  every  year.  Since  the 
ecliptic  limits  of  the  moon,  however,  taken  on  each  side  give  an  arc  only  of  about  23°,  and 
since  through  this  portion  of  the  ecliptic  the  sun  passes  in  less  than  a  month,  there  may  be 
no  eclipse  of  the  moon  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

When  a  total  and  central  clipsu  of  the  moon  happens,  there  may  be  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun  at  the  preceding  and  following  conjunctions,  because  between  new  and  full  moons  tiie 
sun  describes  only  about  15  degrees  of  the  ecliptic,  so  that  each  conjunction  may  happen 
within  the  solar  ecliptic  limits.  The  some  may  take  place  at  the  opposite  node :  there  may 
therefore  be  six  eclipses  in  the  course  of  a  year.  The  retrogradation  of  the  node  at  the 
rate  of  20°  yearly  renders  it  possible,  whe  j  the  first  eclipse  of  the  year  happens  early  in 
January,  that  another  eclipse  of  the  sun  may  occur  in  the  end  of  the  year.  On  the  whole, 
there  may  be  seven  eclipses  in  the  course  of  one  year;  five  of  the  sun,  and  two  of  the  mcon: 
and  there  never  can  be  fewer  than  two,  but  though  more  solar  eclipses  happen  than  lunar, 
there  are  fewer  of  the  former  visible  than  of  the  latter ;  because  a  lunar  eclipse  is  visible  at 
every  place  on  the  earth  which  is  turned  towards  the  mocm  during  its  continuance ;  but  in 
a  solar  eclipse  the  sun  continues  visible  at  all  places  over  which  the  penumbra  does  not  pass. 
The  greatest  possible  duration  of  the  annular  appearauce  of  a  solar  eclipse  is  12°*  24',  and 
the  greatest  possible  time  during  which  the  sun  can  be  wholly  obscured  is  7°*  58*. 

As  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  solar  eclipse  can  be  observed  with  considerable  acounusr, 
they  are  usefUl  fpr  determining  the  longitude,  though  the  method  which  they  fiimish  is 
complex  and  laborious. 


,      Pa«t  IL 


BookL 


t  V-ii 


^UPSES. 


■MHlH*'f. 


Wt 


I  instead  of  the 
atcst  when  the 
'lie  distance  of 
>lace  as  coinci* 
at  right  angles 
evident  that  to 

other  point  of 
unction,  there* 
ten  the  centres 
unction,  it  will 
luce  barely  an 
inction  will  be 
N  (fff.  2.)  le* 
Pf  the  node,  and 
limit  required : 
>n's  orbit  to  the 
moon  together 
ed  by  the  semi* 

perpendicular 
I  to  the  sum  of 
n  of  the  semU 
i-om  the  moon 
be  made  equal 
learly  equal  to 
ton,  witmn  thu 

an,  the  eclipse 
3ter  be  greater 

the  node,  give 

nth  in  passing 

Since  the 

ibout  23°,  and 

there  may  be 

eclipse  of  the 
ull  moons  Uie 
may  happen 
:  there  may 
node  at  the 
>pens  early  in 
)n  the  whole, 
of  themcon: 
n  than  lunar, 
e  is  visible  at 
lance ;  but  in 
ioes  not  pass. 
12°  24',  and 
B8'. 
tie  accuiae^, 
)y  furnish  m 


mfectt  qf  atmospherical  rtfracUmt  parallax.  In  the  preceding  explanation  of  solar 
eclipses  we  have  had  occasion  to  ref'.* .  o  the  efibcts  of  atiiosphxrioaXi  nsniAOTioN ;  also 
to  the  (liflerence  between  the  apparent  places  of  the  sun  and  moon,  called  their  farau.az, 
produced  fhun  their  being  viewed  from  the  surfiice  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  earth. 
Before  leaving  this  subject  we  shall  state  a  little  more  ftdly  the  effects  arising  from  these 
causes. 

Atmospherical  refraction.  The  earth  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  an  aeriform  elastic 
fluid,  which  is  called  the  atmosfhibi.  This  fluid  possesses  weight,  and  is  compressible; 
ftnd  hence  tiie  parts  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  more  dense  wan  those  above  them,  on 
account  of  Uie  greater  superincumbent  pressure  which  they  sustain.  The  same  tiling  holds 
true  of  every  stratum  when  compared,  m  reference  to  density,  with  that  immediately  below 
it ;  so  that  fh>m  the  surface  upwiurds  the  density  gradually  diminishes,  at  a  few  miles'  eleva- 
tion becomes  very  small,  and  at  some  point  may  be  considered  as  altogether  evanescent 
Now,  it  is  a  well  Known  principle,  that  if  a  ray  of  light,  after  pofning  through  one  medium 
(air,  for  instance),  enters  another  (say  water)  of  a  different  density,  in  a  direction  not  per- 
pendicular to  its  surikce,  it  is  bent  out  of  its  course  towards  the  perpendicular  to  the  surface  on 
which  the  ray  is  incident,  if  the  second  medium  is  the  denser  of  the  two;  hut  from  that  per- 
pendicular if  the  second  medium  is  the  rarer,  In  passing  through  the  atmosphere,  tlierefore, 
a  ray  of  light  will  be  continually  deflected  fiasn  the  rectilineal  into  a  curvilinoal  path ;  be- 
cause at  evei7  point  of  its  course  it  is  entering  a  medium  of  a  greater  density.  The  ra^  is 
said  to  be  refracted ;  and  as  the  tangent  draws  fVom  the  eye  to  the  curve  which  it  describes 
is  the  direction  in  which  celestial  objects  appear,  it  follows,  that  refraction  renders  the  appa- 
rent altitude  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies  greater  than  the  true.  Hence  they  oflen  appear 
above  the  horizon  when  they  are  actually  below  it 

The  deviation  of  the  refracted  ray  from  its  original  course  increases  with  the  angle  of 
incidence,  and  vanishes  when  the  direction  of  the  ray  is  perpendicular  to  the  surfkce  of  the 
second  medium.  Hence  atmospherical  refiraction  is  greatest  when  the  object  is  in  the 
horizon,  where  it  may  be  about  34':  at  45°  altitude,  it  is  about  57^":  in  the  zenith  it 
vanishes. 

Whatever  alters  the  density  of  the  atmosphere  must  affect  also  its  refractive  power.  In 
all  accurate  observations,  therefore,  the  state  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer  must  be 
taken  into  account  At  the  same  zenith  distances,  the  quantity  of  refhiction  varies  nearly 
as  the  height  of  the  barometer,  supposing  the  temperature  to  remain  the  same.  The  effect 
of  a  variation  in  the  temperature  is  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  refractim  about  tn^  partfbr 
every  increase  of  one  degree  in  the  height  of  the  thermometer. 

In  passing  through  the  atmosphere  light  is  refected  as  well  as  refiracted.  The  reflective 
power  of  the  atmosphere  produces  the  splendour  of  day  by  difiusing  light  in  every  direction. 
Combined  with  its  refiractive  power,  it  causes  that  faint  light  called  twilioht,  which  is  per- 
ceived before  sunrise  and  after  sunset ; — ^beginning  in  the  morning  in  our  latitude,  and  end- 
ing in  the  evening,  when  the  sun's  depression  below  the  horizon  is  about  18°.  Varioua 
ouer  phenomena  are  to  be  attributed  to  tb  }  same  cause :  the  red  and  orange  colour  of  the 
morning  and  evening  clouds ;  the  ruddy  appearance  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies  when  near 
the  horizon ;  the  blue  colour  of  the  sky ;  and  the  bright  azure  of  the  distant  mountains,  are 
all  the  effects  of  the  refhu:tive  powers  of  the  atmosphere. 

Refraction  is  also  the  cause  of  the  oval  appearance  of  the  sun  and  maim  when  near  th* 
horizon.  The  diameter  of  the  disc  that  is  parallel  to  tiie  horizon  remains  unaffected  in  its 
apparent  length,  because  both  extremities  are  equally  refVacted ;  but  the  diameter  perpen- 
d'oulor  to  the  horizon  is  shortened  by  about  ^th  of  its  length,  because  the  lower  edge  of  the 
disc,  being  nearer  the  horizon,  is  romicted  nearly  five  minutes  more  than  the  upper. 

The  great  apparent  magnitude  of  the  sun  and  moon  when  in  the  horizon  is  another 
remarkable  phenomenon  which  we  may  here  notice.  This  illusion,  which  is  altogether 
optical,  is  usually  accounted  for  on  this  principle,  that  we  form  an  erroneous  judgment 
respecting  the  distances  of  these  bodies  when  they  are  in  the  horizm,  compared  with  their 
distances  when  they  have  attained  a  considerable  elevation.  When  we  see  the  moon,  fi>r 
example,  in  the  heavens  at  a  considerable  altitude,  we  intuitively  suppose,  her  nearer  than 
when  she  is  in  the  horizon ;  because,  in  the  latter  case,  we  see  a  multitude  of  objects,— 
many  of  them  at  great  distances,  and  the  moon  beyond  them  all ;  but  in  the  former  case, 
we  have  no  intervening  objects  by  which  to  form  an  estimate  of  her  distance.  The  angle 
under  which  she  is  seen  being  nearly  the  same,  we  infbr  a  greater  magnitude  when  we 
Imagine  the  distance  greatest  that  is,  when  the  moral  is  in  tiie  horizon.  Such  is  the  error 
into  which  we,  in  this  instance,  &1I,  in  the  rajgid  judgments  of  the  mind  reepecting  mafni- 
tnde  and  distance  connected  with  yMoo.  xne  more  deliberate  conclusion  on  ^his  subject 
drawn  by  reason  is,  that  the  moon  must  uideed  be  at  a  greater  distance  fh>m  an  observer  on 
the  earth,  when  she  is  in  his  horizon,  than  when  she  is  m  or  near  his  zenith ;  but  that  how- 
ever the  eye  may  be  deceived,  her  apparent  diameter  must  when  exactly  measured,  be  found 
less.    This  is  accordingly  the  cose;  for,  when  accurately  measured  wit)i  the  miciometen 


«':.?'•  V 


loe 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


the  moon's  apparent  diameter,  when  she  ia  in  the  horizon,  is  actually  found  to  bo  less  than 
when  she  has  attained  a  considerable  altitude. 

ParaUax.  We  have  formerly  shown  that,  in  comparison  with  the  distances  of  the  fixed 
stars,  the  earth  is  but  as  a  point  in  the  universe ;  so  that  their  positions  in  the  heavens  appear 
the  same  when  viewed  from  the  euth's  surface,  as  they  would  if  they  were  viewed  nrom 
its  centre.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  with  regard  to  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets.  At. 
each  of  these  bodies  the  earth  presents  a  disc  of  an  appreciable  ma^itude:  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  their  positions  among  the  fixed  stars,  when  viewed  from  different  points  of  the 
sur&ce  of  the  earth,  vary,  and  are  different  from  what  they  would  be  were  they  seen  from 
the  centre  of  the  earth. 
Let  A  B  E  (Jg.  80.)  be  the  earth,  C  its  centre,  and  M,  M",  M'  (a  heavenly  body,  for 

example)  the  moon  in  the  sensible  horizon,  the  zenith,  and 
any  intermediate  position.  The  true  places  of  the  moon  in 
these  positions,  as  seen  from  the  centre  C,  and  referred  to  the 
starry  heavens,  will  be  m,  m",  m' ;  and  their  apparent  places, 
as  seen  from  B,  wUl  be  n,  m",  n'.  It  is  evident,  that  in  the 
zenith  the  true  and  apparent  places  coincide,  so  that  there  is 
no  parallax.  In  the  horizon  the  parallax  is  greatest :  it  is 
measured  by  the  arc  m  n,  and  is  equal  to  the  an^le  BMC, 
under  which  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth's  disc  appears 
when  viewed  from  the  moon.  At  the  intermediate  position 
M'  the  parallax  is  measured  by  the  arc  m'  n' ;  it  is  less  than 
in  the  horizon,  and  decreases  as  the  body  ascends  until  it 
vanishes  when  the  body  reaches  the  zenith.  From  the  horizon 
to  the  zenith,  punllax  diminishes  the  apparent  altitude  of  a 
body ;  but  as  the  altitude  increases,  this  diminution  becomes  less  and  less.  Its  effect,  there- 
ftore,  is  contrary  to  that  of  refraction,  which  always  increases  the  apparent  altitude  of  a  body. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

MOTION  OF  THE  PLANETS  ROUND  THE  BUN. 


The  phenomena  of  the  motions  of  the  other  planets  differ  from  those  of  the  moon,  which, 
•8  we  have  shown,  are  all  easily  accounted  for,  on  the  supposition  that  the  moon  revolves 
round  the  earth  in  an  elliptic  orbit,  subject  to  various  changes ;  which  are  confined,  how- 
ever,  within  certain  limits.  The  attempts  which  the  ancient  astronomers  made  to  explain 
the  celestial  phenomena,  by  supposing  the  earth  to  be  the  centre  of  the  universe,  introduced 
a  system,  the  ptolemaio,  which  was  received  for  about  1500  years,  as  affording  the  true 
explanation  of  the  planetary  motions ;  but  which  the  progress  of  scientific  discovery  has 
proved  to  be  absurd.  Ptolemy,  an  astronomer  of  Egypt,  who  flourished  about  140  years 
after  the  Christian  era,  supposed  the  planets  to  revolve  about  the  earth  in  the  following 
order ;  viz.  the  Moon,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Sun,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn.  Beyond  the  region 
of  die  planets  he  placed  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars.  While  he  thus  accounted  for  the 
proper  motions  of  the  planets  from  west  to  east,  he  conceived  the  whole  to  be  carried  roimd 
the  earth  by  a  diurnal  motion,  in  the  opposite  direction,  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  irregu- 
larities of  uie  planetary  motions, — these  being  sometimes  direct,  at  other  times  retrograde ; 
sometimes  swift,  and  at  other  times  slow, — ^were  imagined  by  him  to  arise  frt>m  each  planet 
moving  in  a  small  circle,  called  an  epicycle,  whose  centre  was  carried  round  a  larger 
circle,  called  the  deferent,  having  the  earth  placed  a  little  to  the  one  side  of  its  centre. 
The  motions  in  these  circles  he  imagined  to  be  produced  by  the  revolution  of  transparent 
globes ;  each  planet  being  supposed  to  be  attached  to  a  globe,  which  carried  it  round  in  its 
epicycle;  and  this  globe  agam  supposed  to  be  contained  in  the  shell  of  another  globe  of 
sufiicient  thickness  to  receive  it  within  its  solid  substance,  and  to  allow  it  to  revolve  on  its 
own  centre,  at  the  same  time  that  it  was  carried  in  the  deferent  round  the  earth. 

Setting  aside  the  obvious  objections  to  this  theory,  arising  from  the  extravagance  of  the 
suppositions,  as  well  as  the  awkwardness  and  complication  of  the  machinery  which  it  em- 
ploys, an  insuperable  difficulty  remains ;  viz.  that  the  whole  system  is  entirely  hypothetical, 
and  offers  no  proof  of  the  existence  of  the  agents  to  which  it  attributes  such  mighty  effects. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  instead  of  being  confirmed  by  subsequent  discoveries,  it 
fell  to  the  ground  as  soon  as  the  true  method  of  investigating  the  laws  or  nature  was  under- 
■tood  and  iSopted. 

Of  the  planets,  two.  Mercury  and  Venus,  always  accompany  the  sun,  never  receding  firom 
him  beyond  certain  limits :  the  rest  are  seen  at  all  possible  angular  distances  from  the  sun.  Let 
us,  then,  fix  upon  Venus  as  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  two  which  accompany  the  sun,  and 
uponMaJs  as  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  among  those  which  recede  to  all  angular  distances 
from  him ;  and  by  tracing  out  the  apparent  motions  of  these  planets,  let  us  endeavour  to 
ascertain  the  centre  about  which  they  revolve. 


Paht  II. 
bo  less  than 

fl  of  the  fixed 
savena  appear 
)  viewed  from 
planets.  At. 
i:  and,  on  tha 
:  points  of  the 
bey  seen  from 

enly  body,  (at 
lie  zenith,  and 
f  the  moon  in 
referred  to  the 
parent  places, 
tt,  that  in  the 
9  that  there  is 
^atest:  it  is 
an^rle  BMC, 
I  disc  apptears 
idiate  position 
it  is  less  than 
cends  until  it 
3m  the  horizon 
;  altitude  of  a 
a  effect,  there* 
ludeofabody. 


I  moon,  which, 
noon  revolves 
confined,  how- 
ade  to  explain 
'se,  introduced 
ding  the  true 
discovery  has 
)ut  140  years 
the  following 
md  the  region 
mnted  for  the 
carried  round 
The  irreffu- 


BooK  I. 


MOTION  OP  THfi  PLANETS  ROUND  THE  SUN. 


IM 


s  retrograde; 
n  each  planet 
ound  a  larger 
of  its  cen&e. 
)f  transparent 
it  round  in  its 
ther  globe  of 
revolve  on  its 
th. 

agance  of  the 
which  it  em- 
■  hypothetical, 
lighty  effects, 
discoveries,  it 
re  was  under- 
receding  from 
1  the  sun.  Let 
r  the  sun,  and 
ular  distances 
endeavour  to 


When  the  planet  Venus  is  near  the  sun,  she  is  invisible ;  but  when  she  has  emerged 
sufficiently  fh)m  his  rays,  she  is  seen  in  the  twilight  of  the  morning  or  jvening,  according 
as  she  is  to  the  west  or  east  of  the  sun.  In  the  former  case  she  is  the  mornino  star  ;  in  the 
latter,  the  evening  star.  When  she  begins  to  be  seen  in  the  evening,  she  is  found  to  be 
receding  from  the  sun  towards  the  east,  and  thus  disengaging  herself  more  and  more  fVcon 
his  rays.  Having  reached  her  greatest  angular  distance,  or  elongation,  which  is  from  45^ 
to  48°,  she  begins  again  to  approach  him,  and  contmues  to  do  so  till  her  angular  distance  ia 
about  28°.  During  all  this  tune  her  motion  is  direct,  that  is,  in  the  order  of  the  signs ;  but 
now  she  becomes  stationary,  and  in  a  short  time  she  is  seen  moving  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  the  order  of  the  signs,  and  has  thus  acquired  a  retrograde  motion ;  but  still  she  continues 
to  approach  the  sun,  until  in  a  short  time  she  is  lost  in  his  light  After  being  invisible  for 
about  six  weeks,  she  is  again  seen ;  but  now  in  the  morning  to  the  west  of  die  sun,  emerging 
fh>m  the  solar  rays.  Her  motion  is  still  retro^rrad^  i  ^^^  when  she  has  reached  about  ^° 
distance  from  the  sun,  she  again  becomes  stationaiv ;  and  in  a  short  time  resumes  a  direct 
motion,  receding  from  him  night  after  nig:ht,  until  her  angular  distance  exceeds  45°.  She 
then  returns  to  the  sun ;  is  for  a  time  lost  in  his  rays ;  and  at  length  is  seen  in  the  evening 
to  the  east  of  the  sun,  to  repeat  the  same  round  of  phenomena.  While  Venus  thus  appears 
to  have  an  oscillatory  motion  to  the  east  and  west  of  the  sun,  she  is  found,  when  viewed 
through  a  telescope,  to  present  phases  exactly  similar  to  those  of  the  moon,  Uie  illuminated 
portion  bein^  always  turned  towards  the  sun.  We  may  hence  infer  that  Venus  is  an  opaque 
f)ody,  and  shmes  in  consequence  of  reflecting  the  solar  light  At  the  same  time  her  apparent 
diameter  also  varies,  its  variations  having  an  evident  relation  to  the  position  of  the  planet 
with  regard  to  the  sun.  The  diameter  appears  least  when  the  planet  is  about  to  be  immersed 
in  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  the  mornings  or  immediately  after  her  emergmg  from  them  in  the 
evening.  On  the  other  hand,  it  appears  greatest  when  she  is  about  to  be  lost  in  the  solar 
rays  in  the  evening,  or  when  she  emerges  from  them  in  the  morning.  Such  is  a  general 
view  of  the  apparent  motion  of  Venus ;  and  by  attending  to  the  phenomena  which  she  ex* 
hibits,  we  are  fed  to  the  conclusion  that  she  revolves  round  the  sun.  When  in  the  morning 
she  begins  to  disengage  herself  from  the  solar  rays,  she  is  seen  to  rise  before  the  sun  in  the 
form  of  a  crescent ;  and  it  is  then  that  her  diameter  appears  greatest  At  that  time,  therefore^ 
she  must  be  nearer  to  us  than  the  sun  is,  and  not  far  Smm  being  in  conjunction  with  him. 
Her  crescent  increases,  and  her  diameter  diminishes,  m  she  recedes  from  uie  sun :  when  she 
has  reached  her  greatest  elongation  and  returns  agair.  cowards  him,  she  continues  to  discover 
to  us  more  and  more  of  her  enlightened  hemisphere,  her  diameter  all  the  time  diminishing, 
until  she  is  lost  in  the  mommg,  in  the  sun's  rays.  At  the  instant  of  her  disappearing, 
Venus  is  seen  as  a  fiill  disc ;  and  at  the  same  time  her  diameter  is  least  Hence  we  may 
with  certainty  infer,  that  she  is  then  at  a  greater  distance  from  us  than  the  sun,  and  again 
nearly  in  conjunction  with  him.  After  having  remained  for  some  time  invisible,  she  re* 
appears  in  the  evening  to  the  east  of  the  sun ;  and  in  receding  from  and  returning  towards 
him  exhibits,  in  an  inverted  order,  the  same  phenomena,  in  rererence  to  the  changes  in  her 
disc  and  apparent  diameter,  which  she  had  presented  when  seen  in  the  morning,  on  the  west 
of  the  sun :  her  enlightened  hemisphere  turns  more  and  more  from  us,  and  her  apparent 
diameter  continually  mcreases,  until  she  again  disappears,  or  is  seen  oa  a  black  spot  traversinjf 
the  disc  of  the  sun. 

From  these  phenomena  only  one  inference  can  be  drawn ;  viz.  tliat  Venus  revolves  m  an 
orbit  near  the  centre  of  which  the  sun  is  placed.  This  conclusion,  which  rests  on  the  firm 
basis  of  observation,  leads  to  a  natural  and  simple  explanation  of  all  the  peculiarities  of  her 
motion. 

The  planet  Mars,  the  next  to  be  considered,  appears  to  be  carried  round  the  earth  by  a 
motion  which  is  subject  to  great  inequalities.  When  he  begins  to  be  seen  in  the  morning 
emerging  firom  the  solar  rays,  his  motion  is  direct  and  at  its  greatest  rapidity ;  but  it  gradu- 
ally dunuiishes  until  the  planet's  angular  distance  from  the  sun  is  about  137°.  At  that  time 
it  changes  into  a  retrograde  motion,  whose  rapidity  increases  till  the  moment  that  the  planet 
comes  into  opposition  with  the  sun,  or  is  on  the  meridian  at  midnight  It  is  then  at  its 
greatest  rate,  and  presently  begins  to  decrease,  continuing  to  do  so  till  the  planet  becomes 
stationary  when  at  the  angular  distance  of  about  137°  from  the  sun.  The  motion  now 
returns  to  its  direct  sttite,  Ss\jer  having  been  retrograde  for  about  seventy-three  days ;  and 
in  that  period  the  planet  describes  an  arc  of  retrogradation  of  about  16°.  Mars  continues 
to  approach  the  sun,  until  he  becomes  immersed  in  his  rays  in  the  evening.  These  pheno* 
raena  are  repeated  at  every  opposition  of  the  planet  with  considerable  difforences,  however, 
in  reference  to  the  duration  and  extent  of  the  retrogradations.  At  different  points  of  hia 
course  round  the  heavens,  the  apparent  diameter  of  Mars  is  very  difJerent :  it  varies  &osa 
about  13.3"  to  29.1".    It  is  greatest  when  the  planet  is  in  opposition  to  tlie  sun. 

The  phenomena  now  described  can  be  satisfactorily  explamed  in  no  other  way  but  by  sup- 
posing Mars  to  revolve  round  the  sun.  As  he  recedes  from  the  sun  to  all  possible  angular 
distances,  the  earth  must  be  situated  within  his  orbit;  but  the  inci-ease  of  his  apparent 
■liameter  as  he  approaches  his  opposition,  and  its  decrease  when  he  approaches  the  sun,  show 

Vol.  I.  10 


no 


PRINCIPLES  OF  OEOORAPHY. 


Part  II 


|»  nil! 


that  t.hj  cutti  M  not  the  centre  of  his  motion.  Before  he  reaches  the  point  of  oppoeitioi., 
hia  mjtior  flrom  being  dir^rt,  becomoi  retrograde;  after  the  oppoaition  it  reaumea  its  direct 
ntate,  whei.  the  planet  is  at  the  same  distance  fhun  the  sun,  at  which  he  was  situated  when 
the  motion  became  retrograde ;  and  it  is  at  the  moment  of  conjunction  that  this  last  motion 
is  most  rapid.  Now,  all  these  circumstances  evidently  indicate  that  the  apparent  motion  of 
Mars  is  the  result  of  two  combined  motions,  which  altornately  conspire  with  and  oppose  each 
oUier,  and  of  which  one  depends  on  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun.  As  we  have  found 
that  Venus  revolves  round  the  sun,  and  accompanies  him  in  his  apparent  annual  motion 
round  tho  earth,  we  are  led  by  analogy  to  extend  the  same  law  to  Mars,  and  to  conclude  that 
he  also  revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun. 

The  disc  of  Mars  changes  its  figure,  and  becomes  sensibly  oval,  according  to  his  position 
relatively  to  the  sun :  hence  we  may  conclude  that  Mors  is  an  opaque  body,  and  derives  hia 
light  fVom  the  sun. 

Tho  same  reasoning  being  applicable  in  the  case  of  the  other  planets,  we  may  extend  to 
all  of  them  tlie  conclusion  which  we  have  now  established  in  reference  to  Venus  and  Mars, 
'—namely,  tliat  they  are  opaque  bodies,  and  revolve  about  the  sun  in  orbits  nearly  circular ; 
while  that  luminary  of  the  system  either  describes  or  appears  to  describe  an  orbit  about  the 
earth  in  the  course  of  a  year.  This  general  law,  which  affurds  a  simple  and  complete  expli- 
cation of  the  planetary  motions,  receives  additional  confirmation  fi'om  the  phenomena  of  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter  and  the  ring  of  Saturn ;  for  these  phenomena  prove  directly  that  Jupiter 
and  Saturn  revolve  about  the  sun  in  nearly  circular  orbits. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

MOTION  OF  THE  EABTH  BOUND  THE  BUN. 


•,nJ4 


The  conclusion  to  which  we  have  now  been  led, — that  all  the  planets  describe  orbits  that 
have  the  sun  near  to  tlmir  centre, — naturally  suggests  the  question,  whether  the  earth  itself 
is  not  subject  to  the  same  law,  and  therefore  to  bie  ranked  among  tlie  planets  which  revolve 
round  the  sun.  With  regard  to  the  celestial  motions,  every  appearance  would  remain  the 
same  to  us,  whether  the  earth  described  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  or  the  sun  with  his  accom- 
panying planets  revolved  round  the  earth.  To  which  of  these  hypotheses  the  preference  is 
Gue  will  appear  from  the  following  considerations  :— 

The  immense  masses  of  the  sun  and  of  several  of  the  planets,  combined  with  their  grsat 
distances  from  the  earth,  render  it  much  more  simple  to  suppose  that  the  earth  describes  an 
orbit  round  the  sun,  than  that  the  whole  planetary  system  revolves  round  the  earth.  What 
an  inconceivable  rapidity  of  motion  is  it  necessary  to  assign  to  Saturn,  almost  ten  times 
more  distant  fh)m  us  than  the  sun,  or  to  Uranus,  at  about  double  the  distance  of  Saturn,  in 
order  that  these  planets  may  complete  a  revolution  round  the  earth  in  a  ycor,  At  the  same 
time  that  they  revolve  about  the  sun !  It  is  a  law  which  is  found  to  pervade  the  planetary 
system,  that  the  less  body  revolves  about  tlie  greater  body  which  is  in  its  neighbourhood ; 
and  b^  supposing  the  earth,  in  conformity  with  this  law,  to  revolve  about  the  sun,  which  in 
ma^itude  greatly  exceeds  all  the  planets  taken  together,  we  avoid  all  the  complication  and 
rapidity  of  motion  which  follow  from  the  supposition  of  the  eartli  being  at  rest. 

The  analogy  which  subsists  between  the  eurth  and  the  planets  confirms  the  hypothesis  of 
the  earth  being  carried  round  the  sun  by  a  motion  of  translation :  Jupiter,  for  example,  is 
known  to  have  a  revolution  on  his  own  axis,  and  to  be  attended  by  four  satellites.  In  these 
particulars  the  earth  resembles  that  planet,  having  also  a  revolution  on  its  own  axis,  and 
being  attended  by  one  satellite,  the  moon.  An  observer  placed  on  Jupiter  would  be  led 
from  appearances  to  imagine  that  the  planetary  system  revolved  round  him,  in  like  manner 
as  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth  supposes  himself  placed  at  the  centre  of  the  celestial  notions : 
and  tho  greater  magnitude  of  Jupiter  would  give  to  such  a  conclusion,  when  drawn  by  an 
observer  placed  on  that  planet,  a  greater  resemblance  to  the  truth  than  it  would  have  when 
drawn  by  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth.  With  such  a  close  analogy  in  these  respects  before 
our  eyes,  may  we  not  naturally  conclude  that  it  extends  still  futher ;  and  that  as  Jupiter 
revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  the  earth  must  also  have  a  similar  motion  1 

Let  us  imagine  ourselves  to  be  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  sun,  and  from  that  position  to 
observe  the  earth  and  the  planets.  All  these  bodies  would  appear  to  move  from  west  to  eiist ; 
the  planets  would  be  found  free  from  all  that  complication  m  their  motion  to  which  they 
appear  subject  when  viewed  from  the  earth ;  and  the  motion  of  the  earth  itself  would  in 
every  circumstance  correspond  with  tliat  of  the  planets.  The  more  distant  a  planet  is  fiota 
the  sun,  the  longer  is  the  time  which  it  requires  to  perform  its  revolution  round  him ;  but 
throughout  the  planetary  system  this  remarkable  law  prevails,  connecting  the  periodic  times 
with  the  distances, — the  squares  of  the  former  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  the  latter. 
If  we  compute,  b^  this  principle,  what  should  be  the  tune  of  revolution  of  a  planet  situated 
at  the  distance  of'^the  earth  from  the  sun,  we  find  the  result  correspond  exactly  with  the 
sidereal  veai ;  thus,  the  earth's  distance  firom  the  sim  being  assumed  as  unity,  the  distance  of 


^■:^r. 


Part  IL 

)f  oppoutioi., 
nes  its  direct 
ituatod  when 
8  last  motion 
mt  motion  of 
1  oppose  each 
e  have  found 
nnual  motion 
conclude  that 

to  his  position 
id  derives  his 

lay  extend  to 
us  and  Mars, 
irly  circular; 
bit  about  the 
implete  cxpli- 
omena  of  the 
y  that  Jupiter 


.,'m4 


ibe  orbits  that 
e  earth  itself 
which  revolve 
Id  remain  the 
ith  his  accom- 
( preference  is 

th  their  gtwt 
1  describes  an 
larth.  What 
ost  ten  times 
of  Saturn,  in 
At  the  same 
the  planetary 

^hbourhood ; 
lun,  which  in 

ilication  and 

lypothesis  of 
example,  is 
In  these 
wn  axis,  and 
vould  be  led 
like  manner 
itial  notions : 
drawn  by  an 
d  have  when 
spects  before 
it  OS  Jupiter 


BoobL 


MOTION  OP  THE  EARTH  ROUND  THE  SUN. 


Ill 


cs, 


at  position  to 
west  to  eiist ; 
which  they 
elf  would  in 
lanct  is  fiom 
nd  him ;  but 
eriodic  times 
f  the  latter, 
uiet  situated 
tly  with  the 
e  distance  ot 


Man  is  known  to  be  I'fi2d603:  his  periodic  time  is  666*9796  days.  Hence  we  have 
ri-fiSi693)3: 13::  (686*9796) 3:  f865*256}3.  The  periodic  time  of  a  planet,  at  the  aune 
distance  from  the  sun  as  the  earui  is,  shcHild  therefore  be  865*256  days,  which  is  the  length 
of  the  sidereal  year.  This  result  leaves  no  doubt  that  the  motion  which  the  earth  would 
be  seen  to  have,  if  it  were  viewed  from  the  sun,  arises  from  the  same  causes,  and  is  regu- 
lated by  the  same  laws  as  the  motions  of  the  phnets :  hence  we  may  conclude  that  it  is  no 
leas  real. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  which  the  preceding  considerations 
render  so  highly  probable,  is  directly  proved  by  the  phenomena  of  the  aberration  of  light 
It  was  long  supposed  that  light  was  propagated  from  the  sun  and  other  luminous  bodiee 
instantaneously ;  but  modem  observatiims  have  proved  that  this  hypothesis  is  erroneous,  and 
that  light,  like  all  other  projectiles,  occupies  a  certain  time  in  passing  from  one  pomt  of  space 
to  anouer.  The  fact  that  light  hajs  a  progressive  motion  was  first  discovered  by  Roemer, 
a  celebrated  Danish  astronomer,  from  observations  made  on  the  eclipses  which  the  satel- 
lites  of  Jupiter  undergo  when  they  fall  into  his  shadow.  He  found  that  these  eclipses 
happened  sometimes  sooner  and  sometimes  later  than  the  time  deduced  from  the  tables  of 
their  motions ;  the  observation  being  before  or  after  the  computed  time,  according  as  the 
earth  was  nearer  to  or  farther  from  Jupiter  than  the  mean  distance.  Repeated  observations 
have  proved,  that  when  the  earth  is  between  the  sun  and  Jupiter,  his  satellites  are  seen 
eclipsed  about  8^  minutes  sooner  than  they  should  be  according  to  the  tables ;  but  tlut 
when  the  earth  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  sun  from  Jupiter,  the  eclipses  of  his  satellites 
happen  about  8^  minutes  later  than  the  time  shown  by  the  tables.  The  only  conclusion  that 
can  he  drawn  fbsm  these  facts  is,  that  liglit  occupies  about  16^  minutes  in  traversing  a  space 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit,  which  is  upwards  of  190  millions  of  miles ;  it 
must  therefore  move  at  the  enormous  rate  of  nearly  210,000  miles  in  a  second. 

Now,  if  the  earth  is  really  in  motion,  it  must  be  moving  at  the  rate  of  about  20  miles  in 
a  second,  in  order  to  accomplish  its  revolution  round  the  sun  in  the  course  of  a  year.  This 
rate  of  motion,  although  small  when  compared  with  the  velocity  of  light,  bears  to  it  a  iensi- 
ble  proportion ;  so  that  on  evident  consequence  of  the  earth's  motion  will  be,  that  the  appa- 
rent places  of  the  heavenly  bodies  will  not  be  the  same  as  they  would  be  if  the  earth  were 
at  rest 

Suppose  A  B  to  be  a  portion  of  the  earth's  orbit,  S  a  fixed  star,  and  S  A  the  direction 
of  light  proceeding  fh>m  the  star  to  the  earth  at  A.    It  is  evident  that  if  the  earth  were  at 

rest  at  A,  a  telescope  presented  in  the  direction  A  S  would 
receive  the  light  of  the  star,  which,  proceeding  along  the  axis 
of  the  telescope,  would  reach  the  eye  at  A,  and  show  the 
star  in  its  true  position.  But  if  the  earth  be  supposed  to 
move  firom  A  towards  B  with  a  velocity  that  bears  a  sensible 
proportion  to  the  velocity  of  light,  the  ray  S  A,  which  enters 
^E  the  telescope  at  C,  cannot  reach  the  eye,  but  must,  in  conse- 

Juence  of  the  motion,  be  lost  against  the  interior  of  the  tube, 
n  order  that  the  light  from  the  star  may  reach  the  eye  when 
carried  forward  by  the  earth's  motion,  the  telescope  must 
have  such  an  inclination  to  A  B,  that  S  F  being  supposed  a 
ray  parallel  to  S  A,  and  meeting  the  axis  of  the  telescope  in 
D,  A  F  may  have  to  F  D  the  same  ratio  as  the  earth's  veloci- 
ty in  its  orbit  hajs  to  the  velocity  of  light ;  that  is,  of  1  to 
10,000  nearly.  In  this  position  of  the  telescope,  the  light  entering  at  D  will  pass  along  the 
axis  as  it  moves  from  A  to  F,  and  will  reach  the  eye  at  F ;  but  the  star  will  be  seen  in  the 
oirection,  not  of  F  S,  but  of  F  £ :  so  that  its  apparent  place  differs  from  its  true  by  a  quan- 
tity measured  by  the  angle  S'  F  £  or  A  D  F.  The  angle  D  F  £  is  the  aberration  which  wUl 
evidently  be  towards  that  part  of  the  heavens  to  which  the  earth  is  moving.  Let  the  axis 
F  E  be  supposed  to  be  produced  to  the  starry  heavens :  it  will  trace  out  on  the  convex  sur- 
&ce  a  circle,  if  the  star  S  is  in  the  pole  of  tiie  ecliptic ;  but  an  ellipse  in  every  other  posi^ 
tion  of  the  star.    The  true  place  of  the  star  is  the  centre  of  the  circle  or  ellipse. 

If  the  star  be  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  the  angle  D  A  F  may  be  considered  as  a  right 
angle ;  for  die  line  joining  the  star  and  the  earth  will  always  be  perpendicular  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  earth's  motion.  In  this  cose,  therefore,  the  angle  A  D  F  will  be  the  greatest 
possible ;  for  the  ratio  of  sin.  A  D  F  to  sin.  D  A  F  is  constant,  being  the  same  with  the  ratio 
of  A  F  to  F  D,  or  of  1  to  10,000  nearly :  so  that  sin.  A  D  F  is  greatest,  and  therefore  A  D 
F  is  greatest  when  sin.  D  A  F  is  the  greatest  possible ;  that  is,  when  D  A  F  is  a  right  angle. 
In  the  case  of  any  other  star  the  greater  axis  of  the  ellipse  which  it  appears  to  describe 
round  its  true  place  as  a  centre  wul  be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  cifcie  which  a  star  in 
the  pole  of  the  ecliptic  would  appear  to  describe  about  the  pole  as  a  centre :  for  the  ellipse 
will  be  the  orthographic  projection  of  a  circle  equal  to  that  described  about  the  ^lole,  the 
greater  axis  being  the  diameter,  which  is  perpendicular  to  a  circle  of  the  sphere  passing 
Uuough  the  star  and  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  ecliptic.  .  When  tho 


lis 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY.     -       '^ 


Part  ir. 


i 


•tar  ia  in  the  ecliptic,  it  will  appear  to  describe  an  arch  equal  to  the  greater  axi<  of  the 
ellipee  described  by  a  star  not  in  the  ecliptic,  or  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle  of  aberration 
that  would  be  described  by  a  star  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic. 

When  angle  D  A  F  is  a  right  angle,  we  have  D  F:  F  A: :  rad:  sin.  Z  A  D  F;  that  it, 
10,000  :  1 : :  1 :  '0001  =  sine  of  greatest  aberration,  which  will  therefore  be  20"  nearly. 
The  aberration  of  a  planet  will  depend  on  its  own  motion  aa  well  as  on  that  of  the  earth. 
If  tlio  motion  of  the  planet  were  caual  and  parallel  to  that  of  the  earth,  no  aberration  would 
take  place.  The  aberration  of  a  planet  may  be  (bund  by  first  considering  the  effect  of  the 
motion  of  the  earth  on  the  apparent  place,  and  then  the  aberration  arising  from  the  planet's 
own  motion. 

Such  are  the  effects  which,  if  the  earth  have  actually  a  motion  of  translation  that  carries 
it  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  must  arise  from  that  motion  combued  with  the  progreuive 
moticMi  of  light.  To  obtain,  therefore,  decisive  proof  of  the  earth's  annual  motion,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  ascertain  by  accurate  observation  the  existence  of  these  phenomena. 

The  true  system  of  the  world,  which  supposes  the  sun  to  be  at  rest  in  the  centre,  and  the 
earth  and  planets  to  revolve  round  him,  while  the  moon  revolves  about  the  earth,  and  the 
diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens  arises  from  the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  was  taught  by 
several  of  tlie  ancient  philosophers,  and  particularly  by  Pythagoras.  It  was  also  held  by 
Archimedes ;  but  after  him  it  was  neglected,  and  even  for^tten  for  many  ages,  until  at 
length,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  it  was  revived  and  improved  by  Coperni- 
cus, fh)m  whom  it  took  the  name  of  the  Copernican  System.  Notwithstanding  the  beauty 
and  simplicity  which  distinguished  this  theory,  it  was  at  first  coldly  roceived  or  utterly 
rejected.  Tycho  Brahe,  on  illustrious  Dane,  was  among  its  adversaries.  He  regarded  the 
doctrine  of  the  earth's  motion  as  untenable,  without  abandoning  the  testimony  of  Scripture : 
hence  he  was  led  to  imagine  another  system,  which  bears  his  name ;  in  which  the  sun,  with 
all  the  planets  and  comets  revolving  round  him,  is  supposed  to  perform  a  revolution  about 
the  eartli  in  a  solar  year,  while  at  uie  same  time  all  the  heavenly  bodies  are  supposed  to  be 
carried  round  the  earth  fi"om  east  to  west  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  only  apparent  difficulty  connected  witli  the  Copemican  system  arises  firom  the  fact,  that 
the  earth's  axis  is  always  pointed  to  the  same  star,  and  that  the  stars  preserve  always  the  same 
relative  positions ;  though  by  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth,  a  spectator  on  its  surface  views 
them  at  any  two  instants  of  time  seoorated  by  the  period  of  about  six  months,  ttom  two 
points  nearly  200,000,000  miles  asunaer.  During  the  seventeenth  century  the  sup])orters 
of  the  Copemican  system  laboured  to  remove  this  objection,  by  detecting  a  change  in  the 
position  of  the  fixed  stars. 

The  minute  and  accurate  observations  instituted  for  this  purpose  led,  in  the  end,  to  the 
important  discovery  made  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Bradley,  that  the  ver;^  effects  which  we 
have  shown,  must  result  firom  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth  combined  with  the  progressive 
motion  of  light.  He  found  that  each  star  describes,  round  its  true  place  as  a  centre,  a  small 
ellipse  of  wnich  the  greater  axis  is  about  40" ;  and  that  this  ellipse  approaches  to  a  circle 
or  to  a  straight  Ime,  which  are  its  limits,  according  as  the  star  is  situated  towards  the  pole 
3f  the  ecliptic,  or  towards  the  ecliptic  itself.  No  parallax  is  observable  in  the  fixed  stars 
arising  from  the  earth's  annual  motion ;  and  hence  it  must  be  inferred  that  their  distance 
is  so  great,  that  even  the  diameter  of  tlie  earth's  orbit  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  point  in  the 
universe. 

From  an  attentive  consideration  of  the  celestial  motions,  we  are  therefore  led  to  reject 
as  erroneous  the  notions  which  ajypearances  at  first  suggest  respecting  the  system  of  the 
foorld.  Instead  of  the  globe  which  we  inhabit  being  at  rest  in  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
it  is  a  planet  in  motion  about  its  own  axis  and  about  the  sun.  In  regarding  it  under  this 
aspect,  we  find  all  the  celestial  phenomena  explained  in  the  most  simple  manner,  the  laws 
of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  appear  uniform,  and  every  analogy  subsisting  among 
them  is  preserved  unbroken.  Like  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  the  earth  is  accompanied 
by  a  satellite ;  it  revolves  on  its  own  axis  as  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  perhaps  all 
the  planets;  like  them  it  receives  light  from  the  sun;  and  to  complete  the  analogy,  it 
revolves  about  the  sun  in  the  same  direction,  and  according  to  the  same  laws.  Bv  following 
out  the  results  arising  from  the  earth's  motion  being  combmed  with  the  real  motions  of  the 
planets  and  of  light,  we  find  all  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  flow,  as  necessary  conse- 
quences, from  one  great  principle.  Thus  the  motion  of  the  earth  acquires  all  the  certainty 
of  which  a  physical  truth  is  susceptible. 

The  vicissitudes  of  seasons  arise,  as  we  have  already  explained,  firom  ..he  obliquitgr  of  the 
ecliptic  to  the  equator.  The  ecliptic,  which  we  have  hitherto  considered  as  the  pam  of  the 
sun  round  the  earth,  we  have  now  proved  to  be  the  orbit  of  the  earth  round  the  sun.  Ilia 
axis  of  the  earth's  diurnal  motion  is  inclined  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  at  an  angle  of  aliDut 
66°  82',  and  remains,  as  the  earth  revolves  round  the  sun,  nearly  parallel  to  itself.  Hence 
the  circle  which  the  sun  appears  to  trace  in  the  heavens  in  the  course  of  a  year  forms  with 
the  equator  an  angle  of  about  28°  28'.  This  produces  the  differences  in  the  distribution  uf 
the  solar  l*^ht  and  heat  which  we  observe  throughout  the  seasons  of  the  year.  


Part  If. 

'  axil  of  tlie 
of  aberration 

»  F;  that  is, 
20"  nearly, 
of  the  earth, 
rration  would 
efibct  of  the 
1  the  planet*! 

n  that  carries 
9  propreuive 
ion,  it  18  only 
na. 

;ntre,  and  the 
arth,  and  the 
iras  taught  by 
also  held  by 
iges,  until  at 
1  by  Copemi- 
IB  the  beauty 
id  or  utterly 
regarded  the 
of  Scripture : 
the  sun,  with 
olution  about 
apposed  to  be 

I  the  fact,  that 
trays  the  same 
surface  views 
Jis,  from  two 
^e  supporters 
^ange  in  the 

le  end,  to  the 
;ts  which  we 
e  progressive 
intre,  a  small 
es  to  a  circle 
rds  the  pole 
e  fixed  stars 
heir  distance 
point  in  the 

led  to  reject 
(Stem  of  the 
he  universe, 
it  under  this 
Her,  the  laws 
sting  among 
iccompanied 
'  perhaps  all 
analogy,  it 
iy  following 
tions  of  the 
ssary  conse- 
he  certainty 

quity  of  the 
path  of  tJie 
sun.  !%« 
fie  of  aliDut 
ilf.  Hence 
'  forms  with 
tribution  («f 


Boos  I. 


ORBITS  OP  THE  PLANETS 


213 


The  parallolism  of  the  earth  is  not  absolute ;  for  the  axis  is  found  to  have  a  slow  motion 
of  revolution  fVom  oast  to  west  round  a  line  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and 
perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic ;  its  revolution  being  completed  in  the  period  of  25,746  years. 
In  consequence  of  this  motion  the  poles  in  the  sphere  of  the  starry  heavens  describe  each  a 
circle  round  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  at  the  distance  of  23°  28'  nearly ;  and  the  two  points 
in  which  Uie  terrestrial  equator,  when  produced  to  the  stknry  heavens,  cuts  the  ecliptic,  shift 
to  the  westward,  at  the  rata  of  about  60|  seconds  jrearly,  which  causes  the  pre'^emon  (rf*  tht 
equinoxes.  A  small  inequality  has  been  observed  in  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  and  in 
the  mean  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  which  arises  fh>m  a  sliffht  motion  in  the  earth's  axis, 
whereby  its  inclination  to  the  ecliptic  is  not  always  exactly  the  same,  but  varies  backwards 
and  forwu^s  some  seconds.  Thi>«  is  called  the  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis,  and  was  discovered 
by  Dr.  Bradley  while  employed  in  verifying  his  theory  of  aberration.  The  period  of  the 
changes  of  this  inequality  is  nearly  nine  years. 

.1.  .ffv'u'i'T'r '' 


?•;  4fj'?'ti,  H ' 


CHAPTER  Xra. 

ORBITS  OF  THE  PLANETB. 


To  an  observer  placed  on  the  sun,  all  the  planets  wonld  appear  to  trace  on  the  conolve 
Bur&ce  circular  paths,  cuttmg  each  other  at  various  angles,  but  all  comprehended  within  a 
certain  zone  of  the  heavens  of  some  degrees  in  breadth.  The  angle  which  tiie  plane  of  Uie 
orbit  of  a  planet  makes  with  the  ecliptic  is  called  the  inounatiom  of  that  orbit;  and  the  line 
of  their  intersection  is  called  the  unb  or  thb  nodes.  If  a  planet  be  observed  twice  in  the 
same  node,  the  nodo  being  supposed  to  have  in  the  mean  time  remained  Etationary,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  line  of  the  nodes  can  be  determined,  and  also  the  distance  of  the  planets  from 
Jie  sun  at  the  times  of  observation. 

Let  a  superior  planet  be  observed  in  its  node  N  from  the  earth  at  E,  (,F^g.  32),  and  after  the 
planet  has  made  an  entire  revolution  let  the  earth  be  at  E'.  Then,  firom  the  time  and  the  theory 
of  the  earth's  motion,  E  E'  is  given,  and  the  angles  S  E  E',  S  E'  E.  But  the  angles  SEN, 
S  E'  N  are  known  by  observation ;  therefore,  in  ue  triangle  E  E'  N,  the  angles  E  E'  N,  E'  E  N, 
and  the  base  E  E'  are  given;  and  hence  the  sides  N  E  and  E'  N  may  be  round.  Wherefore 
from  either  of  the  triangles  S  E  N,  S  E'  N  the  distance  S  N  is  determined ;  also  the  angle 
ESN,  which  ascertains  the  position  of  the  node  as  seen  from  the  sun. 

From  observations  of  this  kind,  made  at  times  considerably  distant  from  each  other,  it 
found  that  the  nodes  of  each  planet  have  a  slow  retrograde  motion. 

Again,  the  distance  of  a  planet  from  the  sun,  and  its  place  as  seen  from  the  sun,  may  be 
determined  from  observations  made  at  the  time  of  its  opposition  to  the  sun. 


•■  ■'-*JV-:/    r. 

»■  .  ," 

'  •;$■»)   i'-' 

'■  1    ' 

■ 

^ 

iVrl'l.   ;V. 

) 

.  l!'''"!  ■'.• 

'.    1' 

1   h'-'    '■• 

'•'■•;H 

•'■'■;  ;;-  :,   . 

,\  *  ) 

'i  n.v^^'- 

.&;.(K 

H;  : 

,  *' 

■  t^-:,^/ 

X        -     i 

.1  * 

fc- 

; .'    # .    . 

«r 

-  ■  ■''-■  ■  >  - 

— "■^ 

^ 

•^^*if 

•h!>\' 

•  ,Tp 

Si^-' 

■..rc.U.vf 

■  '  ...i...  ^'  '.:  •«  *.  -_  t.L.  I  ».>i 

{Fig.  33).  Let  E  be  the  earth,  S  the  son,  P  the  planet,  O  its  pface  reduced  to  the  eclip- 
tic, S  N  the  line  of  the  nodes  passing  through  the  sun.  Since  the  planet  is  in  its  oppom* 
tion,  the  points  S,  E,  O  are  in  the  same  strai(^t  line.  The  angle  E  S  N  is  known  by  the  last 
problem,  which  determines  the  position  of  the  line  of  the  nodes ;  therefore  the  arch  O  N  in 
the  heavens,  which  measures  it,  is  also  given.  The  angle  P  N  O  is  equal  to  the  inclination 
of  the  planet's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  and  is  therefore  given ;  also  the  angle  P  O  N  is  a  ri^t 
angle. .  Hence  in  the  spherical  triangle  P  N  O,  the  perpendicultur  P  O  and  the  hypot«iuse 
P  N  may  be  found.  Now  the  arc  P  O  is  the  measure  of  the  angle  P  S  0»  and  P  N  is  the 
meaaure  of  P  8  N ;  therefore  these  two  angles  are  given.  In  the  rectilineal  triangle  P  S  £, 
the  exterior  angle  P  E  O  can  be  determined  by  oDservatioin ;  the  angle  PSEorPSOis 

Jiven,  and  the  base  E  S  is  known  by  the  theory  of  the  earth's  motion;  whence  P  S|  th« 
istance  of  the  planet  from  the  sun,  may  be  computed. 
Vol.  L  10*  P      . 


* 


tl4 


PRINClPLEa  01'  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


Orbit  qf  a  planet.  Sinco  tlio  anglo  P  S  N  !■  alio  known,  tho  line  P  S  ii  given  in  imm^ 
tion  as  well  aa  in  magnitude,  ir  many  oppositions  of  a  planet  are  thua  obaervcd,  and  if  the 
radii  obtained  bo  laid  down,  the  line  connoctinff  their  extreme  points  will  represent  the  orbit 
of  the  planet  In  this  manner  it  is  found  that  the  orbits  of  all  the  planets  are  ellipses,  having 
the  sun  in  their  common  focus ;  and  that  the  angular  motions  of  a  planet  round  the  sun  are 
inversely  as  the  squares  of  its  distance  flrom  the  sun :  so  that  the  sectors  described  hy  the 
radius  vector  are  proportional  to  the  times.  This  exactly  corresnonds  with  what  was  proved 
respecting  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic,  and  therefore  the  motion  of  the 
eartii  is  regulated  by  the  same  law. 

The  planets  whicn  move  immediately  round  the  sun  are  called  primart,  their  satellites 
are  called  becohdart  PLANxn.  Thus,  the  moon  is  a  secondary  planet  to  the  earth.  In 
considering  the  lunar  motion,  we  found  that  the  moon  describes  round  the  earth  an  elliptic 
orbit,  and  that  the  radius  vector  describes  equal  areas  in  equal  times.  The  same  holds  of 
the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus;  go  tliat  the  same  principle  runs  through  the 
motions  of  all  the  bodies  of  tho  planetary  system. 

When  the  mean  distances  of  the  planets  ore  compared,  and  also  their  periodical  times,  it 
is  found  that  the  squares  of  the  periodic  times  are  as  the  cubes  of  the  distances. 

The  great  general  &cts  which  have  now  been  pointed  out  respecting  the  orbits  of  the 
planets,  and  their  motions  in  these  orbits,  were  first  discovered  by  Kepler,  ai^cr  he  had 
employed  immense  labour  and  ingenuity  in  the  research,  and  ore  usually  called  KEPtBB'R 
LAWS.    It  may  be  proper  tn  bring  them  under  one  point  of  view : — 

I.  The  primarv  planets  all  revolve  in  elliptic  orbits  round  the  sun,  which  occupies  one  of 
tho  foci  of  the  ellipse ;  tho  plane  of  the  orbit  passing  through  the  centre  of  tho  sun. 

n.  The  radius  vector  describes  eaual  areas  m  equal  times. 

HI.  The  squares  of  the  times  of  revolution  in  the  planetary  bodies  are  u  the  cubet  of 
their  distances  from  the  sun. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

COMETS. 


The  fixed  stars  and  the  planets  are  alwavs  visible  when  not  obscured  by  the  superior 
light  of  the  sun ;  but  the  class  of  bodies  called  comets  ore  seen  only  when  they  arc  in  that 
put  of  their  several  paths  which  lies  nearest  to  the  sun :  at  all  other  times  they  move  through 
regions  of  space  far  beyond  the  reach  of  our  vision,  even  when  assisted  by  the  most  powerful 
telescopes.  The  motions  of  the  comets  are,  like  those  of  the  planets,  performed  in  elliptic 
orbits  according  to  Kepler's  laws ;  but,  unlike  the  planetary  orbits,  die  ellipses  which  the 
comets  describe  are  extremely  elongated :  so  that  the  small  portion  of  their  orbits  through 
which  we  have  an  opportunity  of  tracing  them  coincides  veiy  nearly  with  a  parabola,  ine 
curve  of  which  is  the  limit  of  the  ellipse  when  its  greater  axis  is  indefinitely  increased. 
The  inclination  of  the  orbits  of  the  comets  is  very  various ;  some  move  in  planes  almost 
coincident  with  the  ecliptic,  and  others  in  planes  nearly  perpendicular  to  it  They  move 
also  in  very  different  directions ;  the  motion  of  some  being  direct,  and  of  others  retrograde. 

The  comets  differ  widely  from  the  planets  in  their  appearance,  as  well  as  in  the  figure 
and  position  of  their  orbits.  When  a  comet  is  first  seen,  it  is  usually  surrounded  by  a  famtlv 
luminous  vapour,  which  becomes  more  bright  as  the  comet  approaches  the  sun,  and  at  length 
shoots  out  into  a  long  luminous  and  transparent  train,  very  much  resembling  a  streamer,  and 
extending  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  sun.  The  dense  part  of  the  comet,  which  both  tc 
the  nakeid  eye,  and  when  viewed  through  a  telescope,  resembles  much  tlie  planetary  bodies, 
is  called  the  nucleus ;  the  fiiintly  luminous  vapour  by  which  it  is  surrounded  is  called  the 
coma ;  and  the  long  luminous  train  proceeding  fh)m  the  comet  in  an  opposite  direction  from 
the  sun  is  called  the  tail.  Between  the  nucleus  and  the  ccmfi  lies  a  part  fainter  than  the 
former,  btt  brighter  than  the  latter,  and  in  which  the  nucleus  appears  involved :  this  is  called 
(he  head  o"  the  comet 

The  len{;thof  the  toil  is  very  various.  Sometimes  it  extends  only  a  few  degrees;  in 
other  cases  it  has  been  found  to  reach  over  more  than  a  fourth  part  of  the  heavens.  If  a 
comet  does  not  come  veiy  near  the  sun,  the  coma  does  not  shoot  into  a  tail,  but  retains  the 
appearance  of  a  nebulosity  round  the  comet  during  the  whole  period  of  its  being  visible. 
The  tail  sometimes  consists  of  two  or  more  diverging^  streams  of  light,  and  is  always  so 
transparent  that  the  smallest  stars  are  seen  through  it  without  any  Bennble  diminution  of 
their  brilliancy. 

Nature  of  comets.  In  ages  of  ignorance,  comets  have  al^rays,  fixnn  their  extraordinaiy 
appearance,  been  sources  of  superstitions  terror  to  mankind,  lliis  fear  has  been  dissipated 
by  the  light  of  science,  which  has  shown  that  the  appearances  of  comet«  are  regulated  by 
tne  same  laws  as  other  celestial  phenomena.  We  are  still,  however,  dmost  entirely  igno> 
rant  of  the  nature  of  these  bodies,  though  a  great  many  h3rpotheses  have  been  formed  con" 
ceming  them.   They  were  considered  by  some  of  the  ancients,  and  particularly  by  Aristotle, 


',  ~."s',^"=':"fT''"r-*^7'"r"' 


*:„_ 


PaitU 

ii  gfivon  in  jxm^ 
irvcd,  and  ir  the 
present  tho  orbit 
I  cllipflCB,  having 
und  the  sun  are 
described  by  the 
vhat  was  proved 
3  motion  of  the 

',  thoir  aatellitea 

0  the  earth.  In 
earth  an  elliptic 
le  same  holds  of 
runs  through  the 

riodical  times,  it 

(ices. 

he  orbits  of  the 

er,  al^er  he  had 

called  Kefub'i 

1  occupies  one  of 
'  the  Bun. 

I  as  the  cubes  of 


Book  I. 


.W 


COMETS. 


IKi 


1  by  the  superior 
1  they  arc  in  that 
ley  move  through 
he  most  powernil 
rormed  in  elliptic 
lipees  which  the 
ir  orbits  through 

nbola,  '^e 
icreased. 
in  planes  almost 
1  it  They  move 
hers  retrograde, 
as  in  the  figure 
nded  by  a  famtlv 
in,  and  at  length 

a  streamer,  and 
it,  which  both  tc 
planetary  bodies, 
ed  is  called  the 
te  direction  from 

fainter  than  the 
this  is  called 

few  degrees;  fai 
)  heavens.  If  a 
but  retains  the 
ts  beine  visible, 
id  is  ahvays  so 
le  diminution  of 

lir  extraordinaiy 
I  been  dissipated 
ro  rc'ulatsd  by 
St  entirely  ignO' 
leen  formed  con- 
irly  by  Aristotle, 


IS  accidental  firoa  or  meteors  generated  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth ;  but  this  optaion  is 
obviously  groundless.  If  thoy  were  connected  with  the  earth  or  its  atmosphere,  thoy  would 
partake  of^tho  diurnal  motion  on  the  axia,  and  could  not  therefbrs  appear  to  have  a  diurnal 
revolution  in  tlie  heavens  along  with  the  other  celestial  bodies.  Besides,  their  having  no 
diurnal  parallax  proves  that  they  are  at  a  great  distance  fVom  the  earth ;  while  the  fket  of 
their  apparent  motion  being  affected  by  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth  shows  that  they  are 
situated  in  the  planetary  regions.  Observation  has  demonstrated  that,  like  the  planets,  they 
arcpermanent  bodies,  and,  m  all  probability,  derive  their  light  fixmi  the  son. 

From  the  small  portion  of  the  orbit  of  any  comet  which  we  have  an  opportunitv  of  observ- 
ing, we  cannot  ascertain  with  sufHcient  accuracy  the  elements  necessary  for  oetormining 
the  period  of  its  return ;  but  supposing  that  their  orbits  are  not  disturbed  by  any  cause  in 
those  distant  regions  of  space  through  which  the  greater  portion  of  the  paths  of  comets  lie, 
it  is  evident  that  by  accurately  observing  all  the  comets  that  come  within  view,  and  caro- 
fblly  recording  the  results,  in  tho  course  of  ages  the  return  of  many  comets  may  be  detected 
and  their  pcrio<lic  times  ascertained.  Hence  the  neater  axis  of  the  orbit  of  each  may  be 
determined  by  Kepler's  third  law ;  and  the  comet's  least  distance  from  the  sun  being  found 
by  observation,  the  less  axis  will  also  become  known.  In  this  manner  the  periodic  tune  of 
some  comets  has  been  found,  and  thoir  return  predicted. 

The  first  and  most  remarkable  instance  is  that  of  Dr.  Halley,  who,  by  comparing  hit 
observations  on  the  comet  of  1682,  with  those  of  Kepler  on  the  comet  of  1607,  and  those  of 
Apian  on  the  comet  of  1531,  found  reason  to  conclude,  flrom  the  agreement  of  the  circum- 
stances of  each,  that  what  had  been  considered  three  distinct  comets  were  only  re-appear- 
ances of  the  same  comet  after  a  period  of  about  76  years.  In  all  the  three  cases  the  dis- 
tance of  the  comet  fh>m  the  sun  when  nearest  to  him  was  almost  the  same ;  the  position  of 
the  comet  in  the  heavens  at  the  time  of  its  nearest  approach  to  the  sun  likewise  corre- 
sponded ;  as  did  also  the  inclination  of  the  orbit,  the  place  of  the  nodes,  and  the  variablenesa 
of  tho  motion,  as  being  direct  or  retrograde. 

These  coincidences  rendered  the  identity  of  the  comet  almost  absolutely  certain.  Hence 
Halley  predicted  its  return  in  the  end  of  17S8  or  the  beginning  of  1759.  It  appeared  about 
the  end  of  December  1758,  and  made  its  nearest  approach  to  the  sun  on  the  13th  of  March 
1759,  differing  not  many  days  fVom  the  time  expected.  Again  it  made  its  appearance,  as 
predicted,  at  the  completion  of  its  period,  toward  the  end  of  August,  1835. 

Though  there  can  be  no  doubt  of^  the  identity  of  the  comet  of  1531, 1607, 1662, 1759,  and 
1835,  the  appearances  were  considerably  different  In  1581  the  comet  was  of  a  bright 
gold  colour ;  m  1607,  it  was  dark  and  livid ;  it  was  bright  again  in  1682 ;  and  obscure  in 

The  mean  distance  of  this  comet  from  the  sun  is  about  eighteen  times  that  of  the  earth ; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  great  eccentricity  of  its  orbit,  its  distance,  when  at  the  fiuther 
extremity  of  its  greater  axis,  is  nearly  double  diat  of  Uranus,  the  most  distant  of  the  planets. 
When  nearest  to  the  sun,  its  distance  fVom  him  is  about  ^tli  parts  of  the  earth's  mean 
distance. 

A  verv  remarkable  comet  was  seen  in  the  end  of  1680  and  beginning  of  1681.  Its  tail 
extended  70°,  and  was  very  brilliant.  This  comet,  of  all  those  which  have  been  observed, 
approaches  nearest  to  the  sun.  Descending  with  immense  velocity  in  a  path  almost  per- 
pendicular to  his  sur&ce,  it  proceeded  until  its  distance  fh)m  his  centre  was  only  about 
540,000  miles.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  computed  that,  in  consequence  of  so  near  an  approach 
to  the  sun,  it  must  have  received  a  heat  2000  times  greater  than  that  of  iron  almost  going 
into  flision ;  and  that  if  it  was  equal  in  magnitude  to  our  earth,  and  cooled  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  terrestrial  bodies,  its  heat  would  not  be  expended  in  less  than  50,000  years. 

Three  observations  on  comets  are  recorded  in  history,  agreeing  in  remarkable  circum- 
stances with  the  comet  of  1680 :— one  in  the  44th  year  before  Christ ;  another  in  the  con- 
sulate of  Lampadius  and  Orestes,  about  the  year  of  Christ  531 ;  and  Uie  third  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  I.  of  England,  in  the  year  1106.  These  dates  are  nearly  at  equal  distances  of 
time,  namely,  675  years ;  which  is  also  the  period  between  1106  and  1681.  Hence  Dr. 
Halley  conjectured  that  these  might  be  successive  appearances  of  one  and  the  same  comet, 
revolving  about  the  sun  in  the  period  of  about  575  years.  If  this  conjecture  is  weU 
founded,  this  comet  may  be  expected  again,  after  finishing  the  same  period,  about  the  year 
2255. 

A  comet  remarkable  for  its  beauty  appeared  in  1811.  The  tail  of  this  comet  was  com- 
posed of  two  divergmg  streams  of  faint  light,  slightly  coloured,  which  made  an  angle  of 
from  15°  to  20°,  and  sometimes  much  more,  ai^  were  bent  outwards.  The  space  between 
was  comparatively  obscure.  When  at  its  greatest  length,  the  tail  subtended  an  angle  c£  at 
lea^t  16° ;  and  was  then  computed  to  extend  about  23,000,000  miles  in  length. 

ilesides  Dr.  Halley's  comet  there  are  two  others  whose  returns  have  been  observed,  and 
the  elements  of  their  orbits  determined,  with  such  certainty,  as  to  enable  astronomers  to 
predict  their  re-appearance.  One  of  these  was  recognised  for  the  first  time  in  1819  as  a 
neriodic  comcf.    Encke,  a  Crerman  astronomer,  has  determined  the  time  of  its  revolution 


no 


T.ES  OP  OEOORAPIfY. 


Part  II 


nearly.  Tho  othnr  wu  lut  M«n  in  \H!i2. 
'  rnian  Mtronnmor,  to  bo  »ix  ynare  and 
iir' .   '^omoU  whoM  porioda  are  curtainly 


ihriin  'lio  wn  to  '      "^     "   rf*  nml  thffu 
Itfl  perkKlif  tirav'  >  <'d  by  Bit 

three  quau    '•.     Altogotlit  thero  tru 

known. 

Danger  frmn  comtti,  Ai  tl.o  comota  fraverM  tho  pliuintarv  r«giona  in  all  dircctinnii,  it  it 
natun'  inquire  whether  Uioro  i»  not  a  |xN«ibility  that  m>u>  /nn  of  thom  may  apprcech 
■0  nc  'lio  earth  om  greatly  to  diHtnrb  ita  motion,  or  by  an  actuul  contact  to  produce  tho 

tnusl  iiiN  troua  utlirta.  Upon  tliia  auli,  t  thoro  ia  no  rooaoniiblo  groimd  for  foar.  If  it  i« 
not  abaoliitxly  impoaaibl*^  that  a  cumot  may  ">nio  in  contact  with  the  earth,  the  probabilitioa 
aifainat  auc.  \  nvcnt  hu|'|Nuiing  tro  oa  ntilllnns  to  one  Amon^f  bcdiea  ao  ainul  in  com- 
piriaon  witli  uiu  m  nso  h|>u(  o  m  which  tlioy  move;  u  '  movinf^  with  all  velocitioa,  and 
m  orbita  that  arc  incm.  \  in  all  diroctiona,  and  uro  of  all  dimonaiona,  how  amall  muat  be 
tho  probability  that  any  two  ahall  come  in  contact  I  Small,  howovnr,  aa  thia  probability  is 
fur  any  one  %ge,  if  we  take  into  account  a  k)n{f  aorioa  of  agca,  tho  probability  may  bo  greatly 
incroaaod. 

If  wo  auppoae  tho  earth  actually  to  roccivo  such  a  ahock,  it  ia  oaay  to  imagine  tho  calami- 
toua  conaequencoa  which  muat  follow.  Tho  axia  and  motion  of  rotation  being  changed,  tlie 
waters  of  tlio  ocean  would  Icavo  thoir  ancient  poHition,  and  would  be  precipitated  towarda 
the  now  equator.  A  groat  part  of  tlio  human  raco,  and  of  tlio  lower  anixnala,  would  bo 
drowned  by  thia  univoraal  dolugo,  or  doatroyod  bv  tho  violent  uhock  improvsod  on  Uio  tor- 
reatrial  globe.  Wliole  apeciua  of  onimala  might  bo  annihilated.  All  tho  monumonta  of 
human  induatry  and  invention  would  be  ovortlirown.  In  audi  a  catoatropho  we  And,  too,  a 
cauao  adequate  to  account  for  tho  ocean  having  overflowed  lofly  mountaina,  on  which  it  haa 
left  incontoatablo  evidence  of  ita  preaonco ;  and  to  exnlain  how  thu  animals  and  planta  of 
the  aouth  may  have  oxiatod  in  the  climates  of  tlio  north,  whoro  wo  And  tho  romaina  and  im- 
preaaiona  of  them.  Laatly,  auch  an  event  accounts  for  tho  rocontnoaa  of  tho  modem  world, 
tho  monumcnta  of  which  go  back  scarcely  3000  years.  The  human  race,  reduced  to  a  small 
number  of  individuala,  and  to  tlio  most  miserablo  condition,  would  fur  a  long  time  be  mainly 
occupied  in  providing  for  thoir  prosorvation,  amidst  tho  wreck  which  surrounded  tlioni,  and 
would  loBO  all  remembrance  of  arts  and  sciences;  and  when,  by  tho  progroaa  of  civilization, 
they  at  length  became  sensible  of  tho  want  of  tlioso,  they  would  find  it  necessary  to  rocom- 
monco,  UN  it  man  had  been  newly  placed  upon  tho  earth. 

It  aeoins  impossible  to  contcniplato  tho  picture  of  calamity  hero  drawn,  without  being 
fbrcibly  struck  with  tliis  singular  coincidence ; — that  if  we  suppoao  tho  period  of  the  comet 
of  1680  (which  in  tliat  year  mode  a  considerably  near  aii;<ri  icn  to  the  earth's  orbit)  to  be 
575^  years ;  and  count  back,  IVom  tho  year  1660,  ro\  ..t  revolutions,  or  a  period  of  4028 
vears,  we  reach  the  year  2340  before  Clirist, — the  year  of  tho  deluge,  aa  fixed  by  ohrono. 
logers. 

If  we  take  into  consideration  the  great  velocity  with  which  the  comets  move  in  approach 
ing  to  and  receding^  from  the  sim,  it  ia  evident  that  (Ae  mere  approximation  q/*  a  comet  tu 
the  terre$trial  orbit,  toould  be  productive  of  little  or  no  effect.    Accordingly,  though  a 
comet  is  said  to  have  eclipsed  tne  moon,  in  which  case  it  must  have  been  very  near  the 
earth,  no  aenaible  effect  was  produced. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

LAW  OF  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 
Havino  now  taken  a  brief  view  of  the  planetary  motions,  and  pointed  oat  genersVy  :he3 
laws,  we  may  next  inquire  whether  from  these  any  genfral  principle  can  be  de(.ui,(  '1 
which  the  motions  regulated  by  thom  may  be  referred  as  c  >  Uieir  cause. 

Tho  sTiOtions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  have  been  variously  accounted  for.  We  hs  ■ .  'if  Aj 
adverted  to  the  rude  mechanism  of  deferent  and  epicyclic-  spheres,  by  which  soiub  ui'  Ue 
ancient  philosophers  attempted  to  explain  the  celestial  nnotions.  This  doctrine  originated 
with  Eudoxua  and  Callipua  But  a  more  sensible  attempt  was  made  b^  Cloanthes,  another 
philosopher  of  Greece,  who,  from  observmg  that  bodies  are  easily  carried  round  by  whirl- 
pools or  vortices  of  «  -  4r,  imafprod  that  the  celestial  spaces  are  filled  with  an  ethereal 
fluid,  which  is  in  con'.:.    •*}  ino'^^iou  round  the  earth,  and  that  it  carried  the  sun  and  planets 

¥ ;  :'the&i9  af&rds  no  real  explanation  of  the  phenomena,  it  was 
.  r;  ■  niuii>V'i.ud  by  two  of  the  most  eminent  mathematicians  and 
;!!L)i  >,  i>:  Ikis  Carted  arid  Leibnitz,  and  for  a  long  time  met  with 
J>'!;i  oiuoh  nearer  ap:.i'<^imation  to  right  conceptions  on  this  sub- 
ject was  made  by  many  philoroplers,  both  of  '.  -.cient  and  modem  times,  who  supposed  that 
the  planets  were  deflected  from  uniform  rectilineal  motions,  by  fbrces  similar  to  what  we 
observe  in  the  motions  of  magnetical  and  electrical  bodies,  or  in  the  motion  of  common  heavy 
bodies;  where  one  body  seems  to  influence  the  motion  of  another  at  a  distance  fhun  it,  witli- 
out  any  inten'oning  impulsion.    Femiat  was  the  first  who  suggested  that  the  weight  of  a 


round  with  it.  Tho'^prh 
revived  in  modem  tUif- 
philosophers  in  Euror  , 
(leneral  acquiescence 


Paet  n 

Mon  in  inns. 

lix  ycara  ami 
I  are  curtainly 

liroctiniM,  it  i« 
may  approach 
0  produce  the 
fear.    If  it  ia 

0  pn)babilitio8 
iniall  in  com* 
yelooitioa,  and 
mall  muit  be 

probability  it 
iiay  bo  greatly 

ne  the  calami- 
changod,  the 
tatod  toward! 
ala,  would  bo 
id  on  tlie  ter- 
inonumonta  of 
wo  And,  too,  a 
n  whicli  it  liaa 
and  pkntH  of 
maina  and  im- 
modom  world, 
icod  to  a  unali 
imo  be  mainly 
[led  Uioni,  and 
of  civilization, 
lary  to  rocom- 

without  being 

1  of  the  comet 
'■  orbit)  to  be 
)eriod  of  4028 
:ed  by  chrono- 

e  in  approach 
of  a  comet  ttt 
(fy,  though  a 
very  near  the 


Book  I 


LAW  OP  UNIVERHAL  OP/*  VITATION. 


117 


eneraV-'  'he! 
be  deuub  n 

i  ha  'f  .■'jf  ,•'; 

sbiui.  ui  me 
ne  originated 
ithea,  another 
ind  by  whirl- 

an  ethereal 

and  planets 
omeno,  it  was 
maticians  and 
ime  met  with 
IS  on  this  sub* 
supposed  that 

to  what  we 
ommon  heavy 
firom  it,  witli* 
e  weight  of  a 


body  is  the  mim  of  the  tendencies  of  each  pcirticlo  of  mr  '  r  in  the  body  to  every  particle  of 
the  earth.  Kepler  riuuio  another  approximation  to  thn  truth  when  ho  said,  that  if  there  were 
two  bodies  placed  out  of  the  roach  of  all  external  force  and  at  pcffrrf  liberty  to  move,  they 
would  approach  each  other  with  velocities  inversely  projN  iiicnal  to  their  (lunntilico  of  matter- 
whon  he  asserted  that  the  eartli  and  tho  moon  mutually  attract  earh  other,  and  im'  prevented 
ft' I  a  miwting  by  their  revolution  round  their  coimn'  >  centre  of  n  ' -ictbn;  and  when  ho 
attributed  tho  tides  to  tho  attractive  influence  of  liie  i  ii  in  hoapint;  ^P  '''"  waters  iinme- 
dutoly  under  her. 

But  Dr.  Hooke  mailo  tho  most  precise  surmise  to  this  purpooe.     At  a  meeting;  of  i 
Royal  Society,  Minr  JJ,  1608,  ho  expressed  himself  in  tho  foil  wing  manner: — "I  will 
explain  a  system  of  tho  world  very  diflbrcnt  from  any  yet  received,  and  it  is  founded  on  tho 
three  fbllowinir  propositions : 

"  I.  That  all  the  heavenly  bodies  have  not  only  a  gravitation  of  their  parts  to  their  iwn 
proper  centres,  but   hit  '  ley  also  mutually  attract  cacn  other  within  their  spheres  of  action. 

**2.  That  all  H.  f  f  ha-  Inga  simple  motion  will  continue  to  move  in  a  straight  line  unless 
continnally  doi^':'  '  Vm  .  ,,  by  some  extraneous  force  causing  them  to  descrioo  a  circle,  an 
elliiNN),  01    ■■•ne  riior  cui .  o. 

"3.  Tim  thJH  ntiractiou  is  so  much  tho  greater  as  tho  bodies  arc  nearer.  As  to  the  pro- 
port!  n  in  .v'lii  >  tse  forces  diminish  by  an  increase  of  distance,  I  own  I  have  not  yet  dis- 
co, •'  '  it,  althoti^'h  I  have  mode  some  experiments  to  that  purpose.  I  leave  this  to  otliern 
wl.(  '.'■■  e  time  and  knowledge  sufllcient  for  tho  task." 

I'uu  truly  philoHophical  views  stated  ii>  tlicso  propositions  relatively  to  tho  celestial  motions 
were  illustro'od  by  a  very  pretty  experiment,  which  Ilooko  had  some  time  before  exhibited 
to  tho  Society.  A  ball,  suspenued  by  a  long  thread  fVom  the  ceiling,  was  mado  to  swing 
round  another  ball  laid  on  a  table  immediately  below  tho  point  of  suspension.  When  the 
impulse  given  to  tho  pendulum  was  very  nicoly  adjusted  to  its  deviation  from  tho  perpendi- 
cular, it  described  a  perfect  circle  round  tho  ball  on  tho  table ;  but  when  the  impulse  vvoa 
very  groat  or  very  littlo,  it  described  an  ellipse  having  the  other  ball  in  its  centre.  Tlio 
iurce,  under  tho  influence  of  which  this  circular  or  elliptic  motion  was  produced,  Hooke 
showed  to  bo  a  deflectini^  force,  proportional  to  tho  distance  from  the  other  ball.  But  he 
added,  tliat  although  this  illustrated  tho  planetary  motions  in  some  degree,  yet  it  was  not 
fuitablo  to  their  case ;  for  the  planets  describe  ellipses,  having  tho  sun  not  in  their  centre 
but  in  their  focus,  vo  that  they  are  not  retained  in  tlmir  orbits  by  a  force  proportional  to  the 
distance  fVom  the  sun. 

Thus  wo  BOO  that  certain  points  of  resemblance  between  the  motions  of  tho  planets  and 
the  motions  of  magnets  and  heavy  bodies,  had  attracted  tho  attention  of  many  philosophers; 
but  these  observers  failed  to  deduce  from  tho  principles  which  they  so  dimly  perceived  any 
satisfhctory  conclusion. 

At  length  tho  powerful  genius  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  directed  to  the  subject,  and  by 
his  penetrating  sagacity  the  law  of  universal  gravitation  was  brought  fiilly  into  view,  and 
successfully  applied  to  explain  tho  celestial  phenomena.  He  hod  retired  from  Cambridge  to 
tho  country  on  account  of  tho  plague,  and  wiiilc  walking  in  his  garden  he  was  led  to  meditate 
on  tho  planetary  motions,  and  on  the  nature  of  that  central  force  which  retains  tlie  planets 
in  their  orbits.  The  thought  happily  occurred  to  him  that  the  same  force,  or  Bome  modifica- 
tion of  the  same  force,  wliich  causes  a  heavy  body  to  descend  to  the  earth,  mii^jiit  extend  to 
the  moon,  and  might  retain  that  body  in  its  orbit  by  dcflectmg  it  from  the  rectilineal  path. 
However  plausible  this  conjecture  i  light  appear,  the  mind  of  Nowton  was  too  deeply  imbued 
with  tho  true  spirit  of  philosophy  to  adopt  it  as  the  groundwork  of  a  theory,  unless  it  could 
bo  sho^^n  by  cs^  -ulation  to  be  coin<'idcnt  with  fact.  But  before  it  could  be  brought  to  this 
to  '  ■'  was  necessary  that  ho  should  fbrm  some  conditional  hypothesis  respecting  the  modi- 
fit  a. lun  of  tho  force  as  the  distance  increased,  and  also  that  he  should  know  nearly  the 
magnitude  of  tho  earth.  Tho  hypothesis  which  ho  assumed  with  regard  to  the  modification 
of  the  force  according  to  the  increase  of  the  distance  was  correct ;  namely,  that  the  force 
decreases  as  the  square  of  the  distance  increases.  But  ho  made  a  fiilse  estimation  of  the  bulk 
of  the  earth;  so  that  his  calculations  showed  that  his  conjecture  did  not  agree  with  the  phe- 
nomenon :  he  accordingly  abandoned  it  A  few  years  afterwards  he  was  induced,  however, 
to  renew  his  calculations,  having  in  the  interval  obtained  more  correct  data,  in  consequence 
of  the  measurement  of  a  degree  in  France  by  Picard.  The  attempt  now  succeeded ;  and  it 
is  said  that,  as  his  calculation!?  drew  to  a  close,  he  became  so  agitated  that  he  was  obliged  to 
request  a  fiiend  to  finish  thf  His  former  conjecture  was  found  to  agiee  with  the  pheno- 
mena with  the  utmost  precision ;  and  in  exploring  the  grand  scene  which  was  now  laid  open 
before  him,  he  was  led  to  an  explanation  of^  the  system  of  the  world,  consisting  simply  in  an 
accurate  narration  of  fftrtS;  and  such  an  arrangement  of  them  as  showed  thsir  mutiial  depen- 
dence, and,  at  the  same  time,  their  reference  to  caio  if  reat  fact  of  which  they  were  all  neces- 
aan  consequences. 

We  are  now  to  explain  briefly  the  theory  of  gravitation ;  but  our  account  of  it  must  of 
course  be  verv  limited. 


118 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIL 


:!*'■'  T 


4:  J 


There  ia  nc  phenomenon  in  nature  more  familiar  to  us  than  motion ;  and  although  it  be 
ffreatiy  diversified  according  to  the  causes  by  which  it  is  produced,  yet  all  motions  are  sub- 
ject to  the  three  following  laws : — 

1st  Law.  Every  body  continues  in  a  state  of  rest,  or  of  uniform  rectilinear  motion,  unless 
affected  by  some  mechanical  force. 

2d  Law.  Every  change  of  motion  is  proportional  to  the  force  impressed,  and  is  made  iu 
the  direction  of  that  force. 
3d  Law.  Every  action  is  accompanied  by  an  equal  and  contrary  re-action. 
It  is  a  consequence  of  the  first  two  laws,  that  if  a  body  or  particle  of  matter  be  subjected 
at  tiie  same  time  to  the  action  of  two  moving  forces,  each  or  which  would  separately  cause 
it  to  describe  the  side  of  a  parallelogram  uniformly  in  a  given  time,  the  body  will  describe 
the  diagonal  uniformly  in  the  some  time.  By  these  very  simple  laws,  tlio  result  of  expe- 
rience, and  by  the  principles  of  geometry,  Newton  established  the  sublime  doctrines  «f  the 
planetary  motions. 

It  will  not  be  expected  tliat  we  should  enter  at  any  considerable  length  into  the  recondite 
doctrines  of  J)hysical  astronomy.  This  subject  requires  for  its  fiill  discussion  ample  space, 
and  dl  the  resources  of  the  higher  mathematics :  the  mere  elements  of  geometry,  however, 
are  sufficient  to  indicate  geneiully  some  of  ttie  fundamental  principles.    Let  us  suppose  that 

a  (Jig.  34.)  is  a  fixed  point, 
«~...^  ^  and  that  a  body  moves  in 

,''       "'""'•-JE,-''   '\  the  direction  A B  with  an 

""  '  uniform  velocity,  at  such  a 

rate,  that  if  not  disturbed 
by  any  external  cause,  it 
would  move  from  B  to  ft  in 
'..^^T>  a,  second  of  time.  Let  us 
also  suppose  that  when  the 
body  arrives  at  B,  it  re- 
ceives an  impulse  in  the 
direction  B  S,  and  of  such 
intensity,  that,  if  acting 
alone,  it  would  cause  the 
body  to  move  uniformly 
from  B  to  H  in  a  second. 
Complete  the  parallelo* 
gram  H  B  6  C,  and  draw 
the  diagonal  B  C :  the  impulse  at  B,  combined  with  the  tendency  to  continue  its  motion  in 
the  line  B  b,  will  cause  the  body  to  move  alon^  tlie  diagonal  B  C ;  so  that  at  the  end  of  a 
second  it  will  actually  be  at  the  point  C ;  and  if  no  external  cause  acted  on  the  body,  by  the 
first  law,  it  would  continue  to  move  uniformly  ever  afler  in  the  direction  B  C  c ;  so  that  in 
the  next  second  it  would  describe  a  line  C  c,  eqtial  to  B  C.  But  now  suppose  that  the  body, 
when  at  C,  receives  a  second  impulse  in  the  direction  C  S,  by  which  it  would  be  carried 
uniformlv  fVom  C  to  I  in  a  second :  then,  completing  the  parallelogram  D  I  C  c,  the  actual 
path  of  the  body  will  be  the  diagonal  C  D,  which  will  be  uniformly  described  in  a  second ; 
and  if  undisturbed,  the  motion  would  be  continued  uniformly  in  the  straight  line  C  D  d,  tlie 
distance  D  d  described  in  the  next  second  being  equal  to  C  D.  A  third  impulse  at  D,  in  the 
direction  D  S,  such  as  would  carry  the  body  uniformly  from  D  to  K  in  a  second  of  time, 
would,  when  combined  with  the  tendency  to  move  in  the  direction  D  d,  produce  a  motion 
along  D  E,  the  diagonal  of  the  parallelogram  E  K  D  J,  and  a  fourth  impulse  in  the  direction 
E  S,  would,  when  combined  with  the  motion  in  the  direction  E  e,  produce  a  motion  along 
the  diagonal  E  F,  and  so  on.  In  this  way,  by  successive  instantaneous  impulses,  a  body  may 
be  made  to  describe  the  rath  A  B  C  D  E  F,  &c.,  which  will  be  all  in  one  plane. 

Since  the  lines  A  B,  B  6  are  equal,  the  triangles  A  S  B,  B  S  6  are  equal ;  but  because 
C  6  is  parallel  to  S  B,  the  triangle  B  S  6  is  equal  to  the  triangle  B  S  C ;  therefore  the  triar 
gle  B  S  C  is  equal  to  A  S  B.  In  like  manner,  it  may  be  proved  tliat  C  S  D  is  equal  to  B 
S  C,  and  D  S  E  to  C  S  D,  and  so  on :  thus  it  apoears  that  the  triangles  A  S  B,  B  S  C,  C  S  D, 
D  S  E,  &c.  arc  all  equal.  If  we  suppose  a  straight  line  to  be  drawn  from  the  moving  body  to 
the  fixed  point  S,  and  to  be  continually  carried  along  with  it,  it  is  evident  that  this  lino  will 
pass  over  or  generate  the  equal  areas  ASB,BSC,  CSD,  DSE,  &c.  m  equal  intervals 
of  time:  it  is  also  evident  tha .  the  shorter  the  interval  between  the  impulses  communi- 
cated to  the  moving  body,  the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  sides  of  the  figure  formed  by 
the  diagonals  of  the  parallelograms,  and  the  nearer  will  tlie  line  composed  of  these 
diagonals  approach  to  a  curve.  If  we  suppose-,  therefore,  that  the  body  is  urged  towards  F 
by  a  fofce  acting,  not  at  intervals,  but  incessantly,  the  body  will  move  in  that  curve  to 
which,  as  its  limit,  the  line,  composed  of  the  diagonals  continually  approaches,  while  the 
Ime  drawn  fix)m  the  movmg  body  A  S,  or  radius  vector,  will  continue  to  describe  areas  pro- 
portional to  the  times. 


Book  I. 


LAW  OP  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


US 


and  although  it  bo 
11  motions  are  sub- 

lear  motion,  unleaa 

led,  and  is  made  iu 

ion. 

atter  be  subjected 
d  separately  cause 
body  will  describe 
he  result  of  expe- 
e  doctrines  «f  tlie 

into  the  recondite 

Bsion  ample  space, 

eometry,  however, 

■et  us  suppose  that 

4.)  is  a  nxed  point, 

a  body  moves  in 

:tion  A  B  with  an 

irelocity,  at  such  a 

t  if  not  disturbed 

external  cause,  it 

ove  from  B  to  &  in 

of  time.    Let  us 

ose  that  when  the 

ives  at  B,  it  re- 

n  impulse  in  the 

B  S,  and  of  such 

,  that,    if  acting 

would  cause  the 

move    uniformly 

o  H  in  a  second. 

•    the    parallelo. 

B  6  C,  and  draw 

nue  its  motion  in 

at  the  end  of  a 

the  body,  by  the 

C  c ;  so  that  in 

)8e  that  the  body, 

vould  bo  carried 

C  c,  the  actual 

>ed  in  a  second; 

line  CDd,  tlie 

mlse  at  D,  in  the 

second  of  time, 

woduce  a  motion 

in  the  direction 

a  motion  along 

ilses,  a  body  may 

lane. 

al;  but  because 
refore  the  triar 
D  is  equal  to  B 
J,BSC,CSD, 
moving  body  to 
lat  this  lino  will 
equal  intervals 
ulses  communi- 
fure  formed  by 
iposed  of  these 
rged  towards  P 
that  curve  to 
ches,  while  the 
sribe  areas  pn>' 


The  force  which  urges  the  body  towards  S,  ia  called  a  centripetal  foroi.  If  the  action 
of  that  force  were  to  cease,  the  body  would  proceed  in  a  straight  line, — a  tangent  to  iti 
curvilinear  path.  The  tendency  of  the  body  to  proceed  in  the  direction  of  the  tangent,  ii 
called  its  obntrifvoal  foboc 

From  the  important  conclusion  to  which  we  have  now  been  led,  we  may  infer,  conversely 
that  if  a  body  revolve  in  a  curvilinear  path  about  a  point,  and  if  the  radius  vector  drawn 
ftom  that  pomt  describe  round  it  areas  proportional  to  the  times,  the  body  is  deflected  from 
the  rectilineal  path  by  a  force  directed  to  that  point  Now,  this  is  exactly  the  case  of  the 
planets,  both  primary  and  secondary.  The  former  describe  curvilinear  orbits  round  the  sun 
and,  according  to  the  second  of  Kepler's  laws,  the  radius  vector  describes  areas  proportional 

■  to  the  times.  Hence  we  may  infer,  that  each  is  retained  in  its  orbit  by  a  centripetal  force 
directed  towards  the  sun ;  and  that  this  force  is  counteracted  by  a  centrifugal  force  genera- 
ted by  the  planet's  motion  in  its  orbit  In  like  manner,  each  secondary  planet  revolves 
about  its  primary,  the  areas  described  by  the  radius  vector  following  the  same  law ;  so  that 
the  seconuary  must  be  acted  upon  by  a  centripetal  force  directed  towards  the  primary 
planet 

The  next  thing  to  be  determined  is  the  law  of  the  centripetal  force  when  a  body  moves 

in  an  elliptic  orbit,  the  force  being  directed  towards  one  of  tlie  foci    First,  let  us  suppose  a 

body  to  revolve  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  ADC  (Jiff,  35.),  about  any  point  S,  as  the 

centre  of  its  motion,  and  let  us  inquire  into  the  law  of  the  centripetal  force  in  that  case. 

^  86        Draw  the  chord  A  S  C,  and  let  A  D  be  so  small  on  arc,  that 

it  may  be  considered  coincident  with  its  chord.    Draw  D  E 

parallel  to  the  tangent  A  B,  and  join  C  D.    Then  A  D  will 

measure  the  velocity  of  the  body  m  its  orbit  at  the  point  A, 

and  A  E  the  space  over  which  the  centripetal  force  directed 

towards  S,  if  acting  alone,  would  cause  the  body  to  move  in 

the  time  in  which  it  moves  from  A  to  D.    Put  v  to  denote  tho 

velocity,  and  /  Uie  centripetal  force.    Since  the  triangles  A 

DC,  A  E  D,  are  equiangular  and  similar,  we  have  A  C : 

AD=AD:  AE;  that  is, 

A  C  :  i;  =  w  ••/ :  therefore/-  j^ 
Next,  let  A  P  B  (Jiff.  36.)  be  the  elliptic  orbit  of  a  planett 
S  the  focus  in  which  the  sun  is  placed,  A  the  point  at  which 
the  planet  is  at  its  greatest  di^itance  from  the  sun,  and  P  any  other  point  in  its  orbit.  Join 
P  S ;  draw  the  tangent  P  D,  ".nd  draw  S  D  perpendicular  to  P  D.  Let  v  and  v'  denote  ths 
velocities  of  Uie  planet  at  A  and  P  respectively ;  and  c  and  c'  the  chords  of  the  equicurve 
circles  at  A  and  P  which  pass  through  the  point  S,  and  let  /be  the  deflecting  force  at  A, 
and  /'  tiie  deflecting  force  at  P.  Then  from  what  we  have  proved  respecting  a  body 
moving  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  round  any  point  P  as  the  centre  of  its  motion,  we 
have/;/'  =  —  :  •^  =  r'c' :  v'*c.  But  since  the  small  arcs  which  represent  the  velocities 
at  A  and  P  must  be  supposed  to  be  described  in  equal  times,  the  corresponding  areas  described 

by  the  radius  vector  will  also  be  equal.  Hence  it  is  not 
difficult  to  see  that  v  X  A  S  =  t'  X  S  D,  and  t» :  v'  = 
S  D  :  S  A.  We  obtain,  therefore,  /:  /'=  S  D'  X  c': 
S  A'  X  c.  Draw  P  E  perpendicular  to  the  tangent 
P  D,  meeting  the  axis  in  E,  and  draw  E  G  perpendicular 
to  P  E,  and  E  H  perpendicular  to  P  G.  From  the  pro- 
perties of  the  ellipse,  P  H  is  equal  to  half  the  principal 
parameter,  and  consequently  to  half  of  c,  the  chord  of  the 
circle,  of  equal  curvature  at  A,  which  passes  through  S. 
Also  P  G  is  half  of  c',  the  chord  of  the  equicurve  circle 
at  P,  which  passes  through  S.    Therefore, 

/:/'=2SD'X  PG:2SA'XPH. 
=  S  D"  X  P  G  :  S  A»  X  P  H. 
Now,  from  the  similar  triangles  G  P  E,  E  P  H,  we  have  GP:PE  =  PE:PH;  hence 
G  P  :  P  H  =  G  P* :  P  £•.    But  the  triangles  G  P  E,  PSD  being  also  similar,  G  P* :  P  E' 
=  P  S':SD';  therefore,  G  P  :  P  H  =  P  S' :  SD';  and  P  S'XP  H  =  S  D'xG  P:  and 
since  it  was  shown  that/:/'=  S  D'X P  G  :  S  A'xP  H,  wherefore/: /'=P S'XP  H:  S  A* 
XP  H;  or  leaving  the  common  factor  P  H  out  of  the  two  consequents  we  have 
/:/'=PS':  SA». 
Thus  we  have  arrived  at  this  important  conclusion ;  that  the  force  by  which  the  planets 
evolvs  round  the  sure  in  elliptical  orbits,  the  sort  beinff  in  one  of  the  foci,  and  the  radiu$ 
vector  describing  areas  proportional  to  the  times,  it  always  inversely  as  the  squads  of  the 
distances. 


rsc 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartU. 


There  remains  yet  another  point  to  be  determined  respectinff  the  fprce$  which  retain  the 
different  j^mieta  in  their  orbits;  nomely,  whether  there  is  any  anatogy  between  them. 
From  Kepler's  third  law,  wo  blow  iliat  the  squares  of  the  periodical  times  of  «ay  two 
of  tiie  planets  are  proportional  to  tiie  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  frran  the  sun.  This  law 
is  independent  of  the  eccertricities  of  the  orbits ;  and  tho  same  relation  would  subsist 
between  the  mean  distances  and  the  periodic  times,  though  the  eccentricities  were  to 
become  infinitely  small ;  or,  what  is  the  eamo  thing,  the  orbits  were  to  become  circles.  Let 
us  then  suppose  the  planets  to  move  with  uniform  velocities  in  circular  orbits,  having  the 
sun  in  the  centre.  This  supposition  differs  very  little  tram  the  truth.  Put  v,  v'  to  denote 
the  velocities  of  two  of  the  planets,  r,  r'  the  radii  of  their  orbits,  t,  t'  their  periodic  times, 
nnd/,/'  the  forces  by  which  tiiey  are  retained  in  their  orbits.  From  what  we  have  already 
bliown  respecting  a  body  moving  in  a  circle  round  any  point  aa  the  centre  of  ita  motion,  we 
have/=  ^and/'  =|J,  therefore/: /'"='7- :  ^.  But  since  the  circumferences  of  circles 
are  to  one  another  as  their  radii,  and  the  velocity  or  the  space  passed  over  by  the  planet  in 
the  unit  of  time  is  equal  to  the  circumferen'.  c  of  its  orbit,  divided  by  the  periodic  time 

expressed  in  that  unit,  it  is  evident  that  v  :  v'^-j- :—  :  hence  —  :  ^-=-5-  '•  -pi't  or, 
since  t"  :  f'=r'  :  r",  -^  :  '^=~  :  4=-=- :  ■7i=r"'  -  r".    Wherefore  -we  obtain/:/' 


This  result  shows  that  the  forces  which,  acting  on  two  planets,  would  cause  them 
to  describe  circular  orbits,  agreeing  with  Kepler's  third  law,  are  inversely  as  the  squares 
of  the  distances.  Hence  we  may  infer  the  sameness  of  the  force  which  retains  the  planets 
in  their  respective  orbits ;  since  it  varies  from  orbit  to  orbit,  according  to  the  very  same  law 
which  regulates  its  intensity  at  different  distances  in  the  same  orbit.  This  conclusion  is 
fully  established  by  the  fact,  that  the  force  which  acts  upon  the  comets  during  their  descent 
to  the  sun,  varies  exactly  according  to  the  law  which  we  have  now  assigned  as  the  law  of 
the  planetary  force.  The  comet  of  1759,  which  was  predicted  by  Dr.  Halley,  came  from 
regions  far  beyond  the  most  distant  of  the  known  planets,  and  approached  nearer  to  the 
sun  than  Venus ;  and  when  it  arrived  at  the  same  distance  from  the  sun  as  any  of  the 
planets,  its  deflection  fiwm  the  rectilineal  course  by  the  action  of  the  centripetal  force,  was 
the  very  same  as  that  of  the  planet.  We  may,  therefore,  conclude,  that  it  is  one  and  the 
same  force  which  deflects  all  the  planets  as  well  as  the  comets. 

From  what  has  now  been  shown,  it  is  evident  that  if  all  the  planets  were  placed  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  sun,  they  would  all  be  deflected  equally  by  the  centripetal  force 
independently  of  the  quantity  of  matter  in  each.  Hence  it  follows  that,  at  equal  distances, 
the  centripetal  force  must  act  equally  on  every  particle  of  matter  of  which  the  planets  are 
composed ;  so  that  if  one  planet  contain  exactly  double  the  quantity  of  matter  that  another 
planet  contains,  and  if  botn  are  placed  at  exactly  the  same  distance  frumthe  sun,  tlie  former 
will  receive  a  double  impulse.  We  may  infer,  therefore,  that  another  law  of  the  force 
which  retains  the  planets  in  their  orbits  is,  that,  at  equal  distances,  it  is  proportional  tc 
the  mass  on  which  it  acts ;  and  that  if  two  bodies  act  on  the  same  particle  of  matter,  the 
forces  which  they  exert  are  proportional  to  their  masses.  The  force  may  be  supposed  to 
be  produced  either  by  a  cause  residing  in  the  body  which  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  motion, 
or  by  a  cause  residing  in  the  revolving  body.  In  the  former  point  of  view,  it  is  called  a 
force  of  ATTRACTION ;  m  the  latter,  a  force  of  gravitation.  The  truth  is,  however,  that  the 
cause  of  this  force  is  absolutely  unknown.  We  see  only  the  effects  produced,  and  from  these 
we  investigate  the  laws  which  connect  them  with  each  other,  and  the  general  principles  op 
which  they  depend. 

Thus,  from  the  fiicts  discovered  by  Kepler  respecting  the  planetary  motion,  we 
have  showm  that  each  planet  has  a  tendency  towards  the  sun,  in  consequence  of  which 
from  a  state  of  rest  it  would  move  towards  nim,  acquiring  at  every  instant  an  increase  of 
velocity  according  to  a  flxed  and  determinate  rulb  dr  law  which  applies  alike  to  all  the 
p'anets.  This  tendency,  if  not  counteracted,  would  bring  the  matter  of  the  sun  and  planets 
into  one  mass.  This,  however,  is  prevented  from  taking  place,  in  consequence  of  an  impulse 
having  been  originally  communicated  to  each  planet,,  giving  it  a  constant  tendency  to  move 
in  a  straight  line  with  an  uniform  velocity.  The  effects  arising  from  these  two  tendencies 
are  so  adjusted,  as  to  produce  elliptic  orbits.  But  the  law  which  regulates  the  effects  arising 
from  the  tendency  of  the  planets  towards  the  sun  remaining  the  same,  such  a  velocity 
might  have  been  communicated  to  each  planet,  by  the  original  impulse  which  gave  it  its 
tendency  to  move  uniformly  in  a  straight  Ime,  as  would  have  produced  parabolic  or  hyper- 
bolic orbits.  In  a  circular  orbit,  if  the  centre  of  motion  comcide  with  the  centre  of  the 
orbit,  the  velocity  of  a  planet  is  uniform,  and  of  such  rapidity  as  at  every  point  to  produce  a 
tendency  to  move  in  a  tangent  to  the  orbit,  exantly  sufficient  to  counterbalance  t^e  t^nuency 
lo  move  towards  the  centre  of  the  orbit  If  the  orbit  be  elliptical,  and  one  of  the  foci 
ttie  centre  of  motion,  the  motion  of  the  planet  is  variable,  and  its  tendency  to  move  uni- 
tbrmly  in  a  tangent  to  the  orbit  sometimes  exceeds,  and  at  othel:  times  fiuls  dioit  0^  that 


"  vypnj^ 


Book  I. 


LAW  OF  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


«  vhich  retain  the 
>gy  between  them. 
1  times  of  tcaj  two 
the  sun.  Thia  law 
tion  would  Bubaist 
jntricities  were  to 
come  circles.  Let 
'  orbits,  having  the 
Put  V,  v'  to  denote 
leir  periodic  times, 
it  we  have  already 
e  of  its  motion,  we 
iferences  of  circles 
sr  by  the  planet  in 
the  periodic  time 

ire  we  obtain/:/' 

rould  cause  them 
lely  as  the  squares 
retains  the  planets 
the  very  same  law 

This  conclusion  is 
uring  their  descent 
^cd  as  the  law  of 
Holley,  came  from 
ched  nearer  to  the 

sun  as  any  of  the 
itripetal  force,  was 
Eit  it  is  one  and  the 

;ts  were  placed  at 
e  centripetal  force 
at  equal  distances, 
oh  the  planets  are 
latter  that  another 
the  sun,  tlie  former 

law  of  the  (one 
is  proportional  tc 
icle  of  matter,  the 
lay  be  supposed  to 

centre  of  motion, 
lew,  it  is  called  a 
however,  that  the 
ed,  and  from  these 
leral  principles  op 

tary  motion,  we 
equenco  of  which 
ant  an  increase  o^ 
es  alike  to  all  the 
le  sun  and  planets 
nee  of  an  impulse 
tendency  to  move 
3e  two  tendencies 
the  effects  arising 
such  a  velocity 
which  gave  it  its 
rabolic  or  h)rper- 
thc  centre  of  Uie 
)oint  to  produce  a 
ice  i^e  tendency 
one  of  the  foci 
may  to  move  imi- 
uls  short  0^  that 


which  would  be  necewaiy  to  canse  it  to  revolve  in  a  circle  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
centre  of  motion. 

Let  A  D  B  E  be  the  elliptic  orbit  of  a  planet  revolving  about  the  sun,  which  is  supposec 
to  be  placed  in  the  foeua  S.  Suppose  the  planet  to  set  out  from  A  in  the  directic  \  A  P 
A  being  the  point  of  its  greatest  distance  from  the  sun.  At  A  the  direction  of  the  p.anet'8 
motion  is  at  right  angles  to  the  radius  vector,  and  if  the  velocity  were  such  as  to  produce 
a  tendency  to  move  in  the  direction  of  the  tangent  A  6,  exactly  equivalent  to  the  tendency 
of  the  planet  to  move  towards  the  sun,  the  planet  would  revolve  in  a  circle  of  which  S  la 
the  centre,  and  S  A  the  radius.  But  the  velocity  bemg  supposed  less,  the  path  of  the 
planet  will  fall  within  the  curcle,  and  the  angle  S  P  H  contained  between  the  radius  vector 
and  the  tangent  P  H,  which  shows  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion,  changes  from  aright 
angle  to  an  acute  angle.    The  tendency  of  the  planet  towards  the  sim  is  now  exerted  partly 

in  accelerating  its  velocity  in  its  orbit,  and  partly  in- 
curvating  its  path.  While  the  planet  describes  the 
quadrant  A  P  D,  its  velocity  is  always  less  than  that 
which  would  produce  a  circular  motion ;  until  it  is  at 
the  point  D,  and  then  the  velocity  is  precisely  what 
would  be  sufficient  for  a  circular  motion  about  S,  if  its 
direction  were  perpendicular  to  tha  radius  vector :  the 
direction,  however,  bemg  oblique,  the  planet  is  brought 
still  nearer  to  S.  The  tendency  towards  the  sun  is,  in 
a  great  measure,  still  exerted  in  accelerating  the  motion, 
and  as  soon  as  the  planet  passes  D,  its  velocity  becomes 
greater  than  what  might  produce  a  circular  motion 
about  S.  The  angle  S  D  K  is,  therefore,  the  least  angle 
which  the  radius  vector  makes  with  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion,  and  from  the  moment 
when  the  planet  passes  the  point  D,  that  angle  begins  to  increase ;  and  the  effect  of  this  is 
to  cause  the  tendency  of  the  planet  towards  the  sun  to  be  principally  exerted  in  incurvating 
the  orbit  Its  influence  in  accelerating  the  planet's  motion,  though  it  still  exists,  is  gradually 
diminished,  until  the  planet  arrives  at  Sie  pomt  B,  where  it  ceases  altogether,  in  consequence 
of  the  radius  vector  being  at  right  angles  to  the  tangent  B  L. 

As  the  velocity  of  the  planet  at  B  is  greater  than  what  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  motion  in 
a  circle  of  which  the  radius  is  S  B,  the  path  of  the  planet  &lls  wholly  without  that  circle; 
and  consequently,  it  is  now  receding  from  the  sun.  The  angle  which  the  radius  vector 
makes  with  the  direction  of  its  motion  becoming  obtuse,  the  tendency  of  the  planet  towards 
the  sun  is  now  partly  employed  in  retarding  its  motion,  so  that  its  velocity  is  diminished. 
The  angle  contained  between  the  radius  vector  and  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion 
increases  while  the  planet  is  moving  from  B  to  £,  and  decreases  from  £  to  A,  when  it  be- 
comes a  right  angle,  as  it  had  formerly  decreased  from  A  to  D,  and  increased  from  D  to  R 
The  velocity  of  Uie  planet  in  ite  orbit  must,  therefore,  decrease  from  B  to  A,  as  it  had  for* 
merly  increased  from  A  to  B ;  at  the  point  £  it  will  be  equal  to  what  it  was  at  D,  and  from 
E  to  A,  the  influence  of  tho  planet's  tendency  towards  the  sun  to  diminish  its  velocity  will 
become  less  and  less,  until  when  the  planet  has  arrived  at  A,  it  will  cease  altogether.  The 
velocity  is  then  the  same  as  at  first,  and  the  motion  goes  on  in  this  way  for  ever. 

Whatever  has  now  been  deduced  firom  Kepler's  Laws  respecting  the  orbits  of  the  pri- 
mary planets,  and  Uie  law  of  the  force  by  which  they  are  describ^,  will  apply  equally  to 
the  orbits  of  the  secondary  planets :  for  in  each  of  these  little  systems,  there  is  the  same 
analogy  between  the  periodic  times  and  the  distances,  which  takes  place  in  the  general 
system;  the  figure  of  Uie  orbits  is  also  elliptic,  and  the  areas  described  by  the  radius  vector 
is  proportional  to  the  times.  We  may  legitimately  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  satellites 
revolving  about  any  planet,  are  retained  in  their  orbits  by  a  force  inversely  proportional  to 
the  squares  of  their  distances  from  their  primary  planet;  so  that  all  the  celestial  motions 
are  produced  by  forces  regulated  by  this  general  law. 

The  foree  that  keeps  the  Moon  in  her  orbit  is,  then,  the  attraction  of  the  earth,  or  hergrar 
vitation  towards  the  earth.  But  we  find  that  the  earth  attracts  all  the  bodies  near  its  sunace 
by  a  force  which  is  proportional  to  the  mass  of  the  body  attracted.  Whatever  be  tlie  weight 
of  a  body,  it  falls  to  the  earth  from  the  same  height  in  tho  same  time,  and  with  the  same 
velocity.  Thus,  if  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere  be  removed,  it  is  found  by  experiment 
that  the  lightest  feather  falls  to  the  earth,  from  a  given  height,  in  the  very  same  time,  and 
with  the  very  same  velocity,  as  a  stone,  however  great  its  weijrht  Let  us  inquire  whether 
the  force  which  retains  the  moon  m  its  orbit  may  not  be  identined  with  this  attracuve  force 
which  causes  the  descent  of  heavy  bodies  to  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

W^e  may  without  great  error  suppose  the  lunar  orbit  to  be  circular,  and  ita  semidiameter 
to  be  equal  to  sixty  semidiameters  of  the  earth.    Let  it  be  represented  by  the  circle  C  M  A, 
the  earth  being  supnosed  to  be  placed  at  the  centre  E ;  and  let  M  C  be  the  small  portion 
Vol.  L  11  Q 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  li. 


of  the  orbit  which  the  moon  describes  in  a  second  of  time. 
Draw  M  B  a  tanjrent  to  the  orbit  at  M :  draw  also  C  D  paral- 
lel to  M  B,  and  C  B  parallel  to  M  A,  the  diameter  of  the  orbit 
The  arch  M  C  may  he  regarded  as  coincident  with  its  chord ; 
therefore,  joining  A  C,  it  is  evident  that  in  the  right  angled 
triangle  A  C  M  we  have  A  M  :  M  C=M  C  :  M  D.  Hence, 
since  A  M  and  M  C  are  known,  M  D  or  B  C,  the  deflection 
of  the  moon  ftom  the  tangent  in  a  second,  by  the  attraction  of 
the  earth,  may  be  found. 

The  moon  describes  her  orbit  round  the  earth  in  about  27<: 
7**  43"*  or  2,360,580  seconds ;  the  circumference  of  her  orbit  is 
about  60  times  the  circumference  of  the  earth,  that  is,  if  w? 
reckon  69 J  English  miles  to  a  degree,  7,926,330,000  feet; 
therefore  the  length  of  the  arc  MC,  which  the  moon  describes 
in  a  second,  will  be  found  nearly  equal  to  3358  feet  Again,  A  M,  the  diameter  of  the 
moon's  orbit,  is  about  2,523,031,140  feet  Hence  y/e  obtam  M  D  equal  to  00447  feet  nearly. 
This  small  fhictional  part  of  a  foot  is  the  space  which  a  body,  placed  at  the  distance  of  the 
moon,  and  falling  from  a  state  of  rnst  by  the  action  of  the  force  which  retains  the  moon  in 
her  orbit,  would  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time.  Observing,  now,  that  this  force  increases 
aslhe  squares  of^ the  distances  decrease,  we  may  determine  the  space  which  a  body  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  (or  at  the  distance  of  one  scmidiamcter  from  the  earth's  centre),  and  falling 
from  a  state  of  rest  would  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time,  if  urged  by  the  same  force. 
For,  since  the  moon's  distance  fhtm  the  earth  is  equal  to  about  sixty  times  the  scmidiameter 
of  the  earth,  we  have  1':  60*  =00447:  the  space  required,  which  is  found  to  be  16'09  feet 
Now,  this  is  exactly  the  space  which  a  body,  falling  from  rest  by  its  own  weight  is  found 
by  experiment  to  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time.  Hence  we  may  infer,  that  the  moon 
is  retained  in  its  orbit  by  the  very  same  force  which  produces  pressure  in  a  body  supported, 
or  causes  a  body  when  unsupported  to  fall  to  the  ground. 

Though  the  attraction  of  the  earth  on  bodies  near  its  surface  is  only  a  particular  case  of 
a  general  principle,  which  produces  all  the  planetary  motions,  the  effects  are,  to  appearance, 
considerably  modified.  At  all  the  heights  to  which  we  are  able  to  ascend  above  the  general 
surface  of  the  earth,  or  to  which  we  can  project  a  body,  the  force  of  gravity  acts,  as  to  sense, 
uniformly :  it  also  acts  in  the  direction  of  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and 
therefore  parallel  to  one  another,  for  the  greatest  range  that  can  be  given  to  a  projectile. 
Hence  the  phen  >mena,  which  depend  on  the  force  diminishing  in  intensity,  as  the  square 
of  the  distance  increases,  and  on  its  emanating  in  the  direction  of  straight  lines  drawn  to 
the  centre  of  tlie  attracting  sphere,  become  imperceptible.  In  consequence  of  the  compa- 
ratively small  velocity  with  which  human  power  can  project  a  body,  its  path  always  meets 
the  earth,  and  its  motion  terminates.  But  if  the  whole  matter  of  the  earth  were  collected 
into  a  point  at  the  centre,  a  body  projected  from  a  point  4000  miles  distant  from  the  centre, 
and  with  such  a  velocity  as  human  power  can  communicate,  would  be  acted  upon  by  the 
same  forces,  with  a  body  similarly  projected  from  the  surface  of  the  earth.  But  on  the  sup- 
position  now  made,  the  body  would  meet  with  no  obstacle,  but  would  approach  within  a  cer- 
tain distance  of  the  centre,  and  would  then  recede  from  it  until  it  reached  another  limit 
when  it  would  again  approach,  and  go  on  in  this  manner,  approaching  and  receding  alter- 
nately, for  ever.  The  path  of  the  body  would  be  an  ellipse,  resembling  in  figure  the  orbit 
of  a  comet  The  extreme  portions  of  tlie  path  would,  as  to  sense,  be  portions  of  a  parabola. 
Hence  it  is  usually  laid  down  as  a  law  regulating  the  motion  of  projectiles,  that  y  a  heavy 
body  be  projected  in  a  straight  line,  not  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  it  will  describe  a 
parabola  situated  in  the  vertical  plane  passing  through  that  straight  line,  and  having  its 
axis  perpendicular  to  the  horizon.    This  physical  truth  was  first  discovered  by  Galileo. 

The  force  of  gravity  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  being  uniform  in  its  action,  it  is  found 
that  the  motion  which  it  produces  corresponds  in  all  its  circumstances  with  that  which 
matliematical  reasoning  shows  should  result  from  the  action  of  a  constant  force.  The  spaces 
through  which  the  body  falls  are  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  times,  and  the  velocity 
is  proportional  to  the  time  during  which  the  body  has  been  falling. 

From  the  third  law  of  Kepler,  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  the  periodic  time  of  a  planet 
m  its  orbit  is  determined  entirely  by  the  mean  distance,  that  is,  half  the  transverse  axis ; 
and  is  not  at  all  affected  by  the  increase  or  decrease  of  the  conjugate  axis.  By  supposing, 
then,  the  conjugate  axis  to  be  continually  diminished,  we  are  led  to  this  conclusion,  that  the 
time  in  which  a  body  would  descend  to  the  sun,  if  allowed  to  fall  from  a  state  of  rest  at  any 
distance  from  him,  is  equal  to  half  the  time  of  revolution  in  an  ellipse  the  semitransverse 
axis  of  which  is  half  of  that  distance.  Let  T  be  the  time  of  revolution  of  a  planet  at  any 
distance,  and  t  the  time  of  revolution  at  half  that  distance ;  then,  by  the  third  law  of  Kepler, 

T" :  t* :  2* :  1* ;  hence  we  have  t  =  ^»'  and  ^t  =  ^53.    But  {t  is  the  time  in  which  a  body 
would  fall  from  the  distance  corresponding  to  T.    Hence  the  time  in  which  a  plenet  would 


Pabt  Ii. 

second  of  time. 

also  C  D  ponl- 
eter  of  the  orbit 
.  with  its  chord ; 
he  right  angled 

M  D.  Hence, 
!,  the  deflection 
jic  attraction  of 

irth  in  about  27^ 
:e  of  her  orbit  is 
h,  that  is,  if  w<« 
8,330,000  feet; 
I  moon  describes 
diameter  of  the 
1447  feet  nearly, 
distance  of  the 
ins  the  moon  in 
8  force  increases 
body  at  the  sur- 
itrc),  and  falling 
the  same  force, 
le  scmidiameter 
o  be  1609  feet 
vcight  is  found 
r,  that  the  moon 
body  supported, 

irticulax  case  of 
I,  to  appearance, 
Kjve  the  general 
lets,  08  to  sense, 
lie  horizon,  and 
i  to  a  projectile. 
kr,  as  the  square 
lines  drawn  to 
of  the  compa- 
always  meets 
ere  collected 
rem  the  centre, 
ed  upon  by  the 
But  on  the  sup- 
within  a  ccr- 
another  limit 
receding  alter- 
figure  the  orbit 
of  a  parabola, 
hat  if  a  heavy 
ill  describe  a 
ind  having  its 
by  Galileo, 
ion,  it  is  found 
that  which 
The  spaces 
d  the  velocity 


BbOK  I. 


LAW  OP  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


th 


e  of  a  planet 
nsverse  axis; 
By  supposing, 
ision,  that  the 
of  rest  at  any 
emitransverse 
planet  at  any 
"w  of  Kepler, 

which  a  body 
planet  would 


fall  to  the  sun  by  the  action  qf  the  centripetal  force  w  etfutd  to  the  periodic  time  divtdei 
hy  n/^\  or  (what  amounts  to  the  same  thing)  to  the  periodic  time  multiplied  b]r  0176776, 
the  reciprocal  of  the  square  root  of  82.  Bjr  this  general  rule,  the  times  in  which  the  dii^ 
ferent  planets  would  reach  the  sun,  if  the  action  of  their  centrifugal  force  entirely  ceased 
at  the  moment  when  they  are  at  their  mean  distances,  are  as  follow : 


Dayi.  Hra. 

Mercury  in IS  13 

Venui 39  17 

TheEarth fA  13 

Mars 131  10 

Corps S97  6 

Pallu 301  4 


On 


SI- 


Juno 

Vests Jios 

Jupiter 76S 

Saturn 1801 

Georgium  Sidus S42S 

The  Moon  would  All  to  the  Earth  in . .       4 


Hn. 
19 

0 
19 

0 

0 
90 


The  prmciple  in  the  Newtonian  philosophy,  that  the  effects  produced  by  the  attraction 
of  a  body  depend  very  much  upon  tne  quantity  of  matter  which  it  contains,  fiimi^es  the 
means  of  resolving  a  problem  which  at  first  sight  may  appear  of  such  difficulty  as  to  tran- 
seend  the  powers  of  the  human  mind ;  namely,  to  determme  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the 
sun  and  planets.  Let  /  and  /'  denote  the  forces  by  which  two  bodies  revolve  in  curcular 
orbits  round  two  central  bodies,  of  which  the  masses  are  denoted  by  m  and  m'.  Let  r  and 
r'  be  the  radii  of  the  orbits,  and  (  and  ('  the  periodic  times.  From  what  we  have  already 
proved  with  regard  to  a  force  that  retains  a  body  in  a  circular  orbit  we  have 

r        t'  mm'  m         m'         r  r" 

f  :f'  =  — :  —    But  we  have  also/  •  f  =  —  :  — ;  therefore,  —  :  — = —  :  — ;  and 
'  («     I't  ra     rt  ri      rt      la      ra 

rS      f » 

consequently,  m  :  m'  =  —  :  — 
la      ra 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  masses  of  matter  in  the  bodies  which  compose  the  solar  system 
are  directly  as  the  cubes  of  the  mean  distances  of  any  bodies  which  revolve  round  them, 
and  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  times  in  which  the  revolutions  are  performed.  By 
means  of  this  principle,  the  masses  of  the  sun  and  of  the  planets  which  have  satellites  may 
be  compared  with  one  another.  With  regard  to  the  planets  which  have  no  satellites,  the 
quantity  of  matter  contained  in  them  can  only  be  guessed  from  the  efiTects  they  produce  on 
the  motions  of  the  other  planets.  The  quantity  of  matter  in  the  moon  can,  however,  be 
determined  with  greater  certainty,  by  comparing  together  the  infiuence  of  the  sun  and  moon 
in  producing  the  tides  and  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  Hence  we  learn,  that  die  mat* 
ter  in  the  moon  is  about  ^  of  the  matter  iii  the  earth. 

The  following  table  exMbits  the  masses  of  the  planets,  that  of  the  sun  being  considered 
as  unity : 

TABLB. 


Mercury 
Venus 
The  Eaith 
Mars 


334  031 

Tsrrrsvs 


Jupiter 
Saturn 
Uranus 


ITYTJ 


If  we  add  together  the  numbers  given  in  this  table,  it  will  be  found  that  the  whole  matter 
in  all  the  planets  is  not  one-six-hundredth  part  of  the  matter  in  the  sun. 

Knowing  the  masses  of  the  planets  and  their  diameters,  we  can  determine  the  force  of 
gravity  at  their  surfaces ;  for,  supposing  them  to  be  spherical  bodies,  and  to  have  no  rotation 
on  their  axes,  the  forces  with  which  a  body  placed  on  their  surfiices  gravitates  to  them  will 
be  proportional  to  their  masses,  divided  by  the  squares  of  their  diameters. 

From  the  masses  of  Jnpiter  and  the  earth.  La  Place  calculates  that  if  we  suppose  them 
to  have  no  rotation,  a  body  which  at  the  earth's  equator  weighs  one  poimd  would,  if  carried 
to  the  equator  of  Jupiter,  weigh  2.509  pounds,  supposuig  t£e  weights  to  be  measured  by 
the  pressures  exerted  in  the  two  situations.  If  the  centrifugal  force  produced  by  the  rota- 
tion of  the  planets  be  taken  into  account  however,  this  weight  must  be  diminished  by  about 
one-ninth  imrt.  The  same  body  would  weigh  about  27.65  pounds  at  the  surface  of  the  sun. 
Hence  it  follows  that  a  heavy  body  would  mere  descend  about  425  feet  in  the  first  second 
of  time. 

We  have  hitherto  attended  chiefly  to  the  action  of  the  central  body  upon  that  which 
revolves  round  it ;  but  in  reality,  the  action  is  mutual.  The  planets  attract  the  sun  in  the 
same  manner  as  tiie  sun  attracts  the  planets ;  and  the  same  action  and  re-action  have  place 
among  the  primary  planets  and  their  satellites.  Indeed,  the  gravitation  of  all  the  great 
bodies  of  the  system  towards  one  another,  appears  only  to  be  a  consequence  of  a  similar 
action  between  every  particle  of  matter  and  every  other  particle  of  matter.  This  great 
fact  to  which  all  the  celestial  phenomena  are  ultimately  to  be  referred — that  the  particles 
of  matter  mutually  attract  each  other  by  a  force  varytng  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the 
diitances — is  commo'ily  called  the  principle  of  Universal  Gravitation. 

The  mutual  attraction  of  the  bodies  composing  the  planetary  system  gives  rise  to  a  train 
of  consequences  which  it  has  required  the  utmost  efforts  of^^  human  ingenuity  to  unfold. 
We  have  already  remarked  that  the  planetary  motions  are  liable  to  a  variety  of  irregulwi- 


124 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


pAttT  II 


i  'till 


ties  with  which  accurate  obeervation  haa  made  ua  acquainted.  Now,  here  we  see  the  cause 
to  which  all  these  irrefrularities  are  to  be  referred.  It  the  sun  were  fixed  immovable  in  the 
centre,  and  only  one  planet  tevolvm^r  round  him,  then  the  path  of  that  planet  would  be  an 
ellipse,  from  which  tnere  would  not  be  the  least  deviation ;  and  that  focus  which  is  tlic 
centre  of  motion  would  coincide  with  the  centre  of  the  sun,  supposing  that  body  to  be 
spherical  and  composed  of  matter  of  uniform  density.  But  since  the  planet  attracts  the  sun 
as  well  as  Uie  sun  attracts  the  planet,  with  a  force  directly  proportional  to  the  mass  and 
inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  distance,  it  follows  that  the  sun  must  also  move 
in  an  elliptic  orbit  round  diat  point  of  which  the  condition  is  in  no  way  disturbed  by  the 
mutual  action  of  the  revolving  bodies,  namely,  their  centbe  of  oravitt.  It  is  with  this 
point  that  the  focus  of  the  orbit  of  the  planet,  and  that  of  the  solar  orbit,  would  coincide, 
and  about  which  the  radius  vector  of  eacn  would  describe  areas  proportional  to  the  times. 
In  reference  to  this  point  also,  ttie  squares  of  the  periodic  times  would  be  proportional  to  the 
cubes  of  the  distances. 

If  we  suppose  two  or  more  planets  to  revolve  about  the  sun,  it  is  evident  that  the  motions 
of  all  would  be  disturbed  by  their  mutual  gravitation.  The  immense  magnitude  of  the 
sun  compared  with  that  of  any  of  the  planets,  or  of  all  the  planets  taken  together,  might, 
however,  give  to  his  attraction  such  a  preponderance  as  would  preserve  all  the  planetary 
orbits  nearly  elliptical ;  while  his  own  orbit  would  become  a  more  complicated  curve,  but 
such  as  to  nimish  a  centrifugal  force  in  respect  of  each  planet,  just  able  to  counterbalance 
the  gravitation  towards  it.  The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  system  would  be  a  point  to 
which  all  their  motions  are  to  be  referred.  Now  this  is  actually  the  case  of  the  planetary 
system.  Accurate  observation  proves  that  the  sun  is  not  at  rest  in  the  centre,  though  his 
motion  is  ver^  small.  His  centre  is  never  distant  from  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  system 
so  much  as  his  own  diameter ;  and  hence  the  orbit  which  he  describes  must  be  very  mcon< 
siderable,  when  compared  with  the  orbits  of  the  planets.  With  regard  to  those  planets 
which  are  accompanied  by  satellites,  it  is  not  the  centre  of  the  primary  which  traces  the 
elliptic  orbit  round  the  sun,  but  the  common  centre  of  gravity  of  the  primary  planet  and 
secondary  planets  which  revolve  round  it 

The  perturbations  which  the  mutual  attraction  of  the  planets  produce  in  each  other's  mo- 
tions are  divided  into  two  classes.  The  one  class  affect  the  figure  and  position  of  the  elliptic 
orbits,  and  increase  with  extreme  slowness :  these  are  called  secular  ineqvauties.  The 
other  class  depend  on  the  mutual  situation  of  the  different  planets,  and  acquire  the  same 
amount  whenever  the  same  relative  positions  occur :  these  are  called  periodic  inequalities. 
Both  these  classes  of  inequalities  have  been  demonstrated  to  be  periodical ;  that  is,  they 
increase  only  to  a  certain  extent,  i  i  then  decrease.  Amidst  all  the  changes  which  arise 
from  the  mutual  actions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  there  are  two  things  which  remain  perpetu- 
ally the  same ;  namely,  the  greater  axis  of  the  orbit  which  the  planet  describes,  and  its 
periodic  time.    Thus  the  permanency  of  the  planetary  system  is  secured. 

To  subject  to  calculation  the  perturbations  of  the  system,  requires  the  solution  of  the 
following  problem :  three  bodies  of  given  magnitudes,  as  the  sun,  the  earth,  and  the  moon, 
being  projected  into  space  with  given  velocities,  and  in  given  directions,  and  attracting  each 
oiiicr  according  to  a  given  law,  namely,  inversely  as  the  squares  of  their  distances  from  each 
other,  aiid  directly  as  their  masses ;  it  is  required  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  curve,  that 
one  of  them,  as  the  moon,  describes  about  one  of  the  other  two,  as  the  earth.  This  is  the 
celebrated  problem  op  the  three  bodies,  stated  in  all  its  generality,  but  under  this  aspect 
its  solution  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  most  refined  methods  of  analysis  which  the  mathe- 
matical sciences  in  their  present  state  furnish.  In  its  application  to  the  purposes  of  physical 
astronomy,  there  are  certain  conditions  which  render  the  problem  less  difficult :  viz.  1. 
That  the  sun  greatly  exceeds  in  magnitude  the  other  two  bodies,  and  is  nearly  at  rest.  2. 
Its  distance  from  the  earth  and  moon  is  so  great,  that  it  may  be  considered  the  same  for  both. 
This  condition  fails,  however,  in  reference  to  the  action  of  the  primary  planets  on  one 
another,  a  circumstance  which  au^ents  the  difficulty  of  investigating  the  perturbations 
arising  from  their  mutual  gravitation.  3.  The  planetary  orbits  are  nearly  elliptical,  and 
the  aberrations  from  the  ellipses  in  reference  to  each,  are  all  that  is  required.  Even  with 
these  limitations  the  problem  is  sufficiently  difficult,  and  has  engaged  the  attention,  and 
exercised  the  skill  of  the  most  celebrated  mathematicians  of  modem  times. 

The  general  view  which  we  have  now  given  of  the  planetary  disturbances  is  all  that  oui 
present  object  requires.  We  shall  only,  therefore,  farther  advert  to  the  explanation  which 
he  theory  of  gravitation  afibrds  of  the  figure  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  tides. 


CHAPTER  XVT. 

nOUBB  AND  CONSTITUTION  OP  THE  EAKTH  DEDl]  OED  PROM  THE  THEORY  OP  GRAVITATION 

In  the  beginning  (Chap.  HI.)  we  proved  that  t\e  earth  must  be  nearly  spherical,  in  ordei 
lo  account  ror  the  general  phenomena  which  w)  constantly  observe.    As  soon,  however, 


DookI. 


HGURE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Vio 


As  soon,  however, 


is  the  general  law  of  gravUatum  was  discovered,  it  was  a  necessary  conBequence  that  the 
earth  could  not  be  a  perfect  sphere,  but  must  rather  be  an  oblate  spheroid  flattened  at  the 
poles,  and  swelled  out  at  the  equator,  and  this  inference  is  independent  of  all  actual  measure- 
ment, but  may  be  confirmed  by  observation,  and  in  fact  has  been  so,  as  will  be  afterwards 
iuUy  proved.  This  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  influence 
of  the  centrifugal  force,  arising  firom  the  earth's  diurnal  rotation,  in  diminishing  the  force  of 
gravity  from  the  pole  towards  the  equator,  where  the  centriibgal  force,  in  reference  to  the 
surface,  is  the  greatest  possible.  This  tendency  which  every  particle  of  matter  in  the  earth 
has  to  fly  off  in  the  direction  of  a  tangent  to  the  circle  in  which  the  particle  is  carried  by 
the  earth's  motion  of  rotation  would  be  increased  if  that  motion  were  to  be  accelerated : 
and  may  be  conceived  to  be  increased  to  such  power  as  not  only  to  overcome  the  force  of 
gravity,  but  also  the  force  by  which  the  particles  adhere  to  one  another,  and  so  to  cause  the 
earth  to  separate  into  firogments.  Suppose  a  small  satellite  to  revolve  round  the  earth  close 
to  its  surface  at  the  equator ;  its  periodic  time  may  be  deduced  fix)m  that  of  the  moon,  on 
the  principle  that  the  squares  of  their  periodic  times  would  be  to  one  another  as  the  cubes 
of  their  distances.  For  we  have  (since  the  moon's  distance  is  about  sixty  times  the  semi- 
diameter  of  the  earth,  and  the  time  of  her  periodic  revolution  39343  minutesX 

60* :  l'=39343' :  sq.  of  the  periodic  time  of  the  satellite.  ^  ^  ' 

Hence  we  obtain  the  periodic  time  nearly  equal  to  84^  minutes.  If  the  earth  revolved 
about  its  axis  in  84j  minutes  while  such  a  satellite  described  a  circular  orbit  close  to  its 
surface,  the  satellite  would  tlierefore  appear  to  be  at  rest  on  the  sur&ce,  but  would  not  in 
the  least  degree  press  upon  it,  because  the  force  of  gravity  would  be  exactly  counterbalanced 
by  the  centrifugal  force  produced  by  the  motion  of  the  satellite  m  its  orbit  Now,  all  the 
objects  on  the  surface  at  the  equator  would  be  in  the  verv  some  circumstances  with  the 
satellite.;  for  they  actually  describe  circles  in  consequence  of  the  earth's  motion,  and  if  the 
earth  revolved  in  844  mmutes,  their  centrifugal  forcu  would  become  exactly  equal  to  the 
force  of  gravity ;  so  that  they  would  no.  longer  have  weight  If  the  earth's  motion  of  rota< 
tion  became  still  more  rapid,  they  would  fly  off  fi-om  the  surface. 

At  the  equator  a  body  describes  a  circle  of  which  the  circumference  is  about  132,105,600 
feet  in  23''  56"  nearly :  it  must  therefore  describe  an  arc  of  about  1528  feet  in  a  second 
of  time.  From  what  we  have  shown  already  respecting  central  forces,  it  is  evident  that  by 
dividing  the  square  of  this  arc  by  the  diameter  of  the  earth,  we  shall  find  the  deflection 
fi'om  the  tangent  in  a  second,  wnich  will  be  the  measure  of  the  centrifugal  force.  This 
deflection  amounts  to  about  -p^  of  an  inch,  or  ^1,  of  16i\(  feet  the  space  uirough  which  a 
body  would  fall  in  a  second  by  the  force  of  apparent  gravity.  The  centrifiigal  force  at  the 
equator  is  therefore  the  ^\^  part  of  the  sensible  weight  of  a  body,  or  ^i?  pait  of  its  real 
weight  Suppose,  then,  a  body,  when  weighed  at  the  equator  by  a  spring-steel  yard,  to  be 
found  capable  of  drawing  out  the  spring  to  the  division  288 :  if  that  body  were  weighed  at 
the  pole,  where  the  centrifugal  force  vanishes,  it  would  draw  out  the  spring  to  the 
division  289. 

It  admits  of  being  demonstrated  that  proceeding  from  the  equator  where  the  centrifugal 
force  is  the  greatest  toward  either  pole,  where  it  vanishes,  the  increase  of  gravity  in  different 
latitudes  is  as  the  square  of  the  sine  of  the  latitude. 

Such  being  the  nature  of  the  forces  that  act  upon  every  particle  of  matter  of  which  the 
earth  is  composed,  the  determination  of  its  figure  from  physical  principles  involves  the 
solution  of  the  two  following  problems: — 

1.  What  is  the  law  according  to  which  a  particle  will  gravitate  towards  a  solid  of  a 
given  form  and  constitution,  the  particle  being  supposed  situated  either  within  or  without 
the  solid  ? 

2.  What  figure  will  a  mass  of  matter,  either  wholly  or  partly  fluid,  assume  in  conse- 
quence of  the  joint  effect  of  the  attraction  of  its  particles  (that  attraction  varying  inversely 
as  the  squares  of  their  distances),  and  a  centrifiigal  force  arbing  fhon  the  rotation  of  the 
mass  about  an  axisi  Both  these  problems  involve  a  great  degree  of  difficulty;  and  the 
second  is  even  more  intricate  than  the  first  in  consequence  of  the  reciprocd  relations 
subsisting  between  the  figure  of  the  attracting  body  and  the  law  of  gravitation  at  its  surfoce, 
which  renders  a  knowledge  of  the  one  necessary  to  the  determination  of  the  other. 
Assuming  that  an  homogeneous  fluid  of  the  same  mean  density  with  the  earth  has  the 
figure  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  and  revolves  on  its  axis  in  23**  66"  4'  of  solar  time,  it  would  be 
in  equUibrio,  if  the  axis  of  revolution  were  to  the  equatorial  diameter  in  the  proporti(»i  of 
229  to  230.  This  is  the  figure  which  Nevi^ton  ascribed  to  the  earth;  and  though  th 
assumption  which  he  made  ofsuch  a  fi^re  was  certainly  gratuitous,  the  result  of  his  mves- 
tigation  is  almost  the  same  as  later  writers  luve  obtained  by  a  more  rigorous  as  well  as 
direct  mode  of  reasoning  than  that  which  he  employed.  Again,  it  has  been  demonstrated  by 
La  Place,  that  a  fluid  and  homogeneous  mass,  of  the  mean  density  of  the  earth,  cannot 
remain  in  equilibrium  and  possess  at  the  same  time  an  elliptic  figure,  if  the  time  of  its 
rotation  be  less  than  2"  25"  17*.  If  Uie  time  of  revolution  exceed  this,  there  may  always  be 
two  elliptic  spheroids,  and  not  more,  in  which  the  equilibrium  may  be  maintained.    In  the 

11* 


126 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pamt  If. 


Ill:  M: 


ease  of  the  maas  revolving  in  23'  66*  4*,  the  one  spheroid  u  that  which  has  alroady  benn 
mentioned ;  the  other  is  ono  in  which  the  polar  diameter  is  to  the  equatorial  in  'he  ratio  of 
1  to  081.  The  extreme  flatness  of  tliis  spheroid  must  render  the  force  of  ^vily  at  the 
equator  almost  nothing ;  the  fluid,  therefore,  would  be  so  easily  dissipated  that  this  equilibrium 
can  scarcely  be  rofrnraed  as  stable. 

Another  conclusion  on  this  subject,  deduced  by  Clairault,  is,  that  if  the  fluid  moss  supposed 
to  revolve  on  its  axis,  instead  of  being  homogeneous,  be  composed  of  strata  which  increase 
in  density  towards  the  centre,  in  order  to  remam  in  equilibrium,  it  must  still  possess  tlio  flgure 
of  an  elliptic  spheroid,  but  Uie  oblatencss  will  be  diminished. 

The  oblateness  of  the  earth  at  its  poles  is  a  phenomenon  which  the  measurements  that 
have  been  made  of  ares  of  tiie  meridian  have  placed  beyond  all  doubt ;  but  there  is  still  an 
UDcertaintjr  aa  to  the  exact  (quantity  of  the  compression.  The  results  obtained,  however, 
render  it  highly  probable  that  it  is  less  than  ;^,  wtiich  Newton,  proceeding  on  the  supposition 
of  a  uniform  density,  assigned  for  the  compression.  Hence  we  may  conclude,  that  if  the 
earth  is  a  spheroid  of  equilibrium,  it  is  aenser  in  the  interior  than  at  its  surflice.  This 
inference  has  been  verified  by  very  accurate  experiments  made  hy  the  late  Dr.  Moskelyne 
on  the  sides  of  the  mountain  Schehallien,  in  Perthshire.  The  object  was  to  determine  the 
derangement  of  the  plummet  by  the  vicinity  of  this  loily  and  solid  mountain ;  and  the  results, 
obtained  from  observation  made  at  two  stations  on  tlie  south  and  north  sidos  of  it,  showed 
that  the  plummet  deviated  from  the  direction  of  gravity  towards  the  mountain  more  than 
7".  The  quantity  of  this  change  of  direction  gives  the  ratio  of  the  attraction  of  the  mountain 
to  that  of  the  whole  earth,  or  to  the  foree  of  gravity,  equal  to  the  ratio  of  1  to  17804.  But 
the  bulk  and  figure  of  the  mountain  being  also  obtained  by  a  trigonometrical  survey,  its  mean 
density  was  found  to  be  to  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  nearlv  as  5  to  9.  Thus  it  appears 
that  tne  mean  density  of  the  earth  is  not  much  less  than  double  the  density  of  the  rocks 
which  compose  the  mountain  Schehallien ;  and  these,  again,  seem  considerably  more  dense 
than  the  mean  of  those  which  form  the  exterior  crust  or  the  earth. 

It  may  appear  an  objection  to  this  mode  of  reasoning  concerning  the  figuro  of  the  earth, 
that  it  is  not  evident  how  a  centrifugal  foree  should  produce  the  some  efiect  on  a  solid  body, 
like  the  earth,  that  it  does  upon  a  fluid  mass.  But  the  fact  that  the  earth  has  made  an 
approximation  to  the  spheroid  of  equilibriunif  is  an  indication  that  either  the  entire  mass 
was  originally  fluid,  ih>m  whatever  cause ;  or  the  repeated  waste  and  reconsolidation  of  the 
parts  near  the  surface  has  gradually  produced  the  spheroidal  figure.  In  either  of  these 
modes  the  power  of  cohesion,  which  in  the  solid  body  resists  the  effects  of  the  centrifugal 
foree,  may  have  been  overcome.  However  irregular  a  body,  whose  surfoce  is  composed  of 
land  and  water,  may  be  in  its  primitive  form ;  by  t*^e  process  of  constcnt  waste,  the  more 
prominent  parts  are  gradually  worn  down,  aud  the  matter  which  composed  them  is  deposited 
in  the  lower  parts  which  are  occupied  by  the  water :  here  it  acquires  a  horizontal  stratifica- 
tion ;  and  having,  by  certain  mineral  operations,  under  Hie  transforming  hand  of  nature,  been 
consolidated  into  stone,  the  water  being  removed,  it  may  again  form  a  part  of  the  solid  crust 
of  the  earth.  In  this  manner  the  primitive  irregular  form  will  gradually  disappear,  and  the 
surface  in  tlie  course  of  ages  acquire  a  position  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  gravity ; 
so  that,  by  the  action  of  the  centrifugal  force,  there  will  be  a  constant  approximation  made 
to  the  spheroid  of  equilibrium.  The  irregular  distribution  of  the  heterogeneous  materials 
which  compose  this  terraqueous  globe  may,  perhaps,  prevent  the  coincidence  from  ever 
being  complete. 

It  admits  of  being  demonstrated,  that  if  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  and  composed  of 
matter  of  uniform  density  at  equal  distances  from  its  centre,  the  action  of  the  solar  and 
lunar  attraction  upon  it  would  be  the  same  as  if  the  whole  terraqueous  mass  we<-e  condensed 
into  a  point  at  the  centre.  Hence  the  position  of  its  axis  would  not,  in  that  case,  be  in  the 
least  degree  affected  by  its  gravitation  towards  the  sun  and  moon,  but  would  remain  parallel 
to  itself  while  the  earth  pemrmed  its  annual  revolution.  In  consequence  of  the  spheroidal 
figure,  however,  the  earth  may  be  considered  as  composed  of  a  sphere  of  which  the  radius  is 
half  the  polar  axis,  and  of  a  quantity  of  redundant  matter,  which  is  distributed  over  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  sAU'ell  out  the  equatorial  regions.  The  action  of  the  solar  and  lunar 
attraction  on  Uiis  redundant  matter  produces  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  and  the  nutation 
of  the  earth's  axis.  The  complete  explanation  of  these  phmomena  affords  one  of  the  hap- 
piest illustrations  of  the  Newtonian  doctrine  of  attraction ;  but  requires  at  the  same  time 
^e  aid  of  some  of  the  most  abstruse  theories  both  in  pure  mathematics  and  mechanics. 


It 


CHAPTER  XVn. 


Thi  alternate  rise  and  fall  of  the  surface  of  the  sea,  or  it  flux  and  reflux,  known  by  tho 
name  of  the  tidkb,  is  a  phenomenon  which  has  attracted  the  attention  of  mankind  from  tbo 
earliest  periods.    Herodotus  and  Diodorus  Siculus  take  notice  of  the  daily  flux  and  reflux 


•%:'     f 


Dool  I. 


THE  TIDES.    i;M,[>: 


W 


'h  hia  already  benn 
orial  in  ?he  ratio  of 
36  of  gravity  at  the 
that  this  equilibrium 

fluid  mass  supposed 
rata  which  increase 
ill  possess  the  figure 

measurements  that 
Mit  there  is  still  an 
obtained,  however, 
ig  on  the  supposition 
ncludo,  that  if  the 
its  surfiice.  This 
ate  Dr.  Maskelyne 
8  to  determine  the 
lin ;  and  tlic  results, 
sides  of  it,  showed 
ountain  more  than 
ion  of  the  mountain 
fl  to  17804.  But 
:al  survey,  its  mean 
>.  Thus  it  appears 
msity  of  the  rocks 
erably  more  dense 

iguro  of  the  earth, 
3Ct  on  a  solid  body, 
larth  has  mode  an 
ler  the  entire  mass 
onsolidation  of  the 
In  either  of  these 
of  the  centrifugal 
ce  is  composed  of 
t  waste,  the  more 
1  them  is  deposited 
trizontal  stratifica- 
Jidof  nature,  been 
t  of  the  solid  crust 
disappear,  and  the 
ection  of  gravity ; 
proximation  made 
[eneous  materials 
idence  from  ever 

and  composed  of 

of  the  solar  and 

3  wp'e  condensed 

it  case,  be  in  the 

d  remain  parallel 

of  the  spheroidal 

hich  the  radius  is 

ibuted  over  it  in 

solar  and  lunar 

and  the  nutation 

one  of  the  hap- 

t  the  same  time 

mechanics. 


of  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  or  Arabian  Gulf,  the  latter  historian  describin£[  it  as  a  gnaX 
and  rapid  tide ;  but  neither  of  these  writers  fbrms  any  coi^ectura  respecting  its  cause.  Ob> 
servation  munt  soon  have  shown,  that  this  periodical  ebbing  and  fbwmg  of  the  waters  of  thn 
ocean  had  an  intimate  connexion  with  the  position  of  the  sun  and  moon  in  the  heavens ;  and, 
accordingly,  we  find  that  Pliny  not  only  describes  the  phenomena  of  tides,  but  expressly 
attributes  them  to  the  action  ot  these  luminaries. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  Newton  applied  the  principle  of  universal  gravitation  to  explain 
these  phenomena  that  the  theory  of  the  tides  was  fully  understood.  The  weight  of  a  body 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  arises  from  the  tendency  which  the  particles  composing  it  have 
to  the  centre  (or  to  a  point  near  the  centre),  in  obedience  to  the  law  of  gravity.  But  aa 
every  object  on  the  earth's  surface  gravitates  towards  the  sun  and  moon,  as  well  as  towards 
the  earth,  it  follows  that  the  solar  and  lunar  attraction  must  affect  the  weight  of  terrestrial 
objects.  Upon  solid  bodies,  between  the  particles  of  which  adhesive  force  is  powerilil,  no 
discernible  effects  are  produced  by  Uiis  attraction.  But  the  case  is  altogether  diflbront  wiUi 
regard  to  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  the  component  particles  of  which  yield  to  the  slightest 
impulse ;  so  that  any  alteration  in  their  weight  that  does  not  equally  affect  the  whole  must 
be  followed  immediately  by  a  motion  of  the  parts  of  the  fluid  mass,  which  will  continue 
until,  by  a  new  arrangement  of  the  particles,  the  equilibrium  is  restored. 

To  see  what  must  be  the  general  effect,  arbing  from  the  action  of  the  sui^  if  tho  whole 
surface  of  tho  globe  wore  covered  with  water ;  let  A  C  B  O  (Jig.  39.)  be  the  watery  sphere,  S  the 


B 


'/ 

41 

(r 

I» 

\ 

\ 

"/ 

x 

C— ' 

Z 

*      ■    '  ■ 

,.     t 

"7 

1  ■.            . 

1m 

/ 

\ 

1 

S 

N 

R 

■•  •,  > 


■it  •  •' 


r,  known  by  tho 
lankind  from  tho 
flux  and  reflux 


Bun,  and  E  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Let  tlie  gravitation  of  the  central  particle  E  to  the  sun 
be  represented  by  the  lino  E  S,  and  the  gravitation  of  any  other  particle  M  by  the  line 
M  S  D.  Let  the  force  M  D  be  resolved  into  two  forces,  M  H  equal  and  parallel  to  E  S,  and 
M  G.  The  force  M  H  does  not  in  the  least  degree  affect  the  cavitation  of  the  particle  M 
towards  the  centre  E ;  and  M  G  is,  therefore,  tho  only  disturbing  force.  If  S  M  be  pro- 
duced to  meet  the  circle  A  C  B  O  in  the  point  m,  the  action  of  the  sun  on  a  particle  situated 
at  m  is  less  than  its  action  on  the  central  particle  E;  so  that  if  m  d  represent  the  gravita* 
tion  of  the  particle  m  towards  the  sun,  the  point  d  will  fall  on  the  opposite  side  of  S  from 
the  point  D ;  and  die  foroe  m  d  being  resolved  into  two  forces,  m  A  equal  and  parallel  to  E  S, 
and  the  disturbing  force  m  ^,  it  is  evident  that  the  tendency  of  the  force  m  ^  is  to  diminish 
the  gravity  of  the  particle  m,  in  like  manner  as  the  force  M  G  diminishes  the  gravity  of  the 
particle  M.  When  the  pomt  M  coincides  with  A,  the  angle  E  S  M  is  the  angle  under 
which  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth  is  seen  from  the  sun ;  therefore  E  S  M  con  never  ex- 
ceed 8}" :  whence,  in  determining  the  direction  and  quantity  of  the  disturbing  force  fhim 
the  geometrical  relations  of  the  lines,  we  may  consider  the  lines  D  G,  S  L,  and  D  M  aa 
roincident,  and  M  L  may  be  taken  for  the  disturbing  foroe.    Again,  the  difference  between 


138 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PiRTlL 


iif'ii  A 


W- 


WW 


wmmv 


S  M  and  S  E  ii  (freateit  when  the  point  M  coincides  with  C  or  O.  But  if  we  oonaider 
that  C  E,  tho  difference  between  S  E  and  8  M  when  (p-oateat,  is  only  about  j^Un  part  of 
S  E,  it  is  evident  that  we  commit  but  a  very  small  error  b  supposing  8  M,  S  N,  and  S  E 
'i  every  position  equal.  Now,  since  S  E  and  D  M  roprnsent  the  gravitation  of  the  parti- 
cles £  and  M  towards  the  sun  respectively,  we  have  8E:DM=:SM':  SE';  therefore, 

SN« 
since  8  E  and  SN  may  be  considered  equal,  D  M  =  gp^,.   But  S  N  =  S  M  +  M  N,  there- 

foreSN»  =  SM*+8SM'xMN  +  8SMxMN«-rMN».  The  ouantity  M  N  ia  so 
small,  compared  with  S  M,  that  the  two  last  terms  of  this  expression  for  8  rr  may  be  ne- 
glected: wehave,  therefbre,  SN*  =  8M*+38M'xMN,and  gigi  =  S  M  +  3MN; 

wherefore,  also,  DM  =  SM+3MN;and  taking  S  M  fhun  each,  we  find  S  D  =  3  M  N. 
Now,  since  C  D  may  be  considered  equal  to  L  S  4-  8  D,  and  E  S  is  by  construction  equal 
to  Q  O,  it  ia  evident  that  E8  =  L8+8D,  or  taking  L  8  iVom  each,  E  L  —  8  D.  Hence 
E  L  =  3  M  N,  and  the  disturbing  force  for  any  point  M  is  determined  both  in  direction  and 
magnitude. 

Suppose  now  that  A  C  B  O  {fig.  40.)  is  the  terraqueous  globe,  E  8  a  lino  directed  to  the 
sun,  and  A  E  B  a  section  by  that  circle  which  separates  the  enlightened  from  the  dork 
hemisphere.  *Lot  M  bo  any  particle  on  or  within  tlie  mass.  Through  tlio  point  M  draw  a 
straight  line  M  N  perpendicular  to  the  plane  A  E  B,  and  in  E  S  take  E  L,  equal  to  3  M  N : 
join  L  M ;  then  L  M  represents  the  direction  and  intensity  of  the  disturbing  force  which 
the  sun  exerts  on  the  particle  M.  Let  the  force  L  M  be  resolved  into  two  forces,  one,  M  E, 
directed  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  the  other,  M  R,  tending  from  the  plane  A  E  B 
towards  the  sun.  Suppose  the  same  construction  to  be  made  for  everr  point  of  the  sphere, 
the  whole  being  supposed  covered  with  water,  it  is  evident  that  the  forces  represented  by 
M  E  will  balance  one  another,  and  therefore  need  not  be  considered.  But  the  force  repre- 
sented by  M  R  will  diminish  the  gravity  of  every  particle  M,  reckoned  in  the  direction  of 
a  line  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  that  great  circle  of  the  earth  which  separates  the  illu- 
minated from  the  dark  hemisphere.  The  force  thus  diminbhing  the  gravity  will  be  propor- 
tional to  three  times  the  distance  of  the  particle  from  the  Gcme  plane ;  for  R  M  is  equal  to 
L  E  or  8  M  N.  Every  particle  in  any  column  M  N  being  thus  acted  on  by  a  force  which 
evidently  tends  to  destroy  the  equilibrium  of  the  fluid  mass,  the  water  in  that  column  can- 
not remain  at  rest  Its  equilibrium  may  be  restored,  however,  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
portion  M  m,  which,  by  restoring  the  weight  of  the  column,  enables  it  to  resifcv  the  pressure 
of  the  adjacent  columna  A  sunilor  addition  may  be  made  to  each  column,  pcrpciidicular 
to  the  plane  A  E  B :  and  the  result  will  be  that,  from  being  spherical,  the  figure  of  the  globe 
will  be  changed  into  that  of  an  oblong  elliptical  spheroid,  having  its  axis  directed  towards 
the  sun,  and  its  poles  in  those  points  of  Uie  surface  which  have  the  sun  in  the  zenith  and 
nadir. 

Let  the  figure  into  which  the  watery  sphere  would  be  transformed  by  the  solar  action  be 
represented  by  the  ellipse  a  c  6  o  (jf!^.  41.) :  the  points  o  and  c  are  tlie  poles  of  the  spheroid ; 
and  at  these  points  the  waters  are  highest  above  the  sphere  A  C  B  O  of  equal  capacity,  while 
all  round  tho  circumference  B  E  A  uie  waters  are  below  their  natural  level.  By  calculation 
it  is  found  that  the  difierence  between  E  c  and  E  a  is  about  twenty-four  and  a  half  inches ; 
BO  that  the  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  not  great 

The  figure  which  the  watery  spheroid  assumes  must  be  in  a  slight  degree  influenced  bv 
the  spheroidal  figure  of  the  earth ;  but  the  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  so  small, 
that  its  effect  in  changing  the  spheroidal  figure  of  the  waters  on  the  surrace  of  the  earth 
must  be  quite  mconsiderable.  If  the  earth  were  at  rest,  the  watery  spheroid  would  acquire 
^hat  form  which  would  produce  an  equilibrium  among  tdl  its  particles.  This,  however,  can 
never  happen  under  the  actual  circumstances  of  the  case,  because  some  time  must  elapse 
befi>re  an  acceleratiiuf  force  can  produce  a  finite  change  in  the  disposition  of  the  waters; 
but  by  the  motion  of^the  earth  on  its  axis,  the  disturbing  force  is  every  instant  applied  to  a 
diflferent  part  of  the  sur&ce,  so  that  the  position  of  equilibrium  can  never  actually  be  attain- 
ed. Such,  then,  is  the  <;^eneral  effect  which  the  solar  action  would  produce  if  the  whole 
globe  were  fluid,  or  a  spherical  nucleus  covered  with  o,  fluid  of  equal  density.  To  explain 
the  phenomena  of  the  tides,  however,  it  is  indispensably  necessary  to  take  into  account  the 
action  of  the  moon. 

It  is  with  the  moral  that  the  tides  are  principally  connected ;  aiiu  the  sun's  influence  is 
known  only  by  its  increasing  or  diminishing  the  cnccts  of  her  liicre  powerful  action.  This 
greater  influence  of  the  moon  in  producing  the  tides  arises  from  her  vicinity  to  the  earth, 
when  compared  with  the  sun,  her  distance  being  only  about  xhf  P^rt  of  his.  It  must  be 
carefully  kept  in  view,  that  it  is  not  the  mere  action  of  the  sun  and  moon  that  produces  the 
tides  in  the  ocean,  but  the  ineqiudUies  in  the  action  of  each :  and  the  ^vitation  of  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  to  the  moon  is  much  more  unequal  than  their  gravitation  to  the  sun. 
Whatever  has  been  proved  with  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  aun  in  producing  tides  in  the 


P4IITIL 

It  if  we  consider 
ut  5jA,j  pert  of 
M,  S  N,  and  S  E 
Lion  of  the  parti- 
SE';  therefore, 

M  +  MN,  there. 

tnti^  M  N  ia  so 
S  Ir  may  be  ne- 

:SM  +  dMN; 

idSD  =  3MN. 
}ni9tniction  equal 
,  —  S  D,  Hence 
I  in  direction  and 

ic  directed  to  the 
id  from  the  dark 
3  pomt  M  draw  a 
equal  to  3  MN: 
binj;  force  which 
forces,  one,  M  E, 
1  the  plane  A  E  B 
int  of  the  sphere, 
B  represented  by 
the  force  repre- 
1  the  direction  of 
leparates  the  illu- 
ty  will  be  proper- 
R  M  is  equal  to 
by  a  force  which 
that  column  can- 
dition  of  a  small 
Bsibv  the  pressure 
in,  pcrjpendicular 
euro  of  the  globe 
directed  towards 
in  the  zenith  and 

c  solar  action  be 

I  of  the  spheroid ; 

II  capacity,  while 
.  By  calculation 
1  a  half  inches ; 

ee  influenced  bv 
lire  is  80  small, 
ice  of  the  earth 
id  would  acquire 
is,  however,  can 
me  must  elapse 
1  of  the  waters ; 
tant  applied  to  a 
itually  be  attain- 
ice  if  the  whole 
ty.  To  explain 
into  account  the 

m's  influence  ia 
al  action.  This 
ity  to  the  earUi, 
is.  It  must  be 
lat  produces  the 
avitation  of  the 
ition  to  the  sun. 
ling  tides  in  the 


DooK  I. 


THE  TIDES. 


120 


ocean  is  equally  applicable  to  the  moon.  The  waters  will  bo  accumulated  imniediatelv 
under  her,  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe,  producing  a  spheroid  of  the  same  kind  witb 
that  wiiich  wo  have  shown  must  be  produced  by  the  unequal  action  of  the  sun,  but  more 
elongated ;  and  this  spheroid,  directed  toward  the  moon,  will  follow  her  in  her  apparent 
daily  revolution  about  the  earth.  In  consc'iuenco  of  this  simultaneous  gravitation  towards 
botii  luminaries,  the  ocean  must  assume  a  figure  diflbrent  from  both  of  those  spheroids; 
which  will  become  blended  and  undistinguishable.  The  resulting  figure  resembles  each  of 
the  splicroids  in  being  elongated,  and  its  most  elevated  parts  aro  found  to  follow  tlie  more 
powerful  of  tho  disturbing  Kxlies,  namely,  the  moon,  in  her  apparent  diurnal  revolution  about 
the  earth.  We  may,  wiUiout  sensible  error,  suppose  that  the  change  produced  in  any  part 
of  the  ocean  by  the  combined  action  of  the  sun  and  moon,  is  tho  sum  or  tho  difference  of  the 
changes  which  thov  would  have  produced  if  acting  separately. 

VVe  have  already  remarked  that  the  rapid  motion  of  the  waters,  in  consequence  of  the 
diurnal  motion,  prevents  them  from  ever  assuming  the  figure  which  would  bo  reouisite  for 
tlie  equilibrium  of  the  forces  acting  on  them ;  so  that  they  oscillate  continually,  alternately 
approaching  to  that  figure  and  receding  fVom  it.  The  motion  thus  communicated  to  them 
ia  one  not  of  transference,  but  of  undulation,  one  part  rising  and  another  sinking,  unless 
when  from  wont  of  depth  of  water  tho  balance  between  tlie  adjacent  columns  is  destroyed. 
We  may,  therefore,  re^rd  the  two  elevations  produced  in  tho  ocean  by  tho  inequalities  in 
the  solar  and  lunar  actions  as  two  vast  waves  which  follow  tho  moon  in  her  apparent  diurnal 
motion.  The  lino  joining  tho  tops  of  these  two  waves  is  not  directed  to  tho  moon,  os  would 
be  the  cose  if  the  earth  and  moon  were  at  rost,  but  ia  directed  to  a  point  about  30°  to  tho 
eastward  of  the  moon.  This  arises  from  the  inertia  of  the  water,  which  causes  it,  when 
once  put  in  motion,  tocontmue  to  rise  for  a  time  after  the  impulse  communicated  has  ceased. 
If  we  consider  the  tides  relatively  to  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe,  there  is  a  meridian,  there- 
fore, about  30°  eastward  of  the  moon  where  it  is  always  hioh  wateb,  both  in  the  hemisphere 
where  the  moon  is,  and  the  opposite  hemisphere.  On  the  west  side  of  the  meridian  tho  tide 
is  Jlowinff,  and  on  the  east  side  of  it  the  tide  is  ebbing.  On  the  meridian  which  is  at  right 
angles  to  the  former,  it  is  everywhere  low  wateh.  If  we  suppose,  then,  the  sun  and  moon 
to  he  in  the  equator,  and  an  observer  to  be  situated  on  the  sur&ce  of  the  water  under  the 
equator;  when  the  moon  has  risen  30°  above  his  horizon,  the  state  of  the  tido  to  that  observer 
will  be  low  water.  As  the  moon  advances  towards  his  zenith,  the  tide  will  flow ;  and  when 
she  has  reachc  i  a  point  about  30°  to  tlie  westward  of  his  zenith,  the  summit  of  the  wave  will 
reach  him,  and  then  the  state  of  the  tide  will  be  hir^h  water.  As  the  moon  approaches  the 
western  horizon,  the  observer  will  see  tho  water  gradually  subside  as  it  had  formerly  risen; 
and  when  she  has  descended  30°  below  the  horizon,  it  is  again  low  water.  As  the  moon 
continues  her  course  below  the  horizon,  the  waters  again  gradually  rise  by  the  approach  of 
the  other  wave  until  its  summit  arrives  at  the  observer,  and  again  produces  high  water ; 
when  the  moon  has  passed  the  opposite  meridian,  and  reached  a  point  30°  beyond  it,  the  tide 
iigain  begins  to  ebb  as  the  wave  rolla  on,  and  the  same  phenomena  are  repeated  in  the  same 
order.  Thus,  in  the  space  of  time  in  which  the  moon  performs  her  diurnal  revolution,  which 
may  be  called  a  lunar  day,  and  consists  of  nearly  24'  50™,  there  occur  two  tides  of  flood  and 
two  of  ebb.  The  time  between  one  high  water  to  the  next  is  about  12"  25°,  and  the  instant 
of  low  water  is  nearly  but  not  exactly  the  middle  of  this  interval,  the  tide  in  general  taking 
about  nine  or  ten  minutes  more  in  ebbing  than  in  flowing. 

Spring  and  neap  tides.  As  the  magnitude  of  the  two  waves  which  produce  the  rise  and 
fall  of  tho  tide  depends  on  the  action  of  the  sun  as  well  as  on  that  of  the  moon,  it  is  evident 
that  the  height  to  which  the  water  rises  and  falls  must  be  affected  by  the  relative  position 
of  the  two  luminaries.  At  new  moon  and  full  moon  the  actions  of  the  sun  and  moon  are 
combined,  but  at  the  quadratures  they  counteract  each  other.  In  the  former  case,  tiie  two 
spheroids  produced  by  the  solar  and  lunar  actions  have  their  axes  coincident  or  nearly  so ; 
in  the  latter,  their  axes  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  Hence,  at  new  and  full  moon  the 
flood  tide  will  rise  higher,  and  the  ebb  tide  will  sink  lower,  than  usual.  The  revjrse  of  thia 
will  happen  when  the  moon  is  in  either  of  her  quadratures :  the  flood  tide  will  not  rise  so 
high  as  usual,  nor  will  the  ebb  tide  sink  so  low.  This  is  exactly  coincident  with  experience ; 
and  we  here  perceive  the  cause  of  what  are  called  sprino  tides  and  neap  tides.  About 
the  time  of  full  moon  and  change  the  tidus  rise  higher  than  when  the  moon  presents  any 
other  phasis.  The  highest  tide  does  not  happen,  however,  the  first  afler  the  opposition  or 
conjunction,  though  the  disturbing  forces  are  then  united,  but  some  time  after;  and  the 
cause  of  this^is  the  same  which  prevents  the  time  of  high  water  of  any  one  tide  coinciding 
with  the  time  of  the  moon  being  on  that  meridian  under  which  the  tide  happens ;  namely, 
the  inertia  of  the  water,  or  that  tendency  which  all  matter  has  to  retain  its  state  whether 
of  rest  or  motion.  At  Brest,  where  an  accurate  register  was  kept  of  ihe  phenomena  of  the 
tides  about  the  beginning  of  the  lost  century,  it  waa  found  that  ih<)  highest  tide  happened 
about  a  day  and  a  half  afler  the  new  and  fiill  moon.  If  the  time  of  high  water  coincide  with 
the  very  time  of  Conjunction  or  opposition,  the  third  high  water  after  that  is  the  highest  of  all. 
Thia  is  called  lie  sfbimo  tide.    From  this  period  the  tides  gradually  decrease,  until  the  third 

Vol.  I.  R 


110 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paet  U. 


111 


;!  4: 


high  water  ailor  tho  mnon'i  (|ua(lniture,  which  ia  the  lowest  of  all,  and  ia  called  the  nbat 
TiDK.  Dut  havinff  reached  their  iitmoat  dcproMion,  the  tidea  a|fain  increase  until  tho  occur- 
rence of  the  next  spring  tide ;  and  so  on  cnntinually.  The  highor  the  tide  of  flood  rises,  the 
lower  the  ebb  tide  gonorallv  sinks  on  Uiat  day.  The  total  magnitude  of  the  tide  is  estinwtiNl 
by  tho  diflbrenco  between  high  and  low  water.  At  Brest  tlie  medium  spring  tide  is  about 
19  feet,  and  the  medium  neap  tide  about  0  feet 

Effect  in  different  hemi$pherei.  Let  us  next  suppose  tho  sun  and  moon  to  be  situated  ia 
one  of  the  tropics;  tho  two  waves  raised  in  the  ocean  bv  their  actions  on  opposite  sides  of 
tho  globe  will  now  roll  along  under  the  tropics.  If  an  observer  be  placed  on  tho  surtkce  of 
the  water,  and  under  the  same  tropic  in  which  the  sun  and  moon  aro  situated,  he  will  still 
see  two  tides  of  flood  and  twoof  ebo;  but  they  will  not  corresjwnd  in  all  their  circumstances, 
as  they  did  on  the  former  supposition.  The  depth  of  tho  high  water  produced  by  the  wave 
situated  in  the  same  hemisphere  with  tho  moon,  will  evidently  bo  greater  than  that  of  the 
high  water  produced  by  the  wave  which  rolls  along  under  the  other  tropic  in  the  opposite 
hemisphere  m>ro  the  moon ;  for  the  observer  will  see  the  very  summit  of  tho  one  wave,  and 
only  tiio  sloping  side  of  tho  other.  To  an  observer  situated  under  the  tropic  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  equator  from  the  sun  and  moon,  the  cose  would  be  reversed ;  and  if  he  were  so 
far  removed  from  tho  equator  as  to  be  situated  under  the  polar  circle^  no  part  of  the  wave 
accumulated  in  the  same  hemisphere  with  the  moon  would  reach  him ;  so  that  he  would 
see  only  one  tide  of  flood  and  ono  tide  of  ebb  daily  produced  by  tho  motion  of  tho  other 
wave. 

This  also  is  consistent  with  what  we  know  respecting  the  tides  flrom  observation.  All  the 
phenomena  are  found  to  be  modifled  by  the  latitude  of  the  piaco  of  observation ;  and  some 
phenomena  are  found  to  occur  in  high  latitudes,  which  are  not  at  all  seen  when  the  place 
of  observation  is  under  the  equator.  In  particular  when  the  moon  and  the  observer  are  on 
the  same  side  of  the  equator,  that  tide  in  which  the  moon  is  above  the  horizon  is  greater 
than  the  other  tide  of  ttie  same  day  which  happens  when  the  moon  is  below  the  horizon. 
The  contrary  takes  place  when  the  moon  and  the  observer  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
equator :  in  this  latter  case,  if  the  polar  distance  of  the  observer  be  equal  tu  the  moon's 
declination,  he  will  see  but  one  tide  m  the  day,  continuing  to  flow  for  twelve  hours  and  to 
ebb  for  twelve  hours.  We  have  supposed  for  simplicity  the  sun  and  moon  to  be  in  the  equa* 
tor,  or  in  one  of  the  tropics ;  but  it  is  evident  that  thii.  con  seldom  be  the  case.  Tho  two 
luminaries  are  capable  of  on  infinite  variety  of  positions  in  reference  to  each  other,  as  well 
aa  in  reference  to  any  particular  point  of  the  earth's  sunace.  The  phenomena  with  regard 
to  particular  places  must,  therefore,  be  endlessly  diversified ;  but  by  tracing  the  general 
features,  the  principles  become  apparent  upon  which  all  tho  phenomena  depend. 

The  influence  or  the  sun  and  moon  in  producing  tides  in  tne  ocean  will  evidently  be  aug* 
mented  when  these  bodies  are  nearer  to  the  earth,  and  dhninished  when  their  distances  are 
increased.  From  this  cause  it  arises,  that  when  the  moon  is  in  that  part  of  her  orbit  where 
she  approaches  nearest  to  the  earth,  the  spring  tide  which  happens  at  that  time  is  the  highest, 
and  the  next  spring  tide  is  the  smallest ;  because  the  moon  is  then  nearly  at  her  greatest 
distance  from  the  earth.  This  makes  a  difference  of  2}  feet  fVom  the  mean  height  of  the 
spring  tide  at  Brest ;  and  consequently  of  double  that  quantity,  or  5^  feet,  between  the 
greatest  spring  tide  and  the  least  The  neap  tide  which  happens  between  these  two  very 
unequal  spring  tides  is  regular,  because  the  moon  is  then  nearly  at  her  mean  distance.  The 
reverse  of  this  takes  place  when  the  moon  is  at  her  mean  distance  at  the  time  of  the  change : 
the  spring  tide  is  regular,  but  the  two  neap  tides  differ  considerably  in  height.  The  increased 
distance  of  the  sun  is  the  reason  why  the  spring  tides  in  our  summer  are  not  so  great  as  in 
our  winter.  At  the  mean  intensities  of  the  disturbing  forces,  the  sun  tends  to  raise  the 
waters  about  24^  inches,  and  the  moon  about  58.  Hence  the  spring  tide  should  be  about 
58+24i=82J  inches,  and  the  neap  tide  about  58 — ^24^=33^  inches. 

Variations  caused  by  continents,  islands,  dj^c.  We  have  hitherto  supposed  the  two 
waves  which  produce  the  phenomena  of  the  tides  to  meet  witli  no  interruption  in  their  pro 
gross  round  the  world.  This  is,  however,  ftr  from  being  the  case ;  they  are  interrupted  by 
continents  and  islands,  and  may  be  propelled  or  retarded  by  the  action  of  the  wind ;  their 
velocity  and  direction  may  also  be  changed  by  irregularities  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean :  so  that, 
to  explain  all  the  phenomena  at  any  particular  place,  the  effect  of  local  circumstances, 
which  is  often  great,  must  be  taken  into  the  account.  The  great  Pacific  Ocean  is,  perlvips, 
the  only  part  of  the  terraqueous  globe  in  which  all  the  forces  have  room  to  operate.  But 
the  wave  which  they  form  must,  in  rolling  westward,  encounter  the  coasts  of  Asia  and  New 
Holland,  with  the  interjacent  islands ;  and  amidst  these  obstacles  it  must  force  its  way  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Its  figure  will  thus  be  changed,  and  the  phen')mena  of  the  tides,  which  it 
produces,  powerfully  modified.  On  its  eastern  side  the  Pacific  is  bounded  by  a  vast  stretch 
of  coast  extending  without  interruption  from  Cape  Horn  to  Behring's  Straits.  This  bafrie? 
prevents  all  supply  from  the  eastward  for  malung  up  the  watery  spheroid,  and  must  be 
equally  efiectuu  in  arresting  the  progress  of  tho  waters  accumulated  to  the  eastward  of  the 
i\incrican  continent    So  rar  as  we  have  information  respecting  the  tides  in  tho  Pacific 


TawtU. 

m  called  the  nbat 
e  until  iho  occur» 
I  of  flood  riaoi,  the 
]  tide  is  ORtimated 
ring  tide  ia  about 

1  to  be  situated  ia 
,  oppoflito  sides  of 
on  the  surtkce  of 
latcd,  lie  will  still 
sir  circumstancea, 
ucod  by  the  wave 
r  than  that  of  the 
lie  in  the  oppoaita 
:ho  one  wave,  and 
tic  on  the  oppoaite 
and  if  he  were  ao 
I  part  of  the  wave 
BO  that  ho  would 
otion  of  tho  other 

lervation.  All  the 
'vation ;  and  some 
in  when  the  place 
le  observer  aro  on 
horizon  is  g^reater 
lelow  the  horizon, 
poeite  sides  of  the 
lal  to  the  moon'a 
elve  hours  and  to 
to  be  in  the  equa- 
te case.  Tho  two 
sach  other,  aa  well 
tmena  with  regard 
cing  the  general 
spend. 

evidently  be  aug* 
their  distances  are 
)f  her  orbit  where 
mo  is  the  highest, 
:ly  at  her  greatest 
lean  height  of  the 
feet,  between  the 
en  these  two  very 
ian  distance.  The 
me  of  the  change: 
it  The  increased 
lot  so  great  as  in 
tends  to  raise  tho 
should  be  about 

lupposed  the  two 

)tion  in  their  pn^ 

re  interrupted  b^ 

'  the  wind ;  tiheir 

le  ocean :  so  that, 

il  circumstances, 

)ccan  is,  perhaps, 

to  operate.    But 

of  Aaa  and  New 

rce  its  way  to  the 

le  tides,  which  it 

by  a  vast  stretch 

Its.     Tiiia  baiTioT 

oid,  and  must  be 
e  eastward  of  the 
es  in  tho  Pacifio 


BookL 


THE  TIDEa 


Ocean,  they  appear  to  be  very  imlike  tli.-  European  tidet,  until  wo  reach  about  40"  or  80* 
west  from  the  coaat  of  America.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  tliat  coast,  scarcely  any  tido 
occurs  when  the  moon  ia  below  tho  horison.  Even  in  the  middle  of  tho  Pacific  Ocean  tho 
tides  aro  very  small,  but  at  tho  miiio  time  very  regular. 

As  a  (^cat  extent  of  aurfiico  is  ni-ccAt<nry  in  order  that  the  aea  should  be  aenaibly  affected 
by  tho  inequalities  in  tho  actions  ol  the  nun  and  moon,  the  tideM  which  are  experienced  in 
narrow  seas,  and  on  shores  far  remove'  tVom  the  main  body  of  tho  ocean,  are  not  produced 
in  thoae  seoa,  but  are  waves  propaf;^t<  1  from  the  great  diurnal  undulation,  and  moving  with 
mucli  less  velocity.  The  tidea  which  visit  the  coasts  of  England,  must,  in  a  great  mcaaure, 
be  supplied  ft<om  the  accumulation  of  water  in  the  Indian  and  Ethiopic  Ocean,  from  the  east- 
wanl,  and  by  what  ia  brought  or  kept  back  frtnn  the  South  Hca.  Tho  undulations  will  bo 
diffliscd  aa  proceeding  from  a  collection  coming  round  tho  Cape  of  Good  Hone,  and  round 
Cape  Horn.  Consistently  with  tliia  auppoaition,  it  ia  found  that  high  water,  wnich  occura  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  at  new  and  full  moon  about  threo  o'clock,  ia  later  and  later  aa  we 
proceea  northward  along  the  coast  of  Africa ;  later  and  later  atill  as  we  follow  it  along  the 
western  coasts  of  Spain  and  Franco,  until  wo  reach  the  mouth  of  the  English  Channel.  The 
wave  now  divides  itself  into  tliree  branches ;  one  part  passing  up  St.  Gcorpe'a  Channel, 
another  proceeding  northward  along  the  western  ccost  of  Ireland,  and  the  third  passing  up 
the  English  Channel,  between  the  British  and  French  coasts.  The  two  branches  that  pro- 
coed  along  the  east  and  west  sides  of  Ireland  unite  and  form  ono  ridge  or  wave,  which  cou 
tinucs  its  progress  along  tho  western  coasts  and  islands  of  Scofland,  and  then  difilises  itself 
eastward  towards  Norway  and  Denmark,  and  circling  round  the  eastern  cooata  of  Britain, 
comes  southward  through  the  German  Ocean,  until  it  reaches  Dover,  where  it  meets  tho 
branch  which  passes  up  tho  English  Channel,  It  is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  this  tide 
which  comes  up  tho  channel  is  not  the  same  with  that  which  meets  it  fh>m  the  north,  but  is 
a  whole  tide  earlier  if  not  two,  aa  appears  from  the  fact  of  the  spring  tide  at  Rye  being  a 
tide  earlier  than  the  spring  tide  at  the  Nore :  it  even  seems  two  tides  earlier,  for  it  appears 
Uio  one  aa  often  aa  tlio  other.  By  tracing  the  hour  of  high  water  fh)m  the  Lizard  up  St 
George's  Channel,  and  along  the  west  coasts  of  Scotland,  it  appears  that  the  two  tides  which 
pass  along  the  east  and  west  sides  of  Ireland  and  unite  into  ono  wave  to  the  north  of  it, 
travel  round  Britain  in  about  twenty-eight  hours,  in  which  time  the  primitive  tide  has  gone 
round  the  whole  circumference  of  the  earth,  and  nearly  45  degrees  more.  By  attending 
also  to  the  successive  hours  of  high  water  along  the  western  coasts  of  Africa  and  Europe, 
it  appears  that  the  wave,  which  mvides  into  three  branches  at  the  mouth  of  tho  English 
Channel,  takes  up  nearly  two  days,  or  between  four  and  five  tides,  in  travelling  thither  from 
the  Cape  of  Gooa  Hope.  A  similar  progress  of  the  same  high  water  from  the  southward  is 
observed  along  the  eaistem  shores  of  South  America ;  but  beyond  Brazil  and  Surinam  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  is  sufRciently  extensive  to  contribute  greatly  to  the  formation  of  the  regular 
spheroid ;  so  that  the  effect  of  this  high  water  fh)m  the  southward,  being  blended  with  the 
tide  raised  in  the  Atlantic  itself,  becomes  insensible.  In  an  ocean  of  such  a  breadth  from 
east  to  west  as  tho  Atlantic,  the  water  can  rise  on  the  one  shore  only  by  descending  on  the 
other.  In  the  middle,  therefore,  it  will  retain  nearly  the  mean  height  between  its  elevations 
on  the  two  opposite  coasts :  this  appears  to  be  the  veason  why  the  tides  arc  small  in  islands 
that  aro  very  far  distant  from  the  shores. 

The  reflection  of  the  tide  from  shore  to  shore  is  a  great  cause  of  irregularity  in  the  tides. 
The  coasts  may  be  so  situated  that  the  time  in  which  the  undulation  that  constitutes  the 
tide  would  of  itself  vibrate  backward  and  forward  fVom  shore  to  shore,  may  ha  so  exactly 
accommodated  to  the  recurring  action  of  the  moon  that  the  succeeding  impulses,  being 
always  added  to  the  natural  undulation,  may  raise  it  to  a  height  altogether  disproportioned 
to  what  the  action  of  the  moon  can  produce  m  the  open  sea,  where  the  undulation  difiitses 
itself  to  a  vast  distance. 

The  inequalities  which  undoubtedly  obtain  in  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  affect  the  tides,  by 
changing  the  direction  of  the  waters ;  also  their  velocity  either  absolutely  or  in  respect  of 
particular  places.  They  may  also  influence  the  height  by  causing  the  tide  to  rush  with 
mcreasing  velocity  towards  a  particular  point,  where  the  waters  must  at  length  be  suddenly 
checked,  and  therefore  be  accumulated  in  an  extraordinary  degree :  this  appears  to  be  the 
cause  of  the  astonifdiingly  high  tides  which  occur  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  high  water  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  St  Helena  does  not  exceed  four  or  five  feet ;  but,  setting  in  obliquely 
on  the  coast  of  North  America,  it  seems  to  range  along  that  coast  in  a  channel  or  bed, 
gradually  narrowing  till  it  is  stopped  in  tlie  Bay  of  Fundy,  where  the  accumulation  of  the 
waters  becomes  tremendous.  The  tide  approaches  with  a  p  odigious  noise  in  one  vast  wave, 
that  is  seen  many  miles  off,  and  the  waters  rise  to  the  height  of  more  tlian  seventy  feet  in 
the  gulf  of  Cumberland  basin ;  the  rapidity  of  the  v.'atcrs  is  so  great  as  to  overtake  atiimala 
feeaing  on  the  shores. 

in  consequence  of  the  Icnofth  of  time  requured  for  a  tide  to  propagate  itself  up  a  great 
river,  one  or  two  succeeding  tides  may  reach  the  mouth  of  the  river  before  the  first  tide  has 
arrived  at  the  highest  point  to  which  it  ranges  up  the  stream.    The  second  tide  will  also 


liU 


PRINCIPLES  OF  OEOORAPIIY. 


PAIIT  11. 


nnve  propafratod  itself  lo  fur  up  tiio  river,  bv  tlio  time  Uiat  tlio  third  tide  ruachoa  the  mouth ; 
Olid  thuH  there  may  be  three  co-cxiatont  high  wiitors  in  the  river.  Tlio  two  intervening  low 
waters  in  Uio  ocean  will  also  produce  two  corro8|)onding  low  waters  in  the  river:  thcso 
cliangGH  in  the  depth  of  the  Htream  are  produced  by  tlie  high  waters  which  arrive  at  its 
mouth  checking  its  velocity,  and  Uio  low  waters  accelerating  it.  To  cause  high  water  at 
nny  particular  point,  it  is  by  no  moans  necot«ary  tliat  tlie  water  should  be  raised  to  that  level 
all  the  way  flrom  tliat  imint  to  tlio  inoutli  of  tiie  river.  Before  such  on  accumulation  could 
take  place,  in  many  instances,  places  fiirtlier  down  tlie  stream  would  be  inundated.  At  many 
places  tliat  are  for  flrom  Uio  sea,  the  strooin  at  the  moment,  of  high  water  is  down  tlie  river, 
and  sometimes  it  is  considerable.  At  Quebec,  tlio  current  in  the  St  Lawrence  runs  at  the 
rate  of  not  less  than  tliree  miles  per  hour :  this  is  u  clear  proof  that  tlio  water  is  not  heaped 
up,  fur  tliero  can  bo  no  stream  witliout  a  declivity.  The  phenomenon  termed  the  bore  of  a 
river,  which  occurs  chiefly  in  largo  rivers  tiiat  have  a  wide  outlet,  and  where  tlio  greatest 
tides  are  experienced,  arises  IVom  the  waters  accumulated  in  tiie  gulf  or  outlet  by  one  tide 
not  being,  m  such  circumstances,  dischur^eil  before  the  approach  of  tlio  ensuing  tide. 
Thcso  accumulated  waters  encounter,  therefore,  the  waters  of  the  ocean  flowing  in  an  op- 
|)osite  direction ;  so  tliat  tlio  reduction  of  tlio  conflicting  waves  produces  an  elevation  of  tlie 
water  far  above  the  natural  level.  The  surge  formod  in  this  manner  rolls  up  tlio  river  with 
irresistible  force,  overwhelming  every  tiling  which  it  encounters ;  until,  exhausted  by  the 
resistance  which  it  has  to  ovorcomo,  it  at  lengtli  sinks  into  a  feeble  undulation.  The  vio- 
lence and  elevation  witli  which  tlie  bore  rushes  along  in  some  rivers  is  almost  incredible :  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Severn  the  flood  comes  up  in  one  head  about  ten  feet  in  height ;  but  in  tlie 
great  rivers  of  America,  and  particularly  in  the  Amazon,  it  becomes  a  rolling  mountain  of 
water,  which  is  said  to  attain  the  height  of  180  feet. 

In  confined  senij  of  small  extent,  sur  h  as  the  Caspian,  tlio  Euxino,  tlio  Baltic,  and  the 
great  lakes  of  Nortli  America,  the  tid  as  must  necessarily  be  almost  insensible ;  tlie  dis- 
turbing forces  in  such  situations  have  u  Jt  room  to  act  to  luiy  extent :  the  greatest  height  to 
which  tlio  waters  of  the  Caspian  can  r  so  above  their  level  on  tlie  shore,  m  consequence  of 
a  spheroidal  sliape  being  given  to  theri  by  the  lunar  action,  does  not  exceed  seven  inches; 
an  accumulation  which  a  slight  brce7  0  of  wind  is  sufficient  to  counteract.  Even  in  cases 
where  a  confined  sea  is  connected  with  the  ocean  by  a  narrow  channel,  no  sensible  tide  can 
happen ;  for  tlie  tide  in  tlio  ocean  ca  inot  diffuse  itself  through  tlie  contracted  inlet  during 
the  period  that  elapses  between  two  consecutive  tides. 

The  Mediterranean  is  a  confined  sea  of  considerable  extent ;  and  tlie  tides  there  might  be 
very  sensible  if  the  eficcts  of  the  solar  and  lunar  actions  were  not  diminished  by  its  distance 
from  tlio  equator.  As  Uio  moon  approaches  the  meridian  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, Uiere  is  a  considerable  elevation  of  Uie  waters  on  the  Syrian  coast,  and  a  con- 
siderable depression  at  Gibraltar.  In  the  middlo  of  the  length  Uie  \vater  is  at  the  mean 
height ;  in  tlie  AUantic  Ocean,  an  opon  and  extensive  surface  of  water,  the  regular  spheroid- 
al form  is  nearly  attained,  and  Uie  water  stands  considerably  higher  on  Uie  outside  of  the 
straits  than  on  Uie  inside ;  it  is  nearly  low  water  wiUiin,  while  it  is  about  one  Uihtl  or  one 
half  flood  without  NotwiUistanding  Uiis  accumulation,  the  communication  is  too  narrow 
to  allow  the  Ude  of  the  ocean  to  difiiise  itself  in  a  regular  manner  into  Uie  basin  of  Uie 
Mediterranean.  As  the  moon  moves  westward,  toward  Gibraltar,  the  water  will  begin  to 
rise,  but  slowly,  wiUiin  the  straits,  while  without  it  is  flowing  very  rapidly.  The  accu- 
mulation within  increases  wiUi  Uie  progress  of  Uie  moon  westward,  until  it  reaches  hi^h 
water ;  but  by  Uiis  time  Uic  tide  has  been  ebbing  for  some  hours  without  Uio  straits.  It  will 
now  be  low  water  on  Uie  coast  of  Syria ;  and  during  all  Uiis  timo  Uie  water  at  the  middle 
between  Uie  eastern  and  western  extremities  will  not  have  sensibly  altered  its  depth. 

The  singular  currents  which  prevail  in  Uic  Straits  of  Gibraltar  appear  in  a  great  measure 
explained  oy  these  pcculiariUes  with  regard  to  the  tides  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and 
AtianUc  Ocean.  Changes  of  tide,  alwa}rs  diflferent  and  frequently  quite  opposite,  are 
observed  on  Uio  east  and  west  sides  of  the  narrow  neck  which  connects  Uie  rock  wiUi  Spain; 
and  the  general  tenor  of  those  ciianges  has  a  very  great  analogy  with  what  has  now  been 
described. 

It  is  a  fact  which  strikes  the  attention,  upon  Uie  most  cursory  observation  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  the  tides,  that  they  fall  later  every  day.  This  variation  in  the  interval  of  the  Udes 
is  called  the  priming  or  laooino  of  Uie  tides,  according  as  we  refer  them  to  lunar  or  solar 
lime.  If  we  suppose  the  sun  and  moon  to  be  in  Uie  equator,  and  the  watery  spheroid  tw 
attain  instantmieoudy  Uic  form  suited  to  its  equilibrium,  then  Uie  line  joining  the  summits 
of  Uie  two  waves  produced  in  the  ocean  by  their  combined  actions  will  always  be  directed  ti:. 
a  point  situated  between  their  centres;  except  in  Uie  case  of  the  mm  and  mocm  being  in  cos 
junction  or  opposition,  when  it  will  be  directed  towards  their  centres.  The  following  table 
calculated  on  the  above  supposition,  and  for  the  mean  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  from 
the  earth,  exhibits  the  minutes  of  solar  time  that  the  moment  of  high  >vater  precedes  or  fol- 
lows the  moon's  southing,  corresponding  to  every  tenUi  degree  of  the  moon's  elongaUon  ^eest 
ward)  from  the  sun  or  firom  Uie  point  opposite  to  the  sun.    It  shows  sdso  the  hour  and  mmuti« 


Paiit  U. 

108  the  nioutli ; 
itorvenin{(  low 
a  river:  these 
1  arrive  at  its 
liigh  water  at 
id  to  timt  Icvui 
lulation  could 
ited.  At  many 
twn  tlie  river, 
36  runs  at  the 
'  is  not  heaped 
the  BORE  of  a 
)  the  greatest 
Lit  by  oue  tide 
ensuing  tide, 
ing  in  an  op- 
3Vtttion  of  tlie 
tlie  river  with 
lausted  by  the 
on.  The  vio- 
;  incredible :  at 
;ht ;  but  in  tlie 
(  tnountaiu  of 

iaitic,  and  the 
lible;  tlie  di^ 
test  height  to 
onsequcnce  of 
seven  inches; 
Even  in  casea 
nsible  tide  can 
d  inlet  during 

there  might  be 
by  its  distance 
of  the  Medi- 
at,  and  a  con- 
at  the  mean 
|[ular  spheroido 
outside  of  the 
I  tliird  or  one 
is  too  narrow 
}  basin  of  the 
will  begin  to 
'.  The  occu- 
reachos  high 
;rait8.  It  will 
at  the  middle 
I  depth, 
prreat  measure 
tiean  Sea  and 
opposite,  are 
k  witli  Spain ; 
las  now  been 

of  the  pheno- 
fd  of  the  tides 
lunar  or  solar 
ry  spheroid  tt^ 
',  the  summits 
be  directed  ti. 

hoinrr  in  t*f\n 
■ o  —  ' — " 

llowing  tabic 
id  moon  from 
ecedes  or  fol* 
ngation  ^csst 
ir  and  mmuti^ 


Book  T. 


THE  TIDES. 


m 


of  the  day,  nearly,  when  it  is  high  water;  and  the  height  of  the  tide,  supposing  the  height 
of  a  spring  tide  to  be  1000: —  ,      .^ 


Time  of  High  Water. 

Ileiibt 
Tide. 

Time  of  High  Water. 

f! 

1 « 

Before 

Moon'e 

■outbing. 

Afternoon 
or  Midnight, 

Afternoon 
or  Midnight. 

After 
Moon'e 
■outhing. 

Deg. 

Min. 

Ho.  Min. 

1000 
087 
OJO 
eH7 
MH) 
71S 
010 
S18 
433 

Ho.  Min. 

Min. 

Deg. 

0 
10 
SW 
30 
40 
SO 
60 
70 
80 

no 

0 

83 
3U 
40 
4S 

40» 
40i 

as 

0 

0     0 

0  set 

0  SS 

1  98^ 
3      0 
3    3S 
3    134 

3  S0{ 

4  SS 
6      0 

13     0 
11    31 
11     3 
10    31 
10     0 
0   SS 

7     S 
0     0 

0 

1U 
89 

3U 

40 

4S 

25 
0 

180 
170 
1«0 
130 
140 
130 
190 
110 
100 
90 

If  wo  note  the  exact  time  of  high  water  of  spring  tide  for  any  harbour,  and  the  exact 
position  of  the  sun  and  moon  at  that  time,  we  can  easily  make  a  table  of  the  monthly  scries 
for  that  port,  by  noticing  the  diiTorence  of  that  time  from  the  table,  and  making  the  same 
difierence  for  every  succeeding  phosis  of  tlie  tide. 


CHAPTER  XVra. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  BOLAR  SYSTEM. 


Ten  stars,  among  the  countless  number  with  which,  in  a  clear  night,  the  heavens  appeal 
so  resplendent,  have  been  proved,  by  the  observations  and  reasonings  of  which  we  have  now 
given  a  brief  outline,  to  bo  planets  revolving  about  the  sun,  and  deriving  their  light  from 
nim.  The  earth  whicli  we  mhabit  has  been  proved  to  have  a  similar  motion,  and  to  belong 
to  the  some  class  of  bodies.  Several  of  tliese  primary  planets  are  accompanied  by  satellites; 
and  the  whole  are  preserved  in  their  respective  orbits  by  a  centripetal  combined  with  a 
centrifugal  force.  Thus  tJicre  subsist  among  these  balies  relations  which  are  regarded  as 
uniting  them  in  one  system,  having  the  sun  in  the  centre ;  and  which  is  therefore  called  the 

SOLAS  SYSTEM. 

In  regard  to  the  other  planets,  as  we  have  employed  the  obvious  analogy  subsisting 
between  them  and  our  earth,  in  proving  its  annual  and  diurnal  motion ;  so,  on  the  other 
hand,  from  the  same  grounds,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that,  like  the  earth,  they  are 
designed  and  fitted  by  Infinite  Wisdom  for  the  accommodation  of  inhabitants,  and  that  in 
all  probability  millions  of  beings  are  placed  upon  them.  Though  our  observations  in  relation 
to  tlie  subserviency  of  the  arrangements  of  nature  to  the  enjoyment  of  sentient  beings  is 
confined  to  this  narrow  scene ;  yet,  seeinp  Uiis  small  portion  of  the  universe  crowded  with 
examples  of  utility,  why  should  we  imagme  that  Divine  Goodness  has  not  throughout  the 
system  in  like  manner  diflliscd  its  bounty  1  As  our  knowledge  of  the  celestial  phenomena 
is  extended,  tlie  probability  becomes  proportionably  stronger  that  the  other  planets  ore  stored 
with  inhabitants  who  share  in  the  blessings  of  rational  and  sentient  existence.  Their  rota 
tion,  their  atmospheres,  of  which  the  telescope  has  enabled  us  to  detect  the  existence,  and 
the  changes  which  we  see  going  on  in  these  atmospheres,  so  much  resemble  what  we  expe- 
rience on  the  earth,  that  no  man  who  clearly  conceives  them  can  divest  his  mind  of  the 
tliought  that  tliis  is  not  the  only  part  of  the  system  where  the  Creator  has  displayed  his 
bounty  by  giving  existence  to  sentient  beings.  There  is  nothing  that  forbids  us  to  suppose 
that  m  each  of  the  other  planets  there  is  the  same  inexhaustible  store  of  subordinate 
contrivances  that  we  see  here  for  living  creatures  in  every  situation,  possessing  appropriate 
forms,  desires,  and  abilities.  Before  abandoning  such  an  opinion,  there  may  surely  be 
expected,  ftom  those  who  require  us  to  do  so,  some  good  reason  for  its  rejection. 

In  regard  to  the  fixed  stars,  as  the  sun,  if  viewed  from  a  sufficient  distance,  would  be 
diminished  into  a  luminous  point,  while  the  planets  that  revolve  round  him  woidd  become 
invisible;  so,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  highly  probable  that  each  fixed  star  is  itself  a  sun,  and 
the  centre  of  a  particular  system,  being  surrounded  with  a  certain  number  of  planets  and 
comets,  which,  at  different  distances  and  m  different  periods,  perform  their  revolutions 
around  it. 

There  appears  strong  reason  to  suppose  that  the  sun,  with  his  accompanying  planets,  has 
a  motion  among  the  fixed  stars,  round  a  centre.    From  a  comparison  of  ancient  and  moidem 

Vol.  I.  13 


■■rin"r*»r'i«'T5r" 


184 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtU 


observationa,  it  appears  that  while  the  stars  in  one  quarter  of  the  heavens  are  receding  from 
each  oUier,  those  in  the  opposite  region  are  eraaually  approaching.  Dr.  Herschel  has 
found  that  these  motions  of  the  stars  are  nearly  in  the  direction  tluit  wodd  result  from  a 
motion  of  the  sun  towards  the  constellation  oi  Hercules.  It  is  the  opinion  of  I^nde  that 
there  is  a  kind  of  equilibrium  aincmg  all  the  systems  of  the  universe,  and  that  they  have  a 
periodic  circulation  about  their  common  centre  of  gravity. 

.  i  TABULAR  VIEW  OP  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM.        | 

i        ,  L    SECONDARY  PLANETS.  1       ;,  ! 

1.    The  Moon. 


RerolutioiM. 


D.  R.  M.  a. 

Synodieal 39  19  44  9.9 

Anomaliitie 97  13  18  37.4 

Sidereal 97  7  43  11.5 

Tropical 97  7  43  4.7 

Nodical 97  5  5  36.0 


Inclination  of  Orbit  to 
plane  of  Ecliptic. . . . 
Greater  lemi.axii  of  Orl 
Ecoantricity  —  .054844 


I    50  8' 47"  .1 
bit  — 1.000001 


Bemidiameter  of  Terrestrial  Equator  •- 1. 
Moon't  mean  diatance  —  50.96435. 

in  milea  — 937000. 
Moon'a  mean  diameter  ■-  9160  miles. 
Her  volume  —  ^  of  volume  of  tlw  Earth. 
Her  maaa  =-  ;r5  of  "»""'  of  «'>o  Earth. 

79.OT 

Her  denaity  —  tS  ~  '^'^  °^  density  of  the  Earth. 
Her  light  ia  ^th  of  the  light  of  the  Bun. 


3.  Satklltrs  or  Jdpitxr. 


.1 

Sidereal 
Bevolution. 

Mean  diatance 

in  aemidiame- 

ter«ofJupiter'8 

Equator. 

1 

9 
3 

4 

D.     B.     M. 

1    18    88 

3    13    14 

7     8    43 

16    16    38 

6.049 

9.693 

15.330 

96.998 

3. 

Satklmtes 

OF  Satvrn. 

1 
1 

Sidereal 
Revolution. 

Mean  distance 

in  aemiaiame- 

tersofSaturn'a 

Equator. 

I 
9 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

p.    H.     M. 

0  S3    38 

1  8    S3 
1    91    18 
9    17    45 
4    19    45 

15    99    41 
79     7    55 

3.3S1 
4.300 
5.984 
6.819 
9.594 
99.081 
64.359 

4.  SaTXLUTES  of  UkANVS. 


85 

Mean  diatance 

Sidereal 

in  aemidiame- 

"3 

Revolution. 

tera    of   Ura- 

^ 

nua'a  Equator. 

I>.    H.    M. 

1 

5   91   95 

13.130 

9 

8    16   58 

17.039 

3 

10   S3     4 

19.845 

4 

13    10   06 

)B.75a 

5 

38     1   48 

45.507 

6 

107    16   40 

91.00H 

n.    PRIMARY  PLANETS  AND  SUN. 


rtuMla. 

Mem 

DUtuce. 

BecMMeily. 

JulTlloi. 

UMS.Fnballoii. 
Ju.  1,1(01. 

lBdil.ofOtl>U. 
Ju.  1, 1801. 

iMcNota- 
Ju.  1,1801. 

MwiDiUt 
MotinlaOitH. 

S. 

O  t     II 

0  1     II 

0  »     II 

0  1     II 

0  '     " 

fft.Mnuo 

0.li87l»et 

.1(»9I494 

168    0  48.8 

74  21  48.9 

7    0    •,! 

49  57  80.9 

4   (91.8 

014.7007889 

0.723S3ie 

.ocmm* 

II  33    3.0 

128  43  63.1 

3  23  28.5 

74  S4  11.9 

1  38   7.9 

Euth    .    .   . 

S65.at89ai» 

1. 0000000 

.oisTswr 

100  99  10.2 

9930    S.0 

059  8.S 

Mara.    .   .   . 

eae.9796«9s 

IJSW9B 

.    «O700 

64SUJ 

332  23  588 

i  5'l    8.2 

48  0   3.5 

0  3126.7 

Vnta     .    .    . 

igas.7431 

».367OT0O 

.08919000 

'278  90   a4 

249  23  44.4 

■  7   8   90 

108  IS  18.9 

9  18  17.9 

A»*    •    .    ■ 

lUtMOS 

2«etoaeo 

.35781800 

8    900  18  19.1 
S     in  18  11.9 

S      53  33  48.0 
S     147    TSU 

8     IS    4    9.7 
5'  I0(7  9(J 

8     >TI    T4a4 
i      80  41(40) 

0  13  31.9 

Cem     .    .   . 

issLsesi 

a.767MM 

.07843900 

0  12  50.9 

MiM    .    .    . 

iS86.saa8 

a.TTSseeo 

.14164800 

,108  24  S7.S 

.121    7    4.3 

.34*4  55.0 

,17199  99.8 

0  12  48.4 

«.tm    •    •  • 

aaoMAsaia 

«.ao377eo 

.048ie>IO 

Hi  19  23.0 

IS    8  34.6 

1  18  513 

9*18  19.9 

0    4  68.9 

l07SeJI9ei74 

9.saa7Mi 

.OMIS090 

135  90   «.» 

89    9  29.8 

S29S6.7 

III  (8  S7.4 

0   1    0.8 

Cnuna  .   .    . 

HMASUWH 

itLisaeoo 

.04*91938 

177  48  23.0 

187  31  I8.I 

048  284 

Tasassj 

0    0  42.4 

Planets 
and 
Bun. 


True 
Diameter, 


Volume. 


Maaa. 


Denaity, 


Oravi. 

ty. 


Sidereal  Ro- 
tation. 


Inelinationof  Alia 
to  Axia  of  Ecliptic. 


Ligbt 

and 

Heat. 


Mercury 

Venus 

Earth 

Mars 

Jupiter 

Saturn 

Uranus 

Sun 

jMoon 


0.398 
0.975 
1.000 
0.617 
10.660 
9.962 
4.332 
111.454 
.0275 


0.396 

0.927 

1.000 

0.139 

1260.900 

995.000 

80.490 

1364472.000 

.000 


3.9326 

.9924 

.5500 

1.1000 

1.0000 

2.4185 


1.0824 
0.98 
1.0024 
.3324 
2.72 
1.01 


0025 


18127 


m.  B, 
528 
23  21 
0    0 
39  21 
966  50 
10  29  17 
unknown 
12    0 
743 


not  known 
7  not  exactly  known 
23    27    66.5 

30  19    10.6 
3      6    80.0 

31  19     0 
not  known 

7    30     0 
1    SO    10.6 


6.680 
1.911 
1.000 
0.431 
0.037 
nnii 

0.008 
1.000 


Pabt  11 

e  receding  from 
r.  Herachel  has 
Id  result  from  a 
}f  Lalande  that 
lat  they  have  a 


rth. 


Z8  or  Urancs. 


Mean  diitanM 

1 

in  lemidiame- 

in. 

ten    of   Urn- 

nus'i  Equator. 

M. 

a 

13.190 

B 

17.088 

14 

19.843 

e 

82.719 

18 

45.907 

W 

•1.008 

(Ota. 

tfauDtUi 
MoUnlaOrtK. 

INI. 

I    II 

0  '     " 

IT  act 

4   ISM 

A  At 

iM  rs 

0»9  U 

•     • 

0    M 

OSI  B6,T 

ISIM 

0  l<  IT.9 

1«K* 

oisaa.* 

IM.0 

0  13  sag 

•  96.8 

0I9  4&4 

dU 

0   4S8.S 

«M.4 

0  I  a« 

wau 

0   0  49.4 

ofAiii 

Light 

nnd 

Heat. 

ieliptic. 

II 

6.680 

known 

1.011 

)6.5 

1.000 

0.8 

0.481 

m 

0.0S7 

0 

0.011 

0.003 

0 

0.8 

1.000 

OooE  L  FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH.  189 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Wb  have  sufficiently  established  the  important  proposition  that  the  earth  is  a  rotmd  body ; 
and  have  inferred  from  the  figure  of  its  shadow,  as  seen  on  the  moon's  disc  in  lunar  eclipses, 
that  it  must  be  a  sphere,  or  at  least  that  it  approaches  to  that  figure.  Thu  hypothesis  of  its 
being  exactly  spherical  is  sufficient  to  explam,  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  the  general  appear^ 
ance  of  the  heavens,  as  seen  from  different  points  of  its  surface ;  and  before  the  true  doctrine 
of  motion  and  the  law  of  gravitation,  which  connects  the  most  remote  bodies  in  the  univens>, 
were  discovered,  a  sphere  was  considered  to  be  an  exact  representation  of  its  shape,  and  Uie 
ingenuity  of  mathematicians  was  exerted  to  discover  its  magnitude. 

The  determination  of  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  might  appear,  to  one  altogether  ignorant 
of  mathematical  science,  as  a  problem  of  insuperable  difficulty,  and,  indeed,  as  too  suUime  to 
be  resolved  by  a  human  being.  If,  however,  we  suppose  the  earth  an  exact  sphere,  the 
theory  of  the  solution  is  by  no  means  difficult;  it  is  within  the  bounds  of  elementary  geome- 
try, and  has  been  known  ftom  the  earliest  ages :  but  the  case  is  very  diflerent  with  the 
practice.    In  the  actual  resolution,  instruments  of  the  greatest  nicety  are  required ;  and  to 

[>roduce  these,  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  been  tasked  to  the  utmost  durmg  the  last  two 
lundred  years ;  besides,  the  application  of  them  demands,  in  addition  to  the  principles  of 
geometry,  some  of  the  most  refined  theories  in  physics:  so  tliat,  on  Uie  whole,  few  problems 
present  a  more  ample  field  for  the  exertion  of  the  mind  of  man,  or  have  more  extensively 
called  forth  the  assistance  of  arts  and  sciences. 
It  is  now  about  two  thousand  years  since  Eratosthenes  attempted  to  resolve  this  important 

problem.  He  knew  that  on  the  day  of  the  summer  solstice 
the  sun  illuminated  the  bottom  of  a  well  at  Svene.  At  die 
same  instant  he  observed  at  Alexandria  that  the  sun  was  7° 
12'  from  the  zenith :  and  it  was  supposed  that  Syene  was  due 
south  firom  that  place,  and  therefore  that  both  were  under  the 
same  meridian.  Let  C  (Jig.^.)  be  the  earth's  centre,  A 
Alexandria,  Z  its  zenith  in  the  heavens,  B  Syene,  and  S  the 
sun  at  the  instant  when  it  illuminated  the  bottom  of  the  well, 
and  consequently  was  in  the  zenith  of  that  place.  The  angu- 
lar measure  of  the  celestial  arc  Z  S,  or  the  corresponding  ter- 
restrial arc  A  B,  is  the  angle  Z  C  S  at  the  earth's  centre. 
Eratosthenes  obsened  the  angle  Z  A S,  which  by  the  elements 
of  geometrv,  is  less  than  the  former  b;^  the  angle  A  S  C. 
However,  this  difiference  is  so  small,  that  it  may  be  altogether 
neglected  in  the  present  case ;  and  thus  the  angle  A  C  B  will 
be  nearly  7°  12',  that  is,  one  fiftieth  part  of  360° ;  and  conse- 
quently the  arc  A  B  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  one  fiftieth  of 
the  earth's  circumference.  The  distance  between  Alexandria  and  Svene  had  been  deter- 
mined to  be  6000  stadia.  Hence  i^  immediately  followed  that  the  earth's  circumference  was 
260,000  stadia.  As  it  could  not  be  supposed  that  this  result  was  very  accurate,  Eratos- 
thenes reckoned  the  circumference  to  be  252,000  stadia,  which  give  in  round  numbers  700 
Btedia  to  the  length  of  a  degree. 

The  geometrical  principle  here  employed  vras  quite  correct,  and  indeed  was  the  same 
which  is  used  at  this  time ;  but  the  data  were  very  inaccurate  and  uncertain,  for  Syene, 
instead  of  being  exactly  south  from  Alexandria,  lies  considerably  to  the  east;  and  it  may 
well  be  supposed  that  the  assigned  distance  between  Alexandria  and  Syene  was  not  an 
accurate  measurement,  but  merely  a  rude  approximation.  It  is  impossible,  however,  now  to 
determine  how  near  Eratosthenes  came  to  the  truth,  for  want  of  a  knowledge  of  the  exact 
length  of  the  stadium  by  which  the  distance  was  reckoneti. 

The  principles  by  which  Eratosthenes  was  directed  in  his  measurement  of  the  earth 
appear  to  have  been  afterwards  employed  by  Posidonius.  This  astronomer  had  remarked, 
that  at  Rhodes  the  star  Canopus  was  just  visible  in  the  horizon,  but  never  rose  above  it ; 
while  at  Alexandria  it  attained  an  altitude  of  7^°,  or  ^'nth  part  of  the  circumference  of  a  great 
circle.  Tho  direct  distance  between  these  two  places,  which  were  supposed  to  be  on  the 
same  meridian,  was  accounted  to  be  5000  stadia ;  and  therefore,  according  to  this  observa- 
tion, the  circumference  should  have  been  240,000:  but  here  the  uncertainty  of  a  distance 
reckoned  by  a  sea-voyage,  not  to  speak  of  other  causes  of  error,  renders  the  conclusion  of 
no  value. 

About  the  year  800  of  the  Christian  era,  the  caliph  Almaman  directed  that  his  astro- 
nomers should  measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  in  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  The  method 
which  they  employed  was  susceptible  of  greater  accuracy  than  that  of  the  Greeks.  They 
divided  themselves  into  two  parties:  after  observing  the  altitude  of  the  pole,  one  went 
directly  north  and  the  other  south,  measuring  as  they  proceeded,  and  taking  ftom  time  to 


130 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


time  the  altitude  of  the  pole,  until  each  party  had  changed  its  latitude  by  a  degree.  Thus 
the  measure  of  two  degrees  was  obtained ;  but,  at  the  present  time,  our  ignorance  of  the 
exact  length  of  the  unit  of  measure  renders  all  their  labour  useless  to  us,  even  if  (what  is 
very  unlikely)  its  accuracy  might  have  been  relied  on.  It  appears,  however,  that  their 
estunation  of  the  earth's  magnitude  was  less  accurate  tlian  that  of  the  astronomer  of 
Alexandria. 

The  method  of  Eratosthenes  was  practised  in  modem  times,  first  by  Femel,  a  Flemish 
physician.  He  travelled  from  Paris  towards  Amiens,  which  places  are  nearly  under  the 
same  meridian,  until  he  hod  passed  over  a  degree  of  latitude ;  and,  by  a  contrivance  attached 
to  the  wheel  of  his  carriage,  he  ascertained  the  number  of  revolutions  it  mode  in  that  dis- 
tance.   In  this  way  he  found  the  length  of  the  degree  to  be  57,070  French  toises. 

The  same  degree  was  afterwards  measured  by  La  Caille,  and  found  to  be  ''7,074  toises. 
The  near  agreement  of  Fernel's  result  with  tliia  last,  obtained  by  a  more  accurate  and 
scientific  process,  is  very  remarkable. 

The  Dutch  astronomer  Snellius  was  the  first  who  attempted  to  resolve  this  most  inter- 
esting and  difficult  problem  in  practical  geometry  with  those  scientific  aids  which  its  import- 
ance required.  In  the  year  1617  he  published  his  Eratosthenes  Batavus,  in  which  he  has 
detailed  the  whole  process.  The  extreme  points  of  his  meridional  arc  are  terminated  in  the 
parallels  of  Alcmaer,  in  lat  52°  40^',  and  Bergen-op-2kK)m,  lat  51°  29',  the  arc  between 
them  being  1°  11  J'.  He  formed  a  series  of  triangles  between  these  places  along  the  earth's 
surface,  and  determined  (as  well  as  the  imperfect  instruments  of  the  time  enabled  him  to 
determine)  their  angles ;  and  by  several  base  lines,  actually  measured,  he  found  their  side& 
He  reduced  the  positions  of  his  stations  to  the  meridian ;  and  he  concluded  that  a  degree  of 
the  meridian  was  28,500  perches,  which  were  equivalent  to  55,100  toises  of  that  period ; 
which,  however,  were  rather  longer  than  the  toLse  as  it  is  now  estimated.  The  error  of 
Snellius  appears  to  have  been  about  2000  toises  on  the  length  of  a  degree,  of  which  1000 
may  have  arisen  from  the  error  in  measuring  the  celestial  arc,  and  the  rest  from  the  imper- 
fection of  his  ^eodetical  measurements.  Snellius  measured  his  original  base  over  again, 
aiid  corrected  his  conclusion :  he  died,  however,  before  he  could  publish  the  result.  Cassini 
made  certain  corrections  in  his  calculations,  by  which  the  length  of  the  degree  came  out 
56,675  toises ;  and  Muschenbroek,  by  an  exammaiion  of  Snellius's  papers,  found  that  the 
degree  ought  to  have  been  reckoned  57,033  toises, 

Richard  Norwood  made  a  remarkable  approximation  to  the  true  length  of  a  degree  in 
1635,  by  apparently  inadequate  means.  He  measured  the  distance  between  London  and 
York,  observing  the  bearings  as  he  proceeded,  and  reducing  all  to  tlie  direction  of  the 
meridian  and  the  horizontal  plane.  He  determined  the  difference  of  latitude  to  be  2°  28' ;  and 
firom  the  whole  distance  he  determined  the  degree  to  be  367,176  feet  English,  or  57,800  toises. 

As  fiir  as  pure  mathematical  theory  was  concerned,  the  method  of  Snellius  was  excellent ; 
the  chief  imperfection  was  in  his  instruments :  but  an  immense  improvement  was  made  by 
Picard,  in  the  application  of  the  telescope  and  the  micrometer  to  the  measurement  of 
angles :  and,  with  the  assistance  of  instruments  constructed  on  the  new  principle,  this  astro- 
nomer, by  the  direction  of  the  French  Academy,  began  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian,  taking  for  its  extremities  the  parallels  of  Sourdon  near  Amiens,  and  Malvoisine. 
His  general  manner  of  conducting  the  process  was  the  same  as  that  of  Snellius.  He  con- 
nected the  extreme  parallels  by  a  series  of  triangles,  the  sides  of  which  were  determined 
from  a  base  of  5663  toises,  measured  twice  with  great  care  at  one  extremity  of  the  seriea 
There  was  a  base  of  verification  of  3902  toises  measured  at  the  other  extremity.  The 
horizontal  angles  were  measured  by  a  quadrant  of  thirty-eight  inches'  radius ;  and  the 
celestial  arc,  which  was  about  1°  12',  by  a  sector  ten  feet  in  radius.  He  concluded  the 
length  of  a  degree  to  be  57,060  toises. 

This  was  the  first  measurement  in  which  confidence  could  be  placed.  It  is  true  there 
wero  several  elem  nts  wanting  in  the  determination  of  the  celestial  arc,  owing  to  the  imper- 
fect state  of  astronomical  science  at  that  time;  but,  by  a  fortunate  compensation,  the  errors 
thence  arising  corrected  each  other.  This  measurement  of  Picard  was  of  service  to  Newton, 
in  verifying  his  happy  thought  of  the  law  of  universal  gravitation. 

The  measurement  begun  by  Picard  was  continued  northward  to  Dunkirk  by  La  Hire , 
and  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  far  as  Perpignan,  by  the  second  Cassini,  who  published  the 
whole  in  1718,  in  a  work  on  the  magnitude  and  figure  of  the  earth. 

The  labour  of  the  French  astronomers  determined  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  with  a 
degree  of  accuracy  suflScient  for  the  general  purposes  of  geography ;  but  science  was  now 
proceeding  with  rapid  strides,  and  a  new  question  was  agitated, — Is  the  earth  an  exact 
sphere,,  as  had  been  hitherto  supposed  ]  or,  if  it  be  not  a  sphere,  what  is  its  true  figure  1 

Huygens  and  Newton  had  established  the  doctrine  of  the  centriiligal  force  "of  bodies 
revolving  in  circles ;  '.ad  from  this  it  was  justly  inferred  that  the  earth,  in  consequence  of 
its  rotation  on  an  axis,  must  necessarily  deviate  from  a  spherical  figure,  and  assume  that  of 
an  oblate  spheroid ;  that  is,  a  solid  generated  by  the  revolution  of  an  ellipse  on  its  leaser 
axis,  the  extremities  of  which  in  this  case  were  the  poles. 


Part  II. 

a  degrree.  Thus 
ignorance  of  the 
even  if  (what  is 
vever,  that  their 
3  astronomer  of 

kernel,  a  Flemish 
nearly  under  the 
trivance  attached 
made  in  that  dis- 
li  toises. 

1  be  ''7,074  toisea 
ore  accurate  and 

^^  this  most  inter- 
which  its  import- 
,  in  which  he  has 
terminated  in  the 
the  arc  between 
along  the  earth's 
le  enabled  him  to 
found  their  sides. 
1  that  a  degree  of 
!8  of  that  period ; 
id.  The  error  of 
e,  of  which  1900 
t  from  the  imper- 
L  base  over  again, 
e  result.  Cassini 
degree  came  out 
rs,  found  that  the 

fth  of  a  degree  in 
iveen  London  and 
direction  of  the 
to  be  2°  28';  and 
I,  or  57,800  toises. 
IS  was  excellent ; 
ent  was  made  by 
measurement  of 
nciple,  this  astro- 
of  an  arc  of  the 
,  and  Malvoisine. 
icllius.    He  con- 
were  determined 
lity  of  the  serie& 
extremity.    The 
radius ;  and  the 
e  concluded  the 

It  is  true  there 
ing  to  the  imper- 
sation,  the  errors 
rvice  to  Newton, 

irk  hy  La  Hire, 
10  published  the 

he  earth  with  a 

science  was  now 

earth  an  exact 

true  figure  1 

force  of  bodies 

consequence  of 

1  assume  that  of 

pse  on  its  Cesser 


BookL 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 


137 


This  opinion  received  support  from  some  astronomical  observations  mode  by  Richer,  who 
was  sent  by  the  Academv  or  Sciences,  in  1672,  to  Cayenne.  He  there  found  that  his  clock, 
which  had  been  regulated  to  mean  time  at  Paris,  went  slower  by  a  sensible  quantity.  This 
mteresting  oleervatiou  showed  that  the  weight  of  the  pendulum  was  less  at  the  equator  than 
it  had  been  at  Paris ;  and  hence  the  increase  of  the  force  of  gravity  in  proceeding  from  the 
equator  towards  Uie  pole,  as  shown  Uieorotically  by  Newton,  was  completely  established ; 
and  consequently  also  the  oblatoness  of  the  earth  at  the  poles,  and  its  elevation  at  the  equator 
which  are  the  consequence  of  this  diminution. 

If  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  then  all  the  degree 
of  tiie  terrestrial  meridian  from  the  equator  to  the  pole 
would  be  equal  in  length.  But  this  will  by  no  means  be 
the  case  it  the  earth  Ix:  a  spheroid.  For,  supposing  the 
earth  to  be  an  oblate  spheroid  (J:g,  48.),  of  which  tix9 
lesser  axis  is  P  P',  that  diameter  of  the  eartli  which 
passes  through  P  P'  the  poles.  Let  E  Q  be  any  equa- 
torial diameter,  and  E  P  Q,  P'  a  section  of  the  earth, 
through  the  axis  P  P',  which  will  therefore  be  a  terres- 
trial meridian.  Because  the  direction  of  gravity  is  always 
in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  earth's  surface ;  at  the 
poles  and  equator,  the  direction  of  gravity  will  pass 
through  the  centre.  It  will  be  otherwise,  however,  at  any  point,  D,  between  the  equator 
and  poles;  for,  by  tbe  nature  of  the  ellipse,  a  line,  D  F,  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  curve 
at  D  will  pass  on  one  side  of  the  centre.  Now  let  us  suppose  that  D  F,  H  F,  are  two  straight 
lines  perpendicular  to  the  earUi's  surface  at  D  and  H,  which  meet  in  F,  and  contain  an 
angle  D  F  If,  of  one  degree;  dso  let  G  K,  L  K,  be  other  two  lines  perpendicular  to  the 
earth's  surface  at  points  nearer  the  pole;  and  suppose  these  also  to  contain  an  angle  G  K  L, 
of  one  degree.  The  elliptic  arc  D  H,  because  of  its  smallness,  may  be  considered  as  an  arc 
of  a  circle  of  whic'i  D  F  or  H  P  is  the  radius ;  and  similarly  the  elliptic  arc  G  L  may  be 
considered  as  an  arc  of  a  circle  whose  radius  is  G  K  or  L  K.  The  curvature  of  the  ellipse 
is  greatest  at  E,  the  extremity  of  the  greater  axis,  and  gradually  decreases  to  P,  the 
extremity  of  the  lesser  axis,  where  it  is  least  Hence  the  arc  D  H  will  be  more  incurvated 
than  G  F ;  and  since  the  angles  at  F  and  K  are  equal,  each  being  one  degree,  tlie  almost 
equal  lines  G  K,  L  K,  will  be  greater  than  the  almost  equal  lines  D  H,  H  F;  and  the  arc 
G  L  must  therefore  be  greater  than  the  arc  D  H.  Thus,  if  tlie  eartli  is  an  oblate  spheroid, 
a  degree  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  will,  by  actual  measurement,  be  found  to  be  least  at  the 
equator ;  and  the  degrees  will  gradually  increase  as  we  proceed  towards  either  pole. 

It  is  manifest  that  the  case  would  be  just  the  reverse  if  the  earth  were  an  oblong  spheroid, 
generated  by  the  rotation  of  an  ellipse  on  its  greater  axis  E  Q.  Hence  the  important  question. 
What  is  the  figure  of  the  terrestrial  meridiuil  may  be  resolved  by  measuring  arcs  of  the 
meridian  in  different  latitudes. 

None  of  the  measurements  before  that  begun  by  Picard  were  made  .with  such  accuracy 
as  to  enable  mathematicians  to  resolve  tlie  question.  But  it  was  then  supposed  that  this 
had  been  performed  with  such  care  as  to  afford  the  necessary  data.  Such,  however,  appears 
not  to  have  been  the  case.  The  degrees  actually  measured  were  found  to  be  unequal ; 
but,  instead  of  increasing  in  going  from  south  to  north,  the  reverse  was  supposed  to  be  the 
fact ;  and  had  this  been  really  true,  tlie  polar  axis  would  have  been  greater  than  the  equa* 
toriaJ, — a  conclusion  quite  in  opposition  to  that  derivable  from  the  doctrine  of  centrifugal 
force. 

To  determine  this  most  important  question,  tho  Academy  of  Sciences  resolved  that  degrees 
of  the  meridian  should  be  measured  in  various  latitudes  which  might  differ  as  much  as 
possible ;  and  it  was  determined  that  one  party  should  be  sent  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
equator,  and  another  to  the  polar  circle.  Two  scientific  expeditions  were  accordingly 
undertaken.  Maupertuis,  Clairaut,  Comus,  Lemonnier,  and  Outhier,  went  to  Lapland,  where 
the  Swedish  astronomer  Celsius  joined  them ;  and  there  they  measured  an  arc  of  fifty-seven 
minutes  of  a  degree,  from  which  they  concluded  that  a  degree  under  the  polar  circle,  viz.  in 
lat  66°  20',  was  57,419  toises,  that  is,  about  349  toises  greater  than  that  of  Paris.  This 
degree  has  been  since  remeasured  with  great  care  by  Svanberg  and  other  Swedish  mathe- 
maticians, who  found  it  to  1)e  57,196  toises.  This  is  223  toises  less  than  the  determination 
of  the  French  academicans ;  but  it  is  certainly  more  correct 

The  otiie  party,  composed  of  Godin,  Bouguer,  and  La  Condamine,  performed  a  similar 
but  more  extensive  operation  in  Peru.  After  ten  years'  labour,  they,  with  the  assistance  of 
two  Spanish  officers,  Don  Jorge  Juan  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  accomplisbed  the  measurement 
of  an  arc  of  about  3°  7'.  Prom  this  they  concluded  that  the  lengtn  of  r  degree  wos  56,7oS 
toises,  which  was  shorter  than  the  French  degree  by  302  toises.  These  measurements  set 
the  question  completely  at  rest  There  could  no  longer  be  any  doubt  that  the  polar  diame- 
ter of  the  earth  was  shorter  than  the  equatorial. 
The  measurement  of  different  degrees  has  been  since  performed  many  times  in  different 
Vol  I.  18*  S 


199 


PRINCIPLES  OP  CSOGRAPHY. 


Part  H 


countries ;  as  afain  in  France,  and  also  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  La  Caille ;  in  Italy,  by 
Maire,  Boscovich,  and  Beccaria ;  in  Pennsylvania,  by  Mason  and  Dixon ;  in  Hungary,  by 
Liesganig ;  in  India,  by  Lambton. 

There  nave  been,  in  addition  to  these,  two  admeasurements  of  arcs  of  the  meridian  which 
deserve  particular  notice,  on  account  of  their  extent,  the  excellence  of  the  instruments 
employed,  and  the  skill  with  which  the  operations  have  been  conducted.  We  are  indebted 
to  the  spirit  of  reform  and  improvement  which  spnuif;  out  of  the  French  revolution  for  one 
of  these,  and  to  the  liberal  and  enligfhtened  views  of  the  Enslish  government  for  the  other. 

The  great  diversity  in  the  imits  of  a  measure  is  an  evil  which  has  been  long  felt  and  com< 
plained  of  in  every  commercial  country.  The  French  Constitutional  Assembly  took  up  this 
most  important  subject  in  the  year  1790 ;  and,  at  the  suggestion  of  Talleyrand,  it  was  decreed, 
that  the  king  should  request  his  Britannic  majesty  to  engage  the  parliament  of  England  to 
cone  xt  with  the  National  Assembly  in  fixing  a  natural  unit  of  weights  and  measures ;  that, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  two  nations,  commissioners  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  an 
equal  number  of  members  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  should  determine  the  length  of 
the  pendulum  in  the  latitude  of  45°,  or  other  preferable  latitude,  and  from  this  deduce  m 
invariable  standard  for  all  weights  and  measures. 

The  Academy  named  a  commission,  composed  of  Borda,  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Monge,  and 
Condorcet,  who  gave  a  report,  which  is  prmted  in  the  Memoirs  of  Uie  Academy  for  1788. 
Three  different  fundamental  units  were  suggested  in  their  report  The  first  is  the  pendulum 
which  baats  seconds  in  a  given  parallel.  That  of  45°  was  thought  preferable  to  any  other, 
because  there  the  pendulum  is  a  mean  among  all  those  which  beat  seconds  in  the  difierent 
latitudes  between  the  equator  and  the  pole.  They  observed,  however,  that  the  pendulum 
contains  a  heterogeneous  element,  namely,  time ;  and  an  arbitrary  element,  viz.  the  division 
of  the  day  into  86,400  seconds.  They,  therefore,  considered  it  to  be  less  proper  as  a  standard 
unit  of  lineal  measure,  than  another  which  they  regarded  as  unexceptionable.  This  is  the 
length  of  a  quadrant  of  '<>e  meridian,  a  linear  magnitude  of  the  same  kind  as  the  thing  to 
be  determined,  and  therefore  more  natural  than  the  pendulum,  which  involved  the  considora* 
tion  of  time.  There  is  yet  another  linear  unit,  namely,  the  circumference  of  the  earth's 
equator.  But  this  is  not  better  known  than  the  elliptic  meridian ;  nor  does  it  admit  o**  being 
determined  with  so  much  precision.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  was  recommended  that  the 
quadrant  of  the  meridian  should  be  taken  as  the  primary  unit,  and  that  its  ten-millionth  part 
(a  lineal  space  about  39jt  English  inches)  should  be  the  ordinary  unit  for  the  measurements 
which  occur  in  the  afSiirs  of  life.    This  was  named  a  mitve. 

Although  in  the  beginning  it  had  been  proposed  to  invite  the  English  philosophers  to  assist 
in  establishing  a  standard  unit,  yet,  as  the  object  to  be  attained  could  be  accomplished  per- 
fectly  by  the  French  mathematicians,  without  any  fbreign  aid,  it  was  recommendeo  to 
commence  immediately  the  measurement  of  the  arc  of  the  merio  on  between  Dunkirk  and 
Barcelona,  an  extent  of  nearly  0}  degrees.  The  operations  neceisary  for  this  labour  were, 
1.  To  determine  the  difiTerence  of  latitude  between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona ;  and,  in  general, 
to  make  such  astronomical  observations  on  tlie  whole  liile  as  might  be  thought  useful.  2.  To 
measure  again  the  bases  which  had  served  for  the  measurement  of  the  degree  made  at  Paris, 
and  the  construction  of  the  map  of  France.  3.  To  verify  by  new  observations  the  series  of 
triangles  which  had  formerly  been  employed  for  the  measurement  of  the  meridian,  and  to 

Srolong  them  to  Barcelona.  4.  To  make,  at  the  45th  degree,  such  observations  as  might 
etermine  the  number  of  vibrations  which  a  pendulum  equal  in  length  to  one  ten-millionth 
part  of  the  meridian  would  make  in  a  day,  in  a  vacuut^  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  at  the 
temperature  of  melting  ice,  in  order  that,  uiis  number  being  once  .'-nown,  the  mitre  might  be 
determined  at  any  time  by  the  length  of  the  pendulum.  In  Uiis  wa\  ^he  advantages  of  the 
two  methods  of  forming  a  standard  would  be  united.  6.  To  verify  by  new  eApcrunents  the 
specific  gravity  of  pure  water  in  a  vacuum,  and  at  the  temperature  oif  water  just  beginning 
to  fireeze.  6.  And  lastly,  To  reduce  all  the  old  measures  of  every  kind  employed  m  com 
merce  to  the  new  standards. 

To  accomplish  these  objects,  it  was  recommended  that  six  distinct  commissioners  should 
be  appointed.  This  was  done  by  a  decree  of  the  National  Assembly,  dated  26th  March, 
1791 ;  only  it  was  thought  to  bo  better  to  commit  the  astronomical  and  geodetical  observa- 
tions to  a  single  commission.  Immediately  directions  were  given  for  the  construction  of  the 
necessary  instruments.  Lenoir,  a  celebrated  French  artist,  was  employed  to  make  repeating 
circles,  long  rules  of  pbtina  for  the  measurement  of  the  bases,  and  a  idiorter  rule ;  also,  balls 
of  platina  and  gold  for  the  pendulum  observations. 

About  the  middle  of  the  year  1792,  Cassini  and  Borda  began  a  series  of  experiments  on 
the  pendulum ;  and,  in  tJie  following  year,  Lavoisier  was  engaged  in  experiments  on  the 
expansion  of  metals.  And  about  the  same  time  Mechain  began  nis  cperattOus  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  portion  of  the  meridian  between  Rodez  and  Barcelona,  an  extent  of  170,000 
toises.  Delambre  had  undertaken  the  portion  of  the  arc  between  Dunkirk  and  Rodes, 
38,000  toises  in  extent.  This,  however,  had  been  twice  measured  before;  and  for  this 
reason  the  labour  was  expected  to  be  less  tlian  was  requisite  fo"  the  other  portion,  which 


Part  11 

nille ;  in  Italy,  b; 
in  Hungary,  t^ 

e  m'sridian  which 
the  instruments 
We  are  indebted 
ivolution  for  one 
at  for  the  other. 
}ng  felt  and  com* 
My  took  up  this 
id,  it  was  decreed, 
nt  of  England  to 
measures;  that, 
Sciences,  and  an 
ine  the  length  of 
a  this  deduce  an 

ilace,  Monge,  and 
cademy  for  1788. 
t  is  the  pendulum 
ible  to  any  other, 
s  in  the  different 
lat  the  pendulum 
:,  viz.  the  division 
opoT  as  a  standard 
ble.  This  is  the 
id  as  the  thing  to 
red  the  considora* 
ce  of  the  earth's 
lit  admit  o*" being 
nmended  that  the 
ten-millionth  part 
lie  measurements 

losophers  to  assist 

ccomplished  per- 

recommendea  to 

en  Dunkirk  and 

this  labour  were, 

and,  in  general, 

fht  useful.    2.  To 

e  made  at  Paris, 

ins  the  series  of 

meridian,  and  to 

ations  as  might 

ne  ten-millionth 

sea,  and  at  the 

mitre  might  be 

vantages  of  the 

toApcrunents  the 

r  just  beginning 

ployed  m  com 

lissioners  should 
ed  26th  March, 
letical  observa- 
kstruction  of  the 
I  make  repeating 
1  rule ;  also,  balls 

experunenta  on 
kriments  on  the 
as  for  the  deier* 
Jctent  of  170,000 
prk  and  Rodes, 
and  for  this 
portion,  which 


Book  T. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 


vm 


was  entirely  new.  Besides  the  privations  and  hardahipa,  the  ordinary  accompanhnentu  of  a 
service  which  requires  Uiose  who  perform  it  to  live  in  elevated  situations,  with  little  shilter, 
with  few  of  the  comforts  to  which  tiiey  have  been  accustomed,  and  exposed  to  the  vicissi- 
tudes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  the  influence  of  the  nocturnal  dews,  they  had  to  encounter  the 

Eerils  arising  from  a  disorganixed  state  of  society.  Mechain  was  stopped  in  the  neighbour- 
ood  of  Paris ;  but  when  he  pursued  his  labours  st  a  distance  firom  the  capital,  lie  met 
with  no  farther  interruption;  while  Delambre,  in  the  north  of  IVanoe,  was  often  exposed 
to  the  most  imminent  duiger.  In  the  beat  of  the  French  revolution,  the  people  were 
jealous  of  what  they  did  not  understuid ;  and  the  astrononujn  were  at  once  exposed  to  the 
machinations  of  their  enemies  at  Paris,  and  to  the  brutality  of  the  ignorant  peasants  in  the 
provinces. 

In  the  course  of  their  operatims  they  measured  two  bases,  on  the  accurate  determuiation 
of  which  the  utility  of  all  their  labours  was  to  depend.  One  base,  of  6075,9  toises,  wa« 
measured  by  Delambre  at  Melun ;  and  the  other,  or  6006.2478  toises,  at  Perpignan.  The 
distance  between  them  was  860,830  toises,  about  486  English  miles.  They  were  connected 
by  a  chain  of  triangles,  the  sides  and  angles  of  which  were  all  known;  so  that  the  length 
of  one  base  heua  Imown,  that  of  the  other  might  h-^  found  by  computation.  It  is  a  remark- 
able  fiict,  that  when  the  base  of  Perpignan  was  inin  ?ed  by  calculation  from  that  of  Melun, 
the  result  was  found  to  be  only  ten  or  eleven  inches  less  than  that  obtained  by  actual  mea- 
surement. This  striking  agreement  i^rds  a  strong  presumptive  proof  of  the  accuracy  with 
which  the  operations  had  Men  conducted. 

The  determination  of  the  latitudes  of  the  two  extremities  of  the  arc  was  also  a  matter 
of  the  utmost  importance.  The  pains  which  the  astronomers  took  to  arrive  at  true  results 
are  almost  incredible.  Delambre  made  800  observations  to  ascertam  the  true  latitude  of  the 
Dunkirk  extremity ;  and  a  corresponding  degree  of  attention  was  bestowed  on  different 
intermediate  poin'o.. 

Thia  most  iirtportant  undertaking  was  at  last,  after  seven  years'  labour,  brought  to  a  con- 
clusion in  the  year  1798.  Although  the  result  was,  in  its  first  application,  to  m  directed  to 
the  establishment  of  a  standard  unit  of  lineal  measure  for  the  French  nation,  yet  the  advan- 
tages which  may  be  deduced  from  it  extended  much  fiurther,  and  were  available  to  every 
nation  enlightened  by  science.  For  this  reason,  the  states  living  in  pace  with  France  had 
been  invito  to  send  emirent  mathematicians  and  aatronomers  to  assist  in  a  rigorous  exami- 
naticm  of  every  step  of  the  operation.  The  astronomical  and  geodeUcal  observations,  in 
particular,  were  subjected  to  the  examination  of  Tralles,  the  deputy  of  the  Helvetian  republic; 
Van  Swinden,  the  Batavian  deputy ;  and  the  two  French  philosophers  Laplace  and  Legendre. 
They  entered  into  all  the  detuls  of  the  measurement  or  the  bases ;  and  they  examined  the 
three  angles  of  every  triangle,  and  determined  their  values.  The  calculations  were  then 
separately  performed  by  four  different  persons — ^Tralles,  Van  Swinden,  Legendre,  and  De- 
lambre ;  and  this  last  astroncnner  calculated  the  length  of  the  meridian  by  four  different  and 
independent  methods ;  and  a  report  was  made  to  the  National  Institute  at  Paris,  in  June 
1799,  in  the  name  of  the  Class  of  Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences,  on  the  Measure  of 
the  Meridian  of  France,  and  its  Results. 

The  general  fact,  that  the  degrees  of  the  meridian  increase  as  we  recede  from  the  equator 
towards  Uie  pole,  was  again  rally  confirmed ;  so  that  the  oblateness  of  the  earth  in  the 
direction  of  the  polar  axis  is  a  truth  now  placed  beyond  all  controversy.  Notwithstanding, 
however,  the  almost  incredible  care  with  which  uie  operations  were  conducted,  the  exact 

Suantity  of  tiiis  compression  was  still  left  in  some  uncertainty.  The  limits  between  which 
ie  true  measure  of  the  oblateness  is  contained  are,  however,  narrower ;  and  it  is  likely 
that  the  problem,  What  is  Uie  exact  proportion  of  the  polar  to  the  equatorial  axis  1  does 
not,  fix>m  its  nature,  admit  of  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  truth  than  has  been  already 
obtained. 

If  we  could  suppose  the  measurements  of  lines  and  angles  to  bo  perfectly  correct,  it 
would  follow,  that  althocgh  on  the  whole,  taking  considerame  intervals,  the  length  of  arcs 
of  the  meridian  corresponding  to  equal  celestial  arcs  go  on  increasing  from  soum  to  north, 
yet  the  law  of  the  increase  is  irregular,  and  not  that  which  ought  to  result  from  an  exact 
elliptic  meridian.    The  result  of  the  measurement  will  be  seen  vi  the  following  table : — 


Latitude*. 

InteiTttli. 

Intenrali  ib 
Toiwi. 

Length  of  a 
Oegrae. 

Mean 
Latitude. 

Are  of  one    1 
Second.      i 

Dunkirk 

Pantlieon 

Evsas 

Careanona 

Montjour 

0      1         II 

51     t,    0.90 
48   50   4937 
46    10   49.54 
43   19   54.30 
41    91    44.98 

0  1         " 

9   11    19.83 
S    4C     f..8R 
9   57   48.94 

1  51     9J4 

U4044.8 

168846.7 
lU  '99.0 

Toiie*. 
Sne9.63 
57069.31 
56977.80 
56946.68 

0      1         II 

40   .W   59.30 
47   30   45.91 
44    41    48.37 
49   17    19.60 

Toilet       j 
15.3S8SSS 
15.859580 
15.827107      ' 
15£l850a     1 

140 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


r  V, 


Prom  this  table  we  see  that  the  lenjf th  of  a  degree  in  the  (bur  mean  latitudes  goes  on  in- 
creasing. Also,  from  tlie  column  of  mean  latitudes,  and  tliat  of  the  length  of  a  degree,  it 
appears  that  a  diminution  of  2"  25'  4d".30  in  the  first  mean  lati.ude  corresponds  to  a 
dmiinution  of  13.18  toises  in  the  terrestrial  meridian :  this  gives  0.5  toises  to  a  degree. 
Again,  that  a  farther  diminution  of  2°  43'  57".54  produces  a  diminution  of  01.51  toises, 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  32.4  toises  to  a  degree.  Lastly,  that  a  third  diminution  of  2°  24' 
28".Tf  gives  a  diminution  of  31.1'/  toises,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  about  12.9  toises  to  a 
degree.  These  changes  of  5.5,  32.4,  and  31.17  toises  in  the  length  cf  a  degree  in  going 
southward  evidently  do  not  follow  a  regular  law,  such  as  should  result  fh)m  a  continuous 
increase  of  curvature.  We  may,  therefore,  reasonably  suppose  that  all  the  observations 
have  not  been  equally  perfect,  or  that,  in  addition  to  unavoidable  errors  in  the  estimation  of 
lines  and  angles,  some  disturbing  cause  must  have  operated :  prdnbly,  an  inequality  of 
density,  in  the  density  of  the  strata  over  which  the  measurement  was  performed,  may  have 
had  great  influence  in  producing  the  irreg<alarity. 

The  small  discrepancies  in  Uie  results  of  the  observations  must  produce  corresponding 
uncertainty  in  the  determmation  of  die  great  objects  to  be  attained.  On  the  whole,  how> 
ever,  it  was  concluded  that  the  length  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  between  the  pole  and  the 
equator  was  5,130,740  toises ;  and  hence  the  mdtre,  or  ten-millionth  part  of  the  meridian, 
was  .518074  of  a  toise,  which  is  443.295066  lines. 

Another  most  important  result,  deducible  from  these  observaticxis,  was  the  ratio  of  the 
polar  axis  of  the  earth  to  the  equatorial  axis.  This  must  partake  of  the  uncertainty  of  the 
data  by  which  it  is  to  be  determined.  We  may,  however,  assume,  without  sensible  error, 
that  the  equatorial  axis  is  to  tlie  polar  as  334  to  883.  The  difference,  therefore,  of  the 
semi-axes,  compared  with  the  equatorial  radius,  will  be  one  part  in  334.  The  fraction  ?}(— 
that  is,  the  difference  of  the  semi-axes  divided  by  the  equatorial  radius, — ^is  called  the  com- 
pression of  the  earth  at  the  poles. 

The  astronomer  Mechain  had  contemplated  the  extension  of  tha  measurement  of  the 
meridian  beyond  the  limit  at  first  proposed ;  but  he  did  not  live  to  carry  his  views  into  execu- 
tion.  However,  the  undertakmg  was  resumed,  after  a  cessation  of  three  years,  by  Biot  and 
Arago,  French  astronomers,  with  whom  were  associated  MM.  Chaix  and  Rodriguez,  Span- 
iards, all  eminently  distinguished  for  their  talent  and  devotedness  to  the  object  to  be  ac- 
complished. By  their  exertions,  a  train  of  triangles  was  carried  southward  from  the  point 
where  Mechain  and  Delambre  had  stopped,  to  lormentera,  a  small  island  near  Ivica,  in  the 
Mediterranean.  "This  is  the  southern  lunit  of  a  most  interesting  labour:  but,  if  ever 
European  civilization  extends  into  Afi-ica,  the  measurement  may  b«  extended  to  Cape  de 
Gata,  and  thence  across  the  Mediterranean  to  the  coast  of  Afirica,  and  continued  to  the  city 
of  Algiers,  which  is  nearly  in  the  meridian  of  Paris;  so  that  in  time  the  southern  extremity 
may  be  actually  carried  to  the  summit  of  Mount  Aths. 

The  other  measurement  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  earth,  to  which  we  have  alluded, 
was  bcgim  under  the  auspices  and  at  the  expense  of  the  British  government  as  long  ago  as 
the  year  1784  At  that  time  a  memoir,  drawn  up  by  Cassini  de  Thury,  was  presented  to 
the  minister  (Mr.  Fox)  by  the  French  ambassador.  It  stated  the  advantages  which  would 
accrue  to  geography  and  astronomy  by  determining  the  difference  of  longitude  between  the 
observatories  of  Greenwich  and  Pariu,  by  means  of  a  series  of  triangles  from  the  former  to 
Dunkirk,  to  which  place  the  meridian  of  Paris  had  previously  been  extended.  The  proposal 
was  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society ;  and  having  been  approved  of,  the  execution  was 
Committed  to  general  Roy.  "The  first  step  was  to  measure  a  base,  from  the  length  of  which 
the  sides  of  all  the  triangles  might  be  iruerred ;  and  a  line  rather  more  than  five  miles  in 
length  was  traced  out  on  Hounslow  Heath,  and  measured  with  the  most  scrupulous  caie. 
It  may  at  first  sight  appear  a  very  simple  matter  to  measure  a  straight  line  on  the  ground; 
but  if'^the  utmost  exactness  is  required,  the  operation  must  be  performed  with  instruments 
constructed  with  the  greatest  ingenuity,  and  the  applicstion  of  much  physical  knowledge. 
Generally  all  solid  bodies  expand  by  heat,  and  contract  by  cold ;  and,  moreover,  some  change 
their  dimensions  by  moisture  and  dryness.  To  counteract  or  to  estimate  precisely  these 
changes,  so  as  to  allow  for  them  in  the  final  result,  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty,  and  only 
to  be  accomplished  by  infinite  care  and  perseverance. 

The  measurement  of  the  base  was  first  undertaken  with  deal  rods,  twenty  feet  in  length. 
These,  however,  were  found  to  be  much  affected  by  the  changes  in  the  atmosphere  from 
moisture  to  dryness :  they  were  therefore  laid  aside ;  and  instead  of  them  glass  rods,  of  the 
same  length  in  frames,  were  employed.  This  substance  was  chosen,  from  a  belief  that  it 
was  less  affected  by  changes  of  temperature  than  the  metals.  The  measurement,  which 
had  been  begun  about  the  middle  of  June,  v/as  completed  in  the  end  of  October;  and  it  was 
found  that  the  base  measured  exactly  27404.08  feet,  or  5.19  miles. 

The  work  in  the  field  was  not  carried  farther  at  thai  time :  ii  was,  however,  resumed  in 
178T''.  A  theodolite  of  greater  dimensions  than  had  ever  been  employed  in  geodetical  opera- 
tions was  constructed  by  the  celebrated  artist  Ramsden.  The  series  of  observations  was 
begun  at  the  base  in  the  beginning  of  August,  by  General  Roy,  assisted  by  Isaac  Dalby,  an 


Book 

cxcelh 
cprtair 
to  l»ov 


l«< 


Book  I. 


MGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH 


141 


titudes  goes  on  in- 
Ifth  of  a  degree,  it 
e  corresponds  to  a 
oises  to  a  degree, 
in  of  91.01  toises, 
ninution  of  2°  24' 
t  12.9  toises  to  a 
a  degree  in  going 
from  a  continuous 
1  the  observations 
I  the  estimation  of 
',  an  inequality  of 
rformed,  may  have 

luce  corresponding 
n  the  whole,  how- 
a  the  pole  and  the 
rt  of  the  meridian, 

a  the  ratio  of  the 
uncertainty  of  the 
Dut  sensible  error, 
,  therefore,  of  the 
The  fraction  »}i— 
-is  called  the  com- 

jasurement  of  the 
I  views  into  execu- 
years,  by  Biot  and 
Rodriguez,  Span- 
lie  object  to  be  ac- 
ird  from  the  point 
1  near  Ivica,  in  the 
3ur:  but,  if  ever 
ended  to  Cape  de 
itinued  to  the  city 
Duthem  extremity 

we  have  alluded, 
ent  as  long  ago  aa 
was  presented  to 
iges  which  would 
tude  between  the 
rem  the  former  to 
ed.  The  proposal 
he  execution  was 

length  of  which 
han  five  miles  in 

scrupulous  caie. 

on  the  ground; 
with  instruments 
sical  knowledge, 
iver,  some  change 
precisely  these 
fficulty,  and  only 

y  feet  in  length. 

atmosphere  from 
'lass  rods,  of  the 
a  belief  that  it 

surement,  which 

tober ;  and  it  was 

!ver,  resumed  in 
'eodetical  opera- 

)bservations  was 
Isiuic  Dalby,  an 


c.vcellcnl  mathematician,  and  most  voracious  astronomical  observer.  After  continuing  to  a 
cortain  length,  it  was  iudged  to  be  expedient  to  break  off,  and  proceed  with  the  instruments 
to  hcycr,  A  series  of  olxcrvations  was  there  made,  in  con  unction  with  the  French  acade- 
micin.id  Cassini,  Mechain,  and  Lecendre,  by  which  the  trlnrcrulation  between  Paris  and 
Dunkirk  miglit  be  connected  with  uiat  between  Dover  and  '\  .nwich.  As  a  check  on  the 
operations,  a  base  of  verification  was  also  measured  on  Romney  Marsh ;  and  in  tiiis,  instead 
of  the  glass  rods,  a  steel  chain,  constructed  for  the  purpose  by  Ramsdon,  was  employed ;  it 
having  oeen  found  by  experience  the '  there  was  no  sensible  difierence  in  point  of^ accuracy 
between  this  and  the  gloss  rods,  while  the  chain  manifestly  was  more  convenient.  After- 
wards, when  the  two  bases  were  connected  by  calculating  the  sides  of  the  triangles,  it  was 
found  that  the  measured  base  differed  from  its  computed  value  by  only  twentv-eight  inches, 
although  Romney  Marsh  Is  more  than  sixty  miles  nrom  Hounslow  Heath.  The  junction  of 
tlie  observatories  of  Grcenv/ich  and  Paris,  by  a  series  of  triangles,  was  completed  in  1788, 
and  an  account  of  the  opnrations  communicated  to  the  Royal  «>ciety ;  but  the  death  of  Gene- 
ral Roy  again  suspended  the  survey  until  the  year  1791. 

At  this  time,  by  the  exertions  of'^the  Duke  of  Richmond,  Master-general  of  the  Ordnance, 
the  survey  was  resumed  witli  great  vigour.  A  new  theodolite,  and  various  ether  instruments, 
in  addition  to  those  formerly  employed,  were  liberally  supplied,  and  placed  under  the 
direction  of  Captain  (afterwards  Colonel)  Mudge  of  the  Royal  Artillery,  and  Mr.  Dalby. 
Beginning  their  labours  by  a  re-measuremen'  of  the  base  on  Hounslow  Heath  with  steel 
chains,  they  found  the  difference  between  this  and  the  ibrmer,  in  which  glass  rods  were 
employed,  to  be  no  more  than  two  inches  and  three  quarters.  Thev  also  measured  another 
base  of  verification,  36574.4  feet  in  length,  on  Salisbury  Plain.  When  this  was  connected 
by  a  chrxiti'  of  triangles  with  the  base  on  Hounslow  Heath,  and  its  length  computed,  the 
result  did  not  differ  more  than  an  inch  from  the  actual  measurement ;  a  convincing  proof  of 
the  accuracy  with  which  all  the  operations  had  been  conducted. 

Although  an  accurate  survey  or  the  island  was  the  main  object  for  which  all  this  labour 
was  undertaken,  yet,  aa  its  complete  accomplishment  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  figure  and 
dimensions  of  the  earth,  no  opportunity  of  solving  Uiis  grand  problem  is  to  be  neglected.  The 
^  two  stations  nf  Beacny  Head  in  Sussex,  and  Dunnoee  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  are  visible  from  each  other,  and  more  than  sixty-four  miles 
asunder,  nearly  in  a  direction  from  east  to  west:  their  exact  distance 
was  found  by  tiie  geodetical  operations  to  be  339307  feet  The  azi« 
muth,  ov  bearing  of  the  line  between  them  with  respect  to  the  meri- 
dian, also  the  latitude  of  Beachy  Head,  were  determined  by  astro- 
nomical observations.  From  these  data  the  length  of  a  degree  per- 
pendicular to  the  meridian  was  computed ;  and  this,  compared  with 
the  length  of  a  meridional  degree  in  the  same  latitude,  gave  the  pro- 
portion of  the  polar  to  the  equatorial  axis. 

The  result  thus  obtamed,  however,  differed  considerably  from  tha» 
obtained  by  meridional  degrees.  It  has  been  found  impossible  to  ex- 
plam  the  want  of  agreement  in  a  satisfactory  way ;  and,  for  this  reason. 
It  has  been  thought  better  to  rest  the  solution  of  the  problem  entirely 
on  the  measurement  of  degrees  of  the  meridian  m  different  lati- 
tudes, which,  on  the  whole,  give  results  more  consiatent  w.'th  one 
another. 

Without  noticing  in  detail  all  the  steps  by  which  the  survey  haa 
advanced,  we  shall  next  advert  to  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian  between  Dunnose,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  Cliflon,  near 
Doncaster ;  the  former  in  lat  60"  37'  6",  and  the  latter  in  53°  27'  30" 
To  accomplish  this,  the  ingenuity  of  the  artist  Ramsden  was  again 
exercised  in  tiie  construction  of  an  instrument,  a  zenith  sector,  for 
finding  the  latitude  of  the  different  points  of  tlie  arc :  this  was  almost 
the  last  work  of  a  man  to  whose  genius  astronomy  and  geography  are 
highly  indebted ;  and  it  waa  superior  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  ever 
before  constructed. 

To  give  the  reader  a  distinct  notion  of  this  most  important  operation,  we  here  present  a 
sketch  ifig.  44.)  of  the  series  of  triingles,  twenty-two  in  number,  which  connect  tho  extreme 
points  togetlier  with  the  angles  contained  by  the  straight  Imes  which  join  the  different 
stations,  and  tiie  length  of  tiieir  sides.  The  numbers  marked  on  the  diagram  indicate  the 
names  of  the  «ta(to»«,  by  referruig  to  ti.<)  following  table.  The  northern  extremity  of  the 
base,  Beacon  Hill,  or  Clifton,  ia  marked  N>.  S. ;  and  the  aouthem  extremify,  Dunnose,  ia  S3 
Th3  sssiss  of  the  inieimediate  points  may  be  seen  in  the  table.  '     ' 


Ili 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa&t  n 


No.  of 
rrianglei. 


0. 


10. 


11. 


Namta  of  Blallaof. 


Butier  Hill . 
Dean  Hill.., 
DunnoM. 


Dean  Hill... 
Butter  Hill . 
HIghclero . 


lutier  Hill. 
Hind  Head. 
Hlghclefe . . 


AnglM  correct  -i 
for  Caleulailon. 


^    *    n 

76  19  91.3 
48    4  31.73 
S3  43    0.73 


09  99  47 
48  98  40 
60    8  33 


Highelare . . 
Hind  Head. 
Bagihot  Heath. 


61  31  Hi 
66  13  34.93 
90  13  91.93 


Bagihot  Heatb. 
Highclere . 
Nuffield. . . 


WHita  Horn  Bill . 

Highclere 

Nuffield 


White  HofM  Hill . 

Nuffield 

Brill 


Tnnr 

83  90  14 
61  33  31 


46  10  17,73 
78  17  17 


Brill ::: 

White  HorM  Hill  . . 
Btow  on  the  Wold  . 


Brill 

Stow  on  the  Weld  . 
Epwell 


Epwell 

Arbury  Hill. 


Arbury  Hill. 
Epwell . 
Corley . . 


ISTf 
03  18 
33  33 


17 
40.3 


86    4 
S3    7 


TOT 

13 

39.3 


30  14 
64  43 

64  89 


49.8 
3B.8 


33  34 
60  36 
86  99 


8.3 
19.93 


83    0 
60  33 


17.3 
43 


89  37 
34  41 
33  17 


33^ 
ia93 
36.93 


Dlftance. 


Prom  Dunnoaa  to 

BulwrHIII 

to  llean  Hill . 


Dean  Hill  from 
ButMrHIU.... 
Highclere 


Butwr  Hill  itam 

Hind  Head 

Highclere  . 


Highcfere  from 
Bagihot  Heath . 
Hind  Head 


Nnffield  fVom 
Bagihot  Heath  ■ 
Highclere  . 


White  HorM)  Hill  from 

Nuffield 

Highclere. 


Brill  nrom 
White  Hone  Hill. 
Nuffield 


Blow  fVom 
White  Horae  HiU. 
Brill. 


Epwell  IVom 

Btow 

Brill 


Arbury  Kill  flrom 

Epwell 

Brill 


Corley  t^om 
Arbury  Hill . 
Epwell 


Feet. 


140S80.4 
1834U0Ji 


1S0133.1 
183084.9 


78003.7 
14A031.0 


143999.0 
100U73.9 


103331.9 
190374. 


130337.7 
108363.1 


146603.9 
93803.3 


194363.0 
146.196.3 


78038^1 
138140 


83008.4 
140330 


117463 
143897.8 


The  distance  of  Butser  Hill  (22.)  floin  Dunnoee,  140580.4  feet,  had  been  previously  found, 
by  a  seriea  of  triangles  connecting  these  stations  with  the  bases  measured  on  Hounslow 
Heath  and  Salisbury  Plain ;  but,  ror  (greater  security  against  error,  a  new  base  of  26342.7 
feet  vfaa  measured  on  Misterton  Carr,  in  the  northern  part  of  Lincolnshire.  From  this  the 
sides  of  the  triangles  proceeding  fh>m  the  north  to  the  south  were  computed,  as  exhibited 
m  the  remainder  of  the  table. 


No.  of 
Triangles. 

Namei  of  Btationi. 

Angle*  corrected 
for  Calculation. 

Distance. 

Feet. 

VI 

Beacon  Hill (3 

0     1     il 
90  47  30 
60  17  13 
98  33  37 

Beacon  Hill  from 

C4461.7 
73381.0 

North  end  of  Baee (1) 

South  end  of  Baie (9 

South  end  of  Baie 

13. 

Beacon  bill.... i 

North  end  of  Baie (1 

Qringley 4 

^44  4^ 
74  46  30 
70  38  99 

Oringley  ftom 

North  enH  of  Baie 

44338.3 
7S068.0 

Beacon  Hill 

14. 

Beacon  Hill 3) 

Orinslev 4 

13S7  33 
31  11    3 
114  51  S3 

Oringley  from 

Beacon  Hill 

73068.9 

South  end  of  Baio 9 

13. 

Heathenedge a) 

Beacon  Hill. 3 

Oringley 4 

18  40  38 
138    9  16 
93  10    8 

Heathenedge  ftom 

92937.3 
136.184.8 

Oringley 

18. 

Sutton  AihOeld 6 

Heatheraedge 3} 

Oringley 4) 

78  47    1 
34  39  33 
46  90  94 

Button  Aabfleld  from 
QflnflM , •••.. 

130399.7 
113339.9 

Heathersedge 

1  ■'■ 

Orptt ; 7" 

Heathenedire 3 

Sutton  Aihfleld 0) 

80  38  37 
39    8  38 
60  33  33 

hrpitfltim 

1016603 
73896.6 

Sutton  Aihfleld 

18. 

ftollan  hilt .'......'.. 8 

44  43  31 
113  49    7 
3137  93 

Hollan  Hill  lYom 

Sutton  Aflhfield 

38373.8 
0597J.3 

Rdttnn  Aihflnlfl n\ 

Orpit 7 

Orpit 

19. 

Bardon  Hill (10 

Hollan  Hill .(S 

43  38  39 
74  39  37 
63    834 

Bardon  Hill  from 

Hollan  Hill. 

134434.7 

135895.3 

Orpit 7) 

Orpit 

90. 

Caetle  Cing 9 

BardonHil! (io) 

Orpit .(7) 

83  33  43 
6834    3 
56    3  14 

Castle  Ring  flrom 

15333,1.3 
136717.8 

Bardon  Hill 

91. 

Corley ...(11 

nnitiR  Rin> 79 

73  39  48 
47  34  43 

Corley  from 

Barrion  Rill 

106337.3 
1B5S39.7 

EardsnHi!! (10< 

Casiie  Ring 

23. 

Arburv  Hill ('13^ 

34  14  33 

107  90  14 

38  95  13 

Arbury  Hill  from 

Bardon  Hill 

180436.0 
117457.1 

Corley (11) 

Bardon  Hill (10) 

Corley 

Pai>t  n 


DookI. 


nOURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 


1431 


— 1 

FMt. 

14fl9<«.4 
1834U0.9 



156191.1 
12«M4.9 

•  •  t« 

7S004.7 
14MM1.0 

1430«.8 
1Q0079.9 

105381.9 
190374. 

1905S7.7 
108563.1 

146603.9 
92805.5 

134365.8 
146396.3 

78038.9 
138140 

830Ue.4 
140530 

••••*• 

117463 
143827.8 

3n  previously  found, 
lured  on  Hounslow 
ew  base  of  26342.7 
ire.  From  this  the 
iputed,  as  exhibited 


Feet. 

C4461.7 

7:i:«i.o 

44338.3 
75068.0 

75068.9 

92297.3 
150.184.8 



130309.7 
115339.9 



1016603 
73826.6 



38375.2 
95075.3 

134454.7 

135895.3 

153235.2 
136717.8 

1063S7.3 
I25ii3».7 

180426.0 
117457.1 

From  the  last  triaiwle  the  distance  between  Corley  and  Arbury  Hill  comes  out  117467.1 
foot  This  result  has  oocn  found  iri.'n  the  base  on  Misterton  Carr:  but  the  same  distance, 
deduced  flrom  the  bases  on  Hounslow  fi  '■th  and  Salisbury  Plain,  either  of  which  is  more  than 
150  miles  distant  flrom  Misterton  Carr,  was  tuind  to  be  117,463  feet,  only  six  feet  dLilerent  Here 
we  have  a  remarkable  proof  of  the  extreme  accuracy  with  which  the  operations  have  been 
conducted;  so  that,  fVom  whatever  cause  any  uncertainty  in  the  conclusion  sought  may 
proceed,  it  can  hardly  be  found  either  in  the  v  nt  of  perfection  in  the  indixuments,  or  of 
care  in  those  who  used  Uium. 

By  observations  on  the  ptile  star,  the  exact  bearing  of  Butser  Hill  firom  Dunnose  (that  is, 
the  azimuth  or  angle  which  the  line  joining  thorn  makes  wi'Ji  the  meridian,)  was  ftund : 
and  by  like  observations  the  bearing  of  the  station  at  Gringley  from  Cliflon  \/a8  determin* 
ed.  Uy  these  data,  and  bv  tho  known  lengths  of  the  sides  of  the  trionglns,  the  portions 
of  the  meridian  intercepted  bv  perpendiculars  on  it  firom  the  stations  was  obtained.  Their 
sum  gave  1,036,337  feet  fur  the  meridional  distance  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  between 
Dunnose  and  Cliflon.  Moreover,  by  the  zenith  sector,  the  arc  of  the  celestial  merit' ian 
between  them  was  found  to  be  2^  60'  2C"  .88,  or  2.8398  of  difference  of  latitude.  The 
length  of  the  measured  arc  of  the  meridian,  viz.  1,036,337  feet,  divided  by  this  number, 
gives  364,933  feet,  or  6082  fathoms  for  the  length  of  a  degree  in  the  parallel  midway 
between  Dunnose  and  Cliflon,  which  is  60°  2'  20". 

In  the  same  way  that  the  length  of  a  degree,  at  the  middle  point  between  Clifton  and 
Dunnose,  was  determined,  the  length  of  degrees  at  other  intermediate  points  was  found.  The 
latitude  of  the  station  at  Arbury  Hill  was  carefully  observed  with  the  sector.  The  latitude 
of  Greenwich  was  well  known ;  and  that  of  Blenheim,  an  observatory  belonging  to  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  hod  been  determined  from  five  years'  observations.  The  two  observa- 
tories were  assumed  as  stations,  in  addition  to  those  in  the  meridional  chain  of  triangles, 
and  their  position  in  respect  of  the  others  was  found. 

By  comparing  the  celestial  with  the  terrestrial  arcs,  Uie  length  of  degrees  in  varioua 
parallels  was  determined,  as  in  the  following  table  :— 


Arbury  Hill  andCUnon.... 

Blenheim  and  Clinon 

Greenwich  and  Clifton 

Ujnnoae  and  Clifton 

Arbury  Hill  and  Qreenwieb 
Dunnoie  and  Arbury  Hill.. 

Blenheim  and  nunnoie 

Dunnose  and  Greenwich... 


Latitude  of  Middle 
Point. 


590 

S3 

59 

59 

51 

SI 

SI 

SI 


SO' 
38 
38 
3 
51 
35 
13 

a 


39". 8 
SO.l 

5.7 
19.8 

4.1 
18.9 
18.3 
S4.9 


Fatbomi. 


60,766 
60,700 
00,794 
60,820 
60,849 
60,804 
60,800 
00,884 


This  table  presents  a  singular  deviation  firom  the  common  rule ;  for,  instead  of  the  degrees 
increasing  as  we  proceed  from  north  to  south,  they  appear  to  decrease,  as  if  the  earth  were 
an  oblong  instead  of  an  oblate  spheroid.  The  oblateness  of  the  earth  at  the  poles  is,  how- 
ever,  a  fact  so  well  established  by  more  extensive  measurements^  that  we  must  suppose 
either  that  some  error  has  been  committed  in  the  observations, — a  thing,  however,  not 
prolHible ;  or  else,  what  is  more  probable,  that  by  inequality  in  the  density  of  the  strata, 
producing  a  local  attraction,  the  plumb-line  of  the  sector  has  suffered  a  deflection  at  some 
of  the  Btations, 

Notwithstanding  the  discrepancy  of  the  results  of  the  measurements  in  this  particular 
arc,  the  length  of  a  degree  at  the  middle  station  (viz.  lat  52°  2'  20")  agrees  very  well  with 
the  measurements  of  me  meridian  in  France  and  other  places.  Indeed,  the  measurements 
of  the  small  arcs  of  the  meridian  in  other  countries  nave  presented  similar  anomalies, 
although  in  general  not  so  remarkable.  It  is,  ttierefore,  only  by  comparison  of  the  measures 
of  extensive  arcs  at  considerable  intervals  that  we  can  arrive  at  certain  conclusions.  The 
Britidi  survey  has  now  been  extended  from  tlie  southern  ports  of  the  island  tc  Unst,  the 
norUiernmost  of  the  Shetland  Islands.  At  present  the  engmeer  officers  who  carried  it  oA 
are  employed  in  the  survey  of  Ireland;  but  we  may  expect  that  at  no  remote  period  they 
will  resume  the  British  survey,  and  supply  the  observations  still  wanting.  When  this  is 
done,  and  the  mmplete  triangulation  is  published,  it  will  then  appear  how  far  local  attrac- 
tion may  have  disturbed  the  plummet  in  passing  over  the  variety  of  rocks  throughout  the 
island.  >, 

Although  the  compression  of  the  earth  be  small,  yet  an  exact  knowledge  of  its  quantity 
is  of  great  importance,  because  of  the  deductions  which  are  to  be  made  from  it.  It  has 
been  explained,  that  the  direction  of  a  plumb-line  is  always  perpendicular  to  the  earth' 
sur&ce ;  therefore,  and  because  of  the  continual  change  of  curvature  of  the  meridian  in 
going  fi'om  north  to  south,  the  direction  of  gravity  can  only  paaa  through  the  earth's  centre 
zt  the  poles  and  equator.  Thus  it  appears  &at  there  is  a  necessary  connexion  between  the 
form  of  the  earth  and  terrestrial  graviQ^ ;  so  that  the  small  variations  in  the  latter,  which 
are  owing  to  the  deviations  from  uie  exact  spherical  figure,  being  known,  that  deviation 
itself  may  be  determined. 


144 


PRINCIPIJifl  OF  OEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


It  tlio  carlh  woro  iiphoricnl  and  homogctioui,  tho  attraction  of  its  moai  upon  different 
points  of  its  Rurtkcc,  or  tho  force  which  Holicits  every  particle  of  mutter  at  its  surfhce 
towards  tho  centre,  wouhl  bo  everywhere  the  same.  But  the  elliptic  form  produces  &  small 
deviation  from  this  equality,  which  increases  in  (foing  from  the  equator  towards  the  poles, 
aa  the  siiunre  of  tho  sine  of  tho  latitude ;  and  tliis  wcuhl  be  true  oven  if  the  earth  were  at 
rest:  but,  by  its  revolution  about  its  shorter  axis,  there  is  produced  a  centrifugal  force, 
which  acts  m  a  direction  perpendicular  to  that  axis,  and  therefore  diminishes  the  force  of 
gravity  most  of  all  at  the  equator,  because  there  tlio  two  forces  act  in  contrary  directions. 
At  the  polo  its  direction  is  pornendiculnr  to  tho  direction  of  gravity,  and  produces  no  cflbct, 

By  tlie  united  operation  of  these  two  causes,  in  going  f^om  the  equator  towards  tho  poles, 
is  produced  a  variation  in  the  degree  of  quickness  ot  descent  of  a  heavy  body,  which  increases 
sa  the  square  of  tho  sine  of  the  latitude. 

The  oscillations  of  a  pendulum  afford  a  simple  means  of  verifying  this  fkct.  The  increase 
of  weight  in  a  hoav^  body, — that  is,  tho  force  of  gravity  in  proceeding  from  the  equator  to 
tlio  poles, — will  be  mdicated  by  a  diminution  of  the  time  in  which  an  invariable  pendulum 
performs  a  vibration.  Accordingly  the  pendulum  has  been  employed  to  dotcruiino  tho  figure 
of  the  cartli ;  and  tho  results  obtained  nave  been  found  to  accord  perfectly  with  tho  geo» 
detical  nioasuremcnts  which  wo  hsve  described. 

I'hc  British  ond  French  governments  have  both  instituted  observations  on  tho  pendulum. 
The  l.-'t'or,  on  tho  recommendation  of  tho  Academy  of  Sciences,  directed  that  the  intensity 
cf  tho  ijrce  of  gravity  should  bo  determined  at  different  points  of  the  ore  of  the  meridian 
between  Dunkirk  and  Formcntcra;  and  committed  tho  labour  to  MM.  Biot,  Arago,  Mathieu, 
Bouvard,  and  Chaix :  subsequently,  Biot  extended  his  observations  to  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  British  islands.  These  operations  were  begun  in  the  year  1807.  At  a  somewhat 
later  period  the  British  government,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Royal  S<>cicty,  employed 
Captain  Kater,  an  eminent  observer  and  experimenter,  in  the  same  labour ;  and  also  sent 
Captaiii  Sabine,  a  British  artillery  ofilcer,  with  invariable  pendulums,  to  the  enuator  on  tho 
one  hand,  and  the  highest  accessible  latitudes  of  the  northern  hemisphere  on  the  other.  It 
was  expected  that,  by  thus  multiplying  the  places  of  observation,  the  combination  of  results 
would  destroy  tlie  irregular  influences  of  local  density,  and  give  the  true  variations  of  the 
force  of  gravity,  which  are  owing  to  tho  earth's  ellipticity.  From  a  mean  of  all  the  obser- 
vations made  by  the  British  and  French  experimenters,  it  was  found  that  the  compression  or 
ellipticity  of  the  earth  was  about  fg'g  t  ot  ^tlrg  Laplace  had  previously  concluded,  from 
the  combined  measurements  of  terrestrial  degrees  and  pendulum  experiments,  and  tho  lunar 
ineq  -alitios  dependent  on  the  figure  of  the  earth,  that  the  same  important  element  was 
j^.f  7.  There  is  a  difference  between  the  two  conclusions ;  but,  on  the  whole,  all  the  results 
which  have  been  obtained  are  comprehended  within  limits  which  may  be  deemed  moderate, 
considering  the  difficulty  of  the  inquiry. 

The  following  tables  exhibit  numerical  values  of  the  magnitudes  of  tho  degrees  of  latitude 
and  longitude,  and  their  proportion  to  each  otlier. 

The  first  is  from  a  valuable  collection  of  astronomical  tables  and  fomiuliB  by  F.  Baily, 
Esq.,  President  of  the  Astronomical  Society  of  London.  It  shows  the  length  of  a  degree 
of  latitude  and  longitude  on  tho  earth's  surfhce,  assuming  tho  compression  to  be  jlu,  toge- 
ther with  the  length  of  the  pendulum  beating  seconds  there,  supposing  tho  compression  to 
be  jiiT,  the  measures  at  the  equator  being  considered  as  unity ;  also  tlie  increase  in  the 
number  of  vibrations  of  an  invariable  pendulum  beating  seconds  at  the  eqiMtor  on  proceeding 
towards  the  pole.     This  merely  shows  tlie  relative  values  of  the  quantiti  os  thercih  stated. 

The  second  and  third  tables  are  from  Mendoza's  Tables  for  Navi^tion  and  Nautical 
Astronomy.  And  the  fourth  is  from  the  very  valuable  Introduction  to  Practical  Astronomy 
by  Dr.  Pearson,  where  it  is  stated  to  be  computed  from  a  Formula  given  by  Lieut-Col. 
liambton  in  the  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  xii. 

The  tables  are  constructed  from  different  values  of  the  earth's  compression  at  the  polea 
The  uncertainty  of  this  important  clement,  in  all  questions  of  geography  and  astronomy,  is 
an  inconvenience  which  cannot  yet  be  got  rid  of. 

In  Tables  II.  and  III.,  the  dimensions  of  the  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  are  given 
in  minutes  of  the  equator.  To  change  these  into  feet  or  fathoms,  we  must  know  the  number 
of  them  in  a  degree  of  the  equator. 

According  to  Puissant  and  Svonberg,  tho  equatorial  degree,  or  60  geographical  miles,  is 
60,847  fathoms. 

Cagnoli  has  assumed  =  60,893  fathoms. 

Lieut.-Col.  Lambton  reckoned  it  to  be  60,8.57  fatlioms. 

General  Mudge  concluded  it  to  be  60,845  fathoms. 

Mr.  Baily,  as  an  accompaniment  to  his  table  (Table  I.),  assumes  the  equatorial  diameter 
of  the  earth  to  be  7924  miles,  and  the  polar  =  7916  miles.  A  degree  of  longitude  at  tiie 
equator  will,  on  this  aupposition,  be  69.15  miles,  =  60,S.'j2  fathoms,  =  865,110  feet:  so  one 
second  of  time,  or  fifteen  seco'ids  of  a  degree  of  longitude,  will  he  1521  feet 

Table  IV.  gives  the  measu.    of  each  degree  of  latitude  and  ioiijjitude  in  fathoms. 


Part  II. 

ifl  upon  <li.Tcront 
r  at  ita  Aurfhce 
produces  K  small 
wards  the  poles, 
fic  earth  woru  at 
ontriiligal  forco, 
(los  the  force  of 
itrary  directions, 
oducos  no  cflecU 
iwards  tho  poles, 
I  which  increases 

t.  Tho  increase 
Ti  the  equator  to 
riable  pendulum 
ruiino  tho  figure 
ly  with  the  geo- 

in  the  pendulum, 
hat  the  intensity 
of  the  meridian 
Araffo,  Mathieu, 
rthern  extremity 

At  a  somewhat 
wiety,  employed 
ir ;  and  also  sent 
e  equator  on  the 
on  the  other.  It 
nation  of  results 
variations  of  the 
of  all  the  obeer- 
le  compression  or 

concluded,  from 
its,  and  tho  lunar 
int  element  waa 
e,  all  the  results 
!cmcd  moderate, 


green  of  latitude 

OB  by  P.  Daily, 

fth  or"  a  degree 

to  be  jis..toge- 

compression  to 

increase  in  the 

)r  on  proceeding 

heroiVi  stated. 

m  and  Nautical 

tical  Astronomy 

by  LieuL-Col. 

ion  at  the  polea 
id  astronomy,  is 

itudo  are  given 
low  the  number 

phical  miles,  is 


torial  diameter 
n^itude  at  ths 
id  feet :  so  one 

ithoms. 


ROCE   I. 


nOURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 
Tamim  1. 


143 


Compreision  = 

=  5*1. 

Compression  =  j  j^. 

I^t 

Daf  rt«  of 

DeirMof 

Lrngth  of  Ilia 

Incraua  of 

Lonfltuda. 

Latitud*. 

Pandulum. 

Vlbrallona. 

e 
0 

l.OC  JOO 

1.000000 

1.00000 

1.0 

5 

0.996Sa 

1.000076 

1.00004 

1.77 

10 

.98490 

1.000301 

1.00016 

7.09 

15 

.96614 

1.000669 

1.00036 

15.60 

90 

.94006 

1.001168 

1.00063 

97J34 

35 

.90685 

1.001783 

1.00096 

41.59 

30 

.86675 

1.009496 

1.00135 

58Sn 

35 

.89005 

1.003984 

1.00177 

76.60 

40 

.76710 

1.004195 

1.00993 

96i}l 

45 

.70868 

1.004999 

1.00969 

116.49 

50 

.64404 

1.005858 

1.00316 

136.64 

55 

.57485 

1.006699 

1.003G9 

156.95 

60 

.50196 

1.007487 

1.00404 

174.63 

65 

.49377 

1.008900 

1.00443 

191.96 

70 

.34309 

1.008815 

1.00476 

905.61 

75 

55960 

1.009315 

1.00503 

917J35 

80 

.17491 

1.009689 

1.00593 

995.89 

85 

.08764 

1.009907 

1.00535 

931.08 

90 

.00000 

1.009983 

1.00539 

239.85 

Tablk  IL 

The  Measure  of  a  Degree  of  Longitude,  on  each  Parallel  of  Latitude  in  Minutes  of  the  | 

Equator,  on  the  Sph 

ere  and  Spheroid.    Compression  =  ^. 

Par. 

of 

Degree  on  the 

Deireo  on  the 
Spheroid. 

Par. 

of 

Dcpree  on  the 

Degree  on  tho 
Spheroid. 

Par. 

of 

Degree  on  the 
Sphere. 

Degree  on  the 
Spheroid. 

Lat. 

Bpbere. 

Lat. 

Sphere. 

Lat. 

0 

/ 

/ 

0 

/ 

/ 

0 

/ 

/ 

0 

60.000 

60.000 

30 

51.969 

52.002 

60 

30.000 

30.070 

1 

59.991 

59.991 

31 

51.430 

.';i  r  : 

61 

29.089 

29.158 

9 

59.963 

59.964 

33 

50.883     '         0.927 

62 

28.168 

28537 

3 

59.918 

59.918 

33 

50.320            50.367 

63 

27539 

27.307 

4 

59.854 

59.855 

34 

49.719           49.791 

64 

26.302 

26.369 

5 

59.779 

59.773 

35 

49.UJ     ;       49.199 

65 

25.357 

95.422 

6 

59.671 

59.673 

36 

48.541            48.593 

66 

24.404 

24.468 

7 

59.553 

59.556 

37 

4^.918 

47.972 

67 

93.444 

23.506 

8 

59.416 

59.420 

38 

■8-281 

47.336 

68 

22.476 

22.537 

9 

59.26x 

59i266 

39 

46.629 

46.686 

69 

21.502 

21.562 

10 

59.088 

59.094 

40 

45.963 

■     46.022 

70 

20.521 

20.578 

11 

58.898 

59.904 

41 

45.283 

45.343 

71 

19.534 

1 9.589 

13 

58.689 

68.697 

42 

44.589 

44.651 

79 

18.541 

18.593 

13 

58.469 

58.471 

43 

43.881 

43.945 

73 

17.542 

17..592 

14 

58i218 

58i228 

44 

43.160 

43J225 

74 

16.538 

1  C'.iifti 

15 

57.956 

57.963 

45 

42.426 

42.493 

75 

15.529 

15.574 

16 

57.676 

57.689 

46 

41.680 

41.747 

76 

14.515 

14.558 

17 

57.378 

57.394 

47 

40.920 

40.988 

77 

13.497 

13.537 

18 

57.063 

57.080 

48 

40.148 

40517 

78 

12.475 

lL.512 

19 

56.731 

56.750 

49 

39.364 

39.434 

79 

11.449 

11.483 

20 

56.382 

56.409 

50 

38.567 

38.638 

80 

lp.419 

10.450 

21 

SG.015 

56.037 

51 

37.759 

37.831 

81 

9.386 

9.414 

29 

55.631 

55.665 

52 

36.940 

37.011 

82 

8.350 

8.376 

23 

55.230 

55.257 

53 

36.109 

36.181 

83 

7.312 

7335 

24 

54.813 

54.841 

54 

35iJ67 

35.339 

84 

6.272 

6592 

25 

54.378 

54.409 

5.5 

34.415 

34.487 

85 

5.229 

5.246 

26 

53.928 

53.960 

56 

33.552 

33.624 

86 

4.185 

4.193 

27 

53.460 

53.495 

57 

39.678 

32.750 

87 

3.140 

3.149 

on 

52.997 

53.013 

58 

31.735 

31.868 

65 

2.094 

9.100 

99 

52.477 

52.003 

59 

30.902 

30.973 

89 

1.047 

1.050 

30 

51.962 

52.009 

60 

30.000 

30.070 

90 

0.000 

0.000 

Vol.  I 


18 


T 


M 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 
Table  III. 


PastII 


The  Measures  of  different  Arcs  of  the  Meridian  in  the  Spheroid  from  the  Equator  to  the  Pole; 
and  also  tho  respective  Degrees  of  Latitude  ia  Minutes  of  the   Equator.     Compres. 

0 

0 

1 

a 

3 
4 
5 

6 
7 
8 
0 

1 

aooo 

59.638 
119.357 
17a887 
333.518 
398.150 
357.784 
417.430 
477.058 
536.609 

1 

50.038 
59.639 
50.630 
59.631 
59.6K 
50.634 
59.636 
59.638 
59.641 

59.644 

59.647 
59.651 
59.055 
59.659 
50.663 
59.666 
59.673 
59.679 
59.685 

59.691 

59.697 
59.703 
59.710 
59.717 
59.724 
50.733 
59.739 
59.747 
59.755 
50.764 

0 

30 
31 
33 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 

1 
170C.309 
1850.074 
1009.855 
1909.644 
3039.443 
3030.340 
8149.065 
2308.891 
8363.793 
S3Sa570 

1 
59.779 
50.781 
50.789 
50.798 
59.807 
59.81S 
59.836 
09.835 
59.844 

59.854 

59.863 
59.873 
59.883 
59.803 
60.903 
59.013 
59.029 
59.931 
59.941 

50.051 

59.960 
59.970 
59.97fl 
50.080 
59.003 
60.007 
60.016 
60.035 
60.034 
60.043 

0 

60 
61 
09 
03 
64 
65 
66 
07 
08 
09 

3587.515 
3647.566 
3707.025 
3767.099 
3827.767 
3887.849 
3047.030 
4008.030 
400ai40 
41S8.251 

1 

60.051 
60.059 
60.067 
60.075 
6C389 
60.000 
60.097 
60.104 
60.111 

60.117 

60.134 
60.130 
60.135 
60.141 
60.146 
60.151 
60.155 
60.160 
60.164 

60.107 

60.171 
60.174 
00.176 
60.179 
60.181 
60.188 
60.184 
60.185 
60185 
60.180 

10 

11 

13 
13 
14 
15 
10 
17 
13 
19 

596.343 
6,'S5.9gO 
715.641 
775.390 
834.955 
894,618 
954J386 
1013.959 
107a638 
1133.333 

40 
41 
43 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 

2388.424 
2448.287 
2,'>08.100 
8568.043 
2027.936 
S687.838 
2747.750 
3807.679 
2867.603 
3037.544 

71 
73 
73 
74 

75 
76 
77 
78 
79 

4188.368 
4348.493 
4308.632 
4368.757 
4438.803 
4480.044 
4540.195 
4009.350 
4660.510 
4730.074 

30 
31 
32 
23 
24 
35 
90 
87 
88 
29 
30 

1193.014 
1252.711 
1313.414 
13^.134 
1431841 
1491.565 
1551.397 
1611.036 
1670.783 
1730.5.18 
1790.302 

50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
.■i9 
60 

2087.495 
3047.455 
3107.425 
3107.404 
3227.303 
3387.301 
3347.308 
3407.414 
3467.430 
3537.473 
3587.515 

M 
81 
83 
83 
84 
85 
80 
87 
88 
89 
SO 

4789.841 
4^50.019 
4910.186 
4970.362 
5030.541 
5090.722 
5150.004 
5211.088 
5271.273 
5331.458 
5391.644 

Tabu  IV. 


The 

Measure  of  each  Degree 

of  Latitude  and  of  a  Degree  of 

Longitude  in  each  Parallel  of 

Latitude  from  tho  Equator  to  eitlier  Pole.    Compression  ^j^. 

Par. 

Degree  of 

Degree  of 

Par. 

Degree  of 

Degree  of 

Par. 

Degree  of 

Degree  of 

of 

Latitude  in 

Longitude  in 

of 

Latitude  in 

Longitude  in 

of 

Latitude  in 

Longitude  in 

Lat. 

Fathoma. 

FathoiDB. 

Lat. 

Fathonu. 

Fathomi. 

Lat. 

Fatlioma, 

Fathomi. 

o 
0 

60458.6 

60857.1 

o 
30 

60607.4 

53746.9 

0 

60 

60006.6 

30503.5 

1 

60458.8 

60847.8 

31 

60616.5 

52310.0 

61 

60915.7 

99578.S 

3 

60459.8 

60830.2 

33 

60635.8 

51657.3 

68 

60934.5 

88643.8 

3 

60400.3 

60774.9 

33 

00635.3 

51088.6 

63 

60933.1 

87700.6 

4 

00461.5 

60709.8 

34 

60644.8 

56504.5 

04 

60941.4 

86748.8 

S 

60463.3 

60697.0 

35 

60654.5 

40004.9 

65 

60040.0 

25788.7 

6 

60405.1 

60535.8 

36 

60664.4 

40390.3 

66 

6O057.5 

24820.7 

7 

60467.5 

60406.4 

37 

60074.3 

48660.3 

67 

6VX5.3 

33845.0 

8 

60470.1 

60968.6 

38 

60(>84.4 

48015.0 

68 

60972.7 

23861.9 

B 

60473.9 

C0113.6 

30 

60694.6 

47355.3 

69 

60979.8 

21871.7 

10 

60476.5 

599.18.4 

40 

60704.8 

46688.4 

70 

60986.7 

20874.8 

11 

60480.3 

59746.1 

41 

60715.1 

45904.3 

71 

60993.4 

19871.4 

18 

60484.3 

59535.6 

43 

60735.4 

45293.0 

79 

60999.7 

18861.8 

13 

60488.7 

50307.1 

43 

60735.8 

44576.0 

73 

61005.7 

17646.4 

14 

60493.4 

59060.6 

44 

60746.3 

43846.3 

74 

61011.5 

10835.4 

15 

60498.4 

58706.3 

45 

60750.7 

43103.0 

75 

61016.8 

15709.3 

16 

60503.8 

58514.1 

46 

00707.3 

43346.0 

76 

61033.0 

14708.9 

^7 

60SO!i  < 

58314.3 

47 

00777.6 

41577.3 

77 

61036.7 

1.1733.6 

Id 

60515 

57806.6 

48 

00788.0, 

40795.1 

79 

61031.3 

12698.7 

19 

60521i- 

57561.4 

40 

00798.4* 

40000.5 

79 

61035.3 

1164a9 

SO 

60528.2 

57808.8 

50 

60608.7 

39193.5 

80 

61039.1 

10C01.4 

SI 

60535.0 

56838.0 

51 

60810.0 

38374.5 

81 

61049.5 

9550.7 

93 

60543.0 

56451.6 

58 

00839.3 

37543.7 

89 

61045.6 

8407.0 

83 

60549.4 

56047.8 

53 

60839.3 

36701.4 

ai 

61048.3 

7440.6 

94 

60557.0 

55035.8 

54 

60849.3 

35847.8 

84 

61050.7 

6383.0 

85 

60504.8 

55187.5 

55 

60859.3 

34983.1 

85 

61053.7 

5321.4 

36 

60579.9 

54733.4 

56 

60869.0 

34107.6 

fM 

61054.3 

42.W.J 

87 

mwRi.o 

54280.8 

57 

60B7B.7 

33891.5 

87 

61055.6 

3105.5 

93 

60589.7 

53773.4 

58 

60888.3 

38335.5 

83 

61056.5 

9130.9 

89 

60598.4 

53867.8 

59 

60897.5 

31419.4 

89 

61057.1 

1063.6 

30 

60607.4 

53746.0 

60 

60906.6 

30503.5 

90 

61057.9 

oono.0 

PabtII 


]uator  to  the  Pole; 
[uator.     Ck)inpres. 


r.5is 

r.566 
r.025 
r.092 
r.767 
r.840 
r.930 
j.030 
i.140 
!.251 

« 

60.051 
60.050 
60.067 
60.075 
6fc388 
60.000 
60.097 
60.104 
CO.lll 

60.117 

60.134 
60.130 
60.135 
60.141 
60.146 
60.151 
60.155 
60.160 
60.164 

00.167 

60.171 
60.174 
00.176 
60.179 
60.181 
60.183 
60.184 
60.185 
60.185 
60.180 

.368 
.4SIS 
.633 
.757 
.808 
.044 
.105 
.3S0 
.510 
.674 

.841 
.013 
.186 
.363 
.541 
.723 
.1104 
.088 
.373 
.458 
.644 

each  Parallel  of 

'• 

BOf 

Degree  of 

Icin 

LoriRitade  in 

ns. 

Fathooii. 

1.6 

30503.5 

.7 

29578.S 

.5 

38643.8 

.1 

87700.6 

.4 

86748.8 

.0 

85788.7 

.5 

84820.7 

.3 

33845.0 

.7 

22861.9 

8 

81871.7 

) 


20874.8 
19871.4 
18801.8 
17840.4 
10885.4 
15709.3 
14768.S 
13733.6 
12693.7 
11648.9 


10601.4 
9S50.7 
8497.0 
7440.6 
6383.0 
5321.4 
4859.  J 
3195.5 
3130.9 
1065.6 

oono.0 


Book  I 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 


147 


)f 


'       ',  CHAPTER  XX 

x,r-'  !-  DETERMINATION  OF  LATITUDE  AND  LONOITUDE. 

There  are  three  important  problems  in  geography  which  require  for  their  solution  the 
doctrines  of  astronomy.  The  first  requires  to  mid  the  direction  of  the  meridian  at  any  point 
of  the  earth's  surfase ;  the  second,  to  find  the  latitude  of  any  place ;  and  the  third,  to  find 
the  longitude. 

Pboblbm  L — To  determine  the  Meridian,  or  to  draw  a  Meridian  Linn.        '■ 

This  problem,  like  many  others  in  practical  astroncxny,  admits  of  a  comparatively  easy 
solution,  if  no  great  degree  of  accuracy  is  required ;  but  to  obtain  a  very  accurate  result, 
much  care,  and  instruments  of  the  most  perfect  construction,  are  indispensable. 

The  general  principle  of  the  solution  is  the  fact,  that  the  celestial  bodies  which  do  not 
sensibly  change  their  declination  in  the  course  of  a  day,  have  the  same  apparent  altitude  at 
equal  mtervab  of  time  before  and  eSter  passing  the  meridian :  also,  that  their  altitude  ia 
greatest  or  least  when  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian ;  that  is,  when  they  are  due  south  or  due 
north. 

About  the  time  of  the  summer  and  winter  solstice,  the  sim  changes  his  declination  very 
little  in  the  course  of  a  dav :  and  hence  it  happens  that  the  shadow  of  an  upright  rod  or 
gnomon  is  almost  exactly  of  the  same  length  when  the  sun  is  at  equal  distances  from  the 
meridian.  To  determine  the  position  of  the  meridian,  then,  let  a  number  of  concentric 
circles  be  described  on  a  horizontal  plane,  and  let  a  wire  or  rod  be  placed  directly  over 
their  common  centre,  and  perpendicular  to  the  plane ;  and,  the  sun  shimng  on  the  plane,  let 
the  two  points  in  which  the  extremity  of  the  shadow  of  Uie  wure  crosses  each  circle  be 
exactly  noted.  Then,  through  any  point  of  the  plane  which  is  at  equal  distances,  from  each 
pair  of  intersections  draw  a  straignt  line  through  the  centre  c^  the  circle ;  and  this  will  be 
m  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  or  will  be  a  merwian  line.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  one  circle, 
and  one  pair  of  intersections  of  the  path  of  the  extremity  of  the  shadow  and  the  cbrcle, 
would  he  sufficient :  but  several  circles  will  fiilfil  the  object  with  greater  accuracy  and 
more  certainty ;  because  a  mean  position  of  the  meridian  line  may  be  found  among  all  Uie 
results ;  and  besides,  one  of  a  pair,  or  botli,  may  be  lost  by  clouds  intercepting  the  light  of 
the  sun. 

The  imperfoction  of  this  method  of  findmg  the  meridian  arises  from  the  indistinctness  of 
the  termination  of  the  shadow  of  the  upright  wire,  and  firom  the  chance  of  the  sun's  decli* 
nation  between  the  observations.  There  is,  however,  another  as  simple  and  exact  as  can 
be  expected,  without  tJie  assistance  of  a  telescope.  It  is  known  that  the  pole  star  and  the 
star  Alioth,  or  t  of  the  Great  Bear,  pass  the  meridian  within  about  nine  mmutes  of  each 
other.  If,  therefore,  we  suspend  two  plummets  by  threads  to  the  ends  of  a  rod  which  turns 
horizontally  on  a  pivot,  and  by  moving  the  rod,  keep  the  two  plumb-lines  exactly  between 
the  eye  and  Aliotn  when  near  the  meridian,  then,  at  the  moment  when  the  pole  star  is  also 
reen  along  the  two  plumb-lines,  the  two  stars  and  the  plumb-lines  will  be  all  nearly  in  the 
plane  of  uie  meridian.  To  keep  the  plumb-lines  steady  in  the  vertical  plane,  the  plummets 
may  hang  in  vessels  filled  with  water. 

If  we  could  determine  the  position  of  a  star  when  its  altitude  is  greatest  or  least,  we 
would  then  have  a  point  of  the  heavens  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian :  but  that  position  cannot 
be  found  with  certamty,  because  the  change  of  altitude  is  imperceptible  to  a  sensible  distance 
on  each  side  of  the  meridian. 

The  exact  determination  of  the  meridian  requires  the  aid  of  the  telescope,  a  well-regulated 
clock,  and  an  instrument  for  determining  the  altitude  of  the  sun  or  a  star:  Hadley's  sextant, 
or  a  reflecting  circle,  are  the  proper  instruments  for  this  purpose.  By  the  sextant  wc  can 
determine  two  instants  of  time  when  the  star  has  the  same  altitude;  the  clock  will  give  the 
interval  of  time  between  tiiem :  and  half  this  interval  will  be  the  time  between  eacn  obser- 
vation and  the  passage  of  the  star  over  the  meridian.  If  we  next  day  note  the  time  by  the 
clock  when  the  star  again  attains  that  altitude,  and  add  to  that  tune  the  above-mentioned 
half  interval,  we  shall  have  the  time  by  the  clock  when  the  star  will  be  on  the  meridian. 
If  at  that  instant  a  telescope,  moveable  in  a  vertical  plane,  be  directed  to  the  star,  so  that  in 
passing  the  meridian  the  star  may  be  in  the  axis  of  the  telescope,  the  position  of  the  plane 
of  the  meridian  will  be  obtained :  and  if  the  telescope  be  fixed  to  a  horizontal  axis  which  ia 
perpendicular  to  that  plane,  it  will  have  a  vertical  motion  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and 
wilt  be  what  is  called  a  transit  instrument.  By  this  instrument  the  exact  instant  when 
any  celestial  phenomenon  is  on  the  meridian  is  known.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most 
essential  instruments  in  an  observatory. 

In  a  variable  climate,  it  may  happen  that  the  observations  necessary  to  determine  the 
meridian  may  be  interrupted  by  cloudy  weather.  This,  however,  is  an  inconvenience  to 
which  all  astronomical  observations  are  liable.  It  must  also  be  observed,  that  a  single  set 
of  observations  will  not  give  so  perfect  a  result  as  a  considerable  number  of  sets,  from 
which  a  moan  may  be  deduced. 


1 .11 


148  PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY.  Past  H 

If  the  celestial  object  .change  its  jxjsition  otherwise  than  by  the  diurnal  motions  of  the 
earth,  as  happens  when  it  is  the  sun,  still  the  problem  may  be  resolved,  as  has  been  explained, 
by  making  allowance  for  the  change  of  position,  by  applying  the  principles  of  spherical  trigo- 
nometry to  the  laws  of  the  motion. 

•-  :^     ';  T[^^'':'-f^"'      Problem  II.— 3b  determine  the  Latitude.         ;'  : :    . 

In  treatmg  of  the  doctrine  of  the  sphere,  it  has  been  already  shown  that  the  distance  of 
the  pole  of  me  world  (that  is,  the  point  of  the  heavens  about  which  all  the  stars  turn)  ftom 
the  horizon  of  any  place  is  equal  to  its  latitude.  Now,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours, 
every  star  passes  the  meridian  twice,  at  equal  distances  firom  the  pole,  and  on  opposite  sides 
of  it  When  the  star  passes  the  meridian  below  the  pole, — that  is,  between  the  pole  and 
the  horizon, — its  altitude  is  the  least  possible ;  and  when  it  crosses  the  meridian  acKtve  the 
pole,  or  between  the  pole  and  the  south  part  of  the  horizon,  its  distance  from  the  north  point 
of  the  horizon  will  be  the  greatest  possible.  If,  therefore,  widi  a  suitable  instrument,  (a 
quadrant  for  instance,)  we  take  the  star's  altitude  when  it  is  least,  and  also  when  it  b  greatest, 
and  correct  these  for  refraction,  it  is  manifest  that  half  their  sum  will  be  the  latitude  of  the 
place  where. the  observations  were  made. 

We  have  supposed  the  star  to  pass  the  meridian  between  the  pole  and  the  zenith,  and  then 
its  greatest  altitude  will  be  its  distance  from  the  north  point  of  the  horizon :  but  it  may  pass 
to  me  south  of  the  zenith,  and  then  its  altitude,  reckoned  from  the  south,  must  be  subtracted 
fivm  180°  to  get  its  distance  from  the  north  pomt  of  the  horizon ;  and  half  the  sum  of  the 
two  distances,  as  before,  will  be  the  latitude. 

Any  one  star  that  never  sets,  the  pole  star  fbi  instance,  will  serve  to  determine  the  latitnde : 
but  it  will  be  proper,  if  circumstances  allow,  to  observe  various  stars,  and  the  mean  of  all 
^e  observations  may  be  expected  to  be  more  correct  than  a  single  pair. 

If,  instead  of  the  greatest  and  least  altitudes  of  a  star,  its  greatest  and  least  distances  from 
the  zenith  be  found,  then  half  their  sum  will  be  the  complement  of  the  latitude;  that  is,  the 
difierence  between  the  latitude  and  ninety  degrees. 

For  example,  by  observations  made  on  the  pole  star  at  the  Dublin  Observatory,  it  was  found 
that 

Its  greatest  zenith  distance,  corrected  for  refraction,  was  -    .    •    38°  19'  43".ll 

Least 34   53  49.55 

The  sum 73   13  32.66 

Half  the  sum,  or  co-latitude  of  the  observatory 36   36  46. 83 

The  latitude 53   23   13.67 

When  the  latitude  of  one  place  is  kno^vn,  the  latitude  of  another  place  may  be  found  by 
observing  with  a  quadrant,  or  other  suitable  mstrument,  the  zenith  distances  of  any  star  at 
both  places.  The  difference  of  these  zenith  distances,  when  corrected  for  refraction,  will  bo 
the  difference  of  latitude  of  the  two  places. 

Thus,  for  example,  to  determine  the  difference  between  the  latitudes  of  Greenwich  Ob* 
qervatory  and  Dunnoee  in  the  Isk  of  Wight,  it  was  found  that 

At  Dunnose  the  z.  d.  of  j3  Draconis  was 1°60'  5".24 

.     And  at  Greenwich 0   58  33.13 

Difference  of  latitude 0   61   32.11 

The  latitude  of  Greenwich  was  known  tobe     ----..-  51   28  30.05 
The  latitude  of  Dunnose  is 50   37     8.39 

The  navigator  has  daily  occasion  to  determine  his  latitude  at  sea.    For  this  purpose,  he 
finds  the  sun's  zenith  distance,  or  Its  altitude  at  noon,  by  Hadley's  sextant    The  Nautical 
Almanac  gives  him  the  sun's  declination,  or  distance  from  the  equator  at  the  time  he  makes 
his  observation :  the  sum  or  difference  of  these  is  his  latitude,  according  as  the  ship  and  Uie 
sun  are  on  the  same  or  opposite  sides  of  the  equator. 

Ex.    On  July  24, 1783,  at  a  place  in  Iraigitude  54°  (3"  36°)  west  of  Greenwich,  the  alti- 
tude  of  the  sun's  lower  limb,  when  cleared  from  refraction  and  (nrallax,  was  observed  by  a 
sextant  to  1)'>  59°  16'  30".    By  the  Nautical  Almanac,  the  sun's  semidumeter  was  15'  48", 
and  his  declination  at  the  time  of  noon  in  that  longitude  19°  51'  N.    'The  ctdculation  for 
the  latitude  will  stand  thus : — 

Altitude  of  the  sun's  lower  limb      -••........    590  16'  30" 

,      Add  sun's  semidiameter     ..............  15  48 

Subtract  altitude  of  sun's  centre     ...........    59   31   iq 

From 90     0     0 

To  sun's  zenith  distance    -    =    =    -----.--.-.    30   28  42 

Add  sun's  declination   -•-•-••••.    .....1951     Q 

The  latitude  of  the  place  i8>«>.-.. so   19  43 


cq 


Part  H 

ma]  motions  of  the 
has  been  explained, 
s  of  spherical  trigo> 


liat  the  distance  of 
Jie  stars  turn)  from 

twenty-four  hours, 
id  on  opposite  sides 
tween  the  pole  and 
meridian  above  the 
rom  the  north  point 
ible  instrument,  (a 
'  when  it  is  greatest, 

the  latitude  of  the 

Jie  zenith,  and  then 
•n :  but  it  may  pass 
must  be  subtracted 
lalf  the  sum  of  the 

irmuie  the  latitude : 
td  the  mean  of  all 

east  distances  from 
titude ;  that  is,  tiie 

ratory,  it  was  found 


3°  19' 
1   53 

43".ll 
49.55 

}    13 
i   86 

\   23 

32.66 
46.83 
13.67 

!  may  be  found  by 
ices  of  any  star  at 
refraction,  will  bo 

af  Greenwich  Ol>> 

°  50'  5".24 
58  33.13 


51 

28 


32.11 

30.05 


>   87     8.39 

r  this  purpose,  he 

The  Nautical 

le  time  he  makes 

the  ship  and  tiie 

lenwich,  the  alti* 
roB  observed  by  a 
Bter  was  15'  48", 
le  calculation  for 

)9°  15*  30" 
15  48 


>9 
H) 

31 
0 

18 
0 

to 

9 

28 
51 

42 
0 

K) 

19 

43 

Boos  L 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 


149 


The  navigator  cannot  always  obtain  an  observation  of  the  sun  or  a  star  when  on  the  me- 
ridian. He  may,  however,  be  able  to  observe  two  latitudes  out  of  the  meridian,  and  the 
interval  of  time  between  them.  With  these  data,  and  the  aid  of  spherical  trigonometry  and 
the  Nautical  Almanac,  he  may  find  his  latitude  by  rules  given  by  writers  on  navigation  and 
astronomy.  It  i :,  h  general,  by  one  or  other  of  these  methods  that  the  recorded  latitudes 
of  all  places  have  Keen  obtained,  and  arranged  in  a  table  for  the  use  of  the  geographer  and 
navigator. 

.■-•.'      PbobuhIII. — To  determtTie  the  Longititde.      .  -     <      •    • ;  f* 

The  interval  of  time  between  two  successive  passages  of  the  sun  over  the  meridian  of  any 
place  is  twenty-four  hours.  If,  therefr-e,  we  suppose  a  number  of  meridians  to  be  drawn 
at  equal  intervals, — that  is,  to  form  successively  with  each  other  equal  angl^  at  the  poles,^ 
then,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  each  of  these  meridians  (supposing  their  planes 
produced)  will  pass  through  the  sun.  Therefore  twenty-four  hours  of  mean  solar  time  wUl 
correspond  to  860  degrees  of  longitude ;  for  the  whole  scale  of  longitude  must  be  contained 
between  the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  tiie  meridian  at  the  same  place.  At  places  situated 
on  the  meridian  opposite  that  on  which  the  ran  was  at  0\  or,  in  civil  reckoning,  at  12  at 
noon,  the  time  would  be  12V  or  12  at  night ;  and  12**  would  correspond  to  180  degrees  of 
longitude.  At  i)laces  situated  on  the  meridian  at  right  angles  to  the  former,  the  time  would 
be  6"  or  18N  or,  in  civil  reckoning,  six  in  the  morning  or  six  in  the  evening;  and,  accord- 
mgly,  six  hours  and  eighteen  hours  of  mean  solar  time  will  correspond  to  90°  or  270*'  of 
longitude ;  and  so  on  for  intermediate  meridiana 

The  selection  of  a  meridian,  frx)m  which  the  longitude  is  to  be  reckoned,  is  entirely  arbi- 
trary. The  English  take  the  meridian  iMtssing  through  Greenwich  Observatory  for  the  first 
meridian,  and  reckon  its  longitude  to  be  0°  or  0^.  The  first  meridian  of  the  Irench  is  that 
which  passes  through  the  oteervatory  of  Paris.  An  interval  of  9"  21'  elapses  between  the 
passages  of  the  sun  rvti  '  meridians  of  Paris  and  Greenwich:  the  longitude  of  Paris 
Observatory  is,  therefor*  .  ^lish  geographers,  accounted  to  be  0^  21'  east  m  time ;  or 

in  degrees,  2°  20'  15". 

Since  it  is  noon  at  ali  pieces  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  from  pole  to  pole  at  the  same 
uistant,  it  will  be  an  hour  past  noon,  or  1\  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  15°  to  the  east  of 
that  of  Greenwich ;  and  two  hours  past  noon,  or  2\  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  30°  east 
from  that  of  Greenwich ;  and  so  on.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  want  an  hour  to  noon,  or 
will  be  ll^  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  15°  west  from  that  of  Greenwich ;  and  it  will  be 
two  hours  before  noon,  or  10\  at  places  on  the  meridian  30°  west  fix>m  that  of  Greenwich ; 
and  BO  on,  reckoning  an  hour,  or  sixty  mmutes  of  time,  to  correspond  to  fifteen  degrees,  and 
fbur  minutes  of  time  to  one  degree. 

Since  it  appears  that  all  places  on  the  same  meridian  have  noon,  or  any  assumed  hour, 
at  the  same  mstant,  and  that  the  instant  of  noon  is  difierent  at  places  on  diflbrent  meridians, — 
being  earlier  or  later  on  meridians  having  west  longitude,  according  as  they  are  nearer  to 
or  imher  from  the  first  meridian,  and  the  reverse  on  meridians  having  east  longitude ;  and 
moreover,  that  the  diflTerence  between  the  time  of  noon  on  two  meridians  is  proportional  to 
the  diiference  of  their  longitude,  and  therefore  a  measure  of  that  difference ;  it  follows  that 
if,  knowing  the  hour  of  the  day  at  an^  place,  we  can  at  the  same  instant  by  any  means  know 
the  hour  at  a  place  on  any  other  meridian,  then  we  can  determine  the  difierence  of  longitude 
between  tiie  meridians :  for  it  will  be  t'.  e  difierence  between  the  times  of  the  day,  as  esti- 
mated on  the  two  meridians,  reckoned  m  hours,  minutes,  &c. ;  and  this  may  be  converted 
into  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  by  reckoning  fifteen  degrees  to  an  hour,  ana  proportionally 
for  minutes  and  seconds  of  time. 

The  practical  metiiods  of  determining  the  longitude  are  the  following: — 

1.  By  a  Chronometer  or  Time-keeper. 

Let  UB  suppose  that  a  traveller  departs  from  any  place,  (St  Paul's,  London,  for  example,) 
and  carries  with  him  a  watch  regulated  to  mean  solar  time,  and  which  indicates  12"  at  the 
instant  of  mean  noon  at  London :  then,  supposing  the  watch  to  go  with  perfect  regularity, 
if  he  go  to  Edinburgh,  and  compare  the  estimated  solar  time  there  with  that  shown  by  his 
watch,  he  will  find  uiat  they  difler  by  twelves  minutes  twenty-one  seconds ;  so  that  when  it  ia 
12'  at  Edinburgh  Observatory,  it  will  be  12*  12"  21'  bv  his  watch.  He  may  therefore  con- 
clude, that  the  diffbrence  or  longitude  between  London  and  Edinburgh  is  12"  21' west; 
and  since  St  Paul's  is  twenty-three  seconds  of  time  west  from  Greenwich,  the  longitude  of 
Edinburgh  Observatory  is  12"  44*  west  which  corresponds  to  3°  11',  If  leaving  London,  ha 
had  gone  to  Paris,  he  would  there  have  found  the  estimated  time  to  be  9°>  44'  earlier  Uian 
that  shown  by  his  watch :  hence  the  difierence  between  the  meridians  of  London  and  Paris 
IB  ff"  44',  and  the  longitude  of  Paris  (fitMn  Grr^enwich)  9"  21'  east. ' 

In  tlie  same  way  the  navigator  at  sea  may  determine  his  longitude  by  a  good  chronometer. 
He  can  determine  the  hour  of  the  day  by  the  sun's  altitude,  and  the  principles  of  spherical 

13* 


180 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


trigonometry.  Or  he  may  take  equal  altitudes,  noting  the  times ;  the  middle  point  of  time 
between  them  will  be  the  instant  of  noon,  as  shown  by  the  watch:  he  must,  however,  make 
a  correction  for  the  change  of  the  sun's  ieclination,  and  the  distance  run  by  the  ship  in  the 
interval.  Supposing  now  the  chronometer  to  ha^'  been  set  to  the  true  time  at  the  port  from 
.  whence  he  sailed,  and  to  have  gone  unifiUi.iiy  with  a  small  known  daily  acceleration  ot 
retardation,  called  its  rate ;  this  correction  being  applied,  he  will  have  the  time  at  tlie  port 
corresponding  to  his  observed  time  of  noon,  and  their  difference  will  be  the  longitude  of  the 
ship  eastward  ."r  westward  from  the  meridian  whence  she  sailed. 

The  longitude  of  any  noint  on  the  earth,  either  at  sea  or  on  land,  may  be  determined  by 
a  good  chronometer ;  in  h  latter  cose,  however,  the  joltmg  it  must  suffer  by  carriage  will 
disturb  its  motion,  and  r»  adcr  the  result  sought  uncertain.  At  sea,  the  mode  of  transport  is 
not  so  liable  to  nidden  jerks ;  and,  therefore,  tlie  chronometer  may  be  expectiu  to  go  v'th 
more  regularity.  If  several  be  employed,  considerable  accuracy  muy  be  obtained.  The 
Board  of  Admiralty  sent  ten  or  twelve  chronometers  from  Greenwich  to  Talmouth,  and 
thence  in  a  vessel  to  Madeira,  and  in  this  way  determined  the  longitude  of  Funchal  from  a 
mean  of  their  results. 

The  facility  of  this  mode  of  determining  the  longitude  makes  perfectiori  in  the  construc- 
tion of  chronometers  an  object  of  high  importance  in  a  maritime  nation  like  Britaii^.  It  was, 
therefore,  for  man^  years  encouraged  by  acts  of  parliament  offering  high  rewords  for  pre- 
scribed degrees  of^excellence.  These,  however,  are  now  repealed ;  t>ut  the  government  has 
not  lost  sight  of  this  important  subject 

2.     The  Longitude  by  Eclipses  qf  Jupiter's  iiaiillites. 

If  a  celestial  phenomenon  can  be  seen  at  the  same  absolute  instant  of  time  in  two  dif- 
ferent places  of  the  earth,  this  appearance  gives  the  means  of  determining  the  difference  of 
their  longitudes ;  for  if  the  phenomenon  be  seen  at  both  places,  and  the  tunes,  according  to 
their  reckoning,  be  noted,  it  is  manifest  that  their  difference  will  he  the  difference  of  longi- 
tude, in  time,  of  the  two  places. 

Now  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  moons  are  phenomena  of  this  kind.  They  may  be  seen, 
almost  at  the  same  instant,  everywhere  in  the  hemisphere  in  which  Jupiter  is  visible :  and 
such  is  the  perfection  of  astronomy,  that  the  times  at  which  tliey  will  happen  can  be  pre- 
dicted with  considerable  accuracy.  These  arc  computed  according  to  Greenwich  time,  and 
published,  along  with  various  other  matters,  in  the  Nautical  Almanac,  several  years  before 
they  happen,  for  the  benefit  of  travellers.  This  method  of  finding  the  longitude  can,  how- 
ever, only  be  applied  on  land ;  for  at  sea  the  rolling  of  the  ship  makes  it  next  to  impossible 
to  durect  a  telescope  so  steadily  to  Jupiter  as  to  view  the  eclipse  of  a  satellite. 

Example. — Suppose  an  immersion  of  the  first  satellite  should  be  observed  at  the  Capp 
of  Good  Hope,  April  18, 1805,  at  IS*"  25""  35'  mean  time ;  the  predicted  time  given  by  tha 
Epheraeris  being  12*  12"  2*  at  Greenwich.  Here  the  difference  is  l""  13"  33";  whence  the 
longitude  of  the  Cape  should  be  18°  23'  15"  east  of  Greenwich. 

In  this  example,  the  observed  time  at  the  Cape  is  compared  with  the  computed  time  of 
the  eclipse  at  Greenwich.  If,  instead  of  this,  the  observed  time  at  Greenwich  had  been 
used,  greater  accuracy  might  have  been  expected. 

This  method  is  easy,  and  therefore  much  practised ;  but  it  is  liable  tc  uncertainty :  for 
two  observers  in  the  same  room,  but  using  different  telescopes,  will  sometimes  differ  in  noting 
the  time  of  an  eclipse  of  the  first  satellite  by  as  much  as  nfleen  or  twenty  £.econds.  Delam- 
bre  thinks  that  the  time  of  an  eclipse  of  the  fourth  satellite  may  be  doubtful  to  the  amount 
of  four  minutes. 

3.    liongitude  by  an  Eclipse  of  tke  Moon. 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon  has  exactly  the  sar  j  appearance,  at  the  same  instant,  wherever 
seen ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  be  quite  sure,  by  observation,  of  the  exact  time  of  their  begin 
rang  or  end,  because  of  the  penumbra  which  bounds  the  earth's  shadow.  The  results  to  be 
obtained  from  them  ore  therefore  uncertain,  to  perhaps  two  minutes  of  time ;  and  therefore 
only  to  be  regarded  as  approximations  to  the  truUi. 

Example.    An  eclipse  of  the  moon  was  observed  Aug.  28.  1729,  by  the  astronomer  Cas- 
sini  at  Paris,  and  by  Mr.  Stephenson  at  Barbadoes. 
At  Paris,  Imm.  )        -    12"   19"  13' 
At  Barbadoes,  Imm.  >       8    11     0 


Emer.  ) 
Emer.  ) 


13*  5ff» 
9    51 


4      8    18 


8 


tu 
th 
tic 


By  the  mean  of  the  two,  the  difference  of  longitude  is  4*  8"  6"5 ;  that  is,  Barbadoes  k 
62°  i' 80"  west  of  Paris. 


Part  II. 

Idle  point  of  time 
it,  however,  make 
by  the  ship  in  the 
le  at  the  port  from 
ily  acceleration  or 
le  time  at  the  port 
e  longitude  of  the 

be  determined  by 
r  by  corriage  will 
ode  of  transport  is 
ipectiu  to  go  V'th 
le  obtained.  The 
to  Falmouth,  and 
>f  Funchal  from  a 

ti  in  the  construc- 
e  Britaii^.  It  was, 
I  rewards  for  pre- 
e  government  Ifaa 


)f  time  in  two  dif- 
f  the  difference  of 
imes,  according  to 
ifference  of  longi- 

"hey  may  bo  seen, 
ter  is  visible :  and 
appen  can  be  pre- 
;enwich  time,  and 
^eral  years  before 
igitude  can,  how- 
lext  to  impossible 
lite, 

;rved  at  the  Capr 
;ime  given  by  tlu 
33" ;  whence  the 

omputed  time  of 
enwich  had  been 

uncertainty:  for 
es  differ  in  notirig 

oconds.  Dclam- 
ul  to  the  amount 


nstant,  wherever 
9  of  their  begin 
rhe  results  to  be 
5;  and  therefore 

astronomer  Cas< 


BooiL 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 


151 


4.  LongittKM,  '>*/  Lunar  Distances,  or  by  Oceultations  of  Stars  by  the  Moon. 


is,  Barbadocfl  m 


The '.  -ton  is,  of  all  c.^  .elestiu!  bodies,  the  most  convenient  for  determining  the  longi* 
tudo,  Iccniie  of  the  gr»  ater  quickness  of  her  apparent  motion  among  the  stars.  She  makes 
the  complete  circuit  of  thn  heavens  in  27*  T""  48"  4".7  (this  is  her  mean  sidereal  revolu- 
tion) :  therefore  she  chan&es  her  place  among  the  stars  more  than  half  a  degree,  or  her  own 
apparent  diameter,  in  an  hour ;  so  that  in  two  minutes  of  time  she  passes  over  one  minute 
of  a  degree.    This,  or  even  its  half,  is  quite  a  measurable  quantity  by  a  good  sextant 

By  the  theory  of  the  moon's  motion,  her  place  among  the  stars  is  known  at  any  time 
that  is,  knowing  the  time  of  the  day  at  Greenwich,  the  place  of  the  moon  is  known ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  knowing  the  place  of  the  moon,  the  tune  at  Greenwich  is  knowa  The 
Nautical  Almanac  gives  the  distance  of  the  moon's  centre  fh>m  the  sun,  and  some  of  the 
brighter  stars,  as  it  would  be  seen  from  the  earth's  centre,  for  every  third  hour  of  the  day, 
Greenwich  time.  If,  therefore,  the  Almanac  show  that  the  moon,  considered  r<a  seen  from 
the  earth's  centre,  will  be  10°  lirom  a  certain  fixed  star  at  six  o'clock  in  the  evening  at 
Greenwicli ;  and  we  make  an  observation  at  a  distant  place,  and  find  that  the  moon's  dis- 
tance from  the  same  star,  reduced  by  computation  to  what  it  jvould  be  if  seen  at  the  earth's 
centre,  is  10°,  we  immediately  conclude  that  at  that  instant  it  is  six  o'clock  at  Greenwich. 
Thus  the  moon,  with  the  brighter  fixed  stars  near  her  path,  serve  the  purpose  of  a  chronch 
meter. 

To  determine  the  longitude  in  this  way,  one  observer  measures  the  moon's  distance  fh)ni 
the  sun  or  a  bright  star  (one  of  those  in  the  Ephemeris) ;  another  observer  at  the  same  time 
finds  the  altitudes  of  the  moon  and  star ;  and  a  third  should  observe  the  ex^t  time  by  a 
chronometer  '  i  good  watch  at  which  the  observations  were  made.  These  observations, 
corrected  for  .etraction,  give  data  for  finding  what  would  be  the  apparent  place  of  the  moon 
in  the  heavens,  if  it  could  be  seen  fVom  the  centre  of  the  earth  at  tnat  time.  The  Nautical 
Almanac  enables  the  observer  to  find  the  hour  at  Greenwich,  when  the  position  of  the  moon 
in  the  heavens  was  such  as  he  observed  it,  and  the  mterval  between  the  Greenwich  time 
and  his  own  gives  him  his  longitude. 

This  method  of  finding  the  longitude  is  commonly  practised  in  the  service  of  the  Ea^t 
India  Company,  and  in  me  navy.  By  it  the  longitude  may  be  generally  known  to  within 
twenty  miles,  and  very  often  much  nearer.  This,  although  less  accurate  than  the  latitude, 
is  yet  on  invaluable  acquisition  to  the  navigator.  A  striking  proof  how  much  it  may  be 
depended  on  has  been  given  by  a  distinguished  navigator  (Capt  Basil  Hall,  R.  N.).  After 
a  voyage  of  8000  miles,  occupying  eighty-nine  days,  he  arrived  off  Rio  de  Janeiro,  having 
passed  through  the  Pacific  Ocean,  rounded  Cape  Horn,  and  crossed  the  South  Atlantic, 
without  malung  any  land.  When  within  a  week's  sail  of  Rio,  he  .set  about  determining, 
by  lunar  observations,  the  ship's  course  and  place  at  a  determmate  moment ;  and  having 
found  this,  within  from  five  to  ten  miles,  he  trusted  to  the  ordinary  and  more  compendious 
way  of  finding  his  position,  such  as  is  used  in  short  trips,  for  the  remainder  of  his  voyage. 
When  he  arrived  within  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  of  the  coast  (according  to  his  estimation), 
he  hove  to  at  four  in  the  morning-,  waiting  for  day-break.  He  th&n  proceeded,  although  the 
weather  was  hazy ;  but  about  eight  it  Income  so  foggy  that  he  md  not  like  to  stand  in 
farther.  The  fog  suddenly  cleared  off,  and  then  he  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  the  Great 
Sugar-loaf  Rock,  which  stands  on  one  side  of  the  harbour,  oo  nearly  right  a-head,  that  he 
had  not  to  alter  his  course  above  a  point  in  order  to  hit  the  entrance  of  Rio. 

Oceultations  of  stars  by  the  moon  serve  exactly  the  same  purpose  as  a  distance  of  the 
moon  from  a  star :  these,  however,  are  not  so  generally  observed  at  sea  as  on  land.  They 
2;ive  the  distance  of  the  moon  fix)m  the  star  wiui  almost  perfect  accuracy,  and  therefore  are 
an  excellent  method  of  determining  the  longitude.  Wlien  an  occultation  has  been  observed, 
we  can,  by  the  lunar  tables  or  the  Nautical  Almanac,  which  is  a  species  of  lunar  and  solar 
tables,  compute  the  distance  between  the  centre  of  the  moon  and  star  as  it  would  appear  at 
the  earth's  centre  at  the  moment  the  occultation  was  obser\'ed,  provided  we  know  the  lon- 
gitude of  the  place  where  the  observation  was  mode :  but  this  longitude  is  the  very  thing 
we  want ;  therefore  we  caimot  proceed  by  a  direct  process.  However,  we  may  know  the 
longitude  nearly  by  some  other  means ;  an  eclipse  of  one  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  for  exam- 

ele.  With  this,  as  if  it  were  tiie  true  longitude,  we  may  calculate  the  apparent  distance 
etween  the  star  and  centre  of  the  moon  reduced  to  the  earth's  centre  at  the  tune  the  occul- 
tation was  seer  If  the  longitude  had  been  correctly  assumed,  this  would  have  been  exactly 
the  moon's  semidiameter ;  but  it  will  differ  more  or  less,  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the 
errof  we  have  made  in  the  assumed  longitude.  There  will,  however,  be  such  a  determi- 
nate connexion  between  the  error  of  the  longitude  and  the  difference  between  the  moon's 
semidiameter  and  comp''<ted  distance  of  the  star  and  moon's  centre,  Umi  the  one  wiii  be  dedu- 


cible  from  the  other  by  calculation.  In  this  way,  then,  the  error  may  be  estimated,  and  h 
nearer  approximation  to  the  longitude  obtained;  and  a  repetition  of  the  process  will  give  » 
■till  more  correct  result. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAmi  n. 


6,  Longitude  by  the  Trantit  of  the  Moon  over  the  Meridian. 

Let  T  bo  the  time  by  the  clock  when  the  moon  ia  observ  n  the  meridian  of  any  plcxse, 
t  the  time  of  transit  of  a  known  fixed  star,  34  +  x  the  imcrval  between  two  succesaive 
tauuits  of  the  same  star :  then  24  +  x  :  T  -  t : :  960°  :  difference  of  rieht  ascension  of  the 
moon  and  star  at  the  instant  the  moon  was  on  the  meridian ;  to  which  adding  the  known 
right  ascension  of  tho  star,  the  right  ascension  (A)  of  tiie  moon  when  on  the  meridian  ia 
determined.  Now  the  moon's  right  ascension  when  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  is  given 
in  tho  Nautical  Almanac  for  every  day  of  the  year,  from  whence  the  daily  increment  of  her 
right  ascension  may  be  determined :  let,  therefore,  a  be  the  moon's  right  ascension  when  on 
the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  E  the  increment  of  right  ascension  in  we  time  between  twc 
Buccossivo  transits  over  the  same  meridian;  then,  considering  the  change  of  right  ascenaiw 
as  uniform,  —  r 

!'      E :  a  -  A  ::  360°  :  the  required  Ipngitude.        '  .   " 

6.  Longitude  by  Signals. 

The  most  accurate  way  of  determining  small  difipTencea  of  longitude  is  by  signals  made 
on  the  earth's  surface.  A  rocket  firod  from  an  elevaied  spot  on  a  clear  night  may  be  seen 
distinctly  with  a  telescope  at  the  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles :  therefore,  by  observing 
tho  times  at  which  tiie  same  explosion  is  seen  at  two  places,  the  difference  of  longitude  of 
the  places  may  be  found. 

The  same  method  will  apply  to  places  at  any  distance,  if  they  be  connected  by  a  chain 
of  stations  sufficiently  near  to  each  other  to  admit  of  a  rocket  to  be  seen  fVom  every  two 
adjoinmg  stations.  The  difiTerence  of  longitude  between  Greenwich  and  Paris  was  deter- 
mmed  in  1825  in  this  wa^.  Rockets  were  exploded  at  Wrotiiam,  and  seen  simultaneously 
at  Greenwich  and  Fairlight  Down :  also  at  La  Cancho  on  the  French  coast,  which  were 
seen  at  Fairlight  and  Lignicra ;  and  at  Mont  Javoult,  which  were  observed  at  Ligniers  and 
Paris. 

In  the  same  way  the  diilerence  of  longitude  between  Geneva  and  Milan  has  been  deter- 
mined by  signals  made  by  illumination  on  the  tops  of  intermediate  mountains. 

The  intenselv  brilliant  light  which  Lieutenant  Dn-nmond,  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  has 
proposed  fbr  light-houses,  and  which  is  produced  by  pla^^.ing  a  ball  of  lime,  about  the  size  of 
a  pea,  in  a  flame  supported  by  oxygen  gas,  may  bo  employed  in  determining  differences  of 
longitude.  We  believe  that,  in  ravourable  weather,  this  light  exhibited  on  the  top  of  Ben 
Lomond  may  be  seen  at  the  same  time  at  Edinburgh  and  in  Ireland :  indeed,  we  know  that 
it  has  actually  been  seen  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  Here,  then,  we  have  the  means  of  deter 
mining  with  great  exactness  tho  difiTerence  between  the  longitude  of  Dublin  and  Edinburgh. 

7.  Longitude  by  Triangulation. 
The  trigonometrical  survey  of  Britain  has  determined  the  longitude  of  all  the  principal 
points  on  the  coast,  as  well  as  the  mountains  and  cities  in  the  interior,  particularly  in  Eng- 
land. At  present  the  survey  is  suspended  in  Britain,  but  is  going  on  in  Ireland.  When 
this  is  completed,  the  British  survey  will  doubtless  be  resumed,  and  the  geography  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  island  made  as  perfect  in  its  minute  details  as  the  southern,  which, 
firom  its  proximity  to  the  continent,  is  more  necesaary  to  be  known  in  preparing  plans  of 
national  defence. 


i  m  f ! 


I'  i! 


"!!'• 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 

The  most  natural  and  correct  representation  which  can  be  given  of  the  geographical  divi- 
sions of  the  earth's  surfhce  is  that  which  is  made  on  a  sphere  or  globe.  In  this  way  the 
different  countries  may  be  truly  delineated,  so  as  to  exhibit  perfectly  to  the  eye  their  relative 
position,  their  magnitude,  and  boundaries;  and  by  such  a  representation  of  the  earth,  idl  the 
problems  in  geography  may  be  resolved  with  elegance  and  fiicility. 

But  although  tlie  surfiice  of  a  solid  having  the  exact  figure  of  the  earth,  or  diflTering  but 
little  from  it,  afibrds  in  theory  the  most  complete  and  the  only  perfect  representation  of  any 
considerable  tract  of  country,  yet  there  is  a  limit  in  practice  to  this  precious  advantage.  A 
globe  of  a  moderate  size  serves  very  well  to  give  a  distinct  notion  of  the  figure,  the  magni- 
tude, tho  position,  and  general  features  of  the  groat  continents  and  islands :  but  the  largest 
globe  tliat  can  conveniently  be  constructed  is  insufficient  for  minute  details ;  and  then  we 
must  have  recourse  to  the  more  simple,  although  less  perfect,  representations  of  Maps. 

It  is  impossible  t/>  represent  on  r  plane  &  large  extent  of  tho  earth's  surface,  so  that  the 
distances  of  places  in  the  plane  map  shall  have  to  each  other  precisely  the  same  proportion 
as  their  distaiices  on  the  globe.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  geographers  have  had  recourse 
to  different  methods  of  representing  portions  of  the  globe  on  a  plane. 


pabi  n, 

in.        ■"' 

lian  of  any  plivce, 
9n  two  succeasive 
t  ascension  of  the 
iddin^  the  known 
>n  the  meridian  is 
■oenwich  is  given 
increment  of  her 
scension  when  on 
me  between  twc 
of  right  ascension 


s  by  signals  made 
icfht  may  be  seen 
fore,  by  observing 
ce  of  longitude  of 

nected  by  a  chain 
sn  ftxjm  every  two 
1  Paris  was  deter- 
in  simultaneously 
joast,  which  were 
id  at  Ligniers  and 

in  has  been  deter- 
ins. 

ral  Engineers,  has 
,  about  the  size  of 
ing  diiferences  of 
on  the  top  of  Ben 
ed,  we  know  that 
e  means  of  deter 
n  and  Edinburgh. 


all  the  principal 
rticularly  in  Eng- 

Ireland.  When 
geography  of  the 

southern,  which, 
reparing  plans  of 


Book  L 


HEPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


iM 


geographical  divi- 

In  this  way  the 

eye  their  relative 

the  earth,  all  the 

or  differing  but 
mentation  of  any 
s  advantage.  A 
gure,  the  magni- 

but  the  largest 
lis ;  and  then  we 
>s  of  Maps. 
ace,  so  that  the 
same  proportion 
ve  had  recourse 


By  one  method  the  countries  are  represented  by  the  rules  of  perspective,  as  they  would 
appear  to  an  eye  that  should  view  them  on  the  surface  of  a  sphere  flrom  a  given  point  The 
dinerent  positions  which  may  be  assumed  for  the  pomt  firom  which  the  sphere  is  viewed  give 
rise  to  different  projection$,  which  all  answer  voiy  well  when  the  surface  to  be  represented 
is  of  small  extent,  and  the  pomt  of  view,  or  projecting  fnnt,  is  nearly  over  its  centre. 
However,  when  the  surfkce  is  of  great  extent,  a  whole  hemisphere  for  instance,  those  '>laces 
which  lie  near  the  border  of  the  projection  are  in  them  all  much  distorted. 

According  to  another  method,  the  spherical  surface  to  be  represented  is  suppose     j  be 
cone  whose  vertex  is  somewhere  in  the  polar  axb  produced,  and  its  curved  sur&ce  eithe 
touches  the  sphere  at  the  middle  parallel  of  the  map,  or  falls  within  the  sphere  at  the  mid- 
dle parallel,  and  without  it  at  the  extreme  parallels.    The  surface  of  the  cone  is  then  sup- 
posed io  be  extended  into  a  plane.    This  way  of  constructing  maps  is  called  the  method  of 
development. 

There  are  other  mathematical  hypotheses  accordmg  to  which  maps  are  delineated,  and 
one  in  particular  by  which  marine  charts  are  constructed.  In  this,  the  parallels  of  latitude 
and  circles  of  longitude  are  all  represented  by  straight  lines  (that  is,  a  Ime  making  always 
the  same  angle  with  the  meridian),  and  the  course  of  a  ship  sailing  always  on  the  same 
rhomb  is  also  a  straight  line.  A  representation  of  the  earth  in  this  way  is  commonly 
called  Mercator't  chart,  although  the  invention  is  due  to  an  English  mathematician,  Edward 
Wright    Charts  of  this  construction  are  of  great  importance  in  navigation. 

L  CONSTBVOTIOIf  OF  HAPS  BY  PROJEOTION. 

There  are  two  projections  of  the  sphere  by  which  portions  of  its  surface  may  be  truly 
delineated  by  the  rules  of  perspective :  the  orthooraphio  and  the  BTERBOoRAPmo.  In  each, 
the  plane  on  which  the  projection  is  made  is  called  the  plane  of  projection.  , 

1.  ORTHOORAPHIO  TROJECTION. 

To  project  any  point  in  space  orthographically  en  u  plane,  a  perpendicular  is  to  be  drawn 
fVom  the  point  on  the  plane  and  the  bottom  of  the  perpendicular ;  that  is,  the  point  in  which 
it  meets  the  plane  is  tne  orthographic  projection  of  the  point. 

The  orthographic  projection  of  a  line  of  any  kind  on  a  olane  is  found  by  supposing  per- 
pendiculars to  be  drawn  from  every  point  in  the  line,  and  that  line  on  the  plane  which  passes 
through  the  bottom  of  all  the  perpendiculars  in  the  orthographic  projection  of  the  proposed 
line. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  orthographic  projection  of  a  straight  line  must  be  a  straight  line, 
because  the  perpendiculars  drawn  from  every  point  in  it  to  uie  plane  of  projection  will  all 
lie  in  a  plane,  and  the  common  section  of  two  planes  is  a  straight  line.  It  is  also  apparent 
that  the  projection  of  a  rectilineal  figure  will  be  a  rectilineal  figure. 

If  a  circle  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of  projection,  its  orthographic  projection  or  representa- 
tion will  be  a  circle :  for  the  perprjndiculars  supposed  to  be  drawn  from  every  pohit  in  the 
circle  to  the  plane  of  projection  v/ill  all  be  on  the  curve  surface  of  a  cylinder,  and  they  may 
be  considered  as  constituting  that  surface.  The  circle  and  its  projection  will  be  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  cylinder ;  and  since  they  are  parallel,  they  will  be  alike  and  e^ual. 

If  the  plane  in  which  a  circle  lies  lie  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection,  its  projec- 
tion will  manifestly  be  a  straight  line,  which  will  be  equal  in  length  to  the  diameter ;  and 
the  projection  of  any  arc  reckoned  from  the  extremities  of  the  diameter  will  be  projected 
into  its  versed  sine ;  also  the  complement  of  the  arc,  or  what  it  wants  of  ninety  degrees,  will 
be  projected  into  its  sine. 

But  if  a  circle  be  in  a  plane  which  is  neither  parallel  nor  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
projection,  then  its  projection  will  neither  be  a  circle  nor  a  straight  line ;  it  will  be  an  oval 
figure.  The  boundm^  line  will  be  an  ellipse,  a  curve  formed  by  cutting  a  cylinder  by  a 
plane  oblique  to  its  axis ;  and  it  is  also  one  of  the  contc  sections. 

An  exact  notion  may  be  formed  of  the  orthographic  projection  of  any  line  or  figure  by 
holding  it  in  the  light  of  the  sun,  and  observing  its  shadow  formed  on  a  plane  which  is  per- 
pendicular to  Uie  mrection  of  the  solar  ravs.  The  rays  which  pass  close  to  the  figure  are 
the  perpendiculars  to  the  plane,  and  the  shadow  is  the  projection  of  the  figure. 

The  plans  and  sections  by  which  artificers  execute  dinerent  constructions  are  no  other 
than  orthographic  projections  of  the  things  to  be  constructed ;  with  these  all  workmen  are 
familiar. 

The  orthographic  projection  of  any  object, — the  terrestrial  globe,  for  example, — ^with  all 
its  circles,  and  uie  continents  and  islands  on  its  surfkce,  is  nearly  the  representation  or  jplc- 
ture  which  on  arti<st  would  delineate  on  a  plane  surface,  if  he  meant  to  represent  the  globe 
at  a  great  distance  ftom  the  eye :  and  it  is  exactly  the  appearance  which  the  globe  would 
have,  supposing  an  eye  could  view  it  at  an  infinite  distance. 

Tnm  the  nature  oifthis  projection,  it  appears  that  the  orUiographio  representation  of  half 
the  surfkce  of  the  globe  will  show  nearly  the  true  figure  and  proportions  of  countries  about 
the  middle ;  that  is,  directly  opposite  to  the  supposed  position  of  the  eye :  but,  towards  the 

Vol.  I.  U 


154 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IL 


m 


& 


\1B0 


extremitiei  of  the  map,  the  graphic  representations  of  places  will  imperfectly  exhibit  their 
true  figure  and  position.  For  this  reason  it  is  seldom  employed  in  geography,  although  its 
use  is  nequent  in  astronomy. 

(A.)     To  project  the  Sphere  orthographically  on  the  Plane  qfthe  Equator. 

About  any  point,  C,  aa  a  centre  (Jig.  45),  with  any  radius,  C  A,  describe  a  circle  B  A  90 

to  represent  the  equator.  Draw  two  diameters, 
AC  lEO,  BC  90,  perpendicular  to  each  other: 
these  will  be  the  projections  of  meridians  distant 
90°  from  each  other,  and  C  will  be  the  projection 
of  the  pole. 

Divide  each  quadrant  into  six  equal  parts,  and 
let  A  15,  15  30  be  two  of  these;  draw  diameters 
through  15  and  30,  and  theso  will  be  the  projec- 
tions of  meridians  15°  and  30°  from  A  C  180 ;  and, 
in  this  way,  meridians  dividing  the  equator  into 
twenty-four  equal  parts  may  be  represented.  Of 
these,  any  one,  C  A,  may  be  assumed  as  the  first 
meridian. 

To  project  the  parallelB  of  latitude :  divide  A  B, 
one  of  the  quadrant:,  into  nine  equal  ports ;  let  80, 
70,  60  be  the  three  of  these  points  of  division  ad- 
joining to  B:  draw  perpendici'lars  from  these,  and 
all  Uie  other  points  on  the  radius  A  C  meetiing  it 
in  80,  70, 60,  &c.  About  C  as  a  centre  at  the  distances  C  80,  C  70,  C  60,  &c.  describe 
circles,  and  these  will  be  the  projections  of  parallels  of  latitude  at  the  distance  of  ten 
degrees. 

The  plar  circles  and  tropics  may  be  found  by  laying  off  an  arc  of  23J°  from  A  towards 
B,  and  from  B  towards  A,  and  drawing  perpendiculars  iVom  the  points  thus  determined  on 
C  A,  circles  described  about  C,  through  the  bottoms  of  the  perpendiculars,  will  be  the  pro- 
jections of  the  polar  circle  and  tropic.    In  this  way,  the  projection  may  be  completed. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  regions  within  the  polar  circle  may  be  represented  by  this  pro- 
jection so  as  to  give  a  tolerable  notion  of  their  position  and  magnitude,  judging  by  the  eye ; 
but  that  the  appearance  of  the  equatorial  regions  will  be  altogether  distorted. 

(R)  To  project  the  Sphere  orthographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Meridian. 
Describe  any  circle,  N  E  S  Q  {fig.  46.),  to  represent  the  meridian,  and  draw  two  diame- 
ters, E  C  Q,  N  C  S,  perpendicular  to  each  other; 
the  former  may  be  taken  as  the  projection  of  the 
equator,  and  then  the  latter  will  represent  a  meri- 
dian 90°  from  the  meridian  N  E  S. 

To  represent  other  meridians :  divide  a  quadrant 

S  E  into  six  equal  parts,  as  at  15,  30,  &c. ;  from 

^^  these  points  of  division  draw  perpendiculars  15  a, 

[10  30  ft,  &c.  on  E  Q.    Describe  ellipses  N  a  S,  N  6  S, 

iQ  having  a  common  transverse  axis  N  S,  and  iJie  lines 

C  a,  C  6,  &c.  for  their  semiconjugate  axes;  and 

these  will  be  the  projections  of  m<^riaiuis  which  pass 

through  evenr  fifteenth  degree  of  vhe  equator.    Or, 

by  dividing  £  S  into  nine  equal  par^s,  Uiey  may  be 

made  to  pass  through  every  tenth  degree. 

For  the  parallels  of  latitude :  divide  the  quadrants 
E  N,  N  Q  each  into  nine  equal  parts  at  10,  20,  30, 
&c.;  join  the  corresponding  numbers  by  straight 
>  -«  and  these  will  be  the  projections  of  parallels  of  latitude  at  distances  of  10°,  20°,  W, 
1^  om  the  equator.  The  tropics  and  polar  circles  are  to  be  drawn  in  the  same  way ;  the 
'■   ,      at  23}^  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  and  the  latter  23^°  fixim  the  poles. 

f  ^  uiis  projection,  the  polar  regions,  and  all  places  near  the  meridian  N  E  S  Q,  are  very 
!  Iv't^rted  in  appearance  to  fiie  eye :  it  is  only  towards  the  centre  that  there  is  any  con 
•i«ibTbi/io  <«semblance  of  a  projected  iportion  of  the  earth's  surfiice  to  its  appearance  on  a 
globe. 

2.  mCREOOF      VIO  FOOJECnON. 

In  the  stereographic  projection,  the  eve  is  supposed  to  be  situated  at  a  point  in  the  sur&ce 
or  the  sphere,  and  the  plane  on  which  the  projection  is  to  be  made  is  the  plane  of  that  great 
circle,  which  is  everywhere  00°  distant  from  the  position  of  the  eye :  hence  it  must  be  evi- 


Pabt  IL 

ictly  exhibit  their 
iphy,  although  iti 


Equator.   V 

e  a  circle  B  A  tiO 
V  two  diameters, 
r  to  each  other: 
meridians  distant 
be  the  projection 

[  equal  parts,  and 
;  draw  diameters 
ill  be  the  projoc- 
jm  AC  180;  and, 
the  equator  into 
represented.  Of 
umed  as  the  first 

tude :  divide  A  B, 
}ual  parts ;  let  80, 
its  of  division  ad- 
rs  IVom  these,  and 
us  A  C  meetmji  it 
J  60,  &c.  describe 
le  distance  of  ten 

\°  from  A  towards 
lus  determined  on 
I,  will  be  the  pro- 
D  completed, 
anted  by  this  pro- 
dging  by  the  eye ; 
kd. 

Meridian. 

draw  two  diame- 
to  each  other; 
jrojection  of  the 
epresent  a  meri- 

ivide  a  quadrant 
5,  30,  &c.;  from 
pendiculars  15  a, 
3es  N  o  S,  N  6  S, 
S,  and  the  lines 
ugate  axes;  and 
■idiuis  which  pass 
he  equator.  Or, 
iTis,  they  may  be 
legroe. 

ide  the  quadrants 
irts  at  10,  20,  30, 
ibers  by  straight 
of  10°,  20°,  30^, 
e  same  way ;  the 
es. 

E  S  Q,  are  very 
there  is  any  con 
appearance  on  a 


st  in  the  surfecs 
ane  ofthat  great 
e  it  must  be  evi- 


BookI. 


REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


llO 


dent  that  the  eye  can  see  only  the  inside  or  concave  surface ;  however,  we  may  suppose  the 
sphere  to  be  transparent,  and  its  various  circles,  and  the  islands,  continents,  &.c.  delineated 
on  its  surface  to  bo  seen  tlirough  it  If  we  now  conceive  a  lino  to  bo  drawn  fVom  the  eye 
U)  any  point  on  the  concave  surface,  the  point  in  which  that  line  cuts  the  plane  of  projection 
will  be  the  projection  of  the  point  on  the  spherical  surface. 
To  illustrate  what  has  been  said,  let  E  A  C  B  (Jig.  47.)  be  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere, 

p  q  r  $  a  plane  passing  through  its  centre,  and  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane  of  the  great  circle ;  let  C  E  be  a 
diametei  of  the  sphere  perpendicular  to  the  plane ;  then 
assuming  p  q  r  ana  the  plane  of  projection,  E,  one  end 
of  thut  diameter,  may  be  taken  as  the  place  of  the  eye 
or  projecting  point  If,  now,  straight  lines  EA,  EB, 
EC,  ED,  &c.  be  d/awn  to  A,  B,  C,  D,  any  points  on 
the  surface  of  the  sphere,  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  Sic.  in 
which  these  lines  meet  the  plane  p  r,  will  be  the  pro- 
jections of  the  corresponding  points  on  the  surface  of 
the  sphere.  Let  A  D  B  be  any  circle  of  the  sphere : 
conceive  a  straight  line  to  bo  drawn  from  E,  the  place 
of  the  eye,  to  D,  any  point  in  the  circiurlerence.  If  D, 
the  end  of  this  line,  be  now  carried  round  the  cucle, 
supposing  it  always  to  pass  through  the  fixed  point  E,  the  line  will  generate  the  surface  of 
a  cone  whose  base  id  the  circle,  and  vertex  the  place  of  the  eye ;  and  the  curve  line  adb, 
which  is  the  common  section  of  the  plane  p  r,  and  the  surface  of  the  cone  will  be  the  pro- 
jection of  the  circle. 
It  will  now  be  sufficiently  obvious,  .  .    •    v 

1.  That  every  circle  which  passes  through  the  eye  will  be  projected  into  or  represented 
by  a  traight  line  on  the  plane  of  projection. 

2.  That  every  circle  whose  plane  is  parallel  to  the  plan  of  the  circle  will  be  projected 
into  a  circle. 

These  two  properties  hold  true  wherever  the  eye  be  situated.  The  assumption,  however, 
that  it  is  in  the  surface  of  the  sphere  gives  rise  to  geometrical  properties  which  are  peculiar 
to  this  projection,  and  which  by  their  simplicity  and  elegance  give  it  great  value. 

One  geometrical  property  is  this :  whatever  be  the  position  of  the  circle  ADB  (ov  base 
of  the  cone"^  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere,  the  portion  of  the  cone  between  the  projecting 
point  E  and  the  plane  of  projection  pr  la  always  similar  to  the  whole  cone.  If  the  plane 
of  the  base  be  psurallel  to  the  plane  of  projection,  the  truth  of  this  proposition  is  obvious ; 
but  writers  on  geometry  prove,  that  when  it  is  oblique,  still  the  cones  whose  bases  are  A  D  B 
and  adb,  and  common  vertex  E,  are  similar ;  only  they  have  contrary  positions.  From  the 
similarity  of  the  whole  cone  to  the  part  cut  off,  it  follows  that, 

3.  In  the  stereographical  projection  of  the  sphere,  the  representation  of  any  circle  that 
does  not  pass  through  the  eye  will  always  be  a  circle. 

There  is  another  proposition  demonstrated  by  writers  on  spherical  geometry  which  is  of 
great  importance  in  this  projection ;  viz.  if  two  straight  lines  be  drawn  from  any  point  on 
the  surface  of  the  sphere  to  touch  it  in  that  point,  their  representation  on  the  plane  of  pro- 
jection will  contain  an  angle  exactly  equal  to  the  angle  contained  by  the  lines  themselves. 
Since  straight  lines  touching  the  surface  of  a  sphere  at  any  point  may  be  regarded  as  tan- 
gents to  any  circles  of  the  sphere  passing  through  tliat  point,  we  have  this  other  remarkable 
property : — 

4.  The  angle  made  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere  by  two  circles  which  cut  each  other,  and 
the  angle  made  by  circles  which  are  their  representations,  are  in  all  cases  equal. 

This  projection  is  extremely  convenient  in  practice,  because  a  circle  may  be  easily  de- 
scribed when  three  points  in  its  circumference  are  given,  or  when  two  points  and  its  radius 
are  known ;  also,  the  property  of  lines  making  angles  at  their  intersection  on  the  surface  of 
the  sphere  equal  to  those  formed  by  their  projections,  is  of  great  value  in  the  representation 
of  the  surface  of  the  sphere  of  a  plane.  Moreover,  the  contraction  of  the  map  towards  the 
extremities  of  an  hemisphere  is  not  so  great  as  m  the  orthographical  projection ;  on  all  these 
accounts,  the  stereographical  projection  deserves  a  preference. 

Supposing  E  to  be  the  projecting  point,  or  place  of  the  eye,  and  p  r  the  plane  of  projection, 
let  C  be  thv'*  point  of  the  sphere  opposite  to  E,  and  therefore  90°  everywhere  fitim  the  circle, 
which  is  the  common  section  of  the  sphere  and  plane  of  projection ;  it  is  evident  that  any 
arc,  A  C,  of  a  great  circle  passing  through  C  and  E  will  be  projected  mto  a  straight  line  a  c 
now  this  line  is  manifestly  the  UkUgent  of  the  angle  A  E  C  to  the  radius  E  c,  sitd  the  wcasuxd 
of  this  angle  is  half  the  arc  A  C. 

5.  Hence  it  follows,  that  if  a  great  circle  pass  through  the  projecting  point,  nny  are  of 
that  cL'cle,  reckoned  from  the  opposite  point  of  the  sphere,  is  projected  into  a  atratght  Nn« 
vassing  through  the  centre,  and  equal  to  the  tangent  of  that  are. 


Ifi0 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


(A)  To  project  the  Sphere  tlereographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Equator. 

Describe  a  circle,  A  B  D  (Jiff,  48.),  to  represent  the  equator,  and  draw  any  diameter 

A  C  D  and  a  radius  C  D  perpendicular  to  A  O. 
Su^'posinflf  now  that  the  parallels  of  latitude  to  every 
tenth  degree  are  to  be  represented  in  the  map, 
divide  A  B,a  quadrant  of  the  circle,  into  nine  equal 
parts,  as  at  tliu  points  10,  20,  SO,  &c.  and  draw 
straight  lines  iVom  the  points  of  division  to  D,  the 
extremity  of  the  diameter  A  C  D,  meeting  the 
radius  B  C  in  thn  points  10,  20,  80,  &c.  Then, 
about  the  centro  C  dcst^ribo  circles  to  pass  through 
the  points  10,  20,  30,  &( .,  and  these  will  represent 
the  parallels  of  10,  20,  30,  &c.  degrees  of  lati- 
tude. In  this  way,  all  the  parallels  of  latitude  may 
be  found,  as  also  the  tropic  and  polar  circle,  by  lay- 
ing off  arc  of  23J°  and  00  \°  from  B  towards  A. 

Next  divide  inu  cui-u...:'  "nnce  of  the  circle  into 
into  24  e<iual  |>arts,  and  draw  u  Mi  from  the  centre 


.0  the  points  of  division 
xie  hour. 


These  will  represent  the  meridians  which  differ  in  longitude  by 


20 


VnM-i,    ,, 


(B)  To  project  the  Sphere  stereographically  on  the  ^'laneo/a  Meridian. 
Describe  any  circle  N  Q  S  E  (Jifr.  40.),  to  represent  tlin  meridian  on  which  the  projection 

is  to  be  made ;  which  should  bo  so  chosen  as  to  include 
nearly  one  of  the  cont'nents, — the  eastern,  for  in- 
stance :  this  will  be  accomplished  if  N  E  S  be  the 
meridian  20''  west  from  London.  Draw  the  diameter 
N  C  S,  which  will  represent  the  meridian  tliat 
passes  through  the  projecting  point,  and  therefore  is 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection.  Then  N 
will  represent  the  north,  and  S  the  south  pole ;  draw 
Q  another  diameter,  E  C  Q,  which  will  represent  the 
equator. 

Since,  by  the  nature  of  the  projection,  all  the 
meridians  will  be  represented  by  circles  which  pass 
through  the  poles  N,  S,  it  will  be  sufficient  if  we 
determine  the  points  in  which  they  cut  the  oqiutor: 
we  shall  suppose  the  meridians  to  pass  through  every 
tenth  degree  of  longitude :  the  points  where  thev  cut 
the  equator  will  l»  found  by  dividing  one  or  tiie 
q^uadrantal  arcs,  N  Q,  into  nine  equal  pa.rt8,  as  at  10,  20,  30,  &c.,  and  drawing  straight 
Imes  from  S  to  the  points  of  division,  meeting  C  Q  i'  1,2,  3,  &c.  Then,  a  cacle  described 
through  the  points  N  1  S  will  represent  the  meridian  which  cuts  the  equator  10°  from  Q, 
and  a  circle  through  N  2  S  will  be  the  meridian  that  cuts  the  equator  20°  from  Q.  The 
remaining  meridians  N  3  S,  &c.  will  be  determined  exactly  in  the  same  way ;  and  it  appears 
from  the  construction,  that  the  centres  of  the  circles  will  be  in  the  diameter  E  Q  and  its 
prolongation,  and  their  distances  from  the  centre  will  be  the  tangents  of  10°,  20°,  &c. ;  viz. 
tiie  inclination  of  the  circles  to  the  plane  of  the  primitive;  also,  that  their  radii  will  be  the 
secants  of  the  same  inclinations. 

To  describe  the  parallels  of  latitude,  divide  the  four  quadrants  each  into  nine  equal  parts, 
as  at  80,  70,  60,  &c.,  and  draw  straight  lines  from  E,  one  end  of  the  diameter  E  Q,  to  the 

?omts  of  division,  meeting  N  S  in  8,  7,  6,  &c.  Then  circles  described  through  80,  8,  80; 
0,  7,  70,  &c.,  will  represent  the  parallels  of  80°,  70°,  &c.  The  centres  of  i3l  the  circles 
will  be  in  the  line  N  S,  and  distant  from  it  by  the  secants  of  the  distances  of  the  parallels 
from  the  pole :  also,  the  radii  will  be  the  tangents  of  the  same  distances.  The  polar  circles 
and  tropics  being  described  by  the  same  rules  at  the  distances  23^°  and  66^°  from  the  poles, 
the  projection  will  be  completed. 

(C.)  To  project  the  Sphere  ttereographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Horizon/or  u  given 

Latitude. 

In  this  projestion,  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  nadir  of  the  place  for  which  the  :si)- 
jection  is  made. 

On  C  (Jig.  50.)  and  C  (fig.  51.)  as  centres  with  any  radius,  describe  circles  W  N  E  S, 
W'N'J!i'S'',  of  which ^g'.  00.  is  to  be  the  primitive  or  horizon;  the  other,  fij-.  51.,  is  to  serve 
for  determining  the  position  of  the  circles  to  be  described  on  fig.  50.  Draw  the  diameters 
N  S,  W  E,  N'S',  WE'  in  both  circ  es  perpendicular  to  one  another ;  then  N  S  mjlig.  50.  will 
be  the  projection  of  the  meridian,  and  W  E  the  projection  of  the  circle  passmi;  Uirough 


DOOB  I. 


REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


l.'>7 


80,  &c.    Then, 


xonfor  u  given 
or  which  the  :so- 


pasBuu;  through 


Iho  cut  and  west  points  of  the  horizon  and  the  zonith, — that  is,  the  prime  vertical ;  N  W)U 
bo  the  north  point  of  the  horizon,  S  the  aoutli,  and  £  and  W  the  east  and  west  poinU, 


Make  the  arc  NT',  or  Uie  angle  N'  C  P',  fig.  51.,  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place ;  join 
W'P'  cutting  C  N'  in  P;  make  C  P  in  ««■.  50,  equal  to  C  P  in^^.  51.,  and  V,fig.  50.,  will 
be  the  projection  of  the  north  pole.  Draw  the  diameter  E  Q,  fig.  61.,  perpendicular  to 
P'  Cp' ;  join  W'Q'  meeting  C  S'  in  Q,'.  Take  C  Q,  fig.  60.,  equal  to  C  Q,',  fig.  51. ;  de- 
scribe a  circle  through  the  points  W.  Q,  E.  and  the  arc  W  Q,  E  will  represent  the  equator. 
Next,  to  project  the  parallels  of  latitude, — for  example,  those  which  are  40°  and  20°  from 
the  pole,— from  P',  fig.  51.,  take  P'  40  and  P'  40,  each  arcs  of  40°  on  opposite  sides  of  P' ; 
also,  P'  20,  P'  20,  arcs  of  20°.  Join  W  40,  W  40,  meeting  C  N'  in  m  and  n ;  also  W  20, 
W  20,  meeting  C  N'  in  r  and  ».  In  N  C  S,  fig.  50.,  take  C  m,  C  n,  C  r,  C  »,  equal  to  C  m, 
C  n,  C  r,  C  s,fig.  51. ;  describe  circles  on  m  n,  r  5  as  diameters,  and  these  will  be  projections 
of  parallels  of  latitude  at  the  distances  of  40°  and  20°  from  the  pole.  In  this  way  may  all 
the  parallels,  also  the  tropics  and  polar  circle,  be  projected. 

To  project  the  meridian :  in  fig.  51.  draw  S'  B  perpendicular  to  N'  S',  meetuig  P'  p 
produced  in  B;  take  C  A,  fig.  50.,  equal  to  S'  B,  fig.  51.,  and  through  A  draw  a  perpen" 
diculor  to  C  A.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  meridians  are  to  make  with  each  other  angles  of 
15° :  at  P,  in  the  line  P  A,  draw  P  15  and  P  15  on  each  side  of  P  A,  making  angles  with 
it  of  15° ;  and,  in  like  manner,  P  30,  P  30,  making  andes  of  30°,  and  so  on  to  angles  of 
75°.  On  A,  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  to  pass  through  P ;  this  will  pass  through  W  and 
E,  and  will  be  the  projection  of  the  six  o'clock  hour  circle  in  the  heavens,  or  that  meridian 
on  the  globe  that  is  perpendicular  to  the  meridian  of  the  place  for  which  the  projection  is 
made.  On  the  points  15,  15  describe  arcs  a  P  a',  a  P  a'  to  pass  through  P,  and  meet  the 
projection  of  the  horizon  in  a,  a' ;  a,  a' ;  and  in  like  manner  on  30,  30  as  centres  describe 
the  arcs  6  P  6',  6  P  b',  &c.  all  passing  throuf^li  P :  these  will  be  the  projectDns  of  meridians 
on  the  terrestrial  sphere,  or  of  hour  circles  on  the  celestial  sphere.  In  this  way,  the  pro- 
jection may  be  completed.  ,      . 

3.    OLOBULAn  PROJECTION. 

In  the  orthographic  projection,  equal  portions  of  the  earth's  spherical  surfiice  are  repre- 
sented by  unequal  plane  surfaces ;  and  the  deviation  from  equality  in  tlie  surface  to  be 
represented,  and  its  plane  representation,  increases  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference  of 
the  projection. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  stereographic  projection,  but  with  this  difference,  that  the  dis- 
tortion in  the  representation  of  the  figure  of  any  portion  of  the  spherical  surfiices  proceeds 
in  a  contrary  direction :  in  the  former  case,  the  degrcos  of  longitude  and  latitude  are  gra- 
dually contracted  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference ;  but  in  the  latter,  they  are  enlarged. 

In  the  stereographic  projection,  the  projecting  point,  or  point  of  view,  is  the  pole  of  the 
circle  on  which  the  projection  is  made ;  and  in  the  oithographic,  it  may  be  supposed  in  the 
axis,  and  at  a  very  great,  or  rather  indefinitely  great,  distance.  It  is  this  change  of  position 
of  the  point  of  view  that  produces  tlie  change  in  the  direction  in  which  the  degrees  of  lati- 
tude or  longitude  are  contraeted.  Hence  it  maybe  Bupposed,  that,  by  taking  a  point  of  vie-JV 
at  some  finite  distance  greater  than  the  radius  of  ^'e  sphere,  a  perspective  representation  will 
be  obtained,  ui  which  the  degrees  in  the  representation  will  be  nearly  equ  J,  and  the  deviation 
flrom  equality  in  the  representation  of  equal  portions  of  the  spherical  surface  in  some  roea- 
sure  corrected. 

Vol.  L  14 


PRINCTPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  n 


mi::-% 


Let  ADD  (Jiff.  62.)  be  »  lecti'^n  of  Ae  sphcrs 
by  a  piano  poning  throurh  E,  the  point  of  view, 
and  C  tho  contra ;  draw  tlie  diameter  F  D  to  pa«j 
through  E,  and  draw  A  C  B  perpendicular  to  D  F, 
Since  tho  whole  quadrant  A  F  is  to  be  projected 
into  tho  radiua  A  C,  if  it  be  poaaible  to  make  he 
representations  of  equal  portions  of  it  nearly  equal, 
its  halves  A  K  and  K  F  may  bo  asaumod  as  repre- 
sented by  A  H  and  H  C,  halves  of  tho  radius : 
therefore,  a  line  drawn  iVoni  K  to  E  must  bisect 
the  radius  in  H.  This  determines  D  E,  Ihe  dii- 
I  it  nee  of  the  projecting  point,  to  be  ttqual  to  K  G, 
a  perpendicular  from  the  middle  qftiit  quadrant. 
To  prove  this  geometrical  proposition,  draw  A  F 
and  K  C  intersecting  in  I,  and  join  H  I.  Then  A 
1=1  F  and  A  I :  I  F  : :  A  H:  H  C;  therefore  H  I 
i8paralleltoCF:hence,KI:IC::KH:HE:: 
G  C :  C  E.  Now,  K  I=FO  and  I  C=G  C ;  there- 
foreFG:GC::  GC:  CE:  hence  F  OC  E=G 
C'=K  G'=F  GG  D;  therefore  C  E=0  D,  and, 
takin;^  away  tho  line  C  D  common  to  both,  D  E  is 
equal  to  C  G  or  to  K  G. 
Hence  it  appears  that  tho  distance  D  E  is  the  sine  of  45° ;  and  then  ^  nearly  71  of 
•uch  parts  as  the  radius  C  A  contains  100.  This  projection  was  first  suggt  u .  by  AI.  Dela^ 
hire,  and  is  now  commonly  called  the  Globular  projection.  If  wo  suppose  the  quadrant  A 
F  divided  into  ten  enual  parts,  then  the  projections  of  the  arcs  of  9°,  reckoning  team  F  to  A, 
will  be  as  in  this  table,  m  which  the  radius  C  A  is  supposed  to  be  10. 


Arc. 

Rcpreientatlon. 

Arc. 

Reprewntation. 
1.017 

00.. 

OO 

.001 

4-'50.. 

540 

U  ... 

]fl 

.004 

M  .. 

03 

1.080 

18  .. 

87 

.000 

03  .. 

73 

l.OIS 

87  ... 

30 

1.0(H 

73  .. 

81 

.007 

36  ... 

43 

1.013 

81  .. 

00 

.030 

80    I^r  80 


From  this  table  it  appears,  that  tho  appro.\imation  to  equality  in  tlie  projection  of  equal  area 
of  a  circle  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection  is  considerable. 

According  to  the  principles  of  perspective,  in  thm  projection  the  circles  of  the  sphere  will 
be  represented  by  ellipses ;  and  they  have  been  so  delineated  in  two  hemispheres,  projected, 
drawn,  and  beautifully  engraved  by  Mr.  Joseph  Lowry,  of  London.  He  has  placed  London 
at  the  centre  of  tho  noruiem  hemisphere,  and  insteail  of  .707,  Delahire's  aistance  of  the 
projecting  point,  he  has  made  it  .68  of^  the  radius. 

m  general,  however,  the  projection  is  made  on  a  meridian,  and  the  circles  of  the  sphere 
are  represented  by  circles,  and  without  any  regard  to  the  distance  of  a  point  of  view.  Also, 
the  degrees  of  longitude  on  the  equator,  and  of  latitude  on  a  meridian,  are  mode  all  equal. 
With  uieee  simplifications,  the  meridians  and  parallels  on  a  hemisphere  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face may  be  represented  by  the  following  construction  :— 

Let  us  suppose  the  parallels  of  latitude  to  be  traced  through  every  tenth  degree,  and  that 
the  meridians  are  to  be  an  hour  from  each  other. 

Describe  a  circle,  E  N  Q  S  (Jg,  53.),  for  the 
representation  of  tlie  meridian.  Draw  the  diame- 
ters E  Q,  N  S  perpendicular  to  each  other ;  one,  E 
Q,  to  represent  the  equator,  and  the  other,  N  S,  the 
meridian,  which  is  90°  from  that  on  which  the  pro 
jection  is  made ;  N  being  the  north,  and  S  the  south 
pole. 

Divide  the  quadrants  E  N,  Q  N,  and  the  radius 
C  N,  each  into  nine  equal  parte ;  let  N  80,  80  70, 
&c.  be  the  equal  divisions  of  the  quadrants,  and  Ne, 
c  d,  &c.  the  equal  divisions  of  the  radius :  describe 
a  circle  through  the  three  pints  80,  c,  80,  and  it 
will  be  the  representation  of  the  parallel  of  80°  of 
latitude ;  in  like  manner  a  circle  described  through 
the  points  70,  d,  70  will  reprcseni  Uie  parallel  of 
70^ ;  the  remaining  parallels,  the  tropics  and  polar 
circles,  on  both  sides  of  E  Q,  the  equator,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  same  manner. 


Part  H 

thn  of  Jie  iphorn 
the  point  of  view, 
rioter  F  D  to  nam 
jondicular  to  D  F. 
la  to  be  projected 
uiible  to  make  he 
of  it  nearly  equal, 
asBumod  aa  rcpre* 
res  of  the  radiui : 
to  E  must  bisect 
ines  D  E,  the  dU- 
I  be  ^qual  to  K  0, 
e  oftne  quadrant, 
position,  araw  A  F 
Din  H  I.  Then  A 
C ;  therefore  H  I 
C::KH:HE:: 
I  C=G  C ;  there- 
mco  F GC  E=G 
I  C  E=0  D,  and, 
lou  to  both,  D  E  is 

f  *»  nearly  71  of 
euteii  by  M.  Dela^ 
e  the  quadrant  A 
ming  ttom  F  to  A, 


Book  L 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


tion  of  equal  arcs 

)f  the  sphere  will 
pheros,  projected, 
as  placed  London 
aistance  of  the 

les  of  the  sphere 
it  of  view.  Also, 
made  all  equal. 
'  the  earth's  sur- 

degree,  and  that 

fig.  53.),  for  the 
)raw  the  diame- 
ch  other ;  one,  E 
other,  N  S,  the 
n  which  the  pro- 
,  and  S  the  south 

and  the  radius 
let  N  80,  80  70, 
idrants,  and  N  c, 
radius:  describe 
80,  c,  80,  and  it 
irallel  of  80°  of 
iscribed  throuj^h 

the  parallel  of 
tropics  and  polar 
quator,  are  to  be 


Next  for  the  meridians :  divide  the  radii  C  E,  C  Q  each  into  six  eaual  parts  at  the  points 
0,  b,  &c. :  describe  circles  through  the  points  N  a  S,  N  6  B,  6lc.  and  tnoso  will  be  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  meridians,  any  one  of  which,  in  laving  down  the  positions  of  places  by 
their  latitude  and  longitude,  may  be  assumed  as  the  nnt  meridian. 

n.   COnTRUOTION  or  MAPS  DY  DBVKLOPIHKirr. 

The  three  methods  of  projection  which  have  been  explained  are  usually  employed  in 
the  representation  of  n  honiisphero,  but  are  seldom  used  in  delineating  the  geographical 
features  of  a  singlo  country.  For  tlicse,  the  niuthud  of  devetopemerU  is  commonly  en»i 
ploved. 

A  perfect  geographical  representation  of  a  country  should  represent  all  its  parts  in  just 
proportion,  and  should  exliibit  its  true  figure.  Tills  is  exactly  done  on  the  sphere ;  but  it 
can  only  bo  nearly  accomplished  on  a  plane  surface. 

The  purposes  of  civil  government  require  maps  that  give  the  true  figure  and  dimcnsione 
of  territory.  Militarv  afiiiirs  require  such  as  give  corn^ct  distances ;  and  navigation  demands 
the  exact  bearing  of  one  place  from  another.  Ordinary  mops  fulfil  approximately  the  two 
first  purposes.  The  last  is  completely  satisfied  by  a  map  of  a  peculiar  construction,  called 
Mercator's  chart;  but  this  is  not  immediately  applicable  to  the  other  purposes. 

It  is  a  known  property  of  a  cone  tliat  its  curve  suifaco  can  be  expaiidcd  into  a  plane: 
hence  any  figure  delineated  on  it  can  always  bo  exhibited  exactly  in  all  its  dimensions  on  a 

Elane  sumce.  Now,  a  part  of  the  surface  of  a  sphere  contained  between  two  parallels  of 
ititude,  not  very  remote,  will  not  differ  much  from  the  surface  of  a  frustum  of  a  cone  that 
touches  the  sphere  in  the  parallel  midway  between  them ;  and  this  will  also  be  true  if  it 
pass  along  the  chord,  or  if  it  pass  partlv  within  and  portly  without  the  sphere,  cutting  it  be- 
tween the  middle  and  extreme  parallels :  in  each  case  the  length  of  the  slant  side  of  the 
frustum  must  be  supposed  equal  to  the  length  of  the  meridian  l^twccn  the  extreme  paral- 
lels. On  this  principle,  different  constructions  have  been  given  for  representing  the  surface 
of  a  sphere  on  a  plane. 

1.  Conical  Developement, 

Let  P  A  Q  (Jig.  54.)  be  a  section  of  the  meridian,  P  Q  the  axis,  C  the  centre,  E  C  the 
radius  of  the  equator,  B  D  any  arc  of  the  meridian,  and  A  the  middle  point  between  B  and 
D :  draw  the  tangent  A  O,  meeting  the  axis  in  O.  Suppose  now  the  plane  figure  O  A  B 
to  revolve  about  Uio  axis  P  Q ;  the  semicircle  P  A  Q  will  generate  a  sphere,  and  the  tangent 
0  A  will  generate  the  surface  of  a  cone  which  touches  the  sphere  in  A.  Tiie  points  B,  A,  D 
will  generate  the  parallels  of  latitude  B  6,  A  H  a,  D  J,  of  which  the  middle  parallel  A  H  a 
will  be  a  section  of^the  cone  perpendicular  to  its  ayis. 

Take  H  any  point  in  the  parallel  A  H  o ;  draw  F  H  to  its  centre,  and  join  H  O.  Con- 
ceive now  the  cone  to  be  expanded  into  a 


64 


A/   riz^p — — ^ 


plane,  and  that  the  sur&ce  O  A  H  be- 
comes, by  developement,  0'  A'  H'.  The 
expansion  of  A  H,  the  arc  of  the  parallel 
of  latitude  on  the  sphere,  whose  radius  is 
F  H,  the  cosine  of  the  latitude,  will  now 
become  A'  H',  on  arc  of  a  c'  -le  whose 
radius  is  A'  O'  =  A  O,  the  r';"'.Tr.nt  of 
the  latitude  of  the  parallel. 

In  O'  A'  take  A'  B'  and  A'  D',  each 
equal  to  A  B  or  A  D,  and  with  the  radii 
O'  B',  O'  D'  describe  arcs  F  m,  D'  n. 
it'  The  plane  figure  B'  m  n  D'  may  now  be 
taken  as  nearly  equal  to  the  spherical  sur- 
n  fhce  bounded  by  meridians  passing  through 
A  and  H,  and  the  portions  of  Uie  paral- 
lels B  6,  A  a  intercepted  between  Uiem : 
and  any  tract  of  country  delineated  on  the 
sphere  may  be  nearly  shown  by  a  delinea- 
tion on  the  plane ;  uie  approximation  be- 
ing the  more  accurate  as  the  breadth  of 
the  spherical  zone  is  less. 
Let  the  middle  latitude  E  A  and  the  angle  A  F  H,  or  breadth  in  longitude  of  the  spheri- 
cal suriace,  be  supposed  given,  to  determine  the  radius  O'  A'  and  the  angle  O'  A'  H' 
Because  the  middle  latitude  is  lutown,  its  cotangent  O  H  is  given  in  parts  of  the  radius  by 
the  trigonometrical  tables,  or  it  may  be  expressed  in  minutes  of  lailtude,  by  considering  that 
half  the  r-lrcumference  (to  radius  =  1)  is  3.1416;  therefore,  the  radius  in  minutes  will  be 
ezpresseiL 


a 


60X180 
3  1416 


=  3437.7'. 


160 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IL 


nr 


Eience  U'  A',  tho  nulius  of  tho  middlo  parallol  in  tho  dovolopomont,  will  bo  expresied  hi 
minutov  of  latitude  by 

8437.7'  X  cot.  middlo  lat. 
Noxt,  to  And  tho  tmg\o  A'  O'  li'.  Tho  arc  A  H  on  the  iphere  and  the  arc  A'  H'  on  the 
piano  boinK  equal ;  by  tho  principlos  of  geometry,  the  anglo  A  F  H  will  be  to  the  angle 
A'  0'  ir  oa  i'  0'  to  A  F:  now,  A'  O'  =  A  O  is  tho  cotangent  of  the  middle  latitude,  and 
A  F  iff  its  cosine,  and  the  cotangent  is  to  the  cosine  as  radius  to  tho  sine ;  therefore,  nutting 
L  to  denote  tho  degrees  of  longitude  between  two  meridians  on  the  sphere,  the  angle  AC  H , 
contained  by  the  straight  lines  which  represent  them  in  the  developement,  will  be  in  degrees 

L  X  Sine  middle  lat. 
Tho  angle  O',  and  the  lines  O'  A',  A'  B',  A'  D',  in  the  developement,  are  now  known ;  it 
roinainn  only  to  divide  B'  D',  the  roprcsontatioii  of  tho  arc  of  the  meridian,  and  B'  m,  D'  n, 
the  parallels  of  latitude,  into  equal  parts  to  form  scales  of  latitude  and  longitude :  then, 
circles  described  about  O'  as  a  centre,  through  tito  proper  divisions  of  B'  D',  will  form  tho 
parallels  of  latitude;  and  straight  linns  drawn  joining  corresponding  degrees  on  the  extreme 

Sarollols  B'  m,  D'  n,  will  represent  the  meridians  on  tho  map;  which'  is  now  ready  for  the 
elinoation  of  tho  geographical  features  of  tho  tract  it  is  to  represent    Tliis  is  tite  way  in 
which  the  common  maps  are  constructed. 

Example.  Lot  it  be  required  to  construct  a  map  to  comprehend  the  British  islands, 
which  extend  from  00°  to  about  61°  of  north  latitude,  and  from  2°  east  tolPwost,  about  18° 
of  longitude.  Tho  middle  latitude  is  50°  30',  of  which  the  cotangent  in  the  tables  is  .68728 
and  sine  =  .82413.  From  these  data,  O'  A',  the  radius  of  the  middlo  parallel,  ii 
3437.7  X  .68728  -  2302'  .7:  the  length  of  tho  arc  B  D  ia  11°  =  680' ;  therefore.  A'  B'  =: 
A'  D',  its  half,  ia  330,  and  hence 

O  B  =  2362.7  X  830  =  2692'.7 
DA-  2362.7  —  830  =  2032'.7. 
Tho  number  of  dcproofl  of  longitude  (L)  in  this  case  is  18° ;  therefore,  angle  A'  O'  H' 
=  13°  X  .82413  =  10°  42. 

Knowiiij4  now  tho  radii  ()'  B',  0'  D',  and  the  angle  O',  wo  can  find  tho  area  B'  m,  D'  n ; 
or  we  can  find  their  chords. 
Thus  wo  have, 

chord  of  arc  B'  m  =  2  O  B  Sin.  4  0'  =  375'  .6. 

chord  of  arc  D'  n  =  2  O  D  Sin.  J  0'  =  502*  .1. 

Wo  have  now  obtained  the  chords  of  13°  of  longitude  on  the  extreme  parallels,  and  the 

meridians  which  fonn  their  extremities  in  minutes  of  a  degree  of  tho  meridian ;  also  the 

radii  of  the  parallels  of  latitude :  with  these,  tho  intelligent  student  of  geography  will  find 

no  difficulty  in  constructing  a  map  of  Britain. 

2.  Murdoch's  Conical  Developement. 

There  have  been  various  modifications  of  the  conical  developement :  of  these,  one  was 
given  by  tho  Rev.  Patrick  Murdoch,  in  tho  Lond.  Phil.  Trans.  1708.  Lot  M  denote  the  arc 
of  the  meridian  which  is  to  be  repreacnted  in  a  map:  he  proposed  to  make  0'  A',  tho  radius 
of  the  middle  parallel,  equal  to 

chord  of  arc  M 

^;^^ X  Cot  mid.  lat 

tho  cotangent  being  supposed  cxprosdcd  by  tho  radius  of  tho  sphere.    The  remainder  of  the 
construction  is  the  same  as  tho  ordinary  conical  projection. 

%  Murdoch's  method,  tho  surface  of  tiio  dcveloi)ement  is  exactly  equal  to  tlio  spherical 
surface  which  it  represents,  and  tlic  cone  passes  Mirough  points  of  the  meridian  between  tho 
middle  latitudes  and  the  extremities  of  Uie  projected  arc,  its  side  being  parallel  to  the  tangent 
at  the  middlo  latitude. 

3.  De  LisWa  Conical  Developetttent. 

The  astronomer  Do  Lisle  employed  the  conical  projection  in  constructing  a  general  chart 
of  tho  Russian  empire,  which  extended  fVom  40°  to  70°  of  north  latitude.  Ho,  however, 
eupiKKod  tlio  cone  to  enter  tho  sphere  so  as  to  cut  it  in  two  parallels  midway  between  the 
mean  and  extreme  parallels :  these,  in  tlie  developement  had  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
corresponding  circles  of  tlio  sphere,  and  its  whole  extent  diflTered  but  little  from  tliat  of  the 
tract  it  was  meant  to  represent ;  because  tlio  excess  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  chart  was 
compensated,  at  least  in  part  by  the  opposite  error  in  the  middle. 

4.  Euler't  Method. 
Euler  was  also  occupied  with  this  projection :  but  he  substituted  for  the  determination  of 
parallels  which  sliould  be  common  with  the  sphere,  that  of  the  point  of  concourse  of  straight 
fines  which  represent  the  meridians,  and  of  the  angle  which  they  make  when  they  contaui 
one  degree  of  longitude.  Ilia  calculations  rest  on  the  following  conditions : — 1.  That  the 
errors  are  equal  at  the  northern  and  soutliern  extremities  of  me  mao.    2.  That  they  are 


Part  IL 
bo  expressed  iii 


arc  A'  H'  on  the 
1  bo  to  the  angle 
idlo  latitude,  and 
therefore,  putting 
10  angle  A  O'  H , 
will  be  in  degrees 

■0  now  known ;  it 
a,  and  B'  m,  D'  n, 
I  longitiido :  then, 
'  D',  will  form  the 
les  on  the  extreme 
now  ready  for  the 
rhis  is  tJie  way  in 

liG  British  islands, 
LPwcst,  about  13" 
ho  tables  is  .68728 
niddlo  parallel,  ia 
therefore.  A'  B'  = 


ire,  angle  A'  O'  H' 
ho  arcs  B'  m,  D'n; 


ic  parallels,  and  the 
meridian;  also  the 
jcography  will  find 


of  those,  one  was 
^t  M  denote  the  arc 
;e  O'  A',  the  radius 


0  remainder  of  the 

lal  to  tho  spherical 
ridian  between  the 
lUel  to  the  tangent 


]ng  a  general  chart 
le.  He,  however, 
(dway  between  the 
Idimensions  as  the 
I  from  tliat  of  the 
Is  of  the  chart  was 


J  determination  of 
■course  of  straight 
Ivhen  they  contain 
Ins:—!.  That  the 
12.  That  they  are 


BooeI 


REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


101 


also  equal  to  the  greatest  of  those  towards  its  middle.  Hence  he  concluded  that  the  point 
of  concourse  of  tne  meridians  should  be  situated  beyond  the  pole  by  a  quantity  equal  to  5^ 
of  latitude,  and  that  tho  angle  of  two  consecutive  meridians  should  be  48°  44'. 

6.  Flanuteed'a  Projection. 

The  English  astronomer  Flamsteed,  in  constructmg  his  celestial  atlas,  developed  all  the 
parallels  of  latitude  on  the  sphere  into  straight  lines,  and  also  one  of  the  meridians;  viz.  tha 
which  pojisou  through  the  middle  of  tlie  chart :  then  the  parallels,  which  are  all  perpen- 
dicular to  that  meridian,  are  exactly  of  the  same  length  oa  on  the  globe,  and  consequently 
the  degrees  of  longitude  on  the  parallels  will  be  shown  in  their  just  proportion,  that  is,  as 
the  cosines  of  the  latitude.  If,  now,  the  parallels  on  the  map  be  divided  into  equal  puts, 
just  as  the  parallels  on  the  globe  are,  by  the  meridians,  curve  lines  traced  through  corre- 
spending  points  of  division  will  represent  the  meridians. 

The  adjoining  figure  (Jig.  56.)  exhibit!  a  sketch  of  a  map  of 
this  construction. 

According  to  Flatnsteed's  method,  any  distance  cr.  the  map  in 
the  direction  of  the  parallels  is  everywhere  equal  to  the  corre- 
sponding distance  on  tho  globe ;  but  the  configuration  of  places 
near  the  extremities  is  considerably  distorted  by  the  obliquity  of 
the  meridians  to  the  parallels,  so  that  the  spherical  quadrilaterals, 
the  sides  of  which  cross  at  right  angles,  are  m  the  map  represented 
by  mixtilineal  trapeziums,  of  which  the  angles  are  very  unequal.  Flamsteed  employed  this 
projection  in  representing  the  positions  of  the  stars ;  but  it  is  also  employed  in  geography, 
particularly  in  delineating  countries  which  extend  on  both  sides  of  the  equator :  Afhca,  ror 


North. 


South. 


instance. 


6.  Modification  of  Flanuteed't  Projection. 


C6 


There  is  a  modification  of  Flamsteed's  projection  (Jig,  56.),  which  has  been  extensively 

employed,  and  vvhich  deserves  particular  attention,  because  it 
corrects,  in  part,  the  defect  of  the  obliquity  of  the  meridians. 
This  substitutes  arcs  of  concentric  circles  for  the  straight  lines, 
which  he  proposed  to  represent  the  parallels  of  latitude.  The 
common  centre  of  the  circles  is  m  a  straight  line  dra\vn 
through  the  middle  of  the  map  as  an  axis,  and  which  repre- 
sents a  meridian ;  and  its  position  in  the  axis  ought  to  be  such, 
that  the  obliquity  of  the  angles  made  at  the  intersection  of  Uie 
curves  which  represent  the  meridians,  and  the  circles  which 
represent  the  parallels,  should  be  as  little  as  possible. 

The  position  of  the  centre  is  so  assumed,  that  the  radius  of 
the  middle  parallel  of  latitude  is  equal  to  its  cotangent ;  and 
in  this  the  modified  projection  of  Flamsteed  agrees  with  the 
^f  ordinary  conical  projection. 

To  exemplify  this  construction,  let  it  be  proposed  to  describe 
the  parallelo  and  meridians  for  a  map  of  Europe,  which  shall 
extend  fVom  85°  north  latitude  to  TO'. 

Let  us,  as  before,  assume  a  minute  of  a  degree  of  latitude  for  the  unit  of  the  scale 
fVom  which  tho  measures  of  the  lines  are  to  be  taken.  Therefore,  as  before,  the  radius  of 
the  sphere,  of  which  a  portion  of  the  spherical  surface  is  to  be  represented,  will  be  3437.7 
minutes. 

Let  O  A  C  B  (jig.  56.)  be  assumed  as  the  tixis  or  middle  meridian  of  the  map;  and  let 
A  D,  BE  be  the  halves  of  the  part  of  tho  extreme  parallels  of  latitude  to  be  represented, 
and  C  the  point  in  which  the  middle  parallel  (52°  30')  cuts  the  axis;  also,  let  O  be  tiie 
centre  of  the  circles,  arcs  of  which  are  to  represent  the  parallels 

By  the  nature  of  the  projection,  O  C  must  be  taken  equal  to  the  cotangent  of  52°  30' ; 
this,  to  radius  =  1,  is  .767^,  and  to  a  radius  expressed  by  minutes,  we  have 

O  C  =  .76733  X  3437.7  =  2(fe7'.8. 
Having  found  OC,  the  radius  of  the  middle  parallel,  the  radius  of  any  other  parallel  may 
be  found  by  adding  or  subtractinj^  its  distance  in  minutes  of  the  meridian  from  the  middle 
parallel.     Thus  we  find  tho  radii  of  parallels  differing  bv  5°,  as  in  the  annexed  table : — 

Next,  we  must  find  the  points  in  which  some  one  meri- 
dian cuts  all  the  parallels.  We  shall  suppose  it  to  be  30° 
of  longitude  fix>m  O  C,  tlie  avis  of  the  map. 

From  the  nature  of  the  developement,  the  arc  of  lonffi- 

tude  on  any  parallel  in  the  map  is  equal  to  the  arc  of  ue 

parallel  on  the  sphere  which  it  represents.    This  has  to  an  arc  of  Uie  same  number  of 

degrees  of  the  meridian  the  proportion  of  the  cosine  of  tho  latitude  of  the  parallel  to  the 

VOL.L  '^  14*  V 


Tinllil. 

na.liin. 

Firallel. 

iUdltti. 

it-IO 

3HB7.8 

53 

iM87.8" 

40 

3387.8 

60 

8187.8 

43 

3087.8 

03 

1887.8 

m 

»<o/.B 

TO 

1S87.8 

162 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartU. 


13!*: 


1 4  <! 


rll"-- 


radius.    Therefore,  an  arc  of  30°  =  1800'  on  a  parallel  whose  latitude  is  L  will  be  in 
minutes, 

1800  X  cosine  L. 
By  this  formula,  the  lengths  of  the  arcs  may  be  easily  computed  by  a  table  of  logarithmic 
smes;  but,  for  a  practical  construction,  it  will  bo  more  convenient  to  have  the  chords  of  the 
arcs.  Now,  in  arcs  not  exceeding  30°,  the  arc  diminished  by  a  fraction  whose  numerator  is 
the  cube  of  the  arc,  and  denominator  24  times  the  square  of  the  radius,  is  very  near  equal 
to  the  chord ;  that  is,  a  being  put  for  any  arc,  and  r  its  radius, 

•       1    .  V      ,;  '      chord o=fl—g|-p nearly.  '    -     •>        •'^        -     ^;; 

From  this  formula,  the  chords  may  easily  be  deduced  from  the  arcs. 
As  an  example,  let  tlie  arc  of  30°  of  longitude,  and  its  chord  on  the  parallel  35°,  be 
required.    For  fecility  of  calculation,  we  shall  use  logarithms. 


Calculation  of  Arc 

Calculation  of  Log.  of  34*-'. 

Losarithim. 

Ufuixhrn. 
Radius  of  are  687.8 3.S0677 

rVtfinA   MO , 001XW 

3 

An*  A^1i74' % ?inARf1 

i^ntt  of  flouara  of  radiui* (f  >•<«.. 7.13354 

3 

"                            34 1,38031 

Losarithm   34t« 8.51375 

Snhtrart  Ijia  24rt fiJCIlTX 

Differ,  of  arc  and  chord  D'^ 009814 

Fir.  of  Ut. 

Xna.     1  Chord  of  Are.  1 

35 

1474.5 

1464.7 

40 

1378.9 

1369.4 

45 

1272.8 

1263.8 

50 

1157.0 

1148.7 

55 

1032.4 

1025.0 

60 

900.0 

803.6 

65 

760.7 

755.5 

70 

615.0 

C11.8 

Thus,  by  an  easy  logarithmic  calculation,  we  have  found  the  arc 
to  be  1474'.5,  and  its  excess  above  the  chord  to  be  9'.8.  There- 
fere,  the  chord  is  1464'.7  of  the  meridian.  By  a  like  process, 
we  have  found  the  arcs  of  30°  of  longitude,  and  their  chords 
on  the  parallels  to  every  fifth  degree,  as  in  this  table. 

Having  now  found  the  chord  of  30°  of  longitude  on  the  paral- 
lel of  35°  to  be  1464'.7  of  the  meridian,  we  must,  with  com- 
passes, place  that  distance  taken  from  a  scale  of  minutes  from 
B  to  E,  and  to  e ;  and  the  points  E,  e  will  be  in  the  representations  of  meridians  80°  of  lon- 
gitude from  the  axis  on  each  side.  In  the  same  way,  the  intersections  of  these  meridians 
with  the  other  parallels  are  found.  Curve  lines  E  D,  e  d  must  now  be  traced  through  all 
the  intersections,  and  these  will  be  the  meridians  on  the  map. 

The  intersections  of  the  intermediate  meridians  with  the  parallels  may  ■?  found  by  divid- 
ing each  parallel  into  thirty  equal  parts,  from  the  axis  both  ways ;  and  a£  many  meridian 
lines  may  be  exhibited  as  may  be  thought  necessary.  In  the  figure  here  given,  they  are 
traced  to  every  tenth  degree. 

If  the  map  is  to  extend  further  than  30°  on  each  side  of  its  middle  meridian,  the  divisions 
of  the  parallels  may  be  repeated  on  each,  and  meridians  drawn. 

This  construction  of  a  map  is  memorable,  because  it  was  adopted  by  the  general  dep6t  of 
war  of  France,  about  the  year  1803,  as  the  groundwork  of  a  system  of  geographical  charts 
which  should  exhibit  the  French  original  territory,  as  well  as  the  additions  which  had  been 
made,  and  were  expected  to  be  made,  by  conquest  or  negotiation. 

Developement  of  the  Curve  Surface  of  a  Cylinder. 

The  mariner,  in  navigating  a  ship  between  remote  points  on  the  globe,  directs  his  course 
by  the  compass ;  steering  as  nearly  as  possible  always  in  the  same  du-ection,  supposing  there 
are  no  obstacles  to  prevent  him.  the  place  from  which  he  sets  out,  and  that  of  his  des- 
tination, be  due  north  and  south  from  each  other,  the  ship's  path  will  evidently  be  a  great 
circle,  viz.  the  meridian  passing  through  them.  If,  again,  they  have  the  same  latitude,  he 
must  sail  on  a  parallel  of  latitude ;  that  is,  his  course  must  be  due  east  or  west  But  if  the 
places  differ  both  in  latitude  and  longitude,  then  it  becomes  a  question,  what  is  the  nature 
of  the  line  on  the  globe  along  which  a  ship  must  sail,  with  her  head  always  in  the  same 
direction,  as  indicate  by  the  compass,  so  as  to  pass  from  one  to  the  other  1 

The  line  in  question,  which  is  called  a  rhumb  line  or  loxodromic  line,  has  manifestly  this 
property, — it  cuts  all  the  meridians  on  the  globe  at  the  same  angle.  By  this  property,  a 
ship  sailing  along  it  will  move  always  in  the  same  direction,  as  shown  by  a  compass :  but  it 
will  not  be  a  great  circle ;  for  the  equator  is  the  onlv  great  circle  that  cuts  all  tike  meridians 
at  the  same  angle ;  and  hence  it  appears  that  the  line  on  the  globe  by  which  a  ship  passes 
from  one  place  to  another  is  never  the  shortest  possible,  except  when  they  are  on  the  same 
meridian,  or  on  the  equator. 

Supposing  a  navigator  had  a  perfect  delineation  of  the  earth  on  a  sphere,  it  is  by  no  means 
evident  how  he  should  find  the  course  he  ought  to  steer  to  reach  a  remote  port  By  due  con- 
•ideration,  however,  he  would  see  that  the  path  must  be  a  spural.    It  would  also  bo  repre- 


PahtIL 
ig  L  will  be  in 

.  .  ..     :.;,  .  ,t'-.. 

ble  of  logarithmic 

the  chords  of  the 

hoee  numerator  is 

is  very  near  equal 

a  parallel  35«,  be 

of  a4r'.     

"  LonrUhms!! 

3.S0677 

3 

7.133S4 

1.38031 

8.51375 


Book  II. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


163 


!  have  found  the  arc 
to  be  9'.8.  There- 
By  a  like  process, 
3e,  and  their  chords 
this  table, 
gitude  on  the  paral- 
?e  must,  with  com- 
ale  of  minutes  from 
leridians  30°  of  Ion- 
I  of  Uiese  meridians 
e  traced  through  all 


y 


;  found  by  divid- 
I  as  many  meridian 
lere  given,  they  are 


ridian,  the  divisions 

le  general  dep6t  of 
'eographical  charts 
ms  which  hod  been 


,  directs  his  course 
Ion,  supposing  there 
Ind  that  of  his  des- 
[vidently  be  a  great 
same  latitude,  he 
Ir  west  But  if  the 
1  what  is  the  nature 

llways  in  the  same 

[has  manifestly  this 
^y  this  property,  a 
I  a  compass :  but  it 
|8  all  tike  meridians 
thich  a  ship  passes 
ey  are  on  the  same 


p,  it  is  by  no  means 


t 


Iport   By  due  con- 
lould  also  be  repre- 


sented by  a  spiral  curve  on  a  map,  formed  by  the  developement  cf  a  cone ;  but  navigators 
required  charts  before  the  theory  of  such  curves  was  understood;  therefore  at  that  period  his 
art  must  have  been  imperfect 

The  wants  of  the  navigator,  accordingly,  gave  rise  to  the  coastruction  of  a  chart,  in  which 
the  meridians  and  parallels  were  straight  lines ;  and  in  this  the  developement  of  the  curve 
surface  of  a  cylinder  was  employed.  Let  us  conceive  that  a  zona  of  the  earth's  surface,  of 
no  great  extent  in  latitude,  is  inscribed  in  or  circumscribed  about  a  vight  cylinder,  whose 
axis  coincides  with  that  of  the  globe :  the  planes  of  the  meridians  will  cut  the  curve  surface 
of  the  cylinder  in  straight  lincei,  parallel  to  the  axis;  and  tJib  planoK  of  the  parallels  will  cut 
it  in  sections  pcrpcadicular  to  the  axis,  which  will  be  circles  equal  to  the  base  of  the  cylin- 
der. But  in  supposing  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  developed  into  a  plane,  these  circles  will 
oecome  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  meridians.  This  developement  has  received  the 
name  of  the  plane  chart :  its  invention  is  attributed  to  Henry,  son  of  John,  king  of  Por- 
tugal. This  kind  of  chart  has  nothing  but  its  simplicity  to  recommend  it ;  for  the  degrees 
of  longitude  have,  indeed,  their  just  proportion  to  the  degrees  of  latitude  in  the  parallel  com- 
mon to  the  cylinder  and  sphere,  but  in  no  other  parallel. 

In  the  developement  of  a  cylinder  circumscribing  the  whole  sphere,  the  area  of  any  zone 
in  the  sphere  is  exactly  equal  to  that  of  its  representation  in  the  chart ;  and  indeed  the  same 
equality  may  be  observed  in  all  cases,  by  a  proper  assumption  of  a  parallel  of  latitude  as  the 
base  of  the  cylinder.  The  developement,  however,  has  this  great  fiiult, — the  doCTces  of 
longitude  always  err  in  excess  towards  the  north  and  in  defect  towards  the  south  of  me  mean 
parallel,  which  is  assumed  as  the  base  of  the  cylinder. 

There  is  a  construction,  described  in  books  of  navigation  under  the  name  of  a  plane  chart, 
the  prmciple  of  which  is  somewhat  different  from  that  just  described.  In  the  seaman's  piano 
chart  the  meridians  are  parallel  straight  lines,  and  so  also  are  the  parallels  of  latitude ;  and 
both  are  so  laid  down  that  a  degree  of  latitude  and  a  degree  of  longitude  are  equal  in  all 
latitudes.  It  may  easily  be  conceived  how  incompetent  such  a  representation  must  be  to  the 
purposes  of  navigation  or  geography. 

Mercator's  Chart. 

The  utter  inadequacy  of  the  old  plane  charts  to  the  wants  of  geography  and  navigation 
induced  ingenious  men  to  consider  whether  a  chart  might  not  be  so  constructed  as  to  repre- 
sent tlie  meridians  and  parallels  by  straight  lines,  and  at  the  same  time  readily  show  the  true 
bearings  of  places  from  one  another.  The  first  that  gave  a  true  solution — at  least  an 
approximate  one— of  this  important  problem  was  Gerabd  Mercator,  who  was  bom  at 
Ruremond,  in  Upper  Guelderland,  in  the  year  1512,  and  published  a  chart  in  1556,  wherein 
the  rhumbs,  which  on  the  globe  are  spirals,  were  represented  by  straight  lines,  as  in  the 
plane  chart ;  and  so  also  were  the  meridians  and  parallels.  It  is  not  known  by  what  prin- 
ciple Mercator  constructed  his  chart ;  it  has  been  supposed  tliat  he  observed  on  a  globe  fur- 
nished with  rhumbs  what  meridians  the  rhumbs  passed  in  each  degree  of  latitude :  it  is  cer- 
tain he  did  not  know  the  true  principles  of  the  construction ;  for  these  were  first  found  by 
Edward  Wright  of  Caius  College,  in  Cambridge,  who  communicated  his  discovery  to  his 
friend  Thomas  Blundeville,  with  a  short  table,  showing  the  correct  distances  of  the  parallels 
of  latitude  from  the  equator,  which  was  published  in  1594  by  Blundeville,  among  his  Exer- 
cises, The  truth  of  the  divisions  of  Mercator's  chart  was  then  tried  by  the  numbers  given 
by  Wright,  and  they  were  found  to  be  inaccurate ;  hence  it  appears  that  Merc-tor  did  not 
understand  the  principles  of  the  map  bearing  his  name,  and  that  this  important  inv  ntion  is 
due  to  Wright,  who  explained  it  himself,  in  his  treatise  entitled  The  Correctic  of  certain 
Errors  in  Naviffation,  published  1599,  but  written  many  years  before. 

Although  Wright's  numbers  were  sufficiently  correct  for  all  nautical  purposes,  and  might 
be  carried  to  any  degree  of  accuracy,  yet,  in  the  progress  of  mathematical  science,  an  im- 
provement was  made  in  his  theory.  Napier's  invention  of  logarithins  htid  proved  an  inesti- 
mable advantage  to  navigation  and  geography,  by  shortening  calculations :  this,  however, 
was  not  the  only  advantage  that  the  navigator  derived  l^om  the  invention ;  for,  about  the  year 
1645,  Henry  Bond  showed  that  tlie  division  of  the  meridian  in  Wright's  chart  was  altogether 
analogous  to  the  logarithmic  tangents  of  half  the  complements  of  the  latitudes,  and  might 
be  expressed  by  them.  He  seems  to  have  found  this  by  chance :  such  accidental  discoveries 
are,  however,  never  made  but  by  men  of  genius.  He  could  not  demonstrate  his  important 
theorem.  At  last  James  Grego^ry  proved  its  truth  in  his  Exercitationes  Geometrica,  pub- 
lished in  1668.    The  construction  of  the  chart  was  now  made  perfect. 

The  invention  of  Mercator's  chart,  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  16th  century,  affords 
a  notable  instance  of  the  slowness  with  which  men  si^rmt  improvements  in  science.  Although 
designed  for  the  use  of  sailors,  it  was  at  first  by  no  means  generally  used  by  them.  William 
Burrough,  a  celebrated  navigator,  who  had  entered  on  his  profession  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
and  risen  by  his  merit  to  the  rank  of  controller  of  Queen  ElizabeUi's  navy,  objected  to  its 
usefulness.  He  said — "  By  Mercator's  augmenting  his  degrees  of  latitude  towards  the  poles, 
the  same  is  more  fit  for  such  to  beliold  as  study  in  cosmography,  by  reading  authors  upon  the 


m 


d   MERCATOR'S  CHART,     j;^ 


Book  I. 


REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


105 


>^ 


land,  than  to  bo  used  in  r>avi^atior\  at  the  sea."  It  is  curious  to  observe  that  logarithms,  the 
other  grand  auxiliary  of  navigation,  met  with  a  like  reception  from  the  German  mathemo^ 
ticians  that  wore  somewhat  a^viinced  in  years, 

Morcator*s  chart  may  bo  pnxluccvl  by  developement,  as  follows:— Conceive  that  a  sphere 
with  the  meridians  and  parallcLi  and  countries  delineated  on  it,  is  inclosed  in  a  hollow  cyl- 
inder, and  that  the  axis  of  the  sphere  coincides  with  that  of  the  cylinder.  Imagine  now  that 
the  sphere  is  expanded  in  its  dimensions,  just  oa  a  soap-bubble  is  produced  by  blowmg  air  into 
it,  or  as  a  bladder  would  swell  in  all  directions  by  inflation,  the  parts  always  ntretchiiig  uni- 
formly ;  the  meridians  will  lengthen  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  parallels,  till  every  point 
of  the  expanding  spherical  surmco  comes  into  contact  with  the  concave  suiface  of  the  cyl- 
inder :  the  meridians  will  at  last  become  straight  lines,  and  the  parallels,  circles  on  that 
surface ;  the  former  in  the  u<rection  of  its  length,  and  the  latter  parallel  to  its  base,  which 
is  the  equator.  Suppose  now  the  sur&ce  of  the  cylinder  to  bo  cut  open  along  one  of  the 
meridians,  and  8;^/r(iia  into  a  plane;  the  surface  thus  produced  will  be  Mercator's  chart 

Mercator's  chart  is  constructed,  then,  on  the  following  geometrical  principles :— -1.  The 
meridians  are  parallel  straight  lines  at  equal  distances,  for  equal  uiilerences  of  longitude ; 
and  the  parallels  of  latitude  are  also  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  tlie  meridians.  2.  Sup- 
posing a  meridian  on  the  globe  be  divided  into  mmutes  of  a  degree ;  one  of  these,  at  any 
parallel  of  latitude,  will  be  to  a  minute  of  longitude  taken  on  that  parallel  in  the  proportion 
of  the  radius  of  the  equator  to  the  radius  of  the  parallel,  which  is  the  cosine  of  the  latitude ; 
that  is,  as  the  secant  of  the  latitude  to  radius.  Nov;  the  some  holds  true  in  the  chart ;  that 
is,  a  minute  of  the  meridiaii,  at  any  parallel,  has  to  a  minute  of  longitude  in  that  parallel  the 
proportion  of  the  secant  of  the  latitude  of  th.,  parallel  to  radius. 

By  the  first  of  these  properties  a  minute  of  longitude  in  the  map  is  represented  by  a  line 
of  the  same  length  in  every  parallel ;  therefore,  by  the  second  the  minutes  of  the  meridian 
will  bo  represented  by  lines  which  go  on  increasing  from  the  equator  towards  the  poles. 
From  this  it  follows  that,  if  a  minute  on  the  equator  be  taken  a.s  the  unit  of  a  scale,  ana  that 
unit  be  considered  as  the  radius  of  a  circle,  then  the  representation  of  a  minute  of  the 
meridian,  at  any  latitude,  will  bo  expressed  by  the  number  in  the  trigonometrical  tables 
which  is  the  secant  of  that  latitude.  Thus  it  appears  that,  while  the  degrees  of  longitude 
on  the  equator  form  a  scale  of  which  the  divisions  are  all  equal  in  the  map,  the  degrees  of 
latitude  marked  on  a  meridian  form  a  scale  of  which  the  divisions  go  on  increasing  from  the 
equator  towards  both  poles,  each  being  the  sum  of  the  secants  of  all  the  minutes  in  the 
degree. 

The  numbers  which  result  firom  the  addition  of  the  secants  of  1  minute,  2  minutes,  and  so 
on  to  the  last  minute  of  any  arc  of  the  meridian,  reckoned  from  the  equator,  are  given  in 
books  on  navigation.  They  form  the  table  of  meridional  parts,  and  serve  for  laying  down 
the  position  of  any  place  in  the  chart.  The  addition  of  the  secants  is,  however,  only  an 
approximation  to  the  true  length  of  the  enlarged  meridian  in  the  chart ;  but  it  is  sufficiently 
near  the  truth  for  nautical  or  geographical  purposes.  In  strictness,  also,  it  must  be  considered 
that  the  earth  is  not  a  sphere,  but  a  spheroid,  and  on  that  account  allowance  ought  to  be 
made  for  its  compression  at  the  poles.  The  following  short  table  shows  the  length  of  the 
enlarged  meridian,  both  on  the  sphere  and  the  spheroid,  to  every  fifth  degree  of  latitude. 
The  compression  is  assumed  to  be  yjp  ;,  ; 


Lot. 

Meridional  Farts. 

Lit. 

Meridional  Fartr. 

Sphere. 

Bplieroid, 

Sphere. 

Spheroid. 

oo 

5 
10 
15 
30 
95 
30 
35 
40 
4% 

0.00 

300.38 

C03.07 

010.40 

1235.14 

1549.99 

1888.38 

3244.39 

2023.09 

3039.04 

0.00 

2fl8..37 

500.01 

905.88 

1317.09 

1341.17 

1877.09 

23:W.09 

2008.35 

301-1.11 

50O 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

3474.47 

39r,7.97 
4527.37 
5178.P' 
5965.r, 
6070.34 
8375.39 
10704,03 
Infinite. 

3457.39 
3950.57 
4500.41 
5159.93 
5945.51 
6951.07 
8353.24 
10741.75 
Infinite. 

To  construct  Mercator's  rhart  (fig.  67.),  draw  two  straight  luies  W  E,  N  S  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  intersecting  in  C ;  of  these  W  E  is  to  represent  the  equator,  and  N  S 
a  meridian,  in  the  middle  of  the  chart :  fi-oai  any  convenient  scale  lay  off  equal  parts  along 
the  equator,  fi*om  C  both  ways,  to  represent  degrees  of  longitude,  ancf  each  of  which  should, 
if  there  be  room,  contain  60  subdivisions  for  minutes. 

Assuming  the  equator  as  a  scale  of  minutes,  lay  off  from  C,  north  and  south  on  the  middle 
ineridian,  the  number  of  minutes  in  the  enlarged  meridian,  corresponding  to  each  degree  of 
latitude  as  shown  by  a  table  of  meridional  parts,  of  which  that  just  given  is  an  abridgement. 

Draw  straight  lines  through  every  fifth  or  every  tenth  degree  of  the  equator  and  divided 
meridian,  and  perpendicular  to  them.  The  perpendiculars  to  the  equator  will  be  meridians, 
and  the  lines  parallel  to  it  parallels  of  latitude. 


:^rf 


y» 


'^ 


PRINCiriES  OV  GEOGRAPHY. 

Ftv   67. 


PaetIL 


'        1 

1 

1 

N 

86 

— 1 

"1 

/j 

u 

r,3 

/ 

1 

'iO 

m 

80 

60 

r.'O 

40 

% 

106 

rsiF 

ilo 

160 

w 

IGO 

MO 

ISO 

100 

40 

20 

c     au 

20 





1 

1 
t 

4U 

(Jo" 

80 

i 

i 

! 

1 
1 

S 

To  put  .i-y  place  m  its  proper  position  on  the  chart,  assume  some  one  meriijian  for  the 
first,  and  ]ay  off  from  its  intoraectum  with  the  equator,  and  along  it  in  the  prop<?r  direction, 
the  iongitudu  of  the  pkco  in  minuter;  draw  a  line  through  the  point  thus  found  perpen* 
dicular  to  Hie  equati-r :  this  will  1)e  the  meridian  of  the  place. 

On  this  meridian  luy  off  the  latitude,  as  shown  by  tiie  table  of  meridionnl  parts ;  and  the 
!wint  thus  determined  .\ill  be  the  true  position  of  the  place  in  the  chart 

'Td  find  the  bearing  of  one  point  from  anothor,  or  course  in  which  a  ship  ought  to  sail  in 
pniicing  from  one  to  the  other,  draw  a  straight  line  'oining  the  two  points,  and  the  angle 
whi(  1'  that  lino  maken  witli  the  meridians  is  tha  course  or  bearing. 

Thu,5,  if  L  bo  the  Lizard  Point  on  the  cha.'t,  and  M  the  east  end  of  the  Island  of  Madeira, 
draw  L  1  ;  .i-allel  to  the  meridian  N  S,  and  the  angle  I  L  M  will  be  the  course  on  which  a 
ship  ought  10  steer  from  the  Lizard  to  reach  Madeira. 

The  couraij  may  bo  found  by  a  trigonometrical  calculation,  by  considering  that  the  meri- 
dional difference  of  latitude  of  the  two  places  (as  given  by  the  table  of  meridional  parts), 
and  the  difftjronco  of  longitude  in  minutes,  are  tiio  sides  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  of  which 
the  I'ae  johiing  the  places  is  the  hypotenuse,  and  the  course  one  of  the  acute  angles,  viz. 
tJiat  made  by  the  meridian  aud  line  joining  the  places. 

Again,  the  distance  of  the  places,  measured  on  the  rhumb  line  passing  through  them, 
may  also  be  found  by  trigonometry,  it  is  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled  triiingle,  of 
which  the  ^/ropey  difference  of  latitude  (not  the  meridional  difference)  is  one  side,  and  die 
course  the  ..Jjaoent  angle. 

These  properties  of  the  chart  apply  alike  to  the  bearings  and  distances  of  all  places  on 
the  s^lobe  measured  on  rhumb  linos.  The  bearing  and  distances  of  London,  Edinburgh,  and 
Dublin,  for  instance,  from  each,  ma^  be  found  in  this  way  from  a  table  of  meridional  parts 
and  their  known  htitudes  and  longitudes. 

It  is  e.  Jent  that  Mercator's  chart  does  not  serve  well  to  show  the  figure  of  the  *"  'v-nea 
an  the  globe,  nor  their  relative  magnitudes.  These  are  purposes,  however,  whi :.  y  not 
inte>ide«  to  serve ;  but  it  does  servo  perfectly  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  first  c  '.  ted, 
wid  which,  before  its  invention,  were  a  desideratum  in  geography. 


.:^Mi»^ 


PiUlTlL 

-1 


ii:  ">;..«■  I, 


■     THE  HEMISPHERES. 


16 


I 


1 


I       I' 


120 


llO 


160 


W 


tie  meridiian  for  the 

le  propv?r  direction, 

thus  found  perpen* 

tnnl  piuts ;  and  the 

hip  ought  to  sail  m 
[ints,  and  t^ie  angle 

Island  of  Madeira, 
course  on  which  a 

ag  that  the  meri- 

I  meridional  parts), 

triangle,  of  which 

acute  angles,  viz. 

|ng  through  them, 
igled  triungle,  of 
one  side,  and  (he 

U  of  all  places  on 
In,  Edinburgh,  and 
If  meridional  parts 


!  of  the 
pr,  whi:. 
ifirstc 


n;,ne3 

ti  not 

(ed, 


-•  r  »;■■.; 


■i  -■  '<i; 


ttHrj' 


166 


SCIENCE  OF  OEOORAPUY. 


PartIL 


BOOK    II 

GEOLOGICAL   PRINCIPLES. 

Geoixksy  is  that  branch  c  f  natural  history  which  troata  of  the  atmosphere,  the  waters  of 
the  ^lobo,  and  of  the  mountain-rocks  of  which  the  earth  is  composed.  No  department  of 
natural  hlHtory  al)oundH  more  in  important  facts  and  intorestinj^  conclusions ;  and  therefore 
wo  diall  lay  bctbro  our  readers  a  short  view,  Ist,  Of  the  natural  history  of  the  atmosphere, 
or  meteorology;  2dly,  Of  the  natural  history  of  the  waters  of  tho  globe,  or  hydrology;  and, 
Sdly,  Of  tho  solid  materials  of  which  tiio  earth  is  composed,  or  geognosy. 


m'''' 


CHAPTER  I. 

METEOROLOGY. 

This  beautiflil  department  of  science  makes  us  acquainted  with  all  the  properties  and 
relations  of  the  atmosphere  which  surrounds  our  planet.  Although  in  general  but  little 
studied  by  geologists,  a  knowledge  of  it  is,  ncvcrt'^elcss,  most  useful  in  a  geological  point  of 
view,  of  wiiich  Uio  details  we  shall  now  lay  bcforo  our  readers  will  affoid  ample  proof. 

Shot.  I. — Pressure,  Height,  Form,  and  Temperature  of  the  Atmosphere. 

The  air  in  which  wo  breathe,  with  the  clouds  and  vapours  floating  in  it,  surrounds  the 
earth  on  all  sides  to  an  unknown  height,  and  forms  a  moveable  envelope  denominated  the 
atmosphere.  Tho  human  species,  and  other  land  animals,  being  thus  entirely  immersed  in 
this  fluid,  may  with  some  propriety  bo  said  to  inhabit  an  ocean  as  really  as  tlie  flshes  which 
live  in  tlie  great  deep.  But  the  latter  have  the  advantage  in  being  able  to  mount  up, 
remain,  or  descend  at  pleasure  in  their  clement :  whereas,  without  some  odditional  aid,  we 
must  content  ourselves  with  the  more  humble  allotment  of  remaining  on  the  bottom  of  our 
ocean.  The  winged  tribes,  doubtless,  liave  the  pc  wer  of  oscending  to  great  heights ;  still 
they  can  never  reach  tho  summit.  There  is  noti!ing  more  essential  to  tho  existence  or 
health  of  man  himself,  or  of  the  various  inferior  animuls  and  vegetables  which  live  on  our 
globe,  than  the  air  or  atmosphere ;  nor  has  any  agent  a  greater  share  in  tho  innumerable 
changes  which  are  daily  taking  place  in  the  inanimate  materials  composing  our  planet.  It 
is  not  wonderful,  then,  that  the  composition  and  properties  of  the  atmosplicre  should  have 
so  often  excited  inquiry.  To  give  an  account  of  these,  and  of  their  relations  to  other 
bodies,  particularly  to  the  various  substances  which  are  difflised  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
really  or  apparentlr  deposited  from  it,  constitutes  the  science  of  meteorology.  Whilst 
engaging  in  this  task,  so  far  as  our  limits  permit,  it  will  be  fully  as  instructive,  and  scarcely 
more  tedious,  occasionally  to  introduce  a  very  brief  sketch  of  the  mode  in  which  some  of  the 
leading  facts  were  first  discovered ;  but  there  is  reason  to  think  that  a  few  of  the  more  Jvi- 
ous  properties  of  air  have  been  known,  as  it  were  instinctively,  ftom  the  remotest  antiquity. 

That  air  is  a  body  or  substance  possessing  the  essential  properties  of  matter,  appears 
firom  tlie  resistance  which  it  oflers  to  tho  occupation  of  its  place  by  other  bodies.  Tnus,  if 
an  apparently  empty  glass  jar  be  first  inverted,  and  then  immersed  in  a  vessel  of  water,  that 
liquid  will  only  enter  a  very  little  way  into  the  jar,  the  rest  being  occupied  by  the  air.  This 
fiuniliar  experiment  shows  that  air  is  a  body,  by  its  resisting  the  entry  of  the  water.  At  the 
same  time  it  shows  the  air  to  be  an  elasti".  or  compressible  substance,  otherwise  it  should 
have  completely  excluded  the  water.  Thai  it  is  a  fluid  is  evident  from  the  ease  with  which 
bodies  move  in  it,  finm  its  pressing  equally  in  every  direction,  and  passing  with  great  fecility 
through  extremely  minute  openings. 

The  ancients  must  have  been  aware  of  these  properties,  or  at  least  of  some  of  tlieir 
practical  applications,  otherwise  they  could  not  have  constructed  their  powerful  air-guns, 
nor  availed  themselves  of  the  principle  of  the  diving-bell :  for,  in  those  early  ages,  the 
adventurers  who  dived  in  search  of  pearls,  &c.  were  accustomed  to  hold  largo  pots  or  kettles 
inverted  on  their  heads.  The  air  which  these  open  vessels  contained  both  excluded  the 
water,  and  for  a  short  time  supported  respiration ;  thus  forming  diving-bells  in  a  portable 
shape.  The  ancients  likewise,  m  some  of  their  mechanical  contrivances,  availed  themselves 
of  that  property  of  air  by  which  it  expands  with  heat  and  contracts  with  cold.  It  was  on 
this  principle  that,  in  more  modem  times,  Sanctorio  constructed  the  air  thermometer. 

Weight  and  pressure  are  properties  of  the  air  as  of  all  other  bodies :  it  presses  on  il.a 
earth's  surface,  and  on  every  other  body  with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  This  was  con- 
jectured even  by  the  ancients.  But  the  effects  which  are  now  known  to  result  from  tu 
weight  and  elasticity  of  the  air  were  for  a  long  time  ascribed  to  a  principle  called  nature's 
horror  of  a  vacuum.  So  late  as  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  it  was  generally 
believed,  tliat  the  ascent  of  water  in  pumps  was  owing  to  tliis  principle,  and  that  by  means 


-«>^«^' 


PartIL 


Book  II. 


METEOROLOGY, 


•m 


!,  tho  waters  of 
0  dcpartmont  of 
i;  and  thorofore 
tho  atmoepherc, 
hydrology ;  and, 


3  properties  ana 
onenu  but  little 
iolozical  point  of 
.mpfe  proof. 

osphere. 

it,  surrounds  the 

denominated  the 

•ely  immersed  in 

tlie  fishes  which 

do  to  mount  up, 

dditional  aid,  we 

le  bottom  of  our 

3at  heights ;  still 

the  existence  or 

hich  live  on  our 

tho  innumerable 

our  planet.    It 

licrc  should  have 

lations  to  other 

atmosphere,  and 

irology.    Whilst 

ve,  and  scarcely 

:hich  some  of  the 

f  the  more  \A\i- 

iOtost  antiquity. 

matter,  appears 

ies.    Thus,  if 

il  of  water,  that 

ly  the  air.    This 

water.    At  the 

erwise  it  should 

ase  with  which 

th  great  facility 

^f  some  of  tlieir 
irerful  air-guns, 
learly  ages,  the 
r o  pots  or  kettles 
Ih  excluded  the 
Is  in  a  portable 
Tiled  themselves 
tld.    It  was  on 

nometer. 
I  presses  on  the 

This  was  con- 

rCSUit   iiuiii   •-!■'■: 

Icalled  nature's 

was  generally 

I  that  by  means 


of  suction  fluids  might  be  raised  to  any  height  whatever.  But  Galileo,  though  stiil  inclining 
to  tho  old  opinion,  remarked  that  water  dianot  rise  in  a  common  pump  unless  tho  sucker  oi 
bucket  reached  within  34  feet  of  its  surfhce  in  tho  well.  Hence  he  was  forced  to  conjec- 
ture, that  not  Uio  power  of  suction,  but  tlie  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  sur&ce  of  tho 
well,  was  tho  cause  of  the  water's  ascent;  that  a  column  of  water  34  feet  high  was  a  coun- 
terpoise to  one  of  air  on  an  equal  base,  but  reaching  to  the  top  of  the  atmosphere ;  and  that, 
for  this  reason,  wa\'er  could  not  follow  tho  sucker  anv  fartlier. 

Torricnili,  a  disi;iplo  of  Galileo,  profitod  by  this  hint.  It  occurred  to  him  that  the  sama 
force  which  supported  water  to  the  height  of  34  feet  would  sustain  a  column  of  any  other 
fluid  which  weighed  as  much  on  an  equal  base ;  and  therefore  mercury,  being  13.0  tunes  as 
heavy  as  water,  should  onlv  be  suspended  to  tho  height  of  20  or  30  mches.  Accordingly, 
he  took  a  glass  tube  from  three  to  lour  feet  long,  and  closed  at  one  end ;  this  he  filled  with 
mercury ;  then,  stopping  itB  mouth  with  his  finger,  he  inverted  tho  tube,  and  on  re-opening 
its  mouth  in  a  vessel  of  quicksilver  the  result  verified  his  expectation.  The  mercury, 
obeying  the  lawp  of  hydrostatics,  descended  in  the  tube  till  the  vertical  column  wus  about 
80  mches  abovo  the  level  of  tiio  cistern,  leaving  the  remaining  space  at  the  top  empty  or 
nearly  a  vacuum.  Hence  he  inferred  that  it  was  only  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the 
atmosphoro  on  the  mercury  in  the  cistern,  which  balanced  tho  column  in  the  tube.  This 
is  usually  called  tho  Toricellion  experiment,  and  is  the  foundation  of  the  barometer. 

The  mean  pressure  is  everywhere  tho  same  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  equal  to  about 
14 i  lbs.  on  the  square  inch.  It  becomes  less  as  tho  place  is  elevated  above  the  sea,  and 
greater  if  below  its  level.  The  pressure  of  tho  atmosphere,  as  measured  by  the  mercurial 
column,  varies  somewhat  at  every  place  on  the  earth  s  surface.  Generally  speaking,  its 
variations  arc  greatest  in  tho  temperate  zones,  decreasing  towards  the  equator  and  poles. 
The  annual  range  rarely  exceeds  half  an  inch  in  the  torrid  zone.  It  is  about  two  inches  at 
London,  and  tiie  same  at  St  Petersburg,  but  ratlier  less  at  Melville  Island.  It  nowhere 
exceeds  3]^  inches.  The  annual  range  is  more  considerable  at  the  level  of  the  sea  than  on 
mountains ;  and  under  the  same  latitude  it  is  less,  as  the  height  of  the  place  above  the  sea 
is  greater.  Tho  '>aromcter  has  a  tendency  to  rise  from  4  P.  M.  to  10  P.  M. ;  to  fall  from 
10  P.  M.  to  4  A.  M. ;  to  rise  from  4  A.  M.  to  10  A.  M. ;  and  again  to  fall  from  10  A.  M.  to 
4  P.  M.  DifiTcrent  authors,  however,  differ  a  little  both  as  to  the  hours  and  the  amount  of 
tliu  diurnal  variation,  which  appears  to  be  greater  as  the  latitude  is  lower.  The  barometer 
is  likewise  elevated  a  little  at  the  quarters  of  the  moon,  and  depressed  at  the  new  and  fbll. 
The  range  of  tliis  instnunent  is  greater  in  winter  than  in  summer. 

The  kirometer  ranges  higher  in  proportion  as  tlie  weather  is  more  serene  and  settled; 
calm  weather,  with  a  tendency  to  rain,  depresses  it ;  high  winds  have  a  similar  effect  In 
extra-tropical  climates,  a  fall  in  the  barometer,  with  a  change  or  rise  of  wind,  is  usuiJiy 
followed  by  rain. 

The  law  which  regulates  the  elasticity  of  the  air  formed  the  next  important  step,  aflerthe 
discovery  of  Ihi.  pressure.  Boyle  in  England,  and  Mariotte  in  France,  discovered,  much 
ab<)ut  the  same  time,  that  the  temperature  being  the  same,  the  pressure  or  elastic  force  of 
ail  is  directly  as  its  density,  or  inversely  as  the  space  it  occupies.  This  law,  though  received 
as  correct  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  continued  to  be  suspected  till  within  these  few  years. 
But  Dulong  and  Petit  have  recently  examined  it  through  a  wide  range  of  temperature ; 
Professor  Oersted  has  tried  it  under  a  great  variety  of  pressures ;  and  within  the  limits  of 
their  experiments  it  was  found  to  hold  good. 

The  variable  capacity  for  heat  forms  another  property  of  air  of  no  less  importance,  but 
which  seems  to  have  been  little  known  or  attended  to  till  towards  the  end  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. When  air  undergoes  a  change  of  volume,  it  at  the  same  time  changes  its  capacity  for 
heat ;  becoming  notter  by  compression,  and  colder  by  rarefaction.  The  want  of  acquaintance 
with  this  circumstance  led  Newton,  and  many  others  after  him,  into  the  mistake  of  con- 
cluding, that  ths  particles  of  elastic  fluids  repel  each  other  with  forces  inversely  as  their 
central  distances ;  which  cannot  be  the  case  if  the  capacity  be  aflTected,  no  matter  in  what 
manner  or  degree,  by  a  change  of  density.  But  very  extensive  experiments,  made  by  some 
of  the  most  eminent  scientific  men  in  France,  and  repeated  in  England,  are  faVourable  to  the 
idea  that  the  particles  of  air  observe  the  same  law  as  magnetism  and  electricity,  repelling 
each  other  with  forces  inversely  as  the  squares  of  their  distances. 

There  is  a  gradation  of  density  ir  ^he  air.  Being,  as  already  stated,  a  compressible  body, 
vt  is  obvious  that  the  lower  p^-^  "  he  atmosphere,  by  sustaining  tjie  greater  weight  or 
pressure  of  the  air  above  them-  be  so  much  the  more  condensed ;  and  therefore,  as  we 

ascend  in  the  atmosphere,  the  d  'nsity  will  continually  dimmish.  Accordingly,  it  may  be 
shown  from  he  principles  already  laid  down,  that  were  the  temperature  and  tJie  force  of 
gravity  unifo..n  at  all  heights  above  the  earth's  surface,  the  densities  of  the  strata  would 
decrease  in  geometrical  progression  for  altitudes  taken  in  arithmetical  progression,  so  as 
nearly  to  halve  the  density  for  every  3.5  miles  of  ascent  But,  indeiiendently  of  a  trifling 
change  in  the  force  of  gravity,  •  '3  is  not  exactly  the  law  of  nature;  for  it  is  found  that  the 
temperature  generally  decreaset  n%  we  go  upward,  and  tliat     t  acording  to  any  fixed  law 

V01.L  16  W 


170 


PRINCIPLES  or  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IL 


illjJSS'' 


Hcnco  tho  relation  betWv.  n  the  density  nnd  nltitiido  ia  not  of  a  steady  character,  and  can 
only  be  obtained  in  any  particular  caaot'nim  obiH'rvingf  tbo  prcwiiiro,  ccmporaturo,  and  hyffro- 
metric  ufato  of  tlio  nir.  This  is  a  ronrarch  to  which  many  eiiiincn  men  have  tumod  tneir 
attention ;  and  tlieir  sucocssivo  labours  have  led  to  tho  formation  ^f  convmiiont  rules,  by 
which  tho  heights  of  mountains  can  be  obtained  to  a  considerable  dO(,roo  of  accuracy,  and 
with  preiit  fkcilitv,  by  moans  of  the  tmromotor,  &,c. 

Tho  height  and  form  of  iho  atmoepheve  pt  objects  of  intorost.  With  nn  umfiiim  tem- 
perature, the  law  of  Boylo  would  ii.v  ..' '  that  its  hoi^^ht  in  infinite ;  but  this  is  an 
idea  which  has  scarcely  any  Buppr^orH,  .  nl  >;cnerally  believed  to  bo  incompatible  with 
the  laws  of  motion.  Dr.  Wo!  a  'on,  w'  r>  n  jnion  'is  entitled  to  great  doferonco,  main- 
tainrt  that  the  atmosphere  muf  t  ti  rminalo  at  tlio  height  wlioro  the  repulsive  force  between 
its  particles  equals  their  teuil  i  -y  to  gravitate  towards  t'lc  eiirlh.  Tho  law  of  gravity  may 
bo  admitted  as  known,  but  tdc  sumo  can  hardly  bo  afflrnied  of  tlio  law  which  regulates  tito 
repulsive  force,  so  long  ns  tho  temperature  nl  great  heights  is  unknown ;  and  this  circum> 
stance  leaves  tho  Iwundiiry  undetermined.  A  doubt  of  a  more  serious  nature,  however, 
attaches  to  this  speculation,  on  tho  ground  that  wo  are  tot;\'ly  >'  'int  with  what  materials 
the  air  may  bo  mixed  it  great  elovationn.  The  nti-  li..,.  ji,  uo-ieral!;  supposed  to  bo 
higher  at  tho  equator  than  at  the  i)oles ;  but  we  have  neither  data  tor  computing  tho  heights, 
nor  tho  proportion  in  which  they  dit!cr:  so  that  tho  oblate  spheroidal  figure  which  some  give 
to  tho  atmosphere  can  bo  considered  as  little  else  than  an  ingenious  conjecture. 

The  tcmperatJire  of  tho  atmosphere  has  great  influence  on  most  metoornlogicul  pheno* 
monu;  but  it  is  ■.cecdingly  variable,  and  can  as  yet  bo  determined  only  by  actual  observa- 
tion on  tho  spot,  .'  nthing  would  tend  to  throw  greater  light  on  ninny  of  tho  unresolved 
questions  in  mote  ifology,  than  a  ready  mode  of  coi  '^uting  with  certainty  tho  temperature 
which  obtains  at  any  instant  in  a  pf)int  of  the  atmoi ,  '>crc  remote  tVoui  tho  contnrt  of  tlie 
earth's  surfat .,  und  at  any  point  on  the  surfiice  remote  from  tho  observer:  but  tlieso  are 
likely  to  contimio  desiderata.  Tho  very  little  that  is  known  of  tho  temperature  of  air  rcmot  J 
from  tho  earth's  surface  has  been  derived  from  a  few  ai<ronautic  excursions,  particularly  the 
ascent  of  M  Gsy-Lussac  to  the  height  of  7630  yards. 

Tho  heat  of  cho  air  in  o'lO  shapo  or  another  is  no  doubt  greatly  derived  from  the  sun, 
either  immediately,  by  intercepting  the  solar  rays,  or  indirectly,  from  its  contact  with  the 
CdTtli's  F  rfkce,  which  is  more  or  less  heated  according  r.a  it  is  turned  more  or  less  towar'-f 
the  sun:  'mt  whether  heat,  in  return,  te  projected  from  the  earth  or  its  attnospliere  lowi. 
other  regions  of  space,  is  a  disputed  question.  Professor  Leslie  maintains  that  heat,  which 
b  not  accompanied  with  or  rather  is  not  ui  the  state  of  light,  caimot  pass  through  a  vacuum, 
and,  of  course,  that  it  carmol  pass  the  boundary  of  the  atmosphere.  If  so,  it  would  follow 
that  the  atmosphere  does  not  continually  draw  off  heat  from  tho  earth,  but  may  oftencr  be 
tho  warmer  of  the  two.  Many  iiiiilosopners,  however,  are  of  a  different  opinion,  among 
whom  was  tlie  ingenious  Dr.  Wells,  with  most  of  those  who  embraced  his  theory  of  dew. 
These  allege,  that  heat  is  constantly  projected  from  tho  earth  and  atmosplioro  towards  the 
boundless  regions  of  spaco.  Observation  shows,  thit  much  heat  passes  upward  from  the 
earth's  surface,  especially  when  tho  air  is  cleai.  In  this  way,  the  stnlum  of  air  in  contact 
with  tho  surface  is  cooled  more  than  that  which  is  somcM  'lat  higher.  It  is  probable  that 
there  exists  a  r-'tural  tendency  in  the  atmopjihere,  as  in  iinst  other  belies,  towards  an  uni- 
form temperature  throughout  its  whi  1^  height  •  ^  nd  since  >  rents  in  its  ujiper  regions  usually 
some  from  a  warmer  quarter,  and  tlie  lower  currents  from  .i  colder,  there  is  upon  the  whole, 
independently  of  aeronautic  observations,  some  ground  for  supposing  tlmt  the  decrease  of 
temperature  on  ascending  in  the  atmosphere  should  be  slower  than  tho  law  of  capacity  as 
increased  by  dilatation  requires. 

The  fbllowiiic;-  list  of  temperatures,  cniefly  observed  at  Btations  employed  in  tho  barome- 
trical measurements  of  heights,  is  taken  from  M.  Ramond's  work  on  tliat  subject  Only  a 
few  of  thes-o  measurements  embrace  the  whole  heights  of  th<  mountains  on  which  ti/.y 
were  mad( ,  unci  the  first  case  is  of  a  different  class.  'Ve  hu  reduced  the  temperatures  to 
FahrPKheit's  scale : — 


FlKO. 

Hcllkt. 

T*i»p. 

«t  tK.1. 

Teln^ 
■1  lop. 

I 

Riliht. 
Tarda 

T«n^ 
al  bol. 

Tallin 
at  lop. 

rtrft. 

o 

„ 

a 

a 

OiT'LnfMe^  Mraot 

Chlmbonio 

low 

n.A 

I4.t 

Plod'nrn,  TtrlMa*... : 

Piodn  Molilalia 

tt<T 

78.5 

11.8 

MIT 

1T.» 

Ml 

>M« 

OH.l 

11.8 

MoalBltn'  

4m 

eg.g 

M.8 

rio  da  Midi,  lancM 

IBM 

TOI 

81.1 

n,           

_ 

81,7 

M.l 

Dlllo....." 

71.1 

48.4 

riodaT          M 

«m 

W.f 

47.1 

nito 

_ 

70.1 

48.8 

•          MoolUi.      Chamoua; 

MTO 

n.< 

«• 

mito 

** 

W.i 

11.8 

KIM M 

tt¥> 

IK 

w.a 

Dlllo 

*- 

U.I 

Ml 

,          Mont  Vtrin,  TirtoM 

VM 

78.1 

44.4 

DItIo 

_v 

8«.0 

44.8 

Cnl  du  i>VaBt M. 

«M 

n.8 

40.1 

Dlllo 

_ 

H.0 

41.1 

,            HtMrW „,. 

tl14 

N< 

V.l 

Ditto 

.. 

«t.l 

41.1 

n<  dii  MI.II,  Tu»« 

IMS 

ai.i 

U.9 

Far  de  Doo«  Clannil 

nn 

701 

«7,a 

,                     Ditto 

n.s 

47.t 

Dlllo 

•4.0 

11.4 

I                   DIUo - 

_ 

n.i 

40.8 

Dllta 

_ 

U.I 

11.1 

Dillo 

_ 

T4.t 

H.7 

ni>!».> -....~ 

_ 

7111 

80.1 

DIUO ,„ 

» 

«.8 

4«.« 

Dlllo 

_ 

ai.i 

74.1 

nito 

•. 

M.I 

».a 

■nial  du  latacm,  TarbM 

Ml 

81.8 

181 

Dlllo 

_ 

U.8 

M.7 

Poatdo  Boifn.  Ctonnoal 

H7 

R.I 

1          Ool  dn  OMOt,  CbimoiiBT 

MM 

ran 

40.1 

La  BarrMa«.  Clarmolit •• .. 

<1> 

74.1 

71.1 

MoM  rtrta.  ImtM 

OM 

77.0 

44.4 



Part  IL 

harnctor,  and  can 
raturo,  and  hysro- 

have  turned  their 
ivoniont  ruloi,  by 

of  accuracy,  and 

nn  luiiforni  tcni' 
iito;  but  tills  u  an 
incompatible  with 
dofcjoiico,  iimin- 
4ivo  forcn  between 
iw  of  gravity  may 
hich  rcL'nIatcB  tlio 
;  and  this  circum- 
)  luituro,  liowovcr, 
itii  what  materials 
!y  siippo.iod  to  bo 
putint;  tlio  heights, 
0  which  some  give 
cturn. 

tcorcilogicitl  pheno* 
by  actual  obacrva- 
of  the  tinreBolvcd 
y  tlio  temperature 
tlio  contact  of  tlie 
•vcr :  but  these  arc 
raturo  of  air  remot  j 
ns,  particularly  the 

rived  from  the  sun, 

ts  contact  with  the 

lore  or  less  towar'i 

tmosphoro  lowi. 

[19  that  heat,  which 

through  a  vacuum, 

80,  it  would  follcw 

but  may  oftener  bo 

it  opinion,  among 

|hiH  theory  of  dew. 

iplicro  towards  the 

upward  fn^m  the 

II  of  air  m  contact 

.  is  probable  that 

s,  towards  on  uni- 

[)or  regions  usually 

is  upon  the  whole, 

[lit  the  decrease  of 

aw  of  capacity  as 

od  in  the  barome- 

subject     Only  a 

lis  on  which  tl.'.y 

[e  temperatures  to 


floOK    II. 


METEOROLOGY. 


Illllhl. 

Tink 

Temp. 
•1  boL 

Tnnn 
It  top. 

0 

0 

nit 

T«.9 

tl.l 

1M« 

W.I 

n.» 

laoa 

ni 

ti.t 

ii.t 

4S.4 

_ 

10.1 

40.9 

_ 

U.I 

o.a 

».g 

Ml 

, 

M.O 

4<.a 

_ 

M.O 

41.4 

_ 

m 

*'i 

iia 

n» 

n.« 

no 

11.4 

__ 

U.I 

M.1 

_ 

n.t 

W.4 

__ 

•1.1 

14.1 

•11 

ti.< 

41.4 

arr 

n.i 

«.a 

<it 

I4.I 

71.1 

1 i 

Itnilii'l  In 

EiiKli'll 

(bat, 

E<|uitorlal  lone 
nroinlil.ootoioo. 

Tuinporala  lone 
IVumUt.4SOlo470 

Moan 
Tump. 

Diflbr. 

Slice. 

Mean 
Temp. 

Dlffiir- 
enco. 

0 

nioa 

u.iin 

IXW7 
HTllil 
ISINIS 

0 

RI.S 
71.9 
(U.1 
57.7 
44.fl 
34.7 

o 

10.3 
«.l 
7.4 

13.1 

0 

83.0 
41.0 
31.0 
93.4 

0 

,13.6 
U.4 

>  8.a 

T>>ia  table  flhowv,  in  n  verv  itrikinff  manner,  with  how  i  tie  certainty  the  oecreaio  of 
'.cinporature  ciiu  bo  eituu  iiou  fVom  the  increaio  of  height;  and  how  unsteady  the  rate  of 
ilucn^ttxo  in  often  ut  tho  same  place.  M.  Ramond,  however,  has  collected  some  cases  which 
arc  Htill  more  discordant. 

Tlio  prodding  table  contains  the  temperatures  of  the  air  at  different  heights  for  one  or  a 

few  purticulur  instants ;  but  we  shall  now  add  a  table  from  Baron  Humboldt  of  the  mean 

temperaturci  qf  elevated  iUuatiotu,  as  deduced  fhnn  several  years  observations.     Tho 

degrees  are  those  of  Fahrenheit's  scale. 

From  this  table  it  appears,  that,  in  the  mean  state  of  the  atmosphere,  the  temitoraturo 

does  not  decrease  uniformly  for  a  uniform  accent. 
At  the  equator,  the  thomiomotcr  ilills  10°  in  the 
first  1000  yards  of  ascent,  or  about  1°  for  310  foot 
In  the  next  lUOO  yards,  it  is  only  1°  for  524  feof 
but  in  tlie  third  and  fourth  stages  there  is  a  re- 
markable acceleration,  which  having  attained  its 
maximum  rate,  is  diminished  again  in  the  fifth 
stage  to  somowhat  less  than  it  was  in  tho  first,  or 
to  1°  in  320  feet  Tho  mean  rate  in  tho  varia^ 
tion  of  temperature,  throughout  tho  whole  hoight 
of  15965  foot,  at  tho  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  is  1° 
for  every  ;i41  feet  The  smaller  rate  of  decrease  in  the  second  and  third  stages  is  ascribed 
by  Humboldt  to  tho  largo  dense  clouds  which  are  suspended  in  this  region,  and  which,  he 
alleges,  have  the  triple  effect  of  absorbing  tho  sun's  ys,  forming  rain,  and  intercepting 
tho  radiation  of  heat  fram  the  earth.  In  the  tempcrat  /one,  the  decrease  is  at  the  rate  of 
V  for  "MUl  feet,  during  the  first  1000  yards  of  ascent.  But  throughout  the  whole  height  of 
0587  foef  I  to  tho  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  where  tho  moan  tempoiaturo  is  23.4°,  the  decrease 
is  1°  for  317  ic%  or  almost  1"  for  100  yards.  As  already  remarked,  observations  made  in 
tho  frco  regions  jf  the  atnioHi>liere  have  not  yet  been  so  numerous  as  to  warrant  any  certain 
conclusion  regarding  tho  temperature ;  but,  so  far  as  such  observations  go,  they  do  not  differ 
very  widely  from  the  mean  or  those  observed  on  the  sides  and  summits  of  mountains.  But 
genorally  in  tho  tcmperatu  zone,  a  difference  of  1000  yards  in  height  will  produco  a  difference 
of  12°  it'  temperature ;  and  so  on  in  proportion  for  smaller  heightd.  In  higher  regions,  the 
difli^rnn  veen  the  heat;'  of  day  and  night,  summer  and  winter,  seem  to  bo  less  than  at 

tim  level  of  'e  sea;  thouir  from  this  there  are  some  exceptions.  Extensive  table-lands 
are  usually  \ .  ter  than  in  ited  peaks  of  the  some  height  Humboldt  calculates  that,  in 
the  temperate  .  no,  an  asci-nt  of  110  yards  diminishes  the  temperature  as  much  as  on  oddi- 
tiiinal  degree  of  lat'tude. 

Temperatun  >  ^  in  mines.  Having  thus  noticed  the  lower  temperatures  which  obtain 
inmoro  olevateii  bitaaiions.  wo  shall  now  give  some  account  of  the  increased  temperature 
which  generally  prevails  in  r  occupying  deep  caverns  and  mines.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  such  facts,  but  the  nn-  of  the  heat  is  still  a  subject  of  controversy.  There  are  some 
mines  intensely  cold ;  and  .hesc  wero  first  observed,  the  explanation  offered  was,  that 
tho  colder  portioiu-i  of  air  had,  by  their  greater  weight  descendea  into  the  mines :  but  this 
solution  entirely  vanished  when  it  was  known  that  mines  are  generally  hot  The  heat  of 
the  workmen,  their  fires  and  lights,  have  been  stated  as  sources  of  heat;  as  likewise  the 
chemical  action  of  air  and  water  on  the  minerals.  Some  again  allege  that  a  high  tempera- 
ture  obtains  in  the  interior  of  our  globe,  and  conseouently  that  the  heat  will  always  bi 
greater  as  we  penetrate  farther.  However,  it  is  found  that  on  boring  into  the  solid  strata  in 
Uio  boitom  of  warm  mines,  and  lettmg  down  a  thermometer,  tlie  temperature,  so  fiir  fron 
increasing,  comes  short  of  that  in  the  mine.  This  sufficiently  proves  that,  whatever  be  the 
sources  of  heat  some  of  them  at  least  must  operate  in  or  be  situated  about  the  muie  itseltl 
That  a  high  temperature  obtains  in  the  interior,  is  in  many  instances  evident  from  the 
streams  of  hot  wnter  and  vapour  which  issue  fixim  fissures  in  the  strata :  but  in  many  warm 
mines  nothing  of  this  is  observable.  Professor  Leslie,  Dr.  Forbes,  and  afterwards  Mr.  Mat- 
tliew  Miller,  have  suggestcfl  the  heat  evolved  b}  i  current  of  air,  while  it  undergoes  an 
increase  of  pressure  in  descending  into  the  mine.  The  firat  two  of  these  philosophers  did 
not  deem  this  an  adequate  source  of  heat ;  and  Mr.  Miller  seems  to  entertain  similar  doubts: 
But  from  what  is  now  known  of  tiie  great  heat  evolved  by  the  compression  of  air,  there  can 
be  little  room  to  question  that  this  furnishes  a  considerable  supply,  wherever  there  is  a  suf- 
ficient current  of  air.  Thus,  if  air  at  the  temperature  of  62°  P.  have  its  density  suddenly 
increased  by  the  170th  part  the  temperature  will  be  raised  1° ;  supposing  no  heat  to  be  lost 
on  the  sides  of  the  shaft.  This  would  ^ve  1^  for  a  descent  of  170  feet,  which  is  still  short 
of  the  rate  at  which  the  temperature  is  observed  I  increase  in  British  mmes :  but  when 
added  to  the  heat  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  workmen  and  horses,  their  lights,  blasting 
of  rocks,  fires,  &c.  together  with  some  increase  of  temperature  belonging  to  the  deeper 
strata,  there  does  not  seem  any  mystery  in  the  heat  of  some,  tilthough  probablv  not  of  all, 
nines.    Those  mmes,  agam,  in  v  hich  there  is  almost  no  circulation  of  air,  and  which  pre- 


m 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pai^t  U 


Ik!! 


H 


f.. . 


acnta  wide  mouth  to  a  clear  iky,  may  have  thoir  tein|M>rature  roducod  by  radiatitr'  '.-'at 
upwanla,  in  the  aamo  way  that  plants  are  starvod  witli  cuid  bv  being  too  much  sluitorod 
from  the  wind  while  they  are  cxpoaed  to  a  clear  iky. 

An  immonso  collection  of  fact«  and  obwrvatinns  rolatins  to  thia  aubject  may  bo  soon  in 
the  Transactiona  qf  the  Geological  Society  q/*  Cornwall,  and  in  tho  first  number  of  tho 
Edin.  Phil.  Journal,  From  tlto  latter  wo  extract  tho  following  lummary  of  Mr.  Bald'i 
obaorvationi,  made  in  tlio  deepest  coal-minea  in  Great  Britain : — 

VVnlor  at  dapth  otUttett 

Air  at  ••ma  dupth 

Ptrcf  Main  diUtty,  flMkumt4rland. 


trkiukattn  CWJItry,  Ciunlf  rf  CHmhtrttud. 

Air  at  Iha  iiirniea    BiOf 

A  aprlng  al  iiirnico , 49 


Water  at  depth  of  480  hot 


•!••••••• 


.00 


Air  at  laiiie  dopth    03 

Air  at  depth  of  000  ft«t  00 

WtrUngtit  CtUitty,  CimttrUni. 

Air  at  thaiurfhee    80 

A  iprlngal  iurftiM 48 

Walvr  ttt  dopth  of  180  Aat    M 

Wntor  304  foot  beneath  tho  lurfkoa  ofth*  Irlah 
Hea       00 

7Wm  OflHtrf,  Otaaty  qf  Durham. 
Water  at  turniea      49 


t\9r 


Air  at  tho  lurnice  49 

Water  at  iiirftice 40 

Air  at  depth  of  UOO  (bet  below  the  level  n{  Hie 
■ea,  and  Immodlatoly  under  tho  bud  of  the 

river  Tync  70 

Water  at  laino  depth 08 

Here  Lrillc'a  hygromotor  Indicated  dryneia  — 83 

Jarmt  CW/<*ry,  County  (^  Dnrkam. 

Air  at  the  lurikea  4fl) 

Water  at  iiirlbce 40 

Air  at  depth  of  HHS  feet 70 

Water  at  •anie  depth 68 


Water  at  mnat  dlitant  (brehead  and  ISOO  Airt 

below  lurface 740  F 

Air  at  same  di'plh 77 

At  thIa  depth,  diitilled  water  boiled  at 813 

Whan  at  tur^co  it  boiled  at SjO'S 


The  engine  pit  of  Jarrow  is  the  deepest  perpendicular  shaft  in  Britain,  being  000  feet  to 
the  foot  of  the  pumps,  where  the  temperature  of  the  air  was  64°. 

KUUngwrtA  aUilry,  Mrlkumttrlantt. 

Air  at  iurOice 48°  V 

Water  at  iiirnico 40 

Air  at  bottom  of  ahoft  790  ft!et  doop 31 

Air  at  depth  of  000  fbvt,  and  a  mlla  and  half  fl-om 
bottom  of  down^cait  pit 70 

The  temperature  of  springs  and  caverns,  in  many  places,  coincides  with  the  mean  annual 
temperature  of  the  air :  but  Humboldt  alleges  that,  in  latitudes  above  45°,  the  mean  heat  of 
sorings  and  caves  excecdH  that  of  the  atmosphere.  As  connected  with  this  subject,  Mr. 
Ferguson,  of  Raith,  had  four  largo  thermometers  sunk  in  his  garden,  to  the  respective  depths 
of  1,  2,  4,  and  8  feet,  in  lat  56°  10',  and  50  foot  above  the  sea.  The  stems  and  scales  rose 
above  ground,  and  indicated  tho  following  monthly  mean  temperatures : 


January... 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

Augiiit.  ■ .  ■ 
September . 
October.... 
November . 
December.  ■ 


Mean  of  the  Tear 


1816. 


1  Foot. 


33.00 

33.7 

33.0 

30.7 

40.0 

31.6 

S4.0 

30.0 

31.6 

47.0 

40.8 

33.7 


43.8 


3  Feet. 


36.30 

30,0 

30.7 

38.4 

43.3 

30.0 

33.3 

33.3 

31,3 

40.3 

4:i.e 

40.0 


44.1 


4  Feet. 


40,70 

3U,0 

30.0 

41.4 

43.4 

47.1 

30.4 

30.6 

31.8 

49.7 

46.3 

43.0 


43.1 


8  Foot. 


43.00 

43.0 

43.3 

43.8 

44.0 

43.8 

47.7 

40.4 

30.0 

40.0 

43.0 

40.0 


46.8 


1817. 


1  Foot. 


33.00 

37.0 

39,4 

43.0 

46.8 

31.1 

33.3 

33.4 

33.0 

43.7 

41.0 

33.9 


44.9 


3  Feet. 


38.70 

40.0 

40.3 

43.4 

44.7 

33.0 
33.9 
33.7 
49.4 
44.7 
40.8 


4  Feet. 


40.30 

41.6 

41.7 

43.0 

44.0 

47.8 

31.4 

33.0 

33.0 

40.4 

47.0 

44.9 


43.0 


wa 


8  Foot. 


43.10 

43.7 
49.3 
43.0 
44.3 
47.8 
49.0 
30.0 
30.7 
40.8 
47.0 
46.4 


40.0 


Had  the  thermometers  been  sunk  considerably  deeper,  they  might  have  been  expected  to 
have  indicated  47°  7',  which  is  the  constant  temperature  of  a  neighbouring  spring  issuing 
from  a  trap  rock. 

The  local  temperature  or  climate  of  a  country  depends  very  much  upon  its  distance  iVom 
the  equator,  and  its  height  above  the  level  of  Uie  sea :  but  the  nature  of  the  surface,  tho 
proportion  of  humidity,  tlie  distance  of  the  sea,  of  lakes,  of  mountains,  of  arid  or  frozen 
plains,  and  perhaps,  also,  the  internal  heat  of  the  earth,  have  each  their  share  in  the  fertility 
or  salubrity  of  a  coimtry.  The  decrease  of  heat  as  we  recede  from  the  equator  follows  dif- 
ferent laws  in  the  two  hemispheres,  being  greater  in  the 
southern  than  in  the  northern,  and  is  also  ejected  by  the 
longitude.  On  the  west  of  Europe,  the  cold  increases  less 
wim  the  latitude  than  in  any  otiier  quarter.  Under  meri- 
dians which  are  90°  either  east  or  west  of  London,  the 
increase  of  cold,  as  we  go  northward,  is  mor-  rapid  than  in 
England.  According  to  Humboldt,  continents  and  large 
ads  are  wanner  on  their  western  sides  than  on  the  eastern, 
-J  The  annexed  table  shows  the  mean  temperatures  of  western 
Europe  and  North  America  continued  to  the  equator. 


Lat. 

Old 
World. 

New 
World. 

Diff 

OO 
90 
30 
40 
30 
60 
70 

81J0 

T7.9 

70.7 

63.3 

30.0 

41.0 

33.0 

81J0 
77.9 
67.1 
34.3 
38.3 
t3.0 
0.0 

OO 

0 

3.6 

9.0 
18.6 
16.0 
33.0 

a 

clir 

ThJ 

whil 

inorl 

whil 

the  I 

4l°« 

of] 

norn 

vex  I 


^w^wvw^mmfmmmfiwr 


Pa»,t  II 

d  by  nidintiii  '  i.  o\ 
too  much  ■jruiioroU 

iect  may  bo  soon  in 
firat  number  of  tho 
unary  of  Mr.  Bald'i 

flPF 

«6 

fMkumbtrlanil. 

43 

«i 

)w  tha  lavol  of  the 
dor  tha  bud  of  the 

70 

08 

Icated  drynou  ....83 

ty  1^  Durkam. 

«» 

40 

70 

88 

1.  being  000  feet  to 

ibeid  and  ISOO  liirt 

740F 

77 

boiled  at 913 

8J03 

ith  the  mean  annual 
>°,  tho  mean  licat  of 
th  this  subject,  Mr. 
ho  respcctivo  depths 
:ems  and  scales  rose 


1 

Pcct. 

8  Fttet. 

0.SO 

45.10 

i.e 

48.7 

1.7 

49.3 

U.0 

43.n 

4.0 

44.3 

7.8 

47.8 

1.4 

40.0 

8.0 

SO.O 

1.0 

S0.7 

t.4 

40.8 

1.0 

47,« 

I.U 

40,4 

lit 

40.0 

Book  II. 


METEOROLOGY. 


173 


been  expected  to 
ingr  spring'  issuing 

1  its  distance  from 
)f  the  surface,  tho 
of  arid  or  frozen 
are  in  the  fertility 
quator  follows  dif- 
ng  greater  in  the 
n  elected  by  the 
old  increases  less 
«r.  Under  meri- 
of  London,  the 
OTf  rapid  than  in 
inents  and  large 
an  on  the  ettaierii. 
.tures  of  western 


Isothorrnal  linos  have  been  conaidored  tm  measuring  tho  neat  and  cold  of  the  earth.  Tho 
climato  of  Kaatom  Asia  comes  noaior  to  that  of  Eiuttorn  America  than  of  VV'catom  Eurot)o. 
Thus  tho  latitudus  of  Naples,  Puking,  and  Philaduluhia  aro  rcspcclivr'y  41°,  40°,  ami  4()^, 
whilst  their  mean  tem|)oratures  are  «W,8°,  B4.8°,  anu  ft3.4°.  Such  differences  arc  rendered 
more  seniiblo  when  wo  connect  tho  places  having  tho  same  mean  tom])omturo  by  lines 
which  lluuibuldt  denominates  isothuimal  lines.  Thus,  tho  isothonnal  line  of  00°  F.  traverses 
the  latitude  of  4.'J°  in  Europe,  but  descends  to  lat  80°  in  America;  tho  isothermal  lino  of 
41°  F.  tm8!4eN  from  lat.  60°  in  Europe  to  lat.  48°  in  America:  but  since  Uie  western  const 
of  Nortn  America  is  warmer  than  the  eastern,  tlio  isothermal  lines,  being  traced  round  tlio 
northern  hemisphere,  would  have  concave  summits  at  tho  oast  side  of  both  worlds,  and  con- 
vex  at  tho  west 

Tho  ditforenco  between  the  moan  temperature  of  summer  and  winter  is  nothing  at  tho 
equator,  and  increases  continually  with  tho  latitude.  Dut  the  extreme  difference  of  tho 
seasons  is  comparatively  small  in  Western  Europe,  and  great  where  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  low,  as  on  the  oast  coasts  of  Asia  and  America.  If  wo  draw  a  line  in  a  north- 
cast  direction  from  Bordeaux  to  Warsaw,  and  continue  it  to  tho  Wolga,  in  lat.  05°,  then 
all  places  under  this  line,  at  the  some  elevation,  will  have  nearly  tho  same  summer  tempera- 
ture of  09°  or  70°  P.  Tho  lines  of  equal  winter  teinnerature  decline  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion. Thus  a  straight  lino  drawn  from  Edinburgh  to  Milan,  almost  at  right  angles  to  tlio 
former  line,  would  pass  over  places  which,  if  equally  elevated,  woulc  havo  nearly  tlio  same 
winter  temperature  of  37°  or  38°  F. 

The  extremes  of  temperature  are  experienced  chiefly  in  large  inland  tracts,  and  little  felt 
in  small  islands  remote  from  continents.  In  the  United  States  intense  cold  is  felt  when  tlio 
wind  blows  from  the  frozen  regions  round  Hudson's  Bay.  From  snow-clad  mountums,  gusts 
of  cold  wind,  called  snoio  windt,  rush  down  and  cool  tne  adjacent  plains.  The  heat  accu- 
mulates to  an  astonishing  degree  when  the  wind  passes  over  extensive  deserts  of  burning 
Band,  which  are  said,  in  sbmo  instances  in  Africa,  to  be  heated  to  the  boiling  point.  This 
fine  sand,  or  rather  dust,  sometimes  rises  in  tho  air  and  obscures  it  like  a  fog,  communicating 
to  it  an  intolerable  heat.  In  arctic  countries  tlie  temperature  is  very  much  regulated  by 
the  freezing  of  the  water  and  the  melting  of  tho  ice ;  by  the  freezing  of  tho  water  great 
quantities  of  heat  are  given  out  which  moderate  the  severity  of  the  winter's  cold,  and  thui 
save  from  destruction  Uio  arctic  land  animals,  and  plants ;  while  in  summer,  the  intensity 
of  tho  heat,  produced  by  the  long  continuance  of  the  sun  above  the  horizon,  is  moderated  by 
tlio  abstraction  of  a  considerable  portion  of  that  heat  by  tho  water  during  the  melting  of  the 
ice.  Had  tho  arctic  regions  been  entirely  of  land,  neither  plants  nor  anunals  could  have 
existed  in  them :  for  durbg  summer,  owing  to  the  sun  remaining  above  the  horizon  for 
months,  an  elevation  of  atmospheric  temperature  would  havo  been  produced  fatal  to  animals 
and  plants  ;  and  in  winter,  the  Ions  darkness  and  intense  cold  would  have  proved  equally 
fatal  to  animated  beings.  The  cold  of  tlie  icy  regions  of  the  north  has  been  alleged  to 
reach,  by  currents  of  air,  southern  latitudes,  and  thus  to  lower  their  temperature. 

Baron  Humboldt  has  odded  more  to  our  knowledge  of  tho  distribution  of  temperature  over 
the  globe  than  any  other  who  had  laboured  in  the  same  boundless  field  of  research.  Tho 
table  on  tho  following  page  contains  his  general  summary,  to  which  is  added  Mclvillo 
Island.  The  temperatures  have  been  reduced  to  Fahrenheit's  scale,  and  the  longitudes  are 
reckoned  from  Greenwich.  An  asterisk  is  prefixed  to  those  places  whose  temperatures 
have  been  most  accurately  determined,  and  in  general  bv  means  of  8000  observations. 

In  treating  on  the  mean  annual  temperature  which  ootains  at  different  places,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  give  a  table  which  makes  the  temperature  depend  entirely  on  the  latitude.  But 
observation  shows,  that  the  temperature  is  usually  higher  at  tlie  same  latitude  in  the  old 
world  than  in  the  new,  and  in  north  latitude  than  in  south ;  and,  as  was  already  mentioned, 
it  differs  in  the  same  continent  under  different  meridians.  So  that  more  than  one  table  would 
be  required  for  each  quarter  of  the  globe ;  or  else  one  very  extensive  table,  involving  the 
longitude  as  well  as  latitude,  which  is  the  case  with  Humboldt's  table,  so  far  as  it  goes. 

As  the  earth  and  its  atmosphere  are  continually  receiving  heat  from  the  sun,  it  is  plain 
that  their  mean  annual  temperature  must  be  contmually  on  the  increase,  if  no  heat  be 
tlirown  off  by  them  into  surrounding  space.  Professor  Leslie  accordingly  allege?,  that  tho 
increase  of  temperature  is  at  the  rate  of  about  1°  in  80  years.  This  would  help  to  explain 
some  of  the  changes  of  climate  which  seem  to  have  been  gradually  taking  place  during 
successive  ages  in  manv  places,  and  particularly  in  the  west  of  Europe.  But  the  late  cele- 
brated Marquis  de  la  Place  has  endeavoured  to  show,  from  astronomical  observations,  that 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  earth  has  undergone  no  sensible  change  during  the  last  two 
thousand  years.     His  arguments,  however,  are  not  free  from  objection. 

Sect.  II. — Effect  of  Climate  on  Plants  and  Animals. 
The  geographical  distrihution  of  plants  and  animals  appears  to  be  chiefly  regulated  by  the 
temperature  of  the  atmospherr.    Each  has  generally  a  particular  climate  in  which  it  thrives 
best,  and  beyond  certain  limits  it  ceases  to  exist.    Since  an  increase  of  height  has  an  effect 

15* 


174 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  n. 


on 


t:k^ 


Intlm- 

Ml 

Budi. 

NUMIOfRUM. 

rMltton. 

Mean 
Tempem* 

Mwa  Ttmptnlun  of 

MfuTunpmturaof 

ut 

!«». 

H|bl. 

turaurUM 
Yew. 

WlBltr. 

SprlDf. 

Sum. 
nifr. 

Aulumn. 

WarniMI 
Monlh. 

ColdM 
Mnnlh, 

0 

—35,62 
-11.20 
-  0.58 
+  15,08 

22,10 
7.70 

11.48 
860 

19.58 
6.08 

a 
1 

Molville  lalond  .... 
Nain 

0      1 

74  47 
57    8 
68  30 

46  30 
71    0 
65    3 
63  50 
j9  56 
63  24 
55  45 
60  27 

0       ' 

110  48  w. 

6120W. 
20  47E. 

8  23e. 
25  .We. 
a5  26E. 
20  16  E. 
30  19E. 
10  22E. 
37  32E. 
22  18E 

Feet 
0 
0 

1356 

6390 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
970 
0 

0 

—  2.00 

+26.42 

20.96 

30.38 
32.00 
35.08 
33.26 
38.84 
39.92 
40.10 
40.28 

0 

-31.33 

—  0.60 

0.68 

18.32 
23.72 
11.84 
12.92 
17.06 
23.72 
10.78 
20.84 

0 

—  6.60 
23.90 
24.98 

26.42 
29.06 
27.14 
33.80 
38.12 
35.24 
44.06 
38.30 

0 

33.78 
48.38 
54.86 

44.96 
43.34 
57.74 
M86 
62.06 
61.24 
67.10 
61.88 

o 

—  3.84 
33.44 
27.32 

31.82 
32.08 
35.96 
33.44 
38.66 
40.10 
38.30 
40.64 

0 

39.08 
51.80 
59.54 

46.22 
46.58 
61.52 
62.60 
65.66 
64.94 
70.52 

*Knontekiei   

UMpice  de  St.  Go-, 
thard 

North  Cope 

•Ulea 

•Umea 

•St  Petenburg 

Drontheira 

Moacow 

Abo 

s 

1 
1 

•Upial 

59  51 
59  20 

46  47 
59  55 

47  47 
55  41 

54  17 
51  25 

50  5 

51  32 

47  22 

55  57 

52  14 
46  50 

53  21 
46    5 
46  12 
49  29 

48  12 

17  38E. 

18  3e. 
71    Ow. 
10  48e. 

10  34E. 
12  35E. 

2  46w. 
59  59w. 
14  24E. 

9  53e. 

8  32e. 

3  10w. 
21    2e. 

9  30E. 
6 19w. 

7  2f)E. 
6   8e 

8  28e. 
16  22E. 

0 
0 
0 
0 

3066 

0 

0 

0 

0 

456 

1350 

150 

0 

1876 

0 

1650 

1080 

432 

420 

42.08 
42.20 
41.74 

42.80 

42.98 
45.68 
46.22 
46.94 
49.46 
40.94 
47.84 
47.84 
48.56 
4a92 
49.10 
49,28 
49.28 
50.18 
50.54 

24.98 
25.52 
14.18 

28.78 

28.58 
30.74 
30.86 
39.66 
31.46 
30.38 
29.66 
38.66 
28.76 
32.36 
39.20 
32.00 
34.70 
38.80 
32.72 

39.38 
28.30 
38.84 
39.02 

42.08 
41.18 
45.14 

46.58 
47.66 
44.24 
48.20 
46.40 
47.48 
50.00 
47.30 
48.92 
47.66 
49.64 
51.26 

60.26 
61.88 
68.00 
62.60 

68.46 
62.60 
56.84 
53.06 
68.90 
64.76 
64.04 
58.28 
09.08 
63.32 
59.54 
66.56 
64.94 
67.10 
69.26 

42.80 
43.16 
46.04 
41.18 

42.98 
48.38 
46.22 
48.46 
50.18 
4a74 
48.92 
48.56 
49.46 
50.36 
50.00 
49.82 
60.00 
49.82 
50.54 

02.42 
64.04 
73.40 
66.74 

59.36 
65.66 
5a  10 
65.76 

66.38 
65.66 
59.36 
70.34 
C4.68 
61.16 
67.28 
66.56 
6a72 
70.52 

22.46 
22.82 
13.81 
28.41 

30.20 
27.14 

S4.8S 
37.40 

29.66 
26.78 
38.30 
27.14 
29.48 
35,42 
30,56 
34.16 
33.44 
26.60 

♦Stockholm  

Christiania 

•Convent  of  Peinen- 
berg 

*Copenh(gen 

•Kendal 

Falkland  Islands . . . 

•Prague 

Gottingcii 

•Zurich 

•Edinburgh 

Warsaw 

♦Coiro 

Dublin  

Berne 

•Geneva   

•Manlieim 

Vienna 

a 

1 
1 

•Clermont 

45  46 

47  29 
42  22 

48  50 
51  30 

51  2 
.52  22 
50  50 

52  36 

39  56 

40  40 
39    6 
48  39 
47  13 
39  64 
45  28 
44  50 

3  5e. 

19     lE. 

71    7w. 
220  E. 
0  5w. 
2  22e. 

4  50e. 
4  22f, 
6  22e. 

7510w. 
73  58w. 
8427w. 

2   Iw. 

132w. 
116  27  E. 

9  He. 

0  34w. 

1260 

494 
0 

222 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

510 
0 
0 
0 

390 
0 

50.00 
51.08 
.'JO.30 
61.08 
jO.36 
.50.54 
51.62 
51.80 
51.80 
53.42 
63.78 
53.:9 
51.14 
54.68 
51.86 
55.76 
50.48 

34.52 
33.98 
33.98 
38.66 
39.56 
38.48 
36.86 
36.68 
36.68 
32.18 
29.84 
32.90 
42.26 
40.46 
26.42 
36.32 
42.08 

50.54 
61.08 
47.06 
49.28 
48.66 
48.56 
61.62 
63.24 
61.08 
61.44 
61.26 
54.14 
62.16 
64.iJ0 
56.30 
66.12 
66.48 

64.40 
70.52 
70.70 
64.58 
-3.14 
.i4.04 
65.84 
66.20 
67.28 
73.94 
79.16 
72.86 
66.02 
68.51 
82.58 
73.04 
70.88 

72.50 
75.74 
75.20 
75.02 
82.94 
79.16 

5126 
52.34 
49.82 
51.44 
50.18 
50.90 
51.62 
61.08 
54.32 
66.48 
54..50 
54.86 
53.76 
55.58 
54.32 
56.84 
56.30 

66.20 
71,00 
72.86 
65.30 
64.40 
64.76 
66.92 
67.28 
6908 
77.00 
80.70 
74.30 
66.92 
70.i)2 
84.38 
74.66 
73.04 

28.04 
27.78 
29.84 
36.lt 
37.76 
37.76 
35.42 
35.(;0 
32.90 
32.72 
25,34 
30.20 
41.74 
39.02 
?4.62 
36.14 
41.00 

•Buda 

Cambridge,  Mass. . . 
•Paris 

•London  

Dunkirk 

Amsterdam 

Brussels 

Philadelphia 

Ncvv  York 

•Cincinnati 

Sl  Malo 

Nantes 

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•Milan  

Bordeaux  

ll 

Marseilles 

43  17 
43  36 
41  53 
43    7 
32  45 
31  34 

5  22e. 

3  52e. 
12  27E. 

550  e. 

129  55  E. 

91  24w. 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
180 

59.00 
59.36 
60.44 
62.06 
60.80 
64.76 

45.50 
44.06 
45.86 
48.38 
39.38 
48.56 

57.56 
56.66 
.57.74 
60.80 
67.56 
65.48 

60.08 
60.98 
62.78 
64.40 
64.22 
66.02 

74.66 
',-8.08 
77.00 
77.00 
80,90 
7J.70 

44.42 
4208 
42.26 
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680  to 

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32  37 
36  48 

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0 
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6a54 
69.98 

64.40 
61.52 

65.84 
65.66 

72.50 
80.24 

72.32 
72.50 

75,56 
82.76 

64.04 
60.08 

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72.32 
77.72 
78.08 
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68.46 
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85,82 
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77.90|81.60 
78.98,83.30 
83.66^204 

71.06 
69.981 

•Cumana 

7916J 

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pakt  n. 


Book  IL 


METEOROLOGY. 


MauTMiiiMntttraor 

-,-     W«rn.iii 

Colilnl 

■""•      Monll.. 

Mnnlh. 
0 

0 

3.84    39.08  - 

-35.52 

3.44    51.80 

-11.20 

7.32    69.M 

-  0.68 

1 15.08 

1.82    4G.22 

2.08    40.58 

22.10 

5.96    61.52 

7.70 

3.44    62.60 

11.48 

8.66    65.06 

800 

0.10    64.94 

19.58 

8.30    70.52 

6.08 

0.64    

2.80    62.42 

22.46 

3.16    64.04 

22.82 

6.04    73.40 

13.81 

1.18   66.74 

28.41 

2.98    59.36 

30.20 

8.38    05.66 

27.14 

6.22    58.10 

34.88 

8.46    65.76 

37.40 

0.18    

R74    66.38 

29.06 

8.92    05.66 

20.78 

8.50    59.36 

38.30 

9.40    70.34 

27.14 

)0.30    64.58 

29.48 

)0.00    61.16 

35.42 

19.82    67.28 

30.56 

)0.00    60.50 

34.10 

J9.82    68.72 

33.44 

30.54    70.52 

26.00 
28.04 

)1.26    66.20 

)2.34    71.60 

27.78 

9.82    72.8<) 

29.84 

.1.44    65.30 

30.H. 

0.18    64.40 

37.76 

0.90    64.76 

37.76 

1.62    66.92 

35.42 

1.08    67.28 

35.60 

4.32    69.08 

32.90 

6.4b    77.00 

32.72 

4..50    80.70 

25.34 

4.86    74.30 

30.20 

5.76    60.92 

41.74 

5.58    70.52 

39.02 

1.32    84.38 

94.02 

S.84    74.00 

S0.14 

S.30    73.04 

41.00 

).08    74.66 

44.42 

).98    78.08 

4208 

>.78    77.00 

42.26 

1.40    77.00 

40.40 

1.22    80.90 

37.10 

>.02    7J.70 

46.91 

!.32    75.50 

04.04 

!.50    82.70 

00.08 

.42    85.82 

50.12 

.02    M.8G 

71.06 

1.98    83.84 

09.98 

.24    84.38 

7916 

on  climate  in  some  respects  similar  to  an  increase  of  latitude,  it  has  been  commonly  sup- 
posed that  there  are  properly  no  plants  peculiar  to  high  latitudes,  because  such  may  be  raised 
on  the  mountains  'mder  the  equator,  which  embrace  every  variety  of  climate  between  theu 
summit  and  base,  at  least  in  so  far  as  temperature  is  concerned.  In  point  of  atmospheric 
pressure,  however,  the  two  situations  diiler  essentially ;  and  some  naturalists  allege,  that 
pressure  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  ffrov;th  of  plants.  Professor  Dobereiner  is  of  opinion 
that  the  diminutive  size  of  plants,  in  elevated  situations,  depends  more  on  the  diminution  of 
pressure  tlian  of  temperature.  To  ascerl'iin  this,  he  put  equal  quantities  of  barley  and 
moist  earth  into  two  equal  receivers :  the  air  in  the  one  nad  a  pressure  of  14  inches  of'  mer^ 
cury,  and  the  othbr  56 ;  germination  commenced  in  both  at  the  same  time,  and  the  leaves 
had'  the  some  green  tint.  At  the  end  of  fifteen  days,  the  shoots  in  the  rarefied  air  were  6 
inches  long,  and  in  the  other  from  9  to  10.  The  first  were  expanded  and  soft  and  wet  on 
tlie  surliice,  especially  towards  their  extremities ;  the  others  were  firm,  rolled  round  the  stem, 
and  nearly  dry.  In  some  respects,  this  accords  with  what  Humboldt  observed  of  tlie  trees 
on  the  Andes,  that  water  transpires  from  them  even  in  the  driest  weather.  But  such  expe- 
riments  are  inconclusive,  unless  there  were  some  contrivance  employed  to  renew  the  confined 
air  frequently.  Independently  of  pressure,  the  barley  in  the  condensed  air  hud  the  use  of 
four  times  the  quantity  of  air  in  the  other  vessel. 

Plants  arc  most  numerous,  and  exhibit  the  ^eatest  variety  of  species,  and  the  most  luxu- 
riant growth,  witliin  the  tropics,  beyond  which  they  gradually  diminish.  In  the  arctic 
regions,  and  in  the  north  of  Russia,  the  vegetable  kingdom  has  dwindled  to  almost  nothing. 
The  lines  which  limit  the  growth  of  certain  plants  depend  on  the  average  summer  tempera- 
ture, for  plants  which  require  a  long  and  moderate  heat ;  on  the  temperature  of  the  wannest 
month,  for  those  which  require  a  short  but  great  heat ;  and  on  the  temperature  of  the  coldest 
month,  for  those  which  cannot  bear  cold.  The  transparency  of  the  air  is  also  of  importance 
to  many  plants;  but  our  limits  will  not  admit  of  enlarging,  and  therefore  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  to  a  short  account  of  the  climatps  of  cultivated  plants.  The  plantain,  which  is  a 
primary  article  of  food  in  tropical  America,  requires  a  temperature  firom  88°  to  73°  F., 
which  occurs  between  lat  0°  and  27° :  but,  in  the  equinoctial  zone  (lat  0°  to  I0°),  its  fi-uit 
does  not  ripen  at  a  greater  altitude  than  3300  feet.  The  sugar-cane  has  nearly  the  same 
range,  but  is  cultivated,  though  with  less  advantage,  in  the  old  world  to  lat  36°  5',  where 
the  mean  temperature  is  about  67°.  The  severity  of  the  North  American  winter  prevenfa 
the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  beyond  lat.  31° ;  but  it  succeeds  at  an  altitude  of  5700  feet 
on  the  table-land  of  Mexico.  The  fiivourite  climate  of  the  cotton  plant  lies  between  lat.  0" 
ar,d  34° ;  but  it  succeeds  with  a  mean  summer  heat  of  75°  or  73°  P.,  if  that  of  winter  do 
not  descend  below  36°  or  38°.  In  America,  it  is  cultivated  at  lat.  37° ;  in  Europe,  at  lat.  40° ; 
and  in  Aslracan,  at  lat.  46°.  The  date  palm  thrives  best  between  lat  29°  and  35° ;  but, 
when  sheltered  from  the  north  wind,  it  is  cultivated  on  the  shores  of  Italy  to  lat  44°.  The 
citron  has  nearly  the  same  range,  but  is  cultivated  at  Nice,  at  altitudes  of  400  feet  This 
tree,  with  the  sweet  orange,  grows  in  Louisiana  to  lat  30°,  but  beyond  that  it  is  injured  by 
the  cold.  The  olive  ranges  in  Europe  between  lat.  36°  and  44°  5' ;  it  succeeds  wherever, 
with  a  mean  annual  temperature  from  66°  to  58°  P.,  that  of  summer  is  not  below  71°,  nor 
timt  of  the  coldest  month  below  42°,  wh'ch  excludes  all  North  America  beyond  lat.  34°. 
The  favo'-ite  climate  of  the  vine  in  the  old  world  is  between  lat  36°  and  48° ;  but  it  thrives 
wherever  the  mean  temperature  is  from  02°  to  47.5°,  provided  that  of  w'.iter  is  not  below 
33°,  nor  summer  under  66°  or  68°.  Such  is  the  case  on  the  shores  of  Europe  to  lat,  47°, 
and  in  tlie  interior  to  lat.  50°,  but  only  to  lat  40°  in  North  America.  The  cerealia  or  com- 
mon grain,  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats,  thrive  where  the  mean  annual  temperature 
descends  to  28°  P.,  provided  that  of  summer  rise  to  52°  or  53°.  In  Lapland,  barley 
ripens  wherever  the  mean  temperature  of  summer  "-ises  to  47°  or  48°.  The  rapid  growth 
of  barley  and  oats  adapts  tliem  to  the  short  summers  of  the  north :  they  are  found  as  high 
as  lat  6'iJ°  in  Lapland,  along  with  the  potato.  In  some  parts  of  eastern  Russia,  no  grain 
is  found  beyond  lat.  60°.  Wheat,  which  is  a  precarious  crop,  and  little  cultivated  beyond 
lat  58°  in  western  Europe,  yields  good  returns  in  tliis  part  of  the  temperate  zone,  when 
the  hif  an  heat,  while  the  grain  is  on  the  ground,  is  55° ;  but  if  no  more  than  46°,  none  of 
the  cerealia  come  to  maturity.  These  species  of  grain  are  cultivated  at  a  height  of  3500 
feet  on  the  Alps,  in  lat  46°.  Barley  and  oats  succeed  at  double  that  height  on  Caucasus, 
and  at  almost  a  triple  height  on  the  Andes,  along  with  wheat  and  rye.  In  the  west  of 
Europe,  maize  has  the  same  range  as  the  vine,  but  reaches  farther  north  on  the  east.  In  its 
native  American  soil,  it  forms  the  chief  article  of  food,  from  the  river  Plata  to  the  lakes  of 
Canada.  Recniiring  a  short  but  warm  season  of  four  months,  it  is  well  suited  to  the  climate 
of  the  New  World  up  to  the  latitude  of  45°.  The  oak  ceases  at  lat  63°  in  Norway,  at 
60°  or  61°  in  Pinland,  and  at  57°  in  the  government  of  Perm.  The  pinus  sih  sstris,  or  Scots 
fir,  grows  to  a  height  of  60  feet  in  Lapland,  at  lat  70°,  and  850  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea :  there  the  birch  is  found  at  double  that  elevation.  In  eastern  Russia,  the  larch,  pine, 
birch,  and  mountain-ash,  disappear  about  lat  68° ;  and,  at  Hudson's  Bay,  all  trees  teaso 
fUmtlat60°. 


m 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  U 


Book 


3'  ». 


Sect,  m, — Compoaition  of  the  Atmosphere. — Aqueous  Meteot^. 

Re^rdin^  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere,  abundantly  va;^e  and  fanciful  notions 
prevailed  for  many  ages.  The  ancients  considered  air  as  one  of  the  four  simple  elements, 
of  which  they  supposed  all  other  bodies  to  bo  compounded.  Thtse  were  earth,  air,  Are,  and 
water.  How  for  tho  opinion  was  correct,  which  made  fire  an  element,  is  a  question  on 
which  nothing  is  vet  known ;  but  the  researches  of  modem  chemistry  have  shown  that  tho 
other  three  are  all  compound  bodies.  The  chief,  and  perhaps  the  only  essential,  component 
substances  in  the  atmosphere,  are  the  two  gases  called  oxygen  and  azote ;  its  other  ingro* 
dienta,  occurring  onl^  in  small  and  variable  quantities,  are  rather  to  be  considered  as  foreign 
bodies.  The  analysis  of  air  is  a  difficult  problem.  Many  chemists  ha,ve  found  it  to  consist 
of  21  parts  by  volume  of  oxygen  to  79  of  azote ;  and  this  proTortiou  's  sensibly  the  same 
whether  the  air  be  from  the  polar  or  tropical  regions,  from  the  iovel  of  the  sea  or  a  mountain 
top,  frorti  the  most  healthy  or  insalubrious  countries.  But  Dr.  Prout,  guided  by  the  laws  of 
definitd  proportions,  alleges,  that  if  the  two  gases  of  which  air  princi^ly  consists  be  really 
combined,  they  ought  to  bo  20  oxygen  to  80  azote ;  and  it  must  be  allowed  that  similar 
conjectures  of  the  same  eminent  chemist  have  been  verified  regarding  the  composition  of 
other  bodies,  which  had  apparently  deviated  farther  firom  the  atomic  system. 

The  investigation  of  the  component  parts  of  the  atmosphere  did  not  keep  pace  with  that 
of  its  mechanical  properties.  Boyle,  however,  and  his  cotemporaries,  put  it  beyond  doubt 
thit  it  contained  an  elastic  fluid  and  water  in  the  state  of  va^wur.  They  also  conjectured 
that  it  contained  various  other  substances,  which  rose  fi*om  the  earth  in  the  form  of  vapours, 
and  often  altered  its  properties,  rendering  it  noxious  or  fatal.  Since  the  discovery  of  car- 
bonic acid  by  Dr.  Black,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  this  elastic  .  uid  always  constitutes  a 
part,  though  a  very  minute  one,  of  the  atmosphere. 

Witlj  resp^-M  to  moisture,  or  the  state  in  which  water  exists  in  air,  two  opinions  have 
been  formed :  1.  Water  may  be  dissolved  in  air,  in  the  same  manner  as  salt  is  held  in  solu< 
tion  by  water ;  2.  It  may  be  mixed  with  air  in  the  state  of  steam  or  vapour,  after  having 
been  converted  into  vopour.  The  first  of  these  was  hinted  at  by  Dr.  Hooke,  and  afterwards 
prAposed  by  Dr.  Ilalley.  It  has  been  a('ipted  by  many  others  ]•  ..uccession,  among  whom 
IS  Professor  Leslie ;  and  it  cannot  be  don  .d  that  many  of  the  phenomena  agree  with  that 
theory.  The  second  opinion  seems  to  have  originated  with  Mr,  Deluc ;  but  it  is  to  Mr. 
Dalton  and  M.  Gay  Lussac  that  we  arc  indebted  for  subjecting  this  theory  to  tlie  test  of 
experiment. 

Evajwration  from  tiie  waters  on  the  surfiice  of  the  earth  is  undoubtedly  the  source  whence 
the  moisture  which  exists  in  air  is  derived.  Accordingly  we  find  that  water  exposed  to  the 
air  suffers  a  gradual  diminution  of  bulk,  till  it  entirely  disappears.  It  is  then  said,  in  com- 
nion  language,  to  have  dried  up,  or  to  have  evaporated.  Under  an  exhausted  receiver,  water 
diminishes  even  more  rapidly  than  in  the  open  air.  Were  this  owing  to  solution,  the  very 
reverse  ought  to  follow ;  because,  in  place  of  vapour  being  caused  by  the  presence  of  air,  it 
goes  on  more  rapidly  in  its  absence.  By  comparing  a  set  of  experiments  made  at  Geneva, 
with  a  similar  set  on  the  Col-du-Geant,  J  0,950  feet  higher,  Saussure  found  that,  supposing 
the  temperature  and  dryness  of  tho  air  the  same  at  both  places,  the  evaporation  at  tlie  upper 
would  be  to  that  at  the  lower  nearly  as  7  to  3 ;  so  that  a  diminution  of  about  one  third  in 
the  density  of  the  air  more  than  doubled  the  rate  of  evaporation.  It  is  well  known,  that 
cold  is  always  generated  during  spontaneous  evaporation ;  that  is  to  say,  that  water,  as  it 
disappears,  carries  off  a  quantity  of  heat  Dr.  Black  has  rendered  it  probable,  that  the 
quantity  of  heat  which  disappears  during  spontaneous  evaporation  is  as  great  as  that  which 
is  required  to  form  water  into  steam.  A  wet  body  is  always  cooled  by  exposure  to  dry  ai\, 
owing  to  tiie  evapo,  ation  from  its  surface.  Hence,  in  warm  countries,  liquors  are  cooled  by 
wrapping  wet  cloths  round  the  bottles  and  exposing  tliem  to  the  air.  M.  Saussure  observed, 
that  the  evaporation  from  the  surfiice  of  melting  snow  caused  it  to  freeze  again,  when  the 
temperature  of  the  air  was  4°  or  5"  above  the  freezing  point.  The  simplest  mode  of  illus- 
trating the  cooling  influence  of  evaporation,  is  to  cover  the  ball  of  a  thermometer  with  wet 
cloth  and  expose  it  to  the  air,  when  it  will  be  found  to  indicate  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
cold.  This,  it  is  true,  does  not  take  place  if  tlie  air  be  very  damp,  oeciusp  there  is  then  no 
evaporation.  Wind  tends  to  promote  evaporation,  both  by  communicating  its  heat  to  the 
colder  evaporating  surface,  and  also  by  sweeping  away  the  vapour  as  it  is  formed.  On  the 
contrary,  there  is  scarcely  any  evaporation  in  perfectly  still  air,  unless  some  substance  bo 
present  which  absorbs  the  vapour  as  it  forms. 

On  this  prhiciple,  Professor  Leslie  contrived  an  elegant  mode  of  producing  ice  in  any  cli- 
mate. A  cup  with  water  is  placed  within  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  along  with  some 
substance  which  absorbs  the  vapour.  The  rate  of  evaporation  is  then  increased  in  an  aston- 
ishing degree,  by  exhausting  the  air  fVom  the  receiver ;  and  the  portion  of  the  water  which 
is  converted  into  vapour  abstracts  so  much  heat  from  the  remainder,  that  the  latter  is  speea- 
ily  converted  into  ice. 

Dew  is  a  remarkable  product  of  atmospheric  moisture.    The  quantity  of  aaueous  vapour 


wliicli 
wheth 
is  alwt 
is  big! 
tempei 
falls. 


Pakt  U 


iciful  notionn 
pie  elements, 
,  air,  fire,  and 
I  question  on 
lown  that  tho 
il,  com{>onsnt 
s  othev  ingro- 
red  as  forei^ 
d  it  to  consist 
bly  the  same 
or  a  mountain 
y  the  laws  of 
sists  be  really 
d  that  similar 
;omposition  of 

Mice  with  that 
beyond  doubt 
0  conjectured 
•m  of  vapours, 
:overy  of  car- 
9  constitutes  a 

opinions  have 
i  held  in  solu- 
,  after  having 
nd  afterwards 
among  whom 
free  with  that 
lit  it  is  to  Mr. 
to  the  test  of 

oiirce  whence 

posed  to  the 

said,  in  com- 

ceiver,  water 

tion,  the  veiy 

nee  of  air,  it 

lo  at  Geneva, 

lat,  supposing 

at  tlie  upper 

one  iliird  in 

known,  that 

water,  as  it 

ble,  that  the 

is  that  which 

re  to  dry  ai\, 

ore  cooled  by 

uro  obscrveo, 

in,  when  the 

lode  of  illus- 

ter  with  wet 

S3  degree  of 

re  is  then  no 

heat  to  the 

ed.    On  the 

substance  bo 

;e  in  any  cii« 
with  some 
in  an  aston- 
water  which 
tor  is  speea- 

leous  vapour 


Book  IT. 


METEOROLOGY. 


177 


wliich  can  exist  in  a  given  space,  as  a  cubic  fbot,  is  pretty  generally  believed  to  be  the  same, 
whether  there  be  air  present  in  the  space,  or  nothing  but  the  vapour  alone.  The  quantity 
is  always  (cat,  par.)  the  same  at  the  same  temperature,  but  it  is  great'T  as  the  temperature 
is  higher ;  and  therefore,  supposing  the  space  to  be  sa  arated  with  vapour  at  a  particular 
temperature,  a  portion  of  this  will  return  into  drops  t/  water  whenever  the  temperature 
iklls.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  a  cold  body,  such  as  a  bottl.*  of  liquor,  being  carried  into  a 
warm  moist  apartment,  becomes  bedewed  on  tho  outside,  till,  perhaps,  the  water  trickles 
down  its  sides.  th:3  contact  of  tho  cold  surface  chills  the  air,  A\iilch  in  return  deposits  a  por- 
tion of  its  moisture.  Now  this  is  similar  to  the  mode  in  which  moisture  is  insensibly  depo- 
sited from  the  atmosphere  on  bodies  at  the  earth's  surface,  and  which  is  known  by  the  name 
of  dew.  All  bodies,  nlaccd  in  still  air  and  exposed  to  the  aspect  of  a  clear  sky,  are  found  to 
become  colder  than  they  would  be  if  some  screen  or  awning  were  interposed  between  them 
and  the  sky.  In  such  circumstances,  bodies  often  become  much  colder  than  the  surrounding 
uir,  which,  if  sufficiently  moist,  deposits  on  them  a  portion  of  its  moisture  or  dew.  When 
the  temperature  is  low,  the  dew  is  frozen,  and  forms  hoar  frost. 

The  radiation  of  heat  also  deserves  notice.  About  the  commencement  of  tlie  present 
century.  Professor  Leslie  discovered  that  bodies  possess  very  different  powers  of  radiating 
hea^;  h  d  that  this  depends  on  the  nature  and  condition  of  their  surfaces.  Metals  possess 
Lhij  quality  in  a  degree  inforior  to  vitreous  bodies,  and  it  is  diminished  in  all  of  them  by 
polishing  the  surface.  Most  fibrous  and  filamentorip  vegetable  substances  are  goofl  radiators, 
as  are  likewise  bodies  in  general  which  are  bad  conductors  or  bad  reflectors  of  heat.  Now 
the  degrees  of  cooling,  whi'-h  different  bodies  undergo  when  exposed  together  to  the  aspect 
of  the  sky,  is  observed  to  follow  the  same  order  as  that  of  their  radiating  powers ;  an''.,  of 
course,  the  order  in  which  they  begin  to  acquire  dew,  as  also  the  quantity  acquired,  is  regu- 
lated by  a  similar  law,  as  will  be  seen  from  what  follows. 

For  tlie  investigation  of  the  causes  of  dew  we  are  chiefly  indebted  to  the  late  ingenious 
Dr.  Wells.  The  ancients  maintained,  that  dew  appears  only  on  calm  and  clear  nights.  Dr. 
Weils  found  that,  m  oppoelte  circumstances,  very  little  is  ever  deposited,  and  that  little  only 
when  the  clouds  are  very  high.  Dew  never  occurs  in  nights  both  cloudy  and  windy ;  and 
if  in  the  course  of  tl  e  night,  the  weather,  from  being  sorene,  should  become  dark  and  stormy, 
dev  which  had  been  deposited  will  disappear.  In  calm  weather,  more  dew  will  appear  if 
tlie  sky  be  partially  covered  with  clouds,  than  if  it  were  quite  clear.  It  often  happens,  that 
even  before  sunset,  dew  begins  to  adhere  to  grass  in  spots  which  are  sheltered  from  both  sun 
am  wind ;  for,  in  clear  weather,  such  spots  suffer  much  from  the  chilling  aspect  of  the  sky, 
an !  mny  often  continue  to  acquire  dew  during  the  whole  night,  and  for  some  time  after  sun- 
rise The  quantity  of  dev/  depends  on  tiie  moistness  of  the  air,  being  greater  after  rain  than 
after  iong-continued  dry  weather.  It  -s  more  abundant,  in  Europe,  with  southerly  and  west- 
erly winds,  than  with  those  which  blow  from  the  opposite  points.  The  reason  of'^this  seems 
to  be  tho  direction  of  the  sea  rendering  the  wind  moist ;  for,  in  Egypt,  dew  rarely  occurs 
unless  the  wind  come  from  the  sea.  But  with  a  soutlierly  wind,  which  hns  passed  along  the 
floods  of  the  Nile,  dew  is  usually  observed  in  the  Delta  five  or  six  days  before  the  inunda- 
tion. After  a  long  period  of  drought,  Dr.  Wells  exposed  to  the  clear  sky;  28  minutes  before 
sunset  in  a  calm  evening,  known  weights  of  wool  and  swan-down,  upon  a  smootli,  unpainted, 
dry  fir  table  about  3  feet  in  height,  and  which  had  been  placed  an  hour  before  in  the  sun- 
shine in  a  large  grass  field.  At  12  minutes  after  sunset  the  wool  was  11'  colder  than  the 
air,  but  had  gained  no  weight.  The  swan-down  was  13°  colde,  l!  .:  th(j  aii,  but  had  got  no 
additional  weight;  nor  was  it  any  heavier  at  the  end  of  20  minutes  longt;r,  but  it  had  then 
become  14^''  colder  than  the  air ;  whilst  the  grass  was  15°  colder  than  Sie  air  4  feet  above 
ground. — From  these,  and  many  similar  experiments.  Dr.  Wells  concluded  that  bodies  be- 
come colder  than  the  neighbouring  air  before  they  are  dewed. — He  bent  a  sheet  of  paste- 
board into  the  form  of  a  penthouse,  making  the  angle  of  flexure  90°,  and  1  saving  both  ends 
open.  This  was  placed  one  evenini^,  with  its  ridgo  uppermost,  ujwn  a  grass-plat,  and,  as 
nearly  as  could  be  guessed,  in  the  direction  of  the  v/ind.  On  the  middle  of  the  spot  of  grass 
sheltered  by  the  roof,  was  placed  10  grains  of  wool,  and  an  equal  quantity  on  a  spot  of  the 
grass  fully  exposed  to  the  sky.  In  the  morning,  the  first  10  grains  were  only  2  grains 
heavier,  whilst  the  other  had  gained  16.  The  wool  does  not  here  acquire  moisture  from  the 
grass  by  capillary  attraction,  for  the  same  effect  happens  if  it  be  placed  in  a  saucer ;  nor  is  it 
by  hygrometric  attraction,  for  in  a  cloudy  night,  wool  placed  on  an  elevated  board  scarcely 
gained  any  weight. 

The  quantity  of  dew  varies  according  to  circumstances.  When  wool  is  placed  upon  a  bad 
conductor  of  l^eat,  as  a  deal  board,  a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  it  will  become  colder  and 
acquire  more  dew  than  if  laid  on  the  grass.  At  the  windward  end  of  the  board,  it  is  less 
bedewed  than  at  the  sheltered  end ;  because,  in  the  former  case,  the  wind  keeps  up  tha 
tempeiature  nearer  to  that  of  the  atmosphere.  Rough  and  porous  surfaces,  as  shavings  of 
wood,  straw,  &c.,  take  more  dew  than  smooth  and  solid  bodies.  Raw  bUk  and  fine  cotton 
collect  moro  than  even  wool.  Glass,  being  a  good  radiator  of  heat,  is  much  more  quickly 
coated  with  dew  than  bright  metals,  which,  indpcv,  receive  it  more  readily  than  many  other 

Vol.  I.  X 


wm/''^' 


.78 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  II 


bodies.  This  circumstance  has  given  rise  to  the  strange  idea  that  metals  absorb  dew,  tliouffh 
they  be  the  most  compact  bodies  known.  If  we  coat  a  piece  of  glass  partially  with  bright 
tin-foil,  or  silver  leaf,  the  uncovered  portion  of  the  glass  quickly  becomes  cold  by  radiation, 
on  exposure  to  a  clear  nocturnal  sky,  and  acquires  moisture ;  which,  beginning  on  those 
parts  most  rCinote  from  the  metal,  gradually  approaches  it.  Thus,  also,  if  we  coat  a  part  of 
the  outside  of  a  window-pane  with  tin-foil  m  a  clear  night,  then  moisture  will  be  deposited 
inside,  on  every  part  but  that  opposite  to  the  metal ;  bat  if  the  metal  be  inside,  then  the 
outside  of  the  coated  part  of  the  pone  will  be  sooner  and  more  copiously  bedewed.  In  the 
first  case,  the  tin-foil  prevents  the  gla^  under  it  fVom  dissipating  its  heat,  and  therefore  i; 
can  receive  no  dew ;  in  the  second  case,  tlie  tin-foil  prevents  the  part  of  the  glass  which  it 
coatB  from  receiving  the  cctiorific  influence  of  the  apartment,  and  hence  it  is  sooner  cooled 
on  the  outside  than  the  rest  of  the  pane.  When  the  night,  after  having  been  clear,  becomes 
cloudy,  though  there  be  no  change  with  respect  to  calmness,  a  rise  in  the  temperature  of  the 
gloss  always  ensues.  In  clear  nights  the  temperature  always  ialls,  but,  unless  the  air  be 
sufficiently  inoist,  dew  does  not  necessarily  follow ;  from  which  it  is  evident,  that  the  cold 
cannot  be  the  effect  of  dew.  For  a  more  particular  account  of  these  interesting  phenomena, 
we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Dr.  Wells's  elegant  Essay  on  Deia. 

Clouds.  The  various  forms  of  clouds  were  first  successfully  attempted  to  be  arranged 
imder  a  few  general  modifications  by  Mr.  Luke  Howard,  and  published  in  the  16th  aqd  17th 
vols,  of  the  PMlosoph.  Magazine,  The  modifications  of  clouds  is  a  term  used  to  express  the 
structure  or  manner  of  aggregation,  in  which  the  influence  of  certain  constant  laws  is  suf- 
ficiently evident  amidst  the  endless  subordinate  diversities  resulting  from  occasional  causes. 
Hence  the  principal  modifications  are  as  distinguishable  from  each  other,  as  a  tree  from  a 
hill,  or  the  latter  from  a  lake ;  although  clouds,  in  the  same  modification,  compared  with 
each  other,  have  often  only  the  common  resemblance  which  exists  among  trees,  hills,  and 
lakes,  taken  generally. 

There  are  three  simple  and  distinct  modifications,  which  are  thus  named  and  defined  by 
Mr.  Howard: — 

(1.)  Cirrus.  A  cloud  resemb'ing  a  lock  of  hair  or  a  feather.  Parallel,  flexous,  or  diverge 
ing  fibres,  unlimited  in  their  ex'.ent  or  direction. 

(2.)  Cumulus.    A  cloud  which  increases  from  above  in  dense  convex  or  conical  heaps. 

(3.)  lilratus.    An  extende<l  continuous  level  sheet  of  cloud,  increasing  from  beneath. 

There  are  two  modificatiors  which  appear  to  be  of  an  intermediate  nature :  these  are— 

(4.)  Cirro-cumulus.  A  r  onnected  system  of  small  roundish  clouds,  in  close  order  or 
contact 

(5.)  Cirro-stratus.  A  horzontal  or  slightly  inclined  sheet,  attenuated  at  its  circumference, 
concave  dc-.vnward,  or  undiilated.     Groups  or  patches  have  these  characters. 

There  are  two  modifications  which  exhibit  a  compound  structure,  viz. : — 

(6.)  Onmulo-stratus.  A  cloud  in  which  the  structure  of  the  cumulus  is  mixed  with  that 
of  the  cirro-stratus  or  cirro-cumulus.  The  cumulus  flattened  at  top.  and  overhanging  its 
base. 

(7.)  Nimbus.  A  dense  cloud  spreading  out  into  a  crown  of  cirrus,  and  passing  beneath 
into  a  shower. 

Regarding  the  mode  in  which  clouds  are  suspended  in  the  air,  philosophers  are  not  agreed. 
About  the  commencement  of  the  last  century,  it  was  supposed  that  the  aqueous  particles  of 
clouds  were  in  the  form  of  hollow  shells,  specifically  lighter  than  the  air  in  which  they  float 
But  as  no  evidence  or  probability  coulJ  be  adduced  in  fiivour  of  this  theory,  it  'las  given 
place  to  other  speculations ;  and,  at  present  many  consider  the  suspension  of  cIouu.t  as  an 
electrical  phenomenon.  On  attentively  observing  the  forms  of  clouds,  it  will  be  found  Iha* 
they  have  a  tendency  to  assume  one  or  other  of  the  seven  distinct  modifications  above  men- 
tioned ;  the  peculiar  characters  of  which  may  be  discovered  in  all  the  endless  configurations 
exhibited  by  clouds  under  different  circumstances.  It  may  be  observed  farther,  that  the 
most  indefinite  and  shapeless  masses  of  clouds,  if  attentively  watched,  will  sooner  or  later 
show  a  tendency  to  assume  the  form  of  some  of  these  modifications ;  a  circ umst-'.nce  which 
shows  not  only  «;heir  distinct  nature,  but  ako  proves  that  there  are  some  general  causes,  as 
yet  undiscovered,  why  aqueous  vapour,  suspended  in  the  air,  should  assume  certain  definable 
and  constant  modifications. 

A  more  minute  description  of  the  formation  and  changes  of  the  clouds,  and  of  the 
prognostics  of  the  weather  to  be  deduced  from  their  peculiar  appearances,  shall  now  be 
attempted. 

The  cirrus  or  curl-cloud*  may  be  distinguished  from  every  other  by  the  lightness  of  its 
nature,  its  fibrous  structure,  and  the  great  and  perpetually  changing  variety  of  figures  \yhich 
it  presents  to  the  eye.  It  is  generally  the  most  elevated  of  clouds,  occupying  the  higher 
regions  of  the  atmosphere.    As  this  cloud,  under  different  circumstances,  presents  consider- 


*  This,  and  the  other  additsona! 
F'>nter. 


..UU 


iiaiiioa  u'y  va*  xiioiuu 


in  fir'' 


Part  II 

b  dew,  though 
y  with  bright 
1  by  radiation, 
ling  on  those 
coat  a  part  of 
.  be  deposited 
side,  then  the 
iwed.  In  the 
id  therefore  i; 
glass  which  it 
I  sooner  cooled 
clear,  becomes 
peratureof  the 
ess  the  air  be 
,  that  the  cold 
nq  phenomena, 

o  be  arranged 
5 16th  aqd  17th 
to  express  the 
int  laws  is  suf- 
sasional  causes. 
s  a  tree  from  a 
compared  with 
trees,  hills,  and 

and  defined  by 

sous,  or  diverg- 

)nical  heaps, 
am  beneath. 
! :  these  are- 
close  order  or 

circmnference, 


nixed  with  that 
loverhanging  its 

ssing  beneath 

.  are  not  agreed, 
[ous  particles  of 
^hich  they  float 
Iry,  it  '^as  given 
of  clouci.^  as  an 
11  be  founa  Iha* 
Ions  above  men- 
_  configurations 
Irther.  that  the 
[sooner  or  later 
imst-'.nce  which 
-leral  causes,  as 
[ertain  definable 

ds,  and  of  the 
shall  now  be 

llightness  of  its 
If  figures  which 
ling  the  higher 
Esents  consider- 

liei  by  B«-  TuuiuuS 


Book  IL 


METEOROLOGY. 


170 


ablo  varieties  of  appearances,  it  will  be  proper  to  consider  these  separately,  with  reference 
to  the  particular  kind  of  weather  in  which  they  prevail.  After  a  continuaiico  of  clear  fine 
weather,  a  whitish  line  of  cloud  may  oflen  be  observed  at  a  ^reat  height,  like  a  white 
thread  stretched  across  the  sky,  the  ends  seemuig  lost  in  each  horizon :  this  is  often  the  first 
indication  of  a  change  to  wet  weather.  To  this  line  of  cirrus,  others  are  added  laterally, 
and  sometimes,  as  it  were,  propagated  from  the  sides  of  the  line  in  an  oblique  or  transverse 
direction ;  the  whole  having  the  appearance  of  net-work.  At  oth-jr  times  the  lines  become 
madually  denser;  descend  lower  in  the  atmosphere;  and,  uniting  with  others  below,  pro> 
duce  rain  without  exhibiting  the  above-mentioned  transverse  reticulations.  The  above- 
described  varieties  of  cloud,  Uiough  composed  of  straight  lines,  are  ranged  under  the  general 
head  of  cirrus,  from  their  resemblance  to  this  cloud  when  it  appears  under  curved  and  con- 
torted forms.  The  comoid  cirrus,  popularly  known  under  the  name  of  the  grey  mare's  tail, 
is  the  proper  cirrus.  It  somewhat  resembles  a  distended  lock  of  white  hair,  or  a  bunch  of 
combed  wool,  and  from  this  it  got  the  name  comoid.  It  usually  occurs  in  variable  weather, 
and  is  reckoned  a  precursor  of  wind  and  rain.  In  changeable  weather  it  varies  considerably 
in  a  few  hours ;  but  when  the  fibres  have  a  constant  direction  to  the  same  point  of  the  com- 
pass for  any  considerable  time,  a  gale  of  wind  generally  springs  up  from  that  quarter. 
During  warm  changeable  weather,  when  there  are  li^M  breezes  of  wmd,  long  and  obliquely 
descending  bands  of  cirrus  are  often  observed  in  the  air,  and  sometimes  seem  to  connect 
distant  clouds.  Frequently,  by  means  of  the  interposition  of  these  cirri  between  a  cumulus 
and  some  other  cloud,  as,  for  instance,  cirro-stratus,  the  cumulo-stratus,  and  ultimately  the 
nimbus  or  ram-cloud,  is  formed.  The  cirrus,  when  attentively  examined,  is  found  to  be  in 
constant  motion,  not  merely  changing  its  form,  but  often  exhibiting  an  internal  commotion 
in  the  substance  of  the  cloud,  especially  in  the  larger  end  of  it  Every  particle  seems  alive 
and  in  motion,  while  the  whole  mass  scarcely  changes  its  place.  This  motion,  on  a  minute 
examination,  often  appears  to  consist  of  the  fibres  which  compose  the  cirrus,  gently  waving 
to  and  from  each  other ;  frequently,  however,  it  seems  like  minute  specks  all  in  commotion. 
This  takes  place  more  frequently  in  those  large  and  lofty  ctm,  with  rounded  heads  and 
long  pointed  tails,  so  common  in  dry  winds  during  summer  and  autumn. 

The  formation  of  the  cumulus  is  best  viewed  in  fine  settled  weather,  about  sunrise 
or  a  little  after.  Small  specks  of  cloud  are  seen  here  and  there  in  the  atmosphere.  These 
seem  to  be  the  result  of  small  gatherings  of  the  stratus  or  evening  mist,  which  rising  in  the 
morning  grows  into  small  masses  of  cloud,  whilst  the  rest  of  the  sky  becomes  clearer.  About 
sunrise  these  clouds  increase ;  two  or  more  of  them  unite,  till  a  large  cloud  l)e  formed,  which, 
assuming  a  cumulated  and  irregularly  hemispherical  shape,  has  received  the  name  of  cumulus 
or  slackcn-cloud.  This  is  properly  the  cloud  of  day,  as  it  usually  subsides  in  the  evening 
by  retracing  the  steps  of  its  formation  in  the  morning.  It  separates  into  small  fhigments 
ai.d  evaporates,  giving  place  to  the  stratus  or  fall-cloud,  which  is  therefore  styled  the  cloud 
of  night. 

Some  varieties  in  the  forms  of  the  cumulus  deserve  particular  notice,  as  they  are  sup- 
posed to  be  connected  with  electrical  phenomena.  The  hemispherical  form  is  more  perfect 
in  fir*"  .lan  in  changeable  weather.  When  such  well-formed  cumuli  prevail  during  many 
successive  days,  the  weather  is  settled,  and  the  electrometer  pretty  steady  in  its  indications. 
They  are  whitish  coloured,  and  when  opposed  to  the  sun  reflect  a  silvery  light  Cumuli 
which  occur  during  intervals  between  showers  are  more  fleecy,  and  variable  in  form  and 
colour.  Sometimes  they  arc  blackish,  and  may  at  any  time  increase  till  they  obscure  the 
sky,  "r  assume  the  form  of  the  twain-cloud  or  cumulo-stratus. 

The  stratus  or  fall-cloud  comprehends  fogs,  and  all  those  creeping  mists  which,  towards 
evening,  fill  the  valleys,  and  disappear  in  the  morning.  The  cumuli  which  have  prevailed 
during  a  hot  summer's  day  decrease  towards  evening,  and  by  degrees  tJiere  is  formed  a 
white  mist  near  the  ground,  increasing  in  density  till  midniffht  or  even  till  morning,  and 
generally  disappearing  after  sunrise.  In  autumn,  this  cloud  sometimes  lasts  lonp^er  in  the 
morning.  In  winter  it  becomes  still  more  dense,  and  sometime?  continues  a  who  »  day  or 
many  successive  days.  A  remarkable  instance  of  this  occurred  in  January,  1814,  when  a 
dense  fog  prevailed  for  about  a  fortnight  extending  over  a  great  part  of  the  south  and  west 
of  England.  It  was  particularly  felt  at  London,  where  the  stagnation  and  subsidence  of 
the  smoke  more  than  doubled  the  dismal  visitation.  The  stratus  is  often  positively  electrified, 
and  its  component  parts  do  not  wet  leaves  or  othei  substances  connected  with  the  earth. 
On  this,  however,  it  may  be  remarked  that  dry  bodies,  which  continue  warmer  than  the  fog, 
must  remain  dry  on  the  ordinary  principles  of  evaporation.  The  stratus  may  be  distin- 
guished from  some  varieties  of  cirro-stratus  which  resemble  it  by  the  circumstance  that  tho 
latter  wets  every  object  it  alights  on. 

The  cirro-cumulus  or  sonder-cloud  is  subject  to  some  variations  in  the  size  and  figure 
of  the  orbicular  masses  of  wliich  it  is  composed,  and  in  their  distanns  from  each  oUier. 
About  the  time  of  tliunder  storms,  the  component  parts  rrc  denser  in  their  structure,  rounder 
in  their  tbim,  and  closer  together  than  usual.    This  has  besn  frequently  noticed  by  poeu  at 


180 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartII 


a  prognostiQ  of  thunder  and  tempestuous  weather.  In  rainy  changeable  weather,  tliis  cloud 
has  a  liglit  fleecy  texture,  and  is  very  irregular  in  the  form  of  its.  component  parts;  so  that  it 
tlien  apprc^ciies  to  the  form  of  the  cirro-stratus.  Sometimes,  indeed,  it  consists  of  nebecula, 
90  small  and  li^ht  coloured  aa  to  be  scarcely  discernible.  In  fine  summer  weather,  the  cirro- 
cumulus  is  neither  so  dense  as  the  stormy  variety,  nor  so  light  as  the  one  last  described ;  itu 
parts  vary  in  size,  and  in  their  proximity.  During  fine  dry  weather  with  light  breezes,  small 
detachments  of  cirro-cumulus  rapidly  form  and  suDside,  which  do  not  lie  in  one  plane ;  but 
their  arrangement  is  commonly  horizontal.  The  cirro-cumulus  sometimes  commences  in  the 
clear  sky.  At  other  times  the  cirrus,  the  cirro-stratus,  or  some  other  cloud,  changes  into 
cirro-cumulus,  and  vice  versd.  In  summer,  this  cloud  forebodes  heat :  in  winter,  the  break- 
inrr  up  of  frost,  and  mild  wet  weather. 

The  cirro-stratus  is  remarkable  for  its  shallowness,  compared  with  its  horizontal  extent; 
so  that  when  any  other  cloud  assumes  this  form,  it  seldom  fails  to  end  in  a  cirro-stratus. 
This  clo^d  is  constantly  changing  its  form,  and  gradually  subsiding ;  hence  it  has  been 
called  the  wane-cloud.  There  are  many  varieties  in  its  figure ;  sometimes  it  is  disposed 
in  waving  bars  or  streaks,  varying  almost  infinitely  in  size  and  shape.  A  flat  horizontal 
cloi' J,  consisting  of  such  streaks,  frequently  occurs  during  changeable  summer  weather ;  its 
burs  i.r(!  f^enprally  confused  in  the  middle,  but  more  distinct  towards  the  edges.  A  variety 
of  tliis  sort  constitutes  what  is  called  the  mackerel-back  sky.  It  is  often  very  high  in  the 
atmosphere,  as  is  proved  from  its  still  appearing  high  when  viewed  firom  tlic  top  of  a  lofly 
monutiiin.  The  cumulus,  on  the  contrary,  may  be  seen  on  a  level  with,  or  even  lower  than, 
thy  obsrrver.  The  cirro-stratus  often  appears  in  the  form  of  a  long  plain  streak,  tapering 
towards  the  extremities.  Sometimes  such  a  figure  seems  to  alight  on  tlie  cumulo-ntretus; 
rnd,  ia  these  cases,  the  density  of  the  latter  increases  in  proportion  as  the  former  alterra.lely 
K.r^puars  and  evaporates  again  on  its  summits.  The  usual  result  is  the  formation  of  the 
.nimbus,  and  a  fall  of  rain.  Another  principal  variety  of  the  cirro-stratus  consists  of  small 
row'j . ''  ''tie  clouds,  curved  in  a  peculiar  manner:  it  is  called  the  cymoid  cirro-stratus,  and 
is  a  su..-  indication  of  approaching  storms.  Tiie  last  variety  of  this  clo!-d  which  we  shall 
now  notice,  is  that  large  and  shallow  veil  of  cloud  which  covers  a  largo  portion  of  the  sky, 
particularly  towards  night,  and  through  which  the  sun  and  moon  are  indistinctly  seen. 
Those  peculiar  refiracUons  of  the  light  of  these  luminaries,  called  halos  and  mock  suns, 
usually  appear  in  this  cloud.  These  are  the  most  certain  signs,  yet  known,  of  approachuig 
rain  or  snow. 

The  cumulo-stratus  or  twain-cloud  is  a  stage  towards  the  production  of  rain,  and  is  fre- 
quently formed  in  the  following  manner : — The  cumulus  which  usually  passes  along  in  tlie 
wind,  seems  retarded  in  its  progress,  grows  denser,  spreads  out  laterally  till  it  overhangs 
the  base  in  dark  and  irregular  protuberances.  This  change  often  takes  place  in  all  the 
cumuli  which  are  near  to  each  other ;  their  bases  unite,  whilst  the  superstructure  remains 
asunder,  lising  up  like  so  many  mountain  summits,  or  masses  of  rocks.  The  cumulo-strati, 
in  which  hail  showers  and  thunder  storms  occur,  look  extremely  black  and  menacing  before 
the  rain  commences.  Sometimes  the  cumulo-stratus  evaporates,  or  changes  again  to  camul(^, 
but  it  oftener  ends  in  the  nimbus  and  rain. 

The  nimbus  remains  to  be  described ;  a  cloud  which  always  precedes  the  fall  of  rain, 
snow,  or  hail.  Any  of  the  others  above  described  may  increase  so  much  as  to  obscure  the 
sky,  without  ending  in  rain,  before  which  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  rain-cloud  may 
always  be  distinguished.  The  best  way  of  obtaining  a  clear  idea  of  the  formation  of  the 
nimbus  or  rain-cloud  is  to  observe  a  distant  shower  in  profile,  from  its  first  formation  to  its 
fell  in  rain.  The  cumulus  seems  first  arrested  in  its  progress :  then  a  cirrus  or  cirro-stratus 
may  appear  to  alight  on  the  top  of  it.  The  change  to  cumulo-stratus  then  goes  on  rapidly ; 
and  this  cloud,  increasing  in  density,  assumes  that  black  and  threatening  aspect  which  is  a 
known  indication  of  rain.  Th's  blackness  is  soon  changed  for  a  more  gray  obscurity ;  and 
this  is  the  criterion  of  the  actual  formation  of  rain  drops,  which  now  begin  to  fall,  while  a 
cirriform  crown  of  fibres  extends  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  clouds,  and  small  cumuli 
enter  into  the  under  part.  After  the  shower  has  spent  itself  the  different  modifications' 
appear  again  in  their  several  stations:  the  ciri'is,  the  cirro-stratus,  or  perhapr  \lir  cirro- 
cumulus,  appear  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  air;  while  the  remaining  part  »  the  broken 
nimbus  assumes  the  form  of  flocky  cumuli,  and  sails  along  in  the  lower  current  of  wind.  The 
reappearance  of  large  '•umulo-strati  indicates  a  return  of  the  rain.  In  showery  weather,  the 
alternate  formation  and  destruction  of  rain-clouds  goes  on  rapidly,  and  is  attended  by  the 
other  modilcations  in  succession,  as  above  described.  From  its  connexion  with  local 
sliowers,  the  nimbus  is  distinguished  almost  exclusively  by  bearing  in  its  broad  field  of  sable 
the  iionours  of  the  rainbow. 

Rain.  Theories  of  rain  liave  been  founded  on  the  above  observations.  Since,  as  already 
mentioned,  a  greater  quantity  of  moisture  can  exist  in  a  given  space  as  the  temperature  is 
higher,  it  is  plain  thot  there  is  a  certain  temperature  at  which  air  containing  some  moisture, 
will  just  be  saturated,  and  which  is  called  the  point  of  deposition,  or  the  dewing  point ;  fcr. 


PabtII 

ather,  tliis  cloud 
parts;  bo  that  it 
ists  of  nebecula, 
Bather,  tho  cirro- 
st  described ;  itu 
ht  breezes,  small 
one  plane;  but 
ommences  in  the 
ad,  changes  into 
inter,  the  break- 

)rizontal  extent; 
1  a  cirro-stratus, 
mce  it  has  been 
les  it  is  disposed 
A  flat  horizontal 
mer  weather ;  its 
dges.    A  variety 
very  high  in  the 
lie  top  of  a  lofty 
even  lower  than, 
1  streak,  tapering 
5  cumulo-ntrctus; 
brmer  alterrirlely 
formation  oi"  the 
consists  of  small 
cirro-stratus,  and 
(1  which  we  shall 
jrtion  of  the  sky, 
indistinctly  seen. 
3  and  mock  suns, 
n,  of  approaching 

bf  rahi,  and  is  fire- 
asses  along  in  the 
till  it  overhangs 
place  in  all  the 
structure  remains 
he  cumulo-strati, 
menacing  before 
again  to  camulfl^ 

the  fall  of  rain, 
as  to  obscure  the 

rain-cloud  may 
formation  of  the 

formation  to  its 
IS  or  cirro-stratua 
goes  on  rapidly; 
ispect  which  is  a 
obscurity;  and 
n  to  fall,  while  a 
nd  small  cumuli 
ent  modificationi' 
3rhapr  i!;"  cirro- 
A  the  broken 
It  of  wind.    The 

ery  weather,  the 

attended  by  the 
xion  with  local 

•ad  field  of  sable 

lince,  as  already 
I  temperature  is 
y  some  moisture, 
wing  point ;  fcr, 


Book  II. 


METEOROLOGY. 


in 


if  cooled  in  the  least  below  this,  the  air  will  deposit  moisture.  When  tho  cooling  in  Oic 
body  of  air  below  tiie  dew  point  is  very  slight,  the  effect  is  merely  to  disturb  the  tnuis- 
parencv,  or  produce  a  fog.  In  the  case  of  dew,  formerly  considered,  tho  transparency  is 
not  afrected ;  because  it  is  not  the  mass  of  air  that  is  cooled  below  the  point  of  deposition, 
but  only  a  minute  portion  of  it  which  comes  into  contact  with  surfaces  cooled  by  radiation. 
When  the  cooling  in  a  body  of  air  below  tho  dewing  point  is  considerable,  the  water  is 
deposited  more  copiously,  and  collecting  into  drops,  descends  to  the  earth  in  the  form  of 
rain ;  or,  if  the  temperature  be  suflUciently  low,  the  drops  arc  partially  frozen,  and  form 
sleet ;  if  fully  firozen,  snow ;  and  if  such  drops  be  large  and  compact,  they  receive  the  appel- 
lation oihail. 

Dr.  James  Hutton  of  Edinburgh  made  the  first  attempt  to  account  for  tlie  phenomena  of 
rain,  &c.  on  known  principles.  Without  deciding  whether  moisture  be  simply  mixed  or 
chemically  combined  in  the  air,  he  conjectured  from  the  phenomena,  as  is  now  established 
by  experiment,  that  the  quantity  of  aqueous  vapour  which  can  exist  in  air  varies  in  a  higher 
ratio  than  the  temperature.  Hence  he  inferred  that  whenever  two  volumes  of  air  saturated 
with  moisture  are  mixed  at  different  temperatures,  a  precipitation  of  moisture  must  ensue, 
in  consequence  of  the  mean  temperature  not  being  able  to  support  the  mean  quantity  of 
vapour.  But  if  tlie  air,  before  mixture,  was  not  fully  saturated .  with  moisture,  then  a 
smaller  quantity,  or  none  at  all,  may  be  deposited.  This  theory  has  been  adopted  by  various 
meteorologists,  particularly  Professor  Leslie  and  Mr.  Dalton :  but  Mr.  Luke  Howard  has 
justly  remarked,  that  it  involves  the  assumption  that  the  mixture  should  have  the  mean 
temperature, — a  point  which  was  then,  and  is  even  yet,  not  quite  settled ;  although  so  far 
as  experiment  goes,  it  is  fully  more  favourable  to  tlie  theory  than  the  mean  would  be. 

Mr.  Howard  accordingly  rejects  Dr.  Hutton's  theo.ry,  and  alleges  that  rain  is  almost 
in  every  instance  the  result  of  the  electrical  action  of  clouds  upon  eacji  other.  This  idea, 
he  thinks,  is  confirmed  by  observations  mode  in  various  ways  upon  the  electrical  state 
of  the  clouds  and  rain;  and  he  supposes  that  a  thunder  storm  is  only  a  more  sudden 
and  sensible  display  of  those  energies  which  are  incessantly  operating  for  more  general 
purposes. 

There  are  two  circumstances  deserving  of  notice  in  the  formation  of  the  nimbus  or  rain- 
cloud,  tho  spreading  of  tlie  superior  masses  of  cloud  in  all  directions,  until  they  become,  like 
tlie  stratus,  one  uniform  sheet ;  and  the  rapid  motion  and  visible  decrease  of  the  cumulus, 
when  brought  under  the  latter.  The  cirri,  also,  which  so  frequently  stretch  from  the 
superior  sheet  upwards,  like  so  many  bristles,  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  temporary 
conductors  for  the  electricity  evolved  by  the  union  of  minute  particles  of  vapour  into  the 
larger  drops  which  form  the  rain.  In  an  experiment  of  Cavallo  s  with  a  kite  sent  up  360 
feet  in  oii  interval  between  two  showers,  and  kept  up  during  rain,  it  seems  that  the  superior 
clouds  were  positively  electrified  before  the  rain ;  but  on  the  arrival  of  a  large  cumulus,  a 
strong  negative  electricity  took  place,  which  lasted  while  the  cumulus  was  passing  over  the 
kite.  We  are  not,  however,  warranted  to  conclude  that  the  cumulus  which  brings  on  rain 
is  always  negative ;  as  the  same  effect  might  ensue  from  a  positive  cumulus  uniting  with  a 
negative  stratus :  yet  the  general  negative  state  of  the  lower  atmosphere  during  rain,  and 
the  positive  indications  commonly  given  by  the  true  stratus,  render  tliis  tlie  more  probable 
opinion.  It  is  not,  however,  absolutely  necessary  to  determine  the  several  states  of  the 
clouds  which  appear  during  rain ;  since  tliere  is  sufficient  evidence  in  favour  of  the  con- 
clusion, that  clouds  formed  in  different  parts  of  tiie  atmosphere  operate  on  each  other  when 
brought  near  enough,  so  as  to  occasion  their  partial  or  entire  destruction, — an  eflTect  which 
can  be  attributed  only  to  their  possessing  bcfbrehand,  or  acquiring  at  the  moment,  the  oppo- 
site electricities.  Such  is  Mr.  Howard's  view  of  the  subject ;  but  until  electricity  itself,  and, 
in  particular,  the  electricity  of  the  atmosphere,  be  better  underytood,  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
phenomena  of  rain  be  brouglit  any  nearer  home  by  being  ascribed  to  electricity.  In  the 
present  state  of  science.  Dr.  Hutton's  theory  has  rather  the  odvantage  of  depending  on 
principles  which  are  better  known,  though  there  is  some  uncertainty  regarding  their  fitness 
for  the  purpose. 

Rain  is  very  unequally  distributed  to  the  different  regions  of  the  globe ;  but  nature  has 
so  arranged  it,  that  it  is  most  copious  in  those  latitudes  where  evaporation  is  most  rapid. 
There  are,  Iiowever,  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  for,  on  several  tracts  on  the  earth's  surfiice,  it 
hardly  ever  rains.  These  are  usually  far  inland,  and  are  generally  extensive  plains  utterly 
sterile  and  uninhabitable.  The  want  of  rain  is  in  some  places  partially  supplied  by  the 
copious  deposition  of  dew.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  some  spots  where  it  always  rains,  and 
which  are  mostly  on  tho  sea.  As  the  whole  atmosphere,  when  fully  charged  with  humidity, 
is  calculated  to  hold  no  more  water  than  would  form  a  sheet  5  inches  in  depth,  while  the 
mean  annual  deposit  is  about  35  or  40  inches,  it  is  plain  that  the  supply  must  b6  frequently 
renewed.  Rain  is  more  abundant  toward  the  equator  than  the  poles,  ai';  the  sea-coast  than 
towards  the  interior,  and  on  elevated  situations  than  on  plains. 
i;"rom  tfie  most  authentic  sources,  Mr.  Dalton  has  constructed  the  following  table,  showing 
Vol  I  16 


188 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  \l. 


tliu  mean  monthly  and  annual  quantities  of  rain  which  have  fallen  at  several  places,  bein^r 
the  overage  for  many  years : — 


January 

Fet>ruary 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July... 

Aui(uit 

So|)t«iiibar 

October  . . 

November 

December  < 


1^ 
S'9 


Inch. 
3.I»I5 
3.H37 
3.1U4 
S.017 
3.5(18 
9.974 
3.35*1 
3.11)9 
4.330 
4.143 
3.174 
3.143 


S3.D44 


3(i.91U 


it 

s 


Inch. 
1.S1W 
1.741 
1.1H4 

o.u;9 

1.041 
1.343 
3.3U3 
2.740 
l.fll7 
2.31)7 
1.1104 
1.U81 


5s. 


Incli. 
1.4(14 
1.3.'<) 
1.173 
137U 
1.030 
\.1W 
3.448 
1.K07 
1.H43 
iM*i 
3.333 
1.730 


3l.3:u 


>1 


Fr.  Inch. 
1.338 
1.333 
1.190 
1.185 
1.707 
1.007 
1.800 
1.600 
1.S50 
1.780 
1.730 
l.UOO 


Pr.  Inch 
a.477 
1.700 
1.937 
3.080 
9.031 
2.5U3 
1.883 
3.347 
4.140 
4.741 
4.187 
3.397 


30.080    I  18.040 


33.077 


The  depth  of  rain,  according  to  Humboldt,  at  the  latitudes  of  0°,  19°,  45°,  and  60°,  is, 
respectively,  06,  80,  29,  and  17  inches.  In  tlie  torrid  zone,  a  small  thick  rain  lulls  almost 
every  day  on  tliat  side  of  the  equator  where  the  sun  is ;  but  it  generally  intermits  during  the 
night.  In  many  places,  there  are  two  wet  and  two  dry  seasons  in  the  year ;  and  in  some 
regions,  from  the  effect  of  the  mountains  and  peculiar  winds,  places  under  the  same  parallel 
have  tlieir  wet  and  dry  seasons  at  opposite  periods.  Though  the  annual  depth  of  ritin  be 
greatest  toward  the  equator,  the  number  of  ramy  days  increases  with  the  latitude. 

Aqueous  meteors,  so  essential  to  vegetation,  have  their  salutary  effects  modified  by  the 
chemical  qualities  of  the  moisture  in  the  atmospiiere.  The  salt  rain  and  dew  of  the  vicinity 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  owing  to  the  vapours  wiiich  are  exhaled  from  the  soil,  probably  contribute 
to  tlioso  aalino  efflorescences  wiiich  are  said  to  be  gradually  overspreading  the  once  fertile 
soil  of  Persio.  The  salt  fogs  in  tlio  west  of  Jutland  are  very  injurious  to  the  foliage  of 
trees,  without  being  hurtful  to  tlio  gross.  Rain  has  also  been  known  to  be  impregnated  with 
sulphur,  and  witli  various  substances  approaching  to  that  of  animal  and  vegetable  mattera 
Some  of  these  communicate  to  Uio  rain  a  peculiar  colour,  as  that  of  blood,  &.c.  On  the 
other  hand,  fogs  occur  in  which  little  or  no  moisture  is  present :  such  are  called  dry  fogs ; 
and  are  supposed  to  be  the  vapours  and  osiies  ejected  by  volcanoes,  and  diffused  in  tlie 
atmosphere  by  the  winds.  TJjeir  occurring  about  the  time  of  great  eruptions  strengthens 
this  conjecture. 

Glaciers.  Ice  and  snow  absorb  a  large  portion  of  heat  during  liquefection,  which  they 
give  out  again  on  freezing ;  for,  in  the  ordinary  process  of  nature,  water  doo,'^  not  cool  below 
32°  F.  till  the  whole  be  frozen ;  nor  does  its  temperature  rise  above  that  point,  while  in 
contact  witli  ice  or  snow, — that  is,  till  the  wiiole  be  melted.  This  property  has  an  important 
effect  on  the  vompcrature  of  snowy  districts.  It  retards  and  often  prevents  the  occurrence 
of  extreme  cold,  and  it  opposes  a  sudden  rise  of  temperature  above  the  freezing  point.  The 
cold  in  the  ati.iosphere,  as  was  tbrmerly  stated,  continually  increases  with  the  elevation; 
and,  at  a  certain  height,  depending  on  the  climate  or  latitude,  perpetual  frost  prevails. 
Where  the  earth's  surface  attains  this  heigiit,  it  is,  with  the  exception  of  some  steep  or  ver- 
tical cliffs,  continually  covered  witli  snow.  The  snow  acquires  new  additions  from  time  to 
time ;  for,  tliough  it  may  melt  slowly  from  the  heat  of  tlie  ground  on  which  it  rests,  yet  il 
suffers  little  decay  externally,  except  what  the  air  carries  off  by  evaporation.  The  warmth 
of  the  solar  rays  may  soften  it  a  little,  but  this  only  tends  to  its  farther  consolidation.  Masses 
of  this  sort  are  called  glaciers.  By  accumulating  in  the  manner  just  mentioned,  they  often 
become  top-heavy,  or  acquire  such  an  enormous  weight  as  to  break  their  hold,  or  crush  their 
lower  parts,  which  are  besides  liable  to  be  undermined  by  the  warmth  of  the  mountain  on 
which  they  rest.  Hence  it  not  unfrequently  happens,  that  huge  masses  of  ice  or  conglo 
merated  snow  slide  or  roll  down  tlie  sides  of  mountains,  transporting,  perhaps,  large  stones  or 
fragments  of  rocks  to  which  they  had  adhered,  or  which  had  been  separated  from  their  beds 
by  the  agency  of  the  weather.  Detached  glaciers  often  descend  into  districts  having  a 
mean  temperature  considerably  above  the  melting  point  of  snow.  But  so  great  is  the  heat 
consumed  ui  liquefying  such  huge  masses,  tliat  years  may  elapse  before  they  entirely  dis- 
appear ;  and  during  that  interval  others  descend ;  and  so  on  continually.  So  that  the  limit 
of  perpetual  snow  may  be  found  in  a  climate  where  little  snow  falls  from  the  clouds.  When 
glaciers  descend  into  the  sea,  and  particularly  when  detached  and  floating,  they  are  termed 
icebergs. 

The  snow-line,  or  lower  limit  in  mountains  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  descends  in 
winter  and  rises  agraui  in  summer.     Under  the  equator,  this  change  is  scarcely  perceptibV 


Book 

but  it  I 
direct! 
each 


Part  H. 

al  places,  bein;;» 


«i  5 

•C  V 

It 

•!>• 

»>< 

•^la 

>^ 

Pr.  Inch. 

Pr.  Inch. 

l.iM 

9.477 

1.333 

1.700 

l.llH) 

1.037 

1.183 

S.OHO 

1.7U7 

3.o:ii 

l.fl»7 

3.303 

1.800 

1.H83 

1.000 

3.347 

1.S50 

4.140 

1.780 

4.741 

1.730 

4.1H7 

1.000 

3.397 

iao4o 

33.077 

S",  and  60°,  is, 
ain  falls  almost 
mits  during  tho 
r ;  and  in  some 
e  same  parallel 
epth  of  rain  be 
tudo. 

modified  by  the 
I  of  the  vicinity 
>ably  contribute 
the  once  fertile 
the  foliage  of 
pregnated  with 
etable  matters. 
,  &c.  On  tho 
led  dry  fogs; 
iifTused  in  tlie 
ns  strengthens 

in,  which  they 
not  cool  below 
point,  while  in 

an  important 
;he  occurrence 
tr  point.   The 

le  elevation; 
frost  prevails, 

steep  or  ver- 

from  time  to 
it  rests,  yet  it 

The  warmth 
ation.  Masses 
ed,  they  often 
or  crush  their 

mountain  on 
:ce  orconglo 
irge  stones  or 
om  their  beds 
cts  having  u 
at  is  the  heat 

entirely  dis- 

hat  the  limit 
buds.  When 
f  are  termed 

descends  in 
perceptibV 


-T1i-rwTp.<V^^T"r  I""  «'JW*J(fi,lHM.' 


Book  IT. 


METEOROLOGY. 


18S 


but  it  increases  with  the  latitude,  and  in  higii  latitudes  tho  snow-line  has  a  great  range.  Tliu 
direction  of  tho  prevailing  winds,  with  many  circumstances  too  numerous  to  be  detailed,  has 
each  its  effect  Tho  snow-lino  is  lower  on  the  sides  of  mountains  turned  from  the  sun,  than 
on  acclivities  which  receive  his  rays  more  perpendicular  to  their  surfaces.  Hence  it  happens, 
that  one  side  of  a  mountain  may  bo  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  whilst  at  the  same  height 
on  tlio  opposite  side  it  is  in  a  state  of  cultivation.  The  mnow-line,  therefore,  depends  so 
much  on  localities,  that  no  general  rule  can  ,;iven  for  computing  its  altitude.  Though 
oflen  employed  for  estimating  tho  heights  of  n;.,  c. tains,  it  is  a  most  mllacious  criterion. 

Humboldt  gives  tho  following  heights  of  perpetual  snow  in  different  parts  of  tlie  world  :— 
Andes  of  Quito  (lat,  1°  to  1°  30'),  2460  toises.  Volcano  of  Purace  (lat,  2''  18'),  242()toiscs. 
Toliina  flat.  4°  46'),  2880  toises.  Nevados  of  Mexico  (lat.  19°),  2a'M)  toises.  Hinialnya 
flat.  31°),  northern  side,  1950  toises;  southern  side,  2605  toises.  Summit  of  Sierra  Nevada, 
Grenwla  (lat  37°  10'),  1780  toises.  Caucasus  (lat.  42°  to  43°),  1650  toises,  Pyrenees  (lat, 
42°  5'  to  43°),  1400  toises,  Swiss  Alps  (lat.  46°),  1370  toises,  Carpathian  mountains 
(49°  10'),  1330  toises.  Norway  (lat.  61°  to  67°),  850  to  600  toises;  and  (lat  70°  to  71°  30') 
550  to  366  toises. 

Colour  of  the  Atmoxphere.  That  tho  air  has  a  blue  colour,  has  been  conjectured  because 
a  distant  landscape  appears  of  that  cast,  which,  however,  is  greatly  diminished  by  a  good 
telescope.  Newton  ascribed  this  phenomenon  to  the  greater  refrangibility  of  the  blue  rays; 
and  some  consider  it  tho  effect  of  vapour.  Tho  appearance  of  the  sky,  when  viewed  from 
a  high  mountain,  is  of  a  deep  blue,  apprcaching  to  bluck.  But  this  must  be  in  some  way 
illusory ;  because  the  upper  atmosphere  is  highly  transparent,  as  the  heavenly  bodies  shine 
with  increased  splendour. 

Sect.  IV. — Luminmit  Meteors, 
The  refraction  and  reflection  of  light  by  air  produce  a  remerkable  phenomenon.  While 
the  rays  of  light  move  in  a  medium  of  uniform  density  and  composition,  they  are  stra  ight ; 
but  when  they  pass  obliquely  into  a  medium  of  a  dilT'erent  density,  they  are  bent  or  refracted 
toward  the  denser  medium.  The  rays  of  light  therefore,  whilst  coming  through  the  atmo- 
sphere from  the  heavenly  bodies,  are  always  entering  into  a  denser  and  denser  stratum  of 
air,  and  are  consequently  bent  down  towards  the  earth.  The  diffcront  rays  suffer  different 
degrees  of  refraction,  according  to  their  colour.     That  of  red  is  the  least,  then  orange, 

Jellow,  green,  light  blue,  indigo,  and  violet  All  solid  bodies  have  the  property  of  reflecting 
ight;  and  it  is  probable  that  all  bodies  whatever  reflect  light  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. 
The  clouds  and  air  possess  this  property.  The  rays  which  are  tho  most  refrangible,  are 
also  the  most  easily  reflected.  When  the  sky  shines  with  a  fine  azure  hue,  it  is  by  means 
of  the  more  reflexible  rays,  which  are  first  reflected  from  the  earth,  and  afterwards  returned 
by  the  atmosphere.  The  refraction  and  reflection  of  light  enable  it  to  diffuse  itself  over 
the  atmosphere,  illuminating  our  hemisphere  for  a  considerable  time  o "  r  the  sun  has  gone 
down  and  before  he  has  arisen,  producing  the  morning  and  evening  twillr  lit. 

The  rainbow  is  a  circular  imago  of  the  sun,  variously  coloured,  an-  r^iduced  thus: — 
Tho  solar  rays,  by  entering  the  drops  of  falling  rain,  ore  refracted  to  their  larther  surfaces, 
and  thence,  by  one  or  more  reflections,  transmitted  to  the  eye.  But  in  escaping  from  the 
drop,  they  undergo  a  second  refraction,  by  which  the  rays  are  separated  into  their  different 
colours;  and  in  this  state  are  exhibited  to  an  eye  properly  placed  to  receive  them.  The 
rainbow  is  never  seen  but  when  rain  is  falling,  and  the  sun  and  bow  are  always  nu  opposite 
sides  of  the  observer. 

The  halo  is  a  broad  circle  of  a  variable  diameter,  sometimes  white,  ')ut  more  commonly 
exhibiting  a  faint  representation  of  the  colours  of  the  rainbow.  It  appears  in  a  thin  cloud, 
jr  in  a  haze,  around  the  sun  and  moon's  disc. 

The  corona  is  a  circular  space,  full  of  mild  whitish  light,  around  tixc  moon's  disc.  It 
sometimes  passes  into  a  yellowish  or  brownish  colour  towards  the  cuges.  This  and  the  halo 
are  popularly  known  by  the  name  o?  burrs;  and  the  latter  is  accounted  a  prognostic  of  rain, 
especially  when  its  diameter  is  large. 

Parhelia  or  mock-suns  are  images  which  appear  sometimes  above  and  sometimes  below 
the  disc  of  the  true  sun.  They  are  supposed  to  be  snated  in  the  points  "  intersection  of 
different  halos,  and  to  derive  tneh  brightness  from  the  union  of  several  reflections.  Parhelia 
are  sometimes  surrounded  by  a  whitish  border,  sometimes  by  the  colours  /  the  rainbow. 
They  are  rarely  quite  circular,  and  some  have  luminous  trains,  as  has  likewise  the  sun  him- 
self, when  near  the  horizon,  in  the  vicinity  of  Hudson's  Bay,  It  is  there,  and  in  simila' 
cold  foggy  situations,  that  parhelia  are  usually  seen. 

Mock-moons  or  paroselente  are  of  less  frequent  occurrence  than  parhelia,  out  they  are 
generally  ascribed  to  a  similar  cause. 

Luminous  shadows  or  glories  are  remarkable  phenomena,  ■■  a  spectator  sees  his 
shadow  projected  on  a  c,oud  with  a  luminous  ring,  sometimes  ,.  ?d  like  tlie  rainbow, 
encircling  his  head.  The  spectator,  in  such  cases,  must  either  be  ■  o  i  elevation,  or  the 
doud  must  be  very  low.    The  shadow  is  usually  of  an  enormous  sito. 


m 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


Looming  is  tho  term  used  by  Bailora  to  oxproM  a  curious  optical  deception,  by  wlurli 
objects  come  into  >^iew,  t]iou<r|i  iimterially  altered  as  to  their  real  situation  or  pu«ition.  The 
French  call  it  mirage,  md  tlio  Italians  fata  morgana.  It  oflcn  hoppens  at  ntu,  tliat  a  dis- 
tant sliip  appears  as  if  paintod  in  the  sh-,  nrrhiiim  in  nn  inverted  position,  and  not  supported 
by  the  water.  Sunken  rocks  and  uui  n|;)')ar  an  if  riiibed  r.bove  tlio  surface.  Tho  Swf'des 
lonff  senrched  in  vain  for  an  illusory  iblund  of  tliis  sort,  which  they  saw  fVum  a  di  '  ce,  aa 
if  placed  between  tho  iples  f  Aland  and  the  coaiit  of  Upland.  The  shipping  am  '  Un^ 
on  the  siioro  of  Naples  y^ve,  from  Messina,  sometimes  appeared  tlunting  mvertc  "  u.  me  air. 
In  1706,  the  French  coast  appeared  distinctly  raised  al)ovo  tho  son,  for  an  hour,  as  viewed 
from  the  opposite  shore  of  Sussex.  To  tho  French,  whilst  marching  in  the  Egyptian  duserts, 
tho  sandy  plain  covered  in  the  distance  by  a  dense  vapour  prescnt«l  the  illusive  image  of  a 
vast  lake,  towards  which  they  hastened,  but  could  never  reach  it. 

The  aurora  borealis,  or  nortliern  li^ht,  in  a  remarkable  luminous  phenomenon  which 
occurs  during  night,  and  most  commonly  in  dear  or  frosty  weather.  It  is  unknown  in  low 
latitudes,  and  becomes  more  frequent  as  we  recede  frntn  the  equator.  But  it  is  doubtful  if 
its  maximum  citlier  as  to  frequency  or  brilliancy  bo  at  tho  pole;  for  in  tho  late  north  polar 
expeditions  it  was  seen  to  the  south  of  the  observer,  whereas  at  greater  distances  from  the 
pole  it  appears  to  the  north  or  a  little  to  tlie  west  of  north  of  tho  spectator.  It  is  usually  of 
0  reddish  colour,  inclining  to  yellow,  and  sends  out  frequent  coruscations  uf  ^^le  light, 
which  seem  to  arise  from  the  horizon  in  pyramidal  undulating  forms,  and  shoots  w  ith  grt-at 
velocity  towards  the  zenith.  Some  maintain  that  a  whizzing  noise  accompanies  tliis  pnono> 
menon,  but  this  is  not  very  well  ascertained.  The  light  appears  sometimes  remarkably  red, 
as  was  the  case  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  Dec.  5, 1737.  Tho  aurora  jorealis  frequently 
appears  in  the  form  of  a  luminous  arch,  chiefly  in  the  spring,  and  in  the  autumn  '  a  dry 
season.  The  arch  is  partly  bright  and  partly  darlc,  but  generally  transparent.  This  kmd  of 
meteor  is  almost  constant  during  the  long  winter  nights,  in  high  latitudes.  Tho  "  merry 
dancers,"  as  it  is  culled  in  Slietland,  afford  the  inhabitants  ^eat  relief  amid  tlie  gloom  of 
their  long  dreary  nights.  They  commonly  appear  at  twilight  near  the  horizon,  of  a  dun 
yellow,  and  sometimes  continue  so  for  several  hours,  without  motion ;  afterwards  they  break 
into  streams  of  a  stronger  light,  passing  into  columns  and  innumerable  different  shapes. 
During  this,  the  colour  varies  from  all  the  tints  of  yellow  to  tho  most  obscure  russet,  exhi- 
biting the  most  beautiful  appearance.  In  the  northern  parts  of  Sweden  and  Lapland,  the 
aurora  borealis  is  singularly  beautiful,  and  affords  to  travellers  a  very  fine  light  during  the 
whole  night.  In  Hudson's  Ba;  il  'JifRises  a  variegated  splendour  sometimes  equal  to  that 
of  the  full  moon.  Similar  li-liti  sv  re  observed  by  Dr.  Forster  towards  tho  south  pole,  but 
they  were  much  feebler  th«n  in  ii»c  aorthern  hemispliere.  Tho  cause  of  such  phenomena  is 
unknown.     Some  ascribn  tl; :  n  to  ei  ictricity  and  magnetism. 

The  electricity  of  the  p\.i't..»i)ii»^r(j  is  very  imperfectly  understood.  In  storms,  the  clouds 
usually  exhibit  the  vitreous  cr  posiuve  electricity.  In  summer,  when  the  earth  is  dry,  and 
the  day  warm  and  serene,  the  eiociricity  of  the  air  increases  from  sunrise  to  noon ;  in  which 
state  it  continues  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  again  diminislies,  till  the  dew  appear.  It  revives 
towards  midnight,  and  again  decreases  till  it  become  insensible. 

The  phenomena  of  thunder  are  so  well  known,  as  to  require  no  description ;  but  no  satis- 
factory  explanation  has  yet  been  discovered,  except  that  it  is  intimately  connected  with  elec- 
tricity, which  being  itself  in  a  great  measure  among  the  incognita,  leaves  us  still  in  the 
dark.  Thunder  is  more  frequent  as  we  approach  the  equator,  and  decreases  as  the  latitude 
increases,  being  totally  unknown  in  the  arctic  regions.  It  is  a  very  rare  phenomenon  in 
intensely  cold  weatlier,  and  seldom  occurs  during  night  in  the  temperate  zones.  It  is 
usually  attended  by  heavy  showers  of  hail  or  sleet,  and  loss  frequently  by  rain.  The  distance 
of  thunder  may  be  estimated,  by  allowing  1100  feet  Kir  each  second  which  elapses  between 
seeing  the  flash  of  lightning  and  hearing  the  report.  It  is  seldom  heard  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance than  two  miles,  and  only  does  mischief  when  very  near. 

St.  Elmo's  fire  is  a  faint  light  which  seems  to  adhere  to  the  points  of  bodies  carried  swiftly 
through  the  air.  It  appears  on  the  tops  of  ship  masts,  and  at  the  points  of  spears  and  other 
warlike  instruments  when  in  motion.  It  is  generally  believed  to  be  an  accumulation  of 
electric  matter.  A  single  flame  of  this  sort  was  called  by  the  ancients  Helena.  When 
seen  in  pairs,  they  were  called  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Fire-balls  are  those  lumLious  bodies  which  appear  usually  at  a  great  height  above  the 
earth,  and  were  on  that  account  long  known  by  the  term  meteor,  which  is  now  applied  to 
many  other  aerial  phenomena.  They  present  a  very  imposing  appearance,  and  are  seen  of 
an  immense  size,  sometimes  red,  but  oftener  of  a  vivid  dazzling  white.  They  traverse  the 
atmosphere  with  amazing  velocity.  This,  and  their  great  height,  have  been  inferred  from 
their  being  seen  from  various  distant  places  almost  at  the  same  instant.  Sometimes  they 
buret  in  pieces,  or  discharge  torrents  of  flames,  with  a  detonation  making  both  tho  air  and 
earth  to  tremble.  Some  of  these  balls  descend  like  lightning,  break  through  the  roofs  of 
buildings,  destroy  animals,  and  shatter  vessels  at  sea ;  in  short,  they  are  of*en  attended  with 
all  the  disastrous  efTects  of  thunder  and  lightning,  with  which  they  arc  occiisionally  aeeoni- 


.,.:»,  -.;^, 


Part  II 

ion,  by  whlrU 
poflition.  The 
(<u,  tlmt  a  dig- 
not  supiwrtod 
Tho  awi'<le» 
a  di  '  CO,  aa 
am  '  ).in^ 
te  "  11.  me  air. 
iiir,  08  viewed 
^ptian  duserts, 
ve  imaj^e  of  a 

menon  which 
iknnwn  in  low 
:  ia  doubtful  if 
ito  north  polar 
aces  from  the 
[t  is  usually  of 
of  i.i>\e  light, 
ots  w  ith  Ktvat 
ics  this  pncno* 
imarkably  red, 
ilis  frequently 
itumn  '     !i  dry 

This  kind  of 

Tho  "  merry 
tlie  gloom  of 
rizon,  of  a  dun 
rds  they  break 
Iferent  shapes, 
e  russet,  exhi- 
1  Lapland,  the 
jht  during  the 

equal  to  that 
pouth  pole,  but 

phenomena  is 

ms,  the  clouds 
rtli  is  dry,  and 
lOon ;  in  which 
It  revives 

but  no  sati»> 
ted  with  elec- 
ts still  in  the 
Ls  the  latitude 
lenomenon  in 
zones.    It  is 
The  distance 
ipses  between 
a  greater  dis- 

arried  swiftly 
mrs  and  other 
umulation  of 
lena.    When 

it  above  the 
ow  applied  to 
d  are  seen  of 
traverse  the 
nferred  from 
netimes  they 
h  the  air  and 
I  the  roofs  of 
ttended  with 
snally  aceon»- 


BOOK  II. 


METKOROLOOY. 


186 


panir '  'dow3  consider  these  balls  to  be  great  mawiea  uf  electric  matter,  poMing  from  ono 
place  u(  another.     Others  suppose  them  to  be  the  same  with  tho  afirnlites. 

Afirolitcs,  or  rii'iteoric  stones,  have  frequently  descended  from  tho  atmosphere  from  the 
romotost  anlinuity.  Both  the  above  opinions  may  be  in  so  far  correct;  because  tlie  fire-balli 
cxliibit  very  different  appearances,  rhilosophers  are  very  much  divided  regarding  the  ori- 
gin of  meteoric  stones.  Some  imagine  them  to  bo  ejected  IVom  volcanoes  on  ttie  eutli's  sur- 
face; others  from  volcanoes  on  the  moon.  A  tliird  class  maintain,  that  they  aro  (roncriited 
by  the  coinbinntion  and  condensation  of  their  component  portB,  previously  diilii  in  the 
atmoeplieru  in  the  gaseous  form.  Others  allege,  tliat  they  arc  detacli'^d  stoiu  moving 
through  tlie  boundless  regions  of  space,  and  which  casually  come  inlu  (intact  with  our 
planet.  All  these  are  little  else  than  conjecture,  although  thoir  fbrmalii^in  in  ti  -  atmosphere 
IS  till!  most  plausible.  A  numerous  list  of  the  most  autlici.  c  fiiUs  of  nnch  bodies  is  given 
in  Phil.  Mag.  vol.  Ixvii. 

Falling  stars  are  very  ordinary  phenomena  everywhere,  but   stil!  i>.  a  class 

which  is  not  well  understood.    Near  Uie  place  of  their  apparent  de^ueni  gelatinous 

substance  has  frequently  been  found,  of  a  whitish  yellow  colour.* 

Tlie  zodiacal  liglit  is  a  luminous  appearance,  seen  after  sunHi  unriK     ^i>me- 

what  similar  to  the  milky  way,  but  of  a  fainter  light,  in  the  fifjui  'n\  oone  or 

pyramid,  with  its  base  towards  the  sun.     Its  axis  is  variously  inclim     i  fizon,  and 

makes  an  angle  of  nearly  7°  with  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.    The  earliet  L  account 

of  it  was  given  by  Cassini  in  1683;  but  tliis  olTords  no  ground  for  supposii;^  lat  it  had  not 
existed  or  been  seen  prior  to  that  date :  it  is  always  observable,  when  the  sky  m  clear,  in  tho 
torrid  zone ;  but  is  more  rarely  to  be  found  as  wo  recede  from  the  equator.  The  season 
most  favourable  for  observing  it  is  almut  the  beginning  of  March :  it  is  much  brighter  in 
Bome  years  tliun  <  ithers,  and  was  particularly  brilliant  al  Paris,  16th  February,  1769.  The 
zodiacal  light  lies  in  the  plane  of  the  sun's  equator,  and  is  tliereforc  supposed  by  some  to  be 
connected  with  his  rotation. 

Sect.  V. — Winds. 

Winds  are  currents  of  air  occnsioned  by  the  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  of  the  atmo- 
spliere  by  tii  unequal  distribution  of  heat.  The  general  tendency,  in  such  circumstances, 
JH  for  the  heavier  columns  to  displace  thn  lighter ;  and  for  tho  air  at  the  earth's  surface  to  move 
fron  the  poles  toward  tho  equator:  in  consequence  of  tlie  rotation  of  tho  earth  on  its  axis, 
ani  iher  motion  is  combined  with  the  currents  just  described.  The  air,  which  is  constantly 
moving  from  points  where  the  earth's  motion  on  its  axis  is  slower  to  those  where  it  is 
quicker,  cannot  have  precisely  the  same  motion  eastward  with  the  part  of  the  surface  over 
which  it  ia  passing,  and  therefore  must,  relatively  to  that  surfiice,  acquire  a  motion  some- 
what westerly.  The  two  currents,  therefore,  from  the  opposite  hemispheres,  will,  on  meet- 
ing, about  the  equator,  destroy  that  part  of  each  other's  motion  which  is  in  the  direction  of 
the  meridian,  leaving  nothing  but  their  united  motion  towards  the  west.  Such  is  the  cause 
of  the  trade-wind,  as  proposed  and  rejected  by  Dr.  Halley :  it  was  shortly  after  revjved  by 
Hadloy,  and  is  pretty  generally  received.  The  trade-wind  (with  certain  exceptions)  blows 
constantly  from  the  east,  between  the  latitudes  of  30°  N.  and  30°  S. ;  it  declines  somewhat 
from  due  east,  towards  the  parallel  to  which  the  sun  is  vertical  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year.  The  only  supply  for  the  air  constantly  abstracted  from  the  higher  latitudes  must  be 
made  by  a  counter  current,  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  carrying  back  the  air 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles.  In  a  zone  of  variable  breadth,  within  the  region  of  trade- 
winds,  calms  and  rains  prevail,  caused  probably  by  the  mingling  and  ascending  of  the  oppo- 
site currents.  High  lands  change  or  interrupt  the  course  of  the  trade-winds :  thus,  under 
the  lee  of  the  African  shore,  calms  and  variable  winds  prevail  near  the  Cape  Verd  islands, 
while  an  eddy,  or  counter  current  of  air  from  the  south-west,  is  generated  under  the  coast 
of  Guinea,  The  lofty  barrier  of  the  Andes  shelters  the  sea  on  the  Peruvian  shores  from 
the  trade-winds,  which  are  not  felt  till  a  ship  has  sailed  eighty  leagues  westward ;  but  the 
intervening  space  is  occupied  by  a  wind  from  the  south.  In  the  Indian  ocean,  the  trade- 
wind  is  curiously  modified  by  the  surrounding  land :  the  southern  trade-wind  blows  regularly 
from  the  east  and  south-east,  from  10°  to  23°  south  latitude ;  but  between  10°  south  and  the 
equator  north-west  winds  prer'ail  from  October  to  April,  and  south-east  the  rest  of  the  year ; 
while  north  of  the  equator,  the  wind  is  south-west  in  summer,  and  north-east  in  winter : 
these  are  called  monsoons,  but  are  not  fully  understood. 

As  to  the  parts  of  the  globe  that  lie  beyond  the  region  of  trade-winds,  calms  prevail  pretty 
generally  over  a  narrow  space;  beyond  which,  the  region  of  variable  winds  extends  probably 
to  the  poles.  Mr.  Forster  observes,  that  beyond  the  tropics  the  west  winds  are  most  common. 
He  also  supposes  that  east  winds  have  an  ascendency  within  the  antartic  circle.  According 
to  Robins,  a  westerly  wind  almost  constantly  prevails  about  latitude  60°  S.  in  the  Pacific 

•  Prnfpimnr  Brandos,  of  Brcsiau,  uu:  puuiisiieu  a  curious  Treatise  on  Falling  Stars,  to  which  we  may  direct  ths 
attention  of  our  readers.  _, 

VOL.L  16*  Y 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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Sciences 

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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

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186 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartIL 


Ocean.  In  Hudson's  Bav,  westerly  winds  prevail  darinsf  throe  fourths  of  the  year,  as  also 
in  Komtschatka.  At  Melville  island,  the  north  and  north-west  winds  prevail :  on  account  of 
these  winds,  the  Atlantic  may  be  crossed  eastward  in  about  half  the  time  of  returning 
westward. 

Sea  and  land  breezes  arise  fW>m  the  same  general  principle  which  chiefly  occasions  the 
trade-winds :  during  the  day,  when  the  sun  renders  the  surface  of  the  land  wanner  than  that 
of  the  sea,  the  warmer  rarefied  air  of  the  land  ascends,  being  buoyed  up  and  displaced  hj 
the  heavier  air  rushing  fh>m  the  sea,  and  thus  forming  the  aea  breeze ;  but  the  reverse  often 
happens  during  tiie  nig>.t,  when  the  surface  of  the  land  becomes  colder  than  the  sea,  and 
occasions  a  wmd  iirom  the  land,  or  a  land  breeze.  Winds  of  this  sort  are  more  fivqnent 
about  islands  and  small  peninsulas  than  in  other  situations;  but  they  are  not  confined  to  any 
particular  latitude. 

A  variety  of  local  winds  have  also  been  observed.  The  etesian,  which  is  a  northerly  or 
north-easterly  wind,  prevails  very  much  in  summer  all  over  Europe.  Pliny  describes  it  as 
blowing  regularly  in  Italy  for  forty  days  afler  the  summer  solstice.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
part  of  the  greai  lower  current  moving  towards  the  equator.  Another  northern  wind,  which 
often  continues  about »  month  in  February  and  March,  is  called  the  ornitkian  wind,  because 
some  birds  of  passage  then  make  tiieir  appearance  in  the  south  of  Europe.  A  gmtall,  or 
sudden  gust  of  wind,  is  common  in  many  placf !? ;  and  when  its  impetuosity  is  suflicient  to 
bear  along  trees,  buildings,  &o.,  it  is  called  a  hurricane ;  such  winds  have  frequently  a 
whirling  motion,  and  are  accompanied  with  torrents  of  rain  or  hail,  and  even  thunder;  these 
are  Bometimes  called  tornadoes :  they  are  principally  confined  to  the  torrid  zone.  The  siroceo 
is  a  hot  southern  w'nd,  known  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean ;  when  it  reaches  Naples 
and  Sicily,  it  is  very  moist  and  relaxing  to  the  human  frame.  Some  warm  climates  are 
occasionally  visited  by  excessive  hot  pestilential  winds,  generally  from  the  south,  and  known 
under  a  great  variety  of  names  in  different  quarters.  Such  are  the  kamsin  of  Egypt,  the 
simoom  or  samiel  of  Arabia  and  the  Desert.  The  deleterious  effects,  which  frequently  cut 
off  whole  hordes  or  caravans,  are  sometimes  ascribed  to  the  predominance  of  one  of  the 
component  gases  of  the  air,  or  to  a  mixture  of  nitrous  gas,  &c. ;  but  this  is  not  well  ascer- 
tained. The  very  arid  state  of  the  air,  bearing  along  vast  quantities  of  burning  sand  and 
dust,  must  of  itself  be  veiy  prejudicial  to  animal  life.  The  harmattan  is  a  warm,  dry,  east 
wind,  which  occurs  in  Guinea,  and  is  also  of  an  unwholesome  description. 

The  velocity  of  the  wind  varies  from  nothing  up  to  100  miles  in  an  hour ;  but  the  maximum 
is  variously  stated  by  different  authors.  According  to  Smeaton,  a  gentle  breeze  moves 
between  4  and  5  miles  per  hour,  and  has  a  force  of  about  2  ounces  on  a  foot ;  a  brisk  pleasant 
gale  moves  firom  10  to  15  miles,  with  a  fbrce  of  12  ounces;  a  high  wind,  30  to  35  miles, 
with  a  force  of  5  or  6  pount^s ;  a  hurricane,  bearing  along  trees,  houses,  &c.  has  a  velocity 
of  100  miles,  and  a  force  of  40  poi  nds  on  the  square  foot. 

The  force  of  the  wind  is  nearly  as  the  square  of  the  velocity  multiplied  by  the  density  of 
the  air.  Some  interesting  experiments  are  described  by  Colonel  Beaufoy,  Annals  PhU. 
vol.  viil  p.  94. 

The  ataiosphere  is  the  vehicle  of  sound,  and  we  shall  close  this  brief  sketch  by  noticing 
this  property.  Till  lately,  the  velocity  of  sound  used  to  be  greatly  over-rated.  From  the 
experiments  of  Dr.  Moll,  in  the  plains  of  Utrecht,  in  1823,  it  appears,  that  the  mean  velocity 
of  sound  is  nearly  1100  feet  p«r  second ;  but  it  varies  a  little  witii  the  temperature  ana 
humidity  of  the  air.    See  PA«.  TVajw.  for  1824. 


Tr 


-■*(.■'. 


CHAPTER  n. 

HYDEOLOOY. 


>.-'.(• 


■\yn:3  :v;- 


This  branch  of  natural  history  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  various  properties  and  rela- 
tions of  the  waters  of  the  globe.  Any  definition  of  water  is  unnecessary ;  but  mankind  must 
have  remarked,  at  a  very  early  period,  that  the  waters  distributed  over  the  globe  differ  con- 
siderably in  their  fitness  for  drinking,  for  preparing  food,  and  for  other  domestic  purposes. 
These  differences  are  occasioned  by  the  foreign  bodies  which  this  liquid  holds  in  a  state  of 
selAtion  or  suspension ;  for  water  is  capable  of  dissolving  a  greater  nui.:her  of  substances 
than  any  other  fluid.  Hence  it  is  scarcely  ever  found  native  m  a  state  of  absolute  puri^' 
in  some  cases,  the  quantity  of  foreign  matter  is  so  mbute,  as  to  have  little  influence  on  th(. 
taste  or  other  properties;  but  in  other  instances  they  are  so  abundant,  as  to  render  it  unfit 
for  common  use,  or  even  noxious ;  while  at  other  times  it  is  medicinal,  &c.,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  substances  with  which  it  is  impregnated.  Native  water,  free  from  colour,  is 
almost  nevor  poisonous,  especially  if  it  be  at  the  same  time  tasteless ;  but  if  blue  from  cop- 
per, green  from  iron,  or  brown  from  vegetable  impregnation,  it  is  unfit  for  the  use  of  man. 
Water  performs  the  most  important  mnctions  in  uie  vegetable  ^  juiimal  ^ingdoiQSi  SQd 
enters  largely  mto  their  compositions,  as  a  constituent  part  .,     ,  ,  „'    ,.v,»,,',m  .)i. 


t^w^vfwrSirra-jFm 


■  ■rvyf'ri.'l-p.?*^;'^' 


m\ '  i  y  I'p. ' 


PaetIL 

of  the  year,  as  also 
ivail :  on  account  of 
i  time  of  returning 

hiefly  occasions  the 
id  warmer  than  that 
ip  and  displaced  by 
lut  the  reverse  often 
r  than  the  sea,  and 
;  are  more  frequent 
I  not  confined  to  any 

ch  is  a  northerly  or 
Pliny  describes  it  as 
t  is  supposed  to  be  a 
lorthem  wind,  which 
ithian  wind,  because 
irop.  A  gqmU,  or 
loeity  is  sufficient  to 
Is  have  frequently  a 
even  thunder ;  these 
id  zone.  The  sirocco 
en  it  reaches  Naples 
!  warm  climates  are 
^he  south,  and  known 
amsin  of  Egypt,  the 
jvhich  frequently  cut 
nance  of  one  of  the 
lis  is  not  well  ascer- 
of  burning  sand  and 
;  is  a  warm,  dry,  east 
Dn. 

iir ;  but  the  maximum 
jentle  breeze  moves 
foot ;  a  brisk  pleasaut 
gvind,  30  to  35  mUcs, 
&c.  has  a  velocity 

ed  by  the  density  of 
,ufoy,  Annals  Phil. 

sketch  by  noticing 
jr-rated.  From  the 
it  the  mean  velocity 
le  temperature  and 

■  .  ■  1  .a  u't 


operties  and  rcla- 
but  mankind  must 
e  globe  difier  con- 
omestic  purposes, 
holds  in  a  state  of 
her  of  substances 
of  absolute  puritv* 

influence  en  tht. 

to  render  it  unfit 
,  according  to  the 
ee  from  colour,  is 
if  blue  from  cop- 

the  use  of  man. 

lal  kingdoms,  and 


BoorII. 


tlJ*!/    HYDROLOGY.    <  ^'^ 


187 


The  substance  of  water  presents  itself  under  three  difl^rent  fimns  of  aggregation.  It 
under  sufficient  pressure,  it  is  liquid  at  all  temperatures  above  ^^,  so  far  aa  u  loiown.  It  it 
densest  at  the  temperature  of  HOP.  When  coded  down  to  82°,  it  ordinarily  assumes  the 
solid  form  of  ice ;  but  if  great  care  be  taken  to  avoid  agitation,  it  may  be  cooled  almost  to 
eero,  without  freezing.  Congelation  commences  in  the  fbrm  <^  prismatic  crystals,  crossing 
each  other  at  an;|les  of  60°  or  120°,  and  the  temperature,  however  low  before,  instantly 
rises  to  32°.  Ponng  this  process,  the  man  expanos  with  a  prodigious  force,  the  volume 
suddenly  increasing  about  a  ninth  part  Glass  bottles  filled  with  water,  and  properly  stopped, 
are  burst  during  its  congekition,  and  the  same  has  happened  to  a  strong  bomlwell  Water 
passes  into  vapour  at  all  temperatures,  and  under  any  pressure;  when  the  elasticity  of  tJie 
vapour  ecjuala  or  exceeds  the  incumbent  pressure,  the  process  proceeds  with  violence,  ojid  is 
called  boiling.  Under  the  ordinaiv  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  this  takes  place  at  about 
212°  of  Famrenheit's  scale ;  but  tne  boiling  temperature  varies  with  tiie  pressure :  hence, 
water  boils  at  a  lower  temperature  on  a  mountain  top,  and  at  a  higher  in  a  deep  pit 

The  relatimis  of  water  to  heat  are  very  remarkable.  With  me  exception  of  hydrogen 
gas,  it  aheorba  more  heat  in  warming,  and  parts  with  more  in  cooling,  than  otiher  bodies  do. 
Hence,  large  bodies  of  water  have  a  powerful  mfluence  in  checkmg  or  retarding  sudden 
alterations  of  temperature  in  the  surrounding  aur.  Ice,  in  melting,  absorbs  as  much  heat  as 
would  raise  its  temperature  140°,  and  gives  out  the  like  quantity  again  in  freezing, — a  pro- 
perty that  enables  it  to  resist  or  retard  sudden  alterations  of  temperature  in  cold  clunates,  in 
a  more  remarkable  degree  than  the  other ;  which,  however,  exerts  its  influence  in  the  torrid 
and  temperate  as  well  as  in  the  frigid  xoae.  Lastly,  water,  in  assuming  the  elastic  form, 
absorbs  heat  sufficient  to  raise  its  temperature  1000°,  and  piuls  with  as  much  during  re-con- 
densing into  water ;  so  that  water  possesses  an  almost  boundless  influence  in  tempering 
climate. 

Water,  as  to  its  compositicm,  was  long  ranked  among  the  simple  elements;  but  the 
researches  ol' modem  chsmistry  have  ascertained  that  it  is  a  compound  of  88.9  of  oxygen, 
and  11.1  of  hydrogen;  or  its  composition  by  volume  and  weight  may  be  thus  stated :  one 
volume  of  oxygen  combined  with  two  of  hydrogen,  or  eight  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen,  with 
one  of  hydrogen.  It  is  composed  and  decompmod,  during  many  of  the  operations  of  nature, 
and  its  chemical  agency  is  almost  universtd.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  most  bodj^^  which 
appear  under  the  crystalline  form.  -  ;-    ;'^^,,';  •:«*.,,., 

Sect.  I. — The  Ocean, 

The  ocean  is  the  origin  and  fountain  of  all  the  other  waters  which  occur,  in  whatever 
form,  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  According  to  some  naturalists,  it  forms  the  remains  jf  the 
menstruum  or  chaotic  fluid,  in  which  all  solid  bodies  were  originally  held  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion, and  ham  which  they  have  been  precipitated  or  crystallized,  m  short,  brought  to  their 
present  state,  during  the  countless  ages  which  these  processes  are  supposed  to  have  occupied, 
anterior  to  tiie  creation  of  man :  be  this  as  it  may,  we  are  certam,  that  it  is  flrom  the  vapours 
exhaled  by  the  ocean  that  the  atmosphere  is  flimished  with  sufficient  moisture  to  support  and 
refresh  the  organized  bein^  which  inhabit  the  earth.  All  nature  languishes  when  the 
atmosphere  withholds  its  ram  and  dews ;  plants  fade  and  droop ;  aninna^s  reel  their  strength 
&iling ;  even  man  himself,  breathing  nothing  but  dust,  can  with  iUiIi<;ulty  procure  belter 
from  the  sultry  heat  by  which  his  fhune  is  parched  and  overpr  vered.  Tne  ocean  is  die 
grand  thoroughftxe  of  commerce,  forming  a  medium  of  communication  between  the  most 
distant  and  o&erwise  inaccessible  portions  of  the  earth.  It  consists  of  one  continuous  fluid, 
spread  round  Uie  land,  and  probablv  extending  from  pole  to  pole.  All  the  gulfe,  all  the 
inland  seas,  form  only  pfMlions  detached,  but  not  entirely  separated,  from  that  universal  sea, 
denominated  the  ocean.  Geographers  roundly  estimate  the  ocean  and  its  branches  to  occupy 
three  fourths  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  globe.  But  to  ascertain  the  exact  proportion 
between  the  land  and  water  will  afford  them  ample  emplojrment  for  ages  to  come,  though 
every  day  adds  to  the  stock  of  information  already  acquired. 

The  ocean  is  variously  subdivided  by  difierent  authors :  it  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into  five  great  basins. 

The  Pacific,  so  named  ttom  its  comparative  tranquillity,  and  often  called  also  the  Great 
South  Sea,  separates  Asia  fipom  America.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  basins,  and  somewha: 
exceeds  the  entire  surface  of  diy  land.  Its  greatest  extent,  from  east  to  west  is  about  3700 
leagues,  and  breadth  3700.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  western  and  north-west  shores 
of  America,  and  on  the  west  by  the  eastern  coasts  of  Asia :  on  the  western  side,  and  between 
the  tropics,  its  sur&ce  is  studded  with  innumerable  groups  of  islands,  all  remarkably  small ; 
and  consisting  generally  of  coral  reeft,  rising  up  nke  a  wall  from  unknown  depths,  and 
emerging  but  a  very  little  above  the  sea.  These  islands  are  the  works  of  innumerable 
minute  insects,  whose  in<iessant  labours  are  thus  gradually  forming  new  lands  in  the  bosom 
of  the  ocean.  On  the  wmtom  side,  it  communicates  with  the  inland  seas  of  Japan  and 
Okotsk,  the  Yellow  and  Chinese  seas ;  and  on  the  eastern  side,  it  has  the  inlets  of  Galifomiu 
and  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound.    The  ainall  isles  of  the  Pacific,  scattered  over  the  torrid  zone. 


188 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


have  their  temperature  to  moderated  by  the  ocean  aa  to  enjoy  the  most  delightTul  climate  in 
the  world. 

The  second  basin,  or  Aaantic  Ocean,  is  usually  divided  into  the  North  Atlantic,  and  the 
South  Atlantic,  or  Ethiopic  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Europe  and 
Africa ;  and  on  the  west,  by  America :  ttiat  part  of  it  between  Europe  and  North  America 
is  frequently  called  the  Western  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  basin  extends  ft«m  70°  N.  to  35° 
and  60°  S.  latitude ;  but  it  is  only  about  half  the  size  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  length  is 
about  2800  leagues,  but  tlie  breoath,  which  is  very  une(iual,  varies  from  600  to  1800.  The 
South  Atlantic  contains  few  islands  of  any  size,  and  no  inlets  of  consequence ;  but  the  North 
Atlantic  abounds  in  large  islands,  and  in  deep  and  numerous  inland  seas,  which  penetrate 
fkr  on  each  side  into  both  the  old  and  new  worlds,  and  have  fitted  it  for  the  most  extensive 
commerce  on  the  globe.  On  its  eastern  shores  it  receives  few  large  rivers  except  the 
Niger;  but  on  the  west  it  receives  the  Plata,  Orinoco,  Amazons,  and  Mississippi, — the 
lawest  riven  on  tiie  &ce  of  the  earth. 

The  third  basin  is  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  waslies  the  shores  of  the  south-east  coasts  of 
Africa  and  the  south  of  Asia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Indian  islands.  New  Holland, 
and  New  Zealand :  its  length  and  breadth  are  each  about  1500  leagues :  it  contains  many 
islands,  the  two  laree  bays  of  Bengal  and  Oman,  with  tlie  deep  inlets  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  Red  Sea.    The  naif-yearly  winds  called  monsoons  prevail  in  its  northern  prts. 

The  fburth  basin  is  the  Arctic  Ocean,  an  immense  circular  basin,  surroundmg  the  North 
Pole,  and  communicatinff  with  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  by  two  channels ;  the  one  separating 
America  from  Europe,  the  other  America  from  Asia.  Few  points  of  the  coasts  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  which  occupy  a  fbll  half  of  the  circumscribing  curcle,  extend  much  beyond  tne 
70th  parallel ;  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  other  boundaries,  consisting  of  the  northern  coasts 
of  America  and  Old  Greenland,  reach  nearer  the  Pole ;  so  that  the  mean  diameter  of  this 
basin  may  be  taken  at  800  leagues.  Its  interior  or  central  ports  ore  little  known :  several 
islands  are  scattered  over  its  southern  extremities,  the  largest  of  which  is  Old  Greenland, 
whose  northern  limit  is  unknown ;  the  others  are  Spitzberfen,  Nova  Zembla,  the  Isles  of 
New  Siberia,  diose  lately  discovered  by  Captain  Parry,  and  several  towards  B^n's  Bay. 
The  White  Sea,  on  the  north  coas^  of  Europe,  is  the  only  deep  gulf  connected  with  this 
basin,  which  is  of  any  importance  to  naviffation. 

The  fifth  basin  is  the  Antarctic,  whicn  is  still  less  known  than  the  preceding :  it  joins 
the  Pacific  in  the  latitude  of  50°  S.,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  in  that  of  40°.  Floating  ice 
occurs  in  every  part  of  it ;  but  it  is  very  abundant  within  the  parallel  of  60°.  It  was  long 
supposed,  that  a  large  continent  of  land  and  fixed  ice  occupied  the  greater  part  within  the 
antarctic  circle.  In  1819,  Captain  Smitli  discovered  land  lying  between  the  longitudes  of 
55°  and  65°  W.,  and  beginning  at  the  latitude  of  62°.  Mr.  Weddell  has  sinoe  examined 
this  quarter  nearer  the  Pole,  which  he  believes  to  be  frea  "-"m  fixed  ice. 

Of  the  inland  seas,  the  Mediterranean  is  the  larges*:  ost  important :  it  is  deserving 

of  notice  on  various  accounts,  and  in  porticulpr  as  h'  jeen  the  scene  of  by  far  the 

greater  number  of  the  nautical  adventures  of  antiquity,  it  ic  the  "  Great  Sea"  of  the  Sacred 
Writings,  though  we  find  it  there  spoken  of  under  other  names.  Its  greatest  leugth,  from 
east  to  west,  is  about  2350  miles ;  and  the  breadth,  which  is  sometimes  small,  is  at  tiie 

greatest  650.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Africa,  on  the  east  by  Asia,  and  on  the  north  by 
urope.  It  communicates  on  the  west  with  the  Atlantic  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and 
with  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Dardanelles  Strait  on  the  east.  It  has  many  islands,  gul^  and 
bays,  with  a  very  deep  inlet  on  the  north  called  the  Adriatic  Sea,  or  Gulf  dt  Venice.  The 
Black  Sea  is  connected  with  the  Sea  of  Azof;  but  these  containing  only  brackish  water, 
and  being  so  far  inland,  have  more  of  the  character  of  lakes  than  branches  of  the  ocean. 
Proceedin||  still  farther  eastward,  we  come  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  is  abundantly  salt,  and 
of  ffreat  dunensions;  but  being  wholly  unconnected  with  the  ocean,  will  be  afterwards 
spoKen  of  under  the  character  of  a  lake. 

The  Baltic  is  pretty  much  allied  to  the  Black  Sea,  in  having  only  brackish  waters,  which 
are  sometimes  wholly  firozen  over  for  several  months  in  winter,  and  the  ice  so  strong,  that 
armies  have  been  marched  across.  The  Baltic  communicates  with  the  German  Sea  by  the 
strait  called  the  Catte^t:  its  greatest  length  is  1200  miles.  The  North  Sea,  or  German 
Ocean,  is  bounded  by  Britain  and  the  Orkneys  on  the  west,  and  the  contment  of  Europe  on 
the  east ;  and  reaches  from  the  Straits  of  Dover  to  the  Shetland  Islands,  where  it  joins  the 
Northern  Ocean.  On  the  west  of  the  Atlantic  are  the  Gulfs  of  Mexico  and  St.  Lawrence, 
and  Hudson's  and  Baffin's  Bays;  but  we  must  now  proceed  to  treat  of  the  different  properties 
and  relations  of  the  ocean,  so  far  as  our  limits  will  permit 

The  usual  colour  which  sea  water  exhibits  is  a  bluish  green,  of  various  shades.  Some 
maintain,  that  this  is  its  true  and  proper  colour;  others,  that  it  is  an  optical  illusion,  occa- 
sioned by  the  greater  refinngibUity  of  the  blue  rays  of  light, — opinions  which  may  both  be 
true  to  a  certain  extent.  The  ocean  seems  often  to  assume  various  other  colours;  some  of 
them  no  doubt  real,  but  as  often  illusory.  Among  the  more  general  sources  of  deception, 
may  be  reckoned  the  aspect  of  the  sky :  thus,  an  apparently  £irk-coloured  sea  is  a  commop 


Part  II. 

It  delightflil  climate  in 

rorth  Atlantic,  and  the 
i  east  by  Europe  and 
le  and  North  America 
ids  fVom  70°  N.  to  85» 
3cean.  The  length  is 
3m  600  to  1800.  The 
luence ;  but  the  North 
seaa,  which  penetrate 
for  the  most  extensive 
urge  rivers  except  the 
and  Miasidsippi, — the 

le  Bouth-eost  coasts  of 
islands,  New  Holland, 
fues :  it  contains  many 
ts  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
lorthem  prts. 
surroundmg  the  North 
lis ;  the  one  separating 
f  the  coasts  of  Europe 
tend  much  beyond  tne 
}f  the  northern  coasts 
mean  diameter  of  thia 
little  known:  several 
hich  is  Old  Greenland, 
a  Zembla,  the  Isles  of 
towards  Baffin's  Bay. 
If  connected  with  thia 

lie  preceding :  it  joina 
of  40°.  Pk>ating  ice 
[1  of  60°.  It  was  long 
[reater  part  within  the 
ireen  the  longitudes  of 
1  has  sinje  examined 
ce, 

Drtant :  it  is  deserving 
B  scene  of  by  far  the 
at  Sea"  of  the  Sacred 
greatest  leugth,  fix>m 
:unes  small,  is  at  tiie 
I,  and  on  the  north  by 
aits  of  Gibraltar,  and 
ny  islands,  gulfs,  and 
lulf  of  Venice.    The 

only  brackish  water, 
uiches  of  the  ocean. 
a  abundantly  salt,  and 

will  be  ailerwarda 

iickish  waters,  which 
e  ice  so  strong,  that 
German  Sea  by  the 
irth  Sea,  or  German 
tinent  of  Europe  on 
where  it  joins  the 

0  and  St.  liawrence, 
different  properties 

jrious  shades.  Some 
Ipticol  illusion,  occa- 

1  which  may  both  be 
pr  colours;  some  of 
purees  of  deception, 
red  sea  is  a  commop 


Book  IT. 


^!     HYDROLOGY.    m^> 


Erognostic  of  an  approaching  storm ;  not  that  the  water  then  is  really  blacker  than  usual, 
ut  because  the  dark  colour  of  the  clouds  indistinctly  seen  in,  or  reflected  fh)m  the  waves,  is 
mistaken  for  the  colour  of  the  sea  itself.  Whatever  other  colour  the  sky  happens  to  wear 
has  a  greater  or  less  influence  on  the  appearance  of  the  ocean :  thus  red  clouds  seem  to  tinge 
it  red,  &c.  On  some  occasions,  the  edges  of  the  waves,  b^  refracting  the  solar  beams  like  a 
prism,  exhibit  all  the  different  colours  of  the  rainbow,  which  is  still  more  nearly  imitated  by 
the  refhiction  of  the  rays  in  the  spray.  Not  unftequently,  an  indistinct  image  of  the  neigh- 
bouring coast  reflected  tVom  the  ruffled  surfkce  is  mistaken  for  the  colour  of  the  water. 

The  vpriety  of  colours  in  the  sea  may  probably  arise  from  animal  and  vegetable  matters 
diffused  through  the  waters  in  a  putrescent  state,  and  communicatmg  various  tints.  The 
yellow  and  bright  green  shades  seem  to  be  owing  to  living  marine  vegetables,  which  grow 
at  the  bottom,  stretch  their  fibres  through  the  water,  or  spread  over  the  surface ;  and  it  is 
supposed  that  the  colour  of  innumerable  minute  animals  is  often  confounded  with  that  of  the 
aea.  Near  the  shore,  and  especially  towards  the  mouths  of  rivers,  the  difAision  of  mud  and 
other  earthy  matters  cannot  fail  to  affect  the  colour  of  the  sea :  where  it  is  shallow  or  very 
transparent,  the  colour  of  the  bottom  is  frequently  mistaken  for  that  of  the  water. 

The  colour  of  the  Greenland  Sco,  according  to  Mr.  Scoresby,  varies  tram  ultramarine  blue 
to  olive-green,  and  fh)m  the  most  pure  transparency  to  great  opacity.  These  appearances, 
he  thinks,  are  not  transitory,  but  permanent ;  not  depending  on  the  state  of  the  weather, 
but  on  the  quality  of  the  water.  Hudson,  in  1607,  noticed  these  changes,  and  observed  that 
the  sea  was  blue  where  there  was  ice,  and  green  where  it  was  open.  This,  however,  was 
only  accidental.  Phipps  does  not  mention  the  green  water ;  it  forms,  perhaps,  one-fourth  of 
the  Greenland  Sea,  between  the  latitudes  of  74°  and  80° ;  often  it  constitutes  long  bands  or 
currents,  lying  north  and  south,  or  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  Mr.  Scoresby  sometimes  passed  through 
stripes  of  pale  green,  olive-green,  and  transparent  blue,  in  the  course  of  ten  minutes.  The 
fooa  of  the  whale  occurs  chiefly  m  the  green  water,  and  there  the  fishers  look  for  them. 
Whales  are  more  easily  taken  in  the  opaque  green  water  than  in  the  transparent  blue,  be- 
cause they  do  not  readily  see  their  enemies  through  the  former.  On  examining  the  differently- 
coloured  sea  waters,  Mr.  Scoresby  found  various  substances  and  animalcules,  especially  in  the 
olive-green  water.  The  number  of  meduste  was  immense .  they  were  about  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  asunder.  Hence  a  rubic  foot  would  contain  110,502.  From  these,  and  many  simUar 
observations,  Mr.  Scoresby  concludes,  that  the  Arctic  Sea  owes  its  colour  to  animalcules,  and 
that  they  occasion  the  opacity  of  the  olive-green  water.  The  blue  water  contains  few  ani- 
malcules, and  is  uncomm'  nly  transparent.  The  surface  of  the  Mediterranean  sometimes 
appears  of  a  purple  tint.  In  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  the  sea  is  sometimes  white ;  and  around 
the  Maldive  islands,  black. 

The  transparency  of  the  sea  may  in  many  places  be  very  great,  without  such  property 
being  readily  noticed.  Thus,  where  the  water  is  sufficiently  deep  to  be  dark  at  the  bottom, 
it  may  seem  quite  opaque,  unless  some  fish  or  other  object  happen  to  come  within  view. 
Agitation  of  the  surface  will  likewise  tend  to  conceal  the  transjnrency.  In  general,  the 
oea  is  more  transparent  as  we  recede  from  the  shore,  and  in  cold  climates  than  in  hot ;  owing 
perhaps,  to  the  smaller  quantity  of  organic  matter  diffused  in  the  waters  of  high  latitudes. 
From  this,  however,  there  are  exceptions ;  as  in  the  opacity  of  the  Arctic  Sea  just  noticed, 
and  in  the  case  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  which  is  often  remarkably  transparent.  Admiral 
Milne  observed  the  bottom  at  a  depth  of  150  feet  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Authors  are  not 
agreed  to  what  depth  the  solar  rays  penetrate ;  and  indeed  we  have  every  reason  to  suppose 
that  this  mu(t  depend  upon  and  be  as  various  as  the  transparency.  Some  limit  the  penetra- 
tion to  a  depth  of  100  yards ;  while  others  more  than  double  that  quantity.  The  light 
diould  surely  penetrate  to  at  least  double  the  depth  to  which  an  observer  can  see  from  the 
8ur&ce. 

The  temperature  of  the  sea  has  probably  a  tendency  to  follow  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  climate ;  but  many  powerfiil  causes  must  interfere  and  modify  it  Thus,  between  the 
tropics,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  ocdiui  is  about  80'',  and  generally  ranges 
between  77°  and  84°.  Beyond  the  tropics,  it  begins  to  decrease,  but  without  observing  any 
strict  connexion  with  the  latitude;  because,  on  account  of  the  great  specific  heat  of  water, 
powerfiil  currents  cannot  fail  partially  to  preserve,  for  some  tune,  the  temperature  of  the 

[>Iace  from  which  they  come.  Hence,  currents  fhnn  the  torrid  zone,  on  possmg  into  higher 
atitudes,  raise  the  temperature  of  the  sea  above  what  usually  belongs  to  such  parallels;  the 
reverse  holds  of  cold  icy  currents  fhim  the  arctic  regions.  The  temperature  of  the  ocean  is 
much  more  steady  than  that  of  the  superincumbent  air,  and  has  likewise  a  smaller  annual 
range :  unless  where  very  shallow,  it  has  scarcely  any  diurnal  range. 

ITie  temperature  of  the  sea  on  descending  below  the  mirfiice  generally  decreases,  but  not 
according  to  any  uniform  or  known  law.  Thus,  at  a  depth  of  five  Mhoms,  it  is  sometimes 
1"  colder,  while  in  other  instances  it  requires  100  fiitnoms  for  1°.  Sometimes  the  cold 
attains  its  maximum  at  a  depth  of  100  fkthoms,  and  sometimes  it  requires  400  or  500  fiithoms. 


According  to  an  experiment  related  by  Capt  Sabine,  the  temperature  of  thi 
yfas  'tu.n°  at  a  depth  of  lOOO  ftthoms,  while  its  surfkce  was  83°.    But  the 


enormous  pres- 


.90 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaktIL 


niro  at  the  bottom  probably  compreaied  the  ball  of  the  thermometer,  and  kept  the  apparent 
temperature  45.5°  above  the  trutli.  In  the  Arctic  Sea,  however,  the  temperature  increaaes 
with  the  depth.  Mr.  Scoresby,  who  first  ascertained  thia,  found  an  increaae  of  6.6°  and  8° 
at  the  respective  depths  of  120  and  730  fathoms ;  Capt.  Parry,  6°  at  S40  ikthoms ;  Capt. 
Sabine,  7.5°  at  680  ftthoms;  Lieut  Beechy,  10°  at  700  fkthoms;  and  Mr.  Fisher,  9.6°  at  a 
depth  of  188  fathoms.  Thus,  the  rate  of  increase  of  temperature  in  the  Arctic  Sea  has  ■• 
inconstant  a  connexion  with  the  depth  as  the  decrease  in  the  temperate  and  torrid  zones, 
Bea  water  fireezes  atwUt  28°;  aller  which,  the  ice  has  been  olworved  to  cool  down  to 
»  550  J  but  we  cannot  thence  infer,  that  a  lower  temperature  does  not  occur  in  the  polar 
regions. 

The  phosphorescence  of  the  sea  is  a  common  but  very  remarkable  phenomenon,  concern- 
ing tlie  cause  of  which  authors  ore  not  agreed.  But  most  probably,  as  Newton  conjectured, 
it  proceeds  ih>m  a  variety  of  causes.  Since  his  time,  it  haa  engaged  the  attention  of  many 
eminent  philosophers.  The  appearance  of  these  lights  is  by  no  means  uniform.  Somctimea 
a  vessel,  in  travorsmg  the  ocean,  senms  to  mark  out  a  track  of  fire ;  while  each  stroke  of  an 
oar  emits  a  light,  sometimes  brilliant  and  dazzling,  at  other  times  tranquil  and  pearly.  These 
lights  ore  grouped  in  endless  variety.  Perhaps,  at  one  time,  innumerable  shining  points 
float  on  tlio  surface,  and  then  unite  into  one  extensive  sheet  of  light  At  another  Ume,  the 
spectator  fancies  he  sees  large  sparkling  figures,  like  animals  in  pursuit  of  each  other,  inces* 
aantly  vanishing  and  re-appearmg.  Such  lights  have  been  ascribed  to  luminous  animals, 
and  to  the  [diosphorescence  of  semiputrescent  matter  difilused  in  the  ocean.  It  is  well  known, 
that  various  fishes  and  other  marine  animals  emit  light,  which  does  not  in  every  instance 
appear  to  be  voluntary,  or  to  depend  on  the  vital  principle,  as,  in  some  of  them,  it  continues, 
and  perhaps  increases,  afler  death :  but  motion  seems  to  be  either  a  principal  cause,  or  at 
least  an  exciting  one ;  for  tills  light  more  rarely  occurs,  and  is  much  fainter,  in  still  water, 
whilst  it  becomes  more  and  more  brilliant  as  the  motion  increases.  It  is  also  more  abundant 
immediately  before  and  during  storms.  In  vol.  v.  p.  SOB.  of  the  Edin.  Phil,  Jour,,  Dr. 
Francis  Buchanan  has  given  a  very  interesting  account  of  an  extraordinary  shining  of  the 
Bea,  which  he  observed,  Slst  July,  1785,  in  longitude  61°  25'  £.,  ktitudc  6°  82'  N.  "  About 
a  quarter  past  seven  p.  m.,"  says  he,  "  the  sea  was  observed  to  be  remarkably  white.  The 
sky  was  everywhere  clear,  except  around  the  horizon,  where,  for  about  15°,  it  was  covered 
with  a  dark  haze,  as  is  usual  in  such  latitudes.  The  whiteness  gradually  increased  till  past 
eight  The  sea  was  then  as  high-coloured  as  milk,  not  unlike  tlie  milky  way,  the  luminous 
appearance  very  much  resembling  the  brighter  stars  in  that  constellation.  It  continued  in 
this  state  till  past  midnight  ana  only  disappeared  aa  daylight  advanced.  The  whiteness 
prevented  us  from  being  able  to  see  either  the  break  or  the  swell  of  the  sea,  although  both 
were  considerable,  as  we  knew  from  the  motion  of  the  ship  and  the  noise.  There  was  much 
light  upon  deck,  as  we  could  discern  all  the  ropes  much  more  distinctly  than  usual.  We 
drew  several  buckets  of  water,  in  which,  even  when  at  rest  there  appeared  a  gr^eat  number 
of  luminous  bodies.  The  bulk  of  them  did  not  appear  to  bo  more  than  one  quarter  of  on 
inch  ui  length,  and  nearly  as  much  in  breadtli.  Some,  however,  were  one  inch  and  a  half 
long,  and  of  tlie  same  breadth  as  the  others.  These  were  seen  to  move  in  the  same  manner 
OS  a  worm  does  in  water.  When  taken  up  on  the  finger,  they  retained  their  shining  faculty 
even  when  dry.  When  brought  near  a  candle,  their  light  disappeared ;  but,  by  minute 
attention,  an  extremely  fine  white  filament  could  be  observed  and  litled  upon  the  point  of  a 
pin.  It  was  of  a  uniform  shining  colour  and  form,  and  about  the  thickness  of  a  spider's 
thread.  In  a  gallon  of  water  there  might  be  about  400  of  these  animals  emitting  light 
The  water  itself,  when  in  the  bucket  had  a  natural  appearance.  The  atmosphere  was 
seemingly  free  firom  fog.  The  stars  were  bright  and  there  was  no  moonlight  The  night 
before,  the  same  appearance  was  observed  at  ten  p.  m.  ;  it  lasted  only  20  miiiutes ;  but  as  I 
was  below,  I  did  not  hear  of  it  till  it  was  over." — "  "The  animalcules  which  occasion  the 
unusual  luminousnesa  of  the  sea  emit  light  only  when  strongly  agitated,  and  hence  appear 
close  by  the  sides  of  the  ship,  Ot  v,-hai  any  larger  fish  passes  swifuy,  or  when  a  bucket  of 
water  is  drawn  and  suddenly  poured  out" — "  In  the  year  1805,  on  returning  firom  St  Helena 
to  England,  a  little  north  nom  the  equinoctial  line,  and  near  the  coast  of  Africa,  I  had  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  a  still  more  splendid  appearance  of  the  luminous  animalcules.  Soon 
after  dark  in  the  evening,  it  being  nearly  calm,  we  saw  numerous  lights  at  a  distance,  like 
the  lamps  of  a  great  city.  The  lights  gradually  approached  the  frigate,  and  on  reaching  us 
appeared  to  arise  from  a  great  many  large  fishes  (idoicores)  sporting  in  the  water,  and  agi- 
tating the  animalcules,  so  as  to  excite  ueir  luminous  powers."  ' 

The  deptli  of  the  sea  is  a  question  on  which  our  information  is  very  imperfect,  and  there 
is  little  likelihood  that  much  accurate  information  will  ever  be  obtained  on  the  subject  bo 
&i  as  reeards  the  wide  ocean.  According  to  the  ^culations  of  the  late  celebrated  Miir- 
quis  Laplace,  the  depth  of  the  ocean  is  comparatively  small,  and  nearly  uniform.  If,  how- 
ever, it  be  recollected  that  the  bottcnn  of  the  sea  is  still  a  part  of  the  eiulh's  sur&ce,  and  by 
much  the  greater  part  too,  one  would  be  apt  to  ask,  why  that  larger  part  of  the  surface 
■hould  be  more  level  than  what  appears  as  dry  land  1  The  soundings  which  have  been  mode 


•  ..■*Tr'\vti^^*Trvr 


-irc;T(,'  r 


^ ''s;T»Qjs»ir;ilw^"v;f^n' 


PartIL 

and  kept  the  apparent 
temperature  increaues 
ioreafleof6.6°and8(> 
,t  340ikthomB;  Capt. 
Mr.  Fisher,  9.5o  at  a 
the  Arctic  Sea  haa  u 
■ate  uid  torrid  zones, 
rved  to  cool  down  to 
not  occur  in  the  polar 

ihenomenon,  concern- 

I  Newton  conjectured, 

the  attention  of  many 

uniform.    Sometimes 

hile  each  stroke  of  an 

uil  and  pearly.  These 

lerable  shining  points 

At  another  tune,  the 

it  of  each  other,  inces< 

to  luminous  animals, 

lan.   It  is  well  known, 

not  in  every  instance 

of  them,  it  continues, 

principal  cause,  or  at 

fainter,  in  still  water, 

is  also  more  abundant 

Un,  Phil.  Jour,,  Dr. 

dinary  shining  of  the 

Jo  6°  32' N.    "About 

mrkably  white.    The 

it  15°,  it  was  covered 

illy  increased  till  past 

Iky  way,  the  luminous 

ion.    It  continued  in 

iced.    The  whiteness 

be  sea,  although  both 

se.    There  was  much 

tly  than  usual.    We 

9ared  a  ^eat  number 

ion  one  quarter  of  an 

one  inch  and  a  half 

in  the  same  manner 

their  shining  faculty 

red;  but,  by  minute 

upon  the  point  of  a 

ickness  of  a  spider's 

mala  emitting  light 

rhe  atmosphere  was 

onlight    The  night 

20  miiiutes ;  but  as  I 

which  occasion  the 

id,  and  hence  appear 

r  when  a  bucket  of 

ing  fipom  St  Helena 

t  or  Africa,  I  had  an 

animalcules.    Soon 

ts  at  a  distance,  like 

,  and  on  reaching  us 

the  water,  and  agi- 

mpertect,  and  there 
1  on  the  subject  bo 
.te  celebrated  Mar- 
uniform.  If,  how- 
th's  surface,  and  by 
part  of  the  surfitcc 
ich  have  been  made 


Book  It 


,7M       HYDROLOGY. 


191 


in  the  ocean  are  quite  inadequate  to  decide  the  question.  They,  however,  often  indicate  great 
inequalities  in  Uie  depth ;  but  how  far  hollows  may  have  been  filled  with  dti>ri»,  or  asperi* 
ties  worn  down,  it  is  not  easy  to  say ;  though  it  is  more  likely  that  the  summits  of  moun^ 
tains  ex]ioscd  to  the  altcmato  or  combined  uctions  of  air  and  moisture  suffer  a  more  rapid 
abrasion  than  those  which  are  wholly  under  water.  In  geijeral,  the  slope  of  the  adjacent 
shore  is  continued  downward  for  a  good  way  under  water ;  that  is,  the  sea  is  usually  shallow 
where  the  shore  is  fiat,  while  its  depth  increases  rapidly  by  the  side  of  a  cliff  or  steep  moun> 
tain.  It  is  therefore  probable,  that  some  islands,  though  very  small,  may  be  th?  tops  of 
sub-marine  mountains  as  large,  perhap,  as  the  highest  which  occur  on  the  earth's  surface. 
In  many  instances,  no  bottom  has  been  found;  but  this  might  proceed  either  fVom  the 
shortness  of  the  line,  or  fVom  its  being  borne  aside  by  rapid  currents.  We  have  already 
mentioned  a  sounding  of  6000  feet  in  the  Caribbean  sea;  but  Lord  Mulgrave's  line  of  4660 
feet  did  not  reach  tho  bottom  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  In  the  entrance  of  the  German  or 
North  Sea,  at  the  Straits  of  Dover,  the  central  depth  is  20  fhthoms.  This  extensive  basin 
contains  various  shallows  and  sand-banks ;  yet,  generally  speaking,  the  depth  increases  in 
going  northward,  and  near  to  Bergen  in  Norway  it  amounts  to  190  fathoms.  A  verv  inter- 
esting  account  of  tho  bed  of  the  German  Sea  is  given  by  Mr.  Stevenson,  Edin.  Phu.  Jour, 
m.  42. ;  and  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Wemerian  Society. 

The  level  of  the  open  sea  is  believed,  generally  speaking,  to  be  everywhere  the  same ; 
or  to  form  a  portion  of  the  surface  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  to  which  the  surface  of  the 
land  approaches  with  less  accuracy.  Some  gulfs  and  inland  seas  appear  to  deviate  in 
some  measure  from  tlic  general  rule.  This  is  more  particularly  the  case  where  the  com- 
munication of  such  seas  with  tlie  ocean  is  narrow ;  and  there  are  a  few  other  exceptions.'" 
When  the  general  motion  of  the  ocean  or  of  the  trade-winds  is  directed  into  the  mouth  of 
an  inknd  sea,  it  has  a  tendency  to  raise  its  level  above  that  of  the  ocean.  On  this  account 
it  is  that  tho  Arabian  Gulf  or  Red  Sea  is  higher  than  the  ocean,  and  still  higher  than 
the  Mediterranean,  which,  from  the  opposite  action  of  the  wind  and  the  great  evapora- 
tion, is  supposed  to  be  a  little  below  the  general  level. f  Some  gul&  and  inland  seas,  as 
the  Baltic  and  Black  Sea,  rise  in  spring,  from  tho  copious  influx  of  river  water,  and  are 
bwered  in  summer  by  evaporution  and  the  efflux  at  their  mouths.  Of  late  vears,  there  has 
been  considerable  discussion  regarding  the  subsidence  of  the  Baltic  below  the  level  it  had 
formerly  maintained  Whilst  some  support  this  opinion,  and  venture  to  explain  the  cause 
of  the  subsidence,  others  deny  the  fact  alto«;ether.  The  trade-winds  and  general  w^^tward 
motion  of  the  ocean  force  the  water  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  so  as  to  maintain  a  higher 
level  there  than  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.|  The  consequence  of  this 
accumulation  of  water  is,  that  it  generates  a  current  moving  northwards ;  and  which,  after 
various  windings  through  the  Atlantic,  at  length  reaches  the  western  shores  of  Europe,  as 
will  be  more  particularly  noticed  hereafter.  Some  naturalists  allege,  that  the  debris,  or 
alluvial  matters  daily  abraded  by  the  action  of  the  weather  on  the  surface  of  the  land,  and 
swept  into  the  ocean  by  the  rain  and  rivers,  must,  at  length,  raise  the  level  of  the  ocean  till 
it  cover  the  whole  globe,  and  restore  tho  reign  of  ancient  chaos.  Unless  there  be  some 
compensating  process,  which  either  makes  up  for  the  exhausted  materials,  or  gradually  ele- 
vates the  entire  continents  above  the  water,  it  is  not  very  easy  to  guess  at  an  alternative. 
A  compensating  power  is  situated  deep  in  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

The  taste  of  sea  water  is  disagreeable  and  bitter,  at  least  when  taken  from  the  surface  or 
near  the  shor'* ;  but  when  drawn  ii'om  great  depths,  its  taste  is  only  saline.  It  would  there- 
fore seem  that  the  bitterness  is  owing  to  the  greater  abundance  of  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  near  the  surface.  Man,  in  a  civilized  state,  cannot  make  use  of  sea  water  as  drink ; 
yet  it  is  said  that  the  inhabitants  of  Easter  Island,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  make  it  their 
usual  beverage.  Some  of  the  lower  animals  occasionally  travel  far  to  drink  sea  water. 
Sheep  are  very  fond  of  licking  the  dry  salt ;  and  so  are  horses  and  cattle.  With  them  it  ia 
a  cure  for  various  complaints.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  render  sea  water  pota- 
ble, or  to  free  it  from  salt  Distillation  is  the  meet  effectual ;  but  the  expense  of  fiiel  is  a 
serious  objection  to  this  method  at  sea,  and,  after  all,  it  does  not  divest  it  of  all  its  bitterness. 
Thus,  in  the  midst  of  water,  mariners  are  frequently  in  danger  of  dying  of  thirst,  when 
they  run  short  of  fresh  water.  Sea  ice,  when  melted,  affords  nearly  fresh  water ;  but  being 
dcvcud  of  air,  its  taste  is  not  very  agreeable,  though  it  would  be  highly  prized  in  time  of 
need.  A  temporary,  and  in  eome  degree  an  imaginary,  relief  may  be  obtamed,  by  holding 
■alt  water  in  tiie  mouth. 

The  saline  contents  of  the  waters  of  the  wide  ocean  do  not,  so  fiur  as  experience  has  gone, 
vary  much  in  different  latitudes  and  under  different  meridians,  although  we  ought  to  find 
the  sea  flasher  in  the  spaces  occupied  by  the  internal  limits  of  the  trade-wind,  and  also  in 
those  tracts  of  the  ocean  where  calms  and  a  high  temperature  prevail,  as  on  the  west  coast 


*  Strabo  tayt  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  in  higher  than  that  of  the  Gulf  of  OenchreB. 
i>!^  iM    t  fii^  Maclaren  on  the  level  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Joamof. 
ii><:4  lY';,   X  '^B  mean  height  of  the  Pacific  above  the  Atlantic  ii  said  to  bo  3LS9  nmt. 


'ii''-l!»-' 


109 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIL 


of  Aftica.  The  ir  :an  ia  about  8.5  per  cent,  in  the  weight  of  the  vrater;  but  the  saltneM  ia 
more  or  loss  aflbcul  by  currents  and  Btorms.  It  is  diminiBhed  at  the  Burface  during  heavy 
rains,  and  by  the  discharge  of  rivers :  but  increased  by  evaporation,  which  carriea  off  the 
water  fresh,  and  leaves  tlio  salt  bcliina  :  lienco  there  is  often  little  consistency  in  detached 
olMervations,  From  a  great  variety  of  experiments,  Dr.  Marcet  concludes :  1.  That  the 
Southern  Ocean  contains  more  salt  than  the  Northern,  in  the  ratio  of  1.0291  to  1.087S7. 
2.  That  the  mean  specific  gravity  of  sea  water  near  the  equator  is  1.02777,  intermediate 
between  those  of  the  northern  and  southern  hemispherea.  3.  That  there  ia  no  notable  dif> 
ference  in  aea  water  under  different  meridiana.  4.  That  there  ia  no  aatisfkctory  evidence 
that  the  sea  at  great  depths  ia  more  salt  than  at  the  aurface.  5.  That  the  aea,  m  general, 
contains  more  Nilt  where  it  is  deepest  and  most  remote  fh>m  land ;  and  that  its  saitneaa  ia 
alwaya  diminished  in  the  vicinity  of  largo  masses  of  ice.  6.  That  small  inland  aeas,  though 
communicating  with  the  ocean,  are  much  less  salt  than  the  open  ocean.  7.  That  the  Medi- 
terranean  contains  ratlier  larger  proportiona  of  salt  than  the  ocean.  This  last  is  explained 
fh>m  tho  fact,  that  a  pretty  strong  current  fVom  the  Atlantic  always  flows  inward  at  tke 
mouth  of  the  Mediterranean,  to  supply,  as  was  supposed,  the  water  which  escaped  b; 
evaporation,  and  left  its  salt  behind.  So  great,  however,  ia  the  influx,  that  thia  inland  aea 
ougnt  to  have  become  perfect  brine,  or  perhaps  to  have  deposited  beda  of  aalt,  if  there  were 
no  iffflux }  and  accordingly  it  ia  maintained  that  there  is  on  outward  current  at  the  bottom, 
very  deep,  which  carries  off  this  excess  of  salt,  and  prevents  its  deposition  in  the  vast  hol- 
lows in  tne  bottom.  The  water  drawn  up  fVom  this  lower  current  u  saltor,  in  a  small  de> 
gree,  than  at  the  Burfkce. 

The  following  are  the  mean  apecific  gravities  of  the  waters  of  different  aeas,  according 
to  Dr.  Marcet'a  experiments: — 


Arctic  Oeciin 1,09004 

Northern  Hemiiphere 1.03890 

Southern  Homiiphere 1.03881 

Yellow  Soa I.03S01 

Mediterranean 1.03030 

Sea  or  Marmora 1.01015 


Black  8ea 1.01418 

White  Sea 1.01901 

Baltic 1.01S93 

Lake  Ourmia,  In  Penia 1.10807 

Duad  Sea 1.11100 


The  saltness  of  inland  seas  is  subject  to  manv  vaiieticz.  In  tlio  entrance  to  tho  Black 
Sea,  the  water  is  much  Salter  at  the  bottom  than  the  surface.  To  account  for  this,  it  is  said 
that  an  under  current  enters  from  the  Mediterr'inean.  It  ia  well  known  that  there  is  an 
outward  current  at  the  surface,  whicii  brir  js  with  it  the  less  salt  water  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  saltness  of  inland  seas  is  often  affected  by  tho  direction  and  strength  of  the  wind,  either 
forcing  in,  or  retarding  the  entrance  of,  water  from  tho  ocean.  Accoraingly,  from  the  expe- 
riments of  Wilcke,  it  appears  that  the  saltness  of  the  Baltic  is  increased  by  a  west  wind,  and 
still  more  so  by  a  north-west  wind ;  but  it  undergoes  a  diminution  when  the  wind  is  from 
the  east    Thus,  the  specific  gravities  are,  for  a 


Wind  at  W 1.0067 

Ditto  at  N.W. 1.0008 


Storm  at  W. 1.0118 

Wind  at  E. 1.00.19 


Hence,  the  proportion  of  salt  in  the  Baltic  depends  in  no  small  degree  on  the  different  winds; 
a  proof  that  the  salt  is  not  only  derived  fh)m  the  neighbouring  ocean,  but  that  storms  have  a 
much  greater  effect  on  it  than  has  been  commonly  supposed. 

The  constituent  parts  of  sea  water  have  been  an  object  of  examination  to  many  chemists, 
and  various  sets  of  experiments  made  to  determine  tliem.  The  late  Dr.  Murray  of  Edin- 
burgh was  of  (pinion  that  there  were  various  sources  of  fkllacy  in  analysing  sea  water;  and 
that  different  modes  of  operating  on  the  same  water  gave  very  different  results.  Two 
reasons  are  assigned  for  this ;  viz.  that  some  of  the  different  salts  mutually  decompose  each 
other  in  the  process,  and  that  a  part  is  lost  altogether  by  evaporation,  especially  if  the  tem- 
perature be  high.  According  to  this  eminent  chemist,  10,000  parts  of  water  firom  the  Frith 
of  Forth,  which  is  not  sensib^  different  fh)m  that  of  the  ocean,  contain  220  parts  of  common 
salt,  33  of  uulphate  of  soda,  42  of  muriate  of  magnesia,  and  8  of  muriate  of  lime.  On 
analjrsing  sea  water  fVom  N.  latitude  25°  30',  W.  longitude  32°  80',  Dr.  Marcet  made  die 
numbers  respectively  266,  47,  52,  and  12.  According  to  Bladh,  the  saltness  is  greater  about 
tho  tropics  than  at  the  equator.  Dr.  Trail  maintains  the  contrary ;  and  also  that  the  salU 
ness  increases  with  the  depth. 

Ice  is  formed  on  the  sea,  though  its  saltness  enables  it  to  resist  the  process  of  congelation 
at  the  ordinary  freezing  point  of  fresh  water.  This  quality  does  not  withstand  the  rigour 
of  the  Arctic  regions,  where  the  temperature  of  the  air  has  been  observed  so  low  as  65°  F. 
Sea  water  freezes  about  28°,  but  the  temperature  varies  a  little  with  the  saltness. — It  is  a 
curious  circumstance,  that  sea  water  parts  with  its  salt  in  freezing.  Hence  compact  trans- 
parent sea  ice  af&rda  ftesh  water  on  being  melted.  When,  however,  the  ice  is  of  a  loose 
or  cellular  texture,  its  pores  sometimes  contain  liquid  brine ;  and  therefore,  on  being  melted, 
it  affords  brackish  water.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  affinity  between  the  water  and  salt  which 
retards  the  congelation  of  sea  water ;  because  the  greater  the  saltness,  the  lower  is  the 
freezing  temperature.  Detached  masses  of  ice  are  occosinnnlly  met  with,  floating  in  the 
ocean  at  so  low  a  parallel  of  latitude  as  40°  in  both  hemispheres ;  having  been  conveyed 


PabtIL 

r ;  but  the  nltnen  ia 
Buriace  during  heavy 
which  carriea  off  the 
neiBtoncy  in  detached 
iciudes:  1.  That  the 
of  1.0291  to  1.08787. 
1.02777,  intermediate 
liere  is  no  notable  di& 

Batitfhctory  evidence 

tho  sea,  in  ffeneral, 
Lnd  that  its  aaltnen  ii 
,U  inland  seaa,  thouffh 
I.  7.  That  the  Medi- 
This  last  is  explained 

flows  inward  at  the 
)r  which  escaped  by 
K,  that  this  inland  sea 
of  salt,  if  there  were 
jrrent  at  the  bottom, 
isition  in  the  vast  hoi- 

Salter,  in  a  small  de- 
ferent seas,  according 

1.01418 

I.OIWI 

1,0IS33 

1.16807 

1.11100 

entrance  to  the  Black 
louat  for  this,  it  is  said 
own  that  there  is  an 
iter  of  the  Black  Sea. 
tUi  of  the  wind,  either 
lingly,  from  the  expe- 
id  by  a  west  wind,  and 
icn  the  wind  is  from 


Book  II 


HYDROLOGY. 


U0 


.1.0118 
.LOWS 


in  the  different  winds; 
jut  that  storms  have  a 

[on  to  many  chemists, 
Dr.  Murray  of  Edin- 
rsing  sea  water;  and 
ferent  results.  Two 
lally  decompose  each 
[specially  if  the  tern* 
water  from  the  Frith 
|220  parts  of  common 
mriate  of  lime.  On 
Marcet  made  the 
less  is  greater  about 
^d  also  that  the  salt- 

cess  of  congelation 
irithstand  the  rigour 
ired  so  low  as  65°  F. 
(he  saltness. — It  is  a 
ence  compact  trans- 
lie  ice  is  of  a  loose 
Ire,  (Ml  being  melted, 
Vater  and  salt  which 
Iss,  the  lower  is  the 
irith,  floating  in  the 
ring  been  conveyed 


thiUier  by  currents  flrom  the  polar  regions.*  At  the  parallel  of  50°  tliey  are  more  abundant ; 
and  diere  it  is  common,  in  wmtor,  to  see  the  shallow  edges  of  the  sea  covered  with  ice.  A*. 
60°  N'  latitude,  the  gulfs  and  inland  seas  are  frequently  iVozen  over  their  whole  surfhce. 
As  wo  proceed  toward  the  poles,  the  ice  becomes  more  and  more  abundant,  and  of  larger 
dimensions,  till  at  length  we  come  to  Jifldt  of  ice,  and  iceberg$  or  mountains  of  ice.  The 
process  of  congelation  commences  at  the  surface  of  the  sea,  with  the  formation  of  slender 
prismatic  crystals  resembling  wet  snow :  this  the  seamen  call  ihtdge.  The  surface  is  at 
flrst  rough ;  out,  by  the  union  of  the  crystals  and  the  accumulation  of  the  iluige,  the  surfac* 
becomes  smooth  and  forms  a  coi  inued  sheet,  which  is  next  broken,  by  the  agitation  of  tho 
water,  into  flragments  of  about  three  inches  diameter ;  these  again  coalesce  into  a  continued 
iheet  of  a  stronger  texture,  which  is  in  its  turn  broken  as  before,  but  into  larger  fragments 
called  pancake  tee.  Where  the  water  is  fVee  fVom  all  agitation,  the  congelation  ^oe»  on 
more  regularly,  and  some  allege  more  rapidly.    During  24  noura  of  keen  irost,  the  ice  fVe- 

Suently  attains  a  thickness  of  from  two  to  three  inches,  and  is  soon  fit  for  walking  on :  it  is 
^en  called  bay  ice.  When  the  thickness  is  about  a  foot,  it  is  called  light  ice ;  and  when 
three  feet  thick,  heavy  ice.  The  term  ield  is  given  to  a  sheet  of  ice  so  extensive  that  its 
fiurther  end  cannot  be  seen  from  a  mast-head.  Very  krge  loosened  pieces,  whose  boundaries 
may  be  seen  readily,  are  called  floea.  Fragments  of  thick  ice  floating  together  are  called 
broth  ice.  Floating  ice  of  any  sort,  sufficiently  loose  to  allow  a  vessel  to  pass  through,  is 
called  open  or  drift  *<!C'  Indocd,  there  is  no  end  to  the  terms  which  seamen  apply  to  different 
sorts  of  ice.  Tho  sudden  disruption  of  extensive  fields  is  sometimes  produced  by  that  power- 
ful tendency  to  undulation  of^  the  surface,  communicated  by  the  motions  of  the  adioining 
liauid  surface  of  the  ocean  during  a  continued  storm,  which  is  denominated  a  ground  swell. 
The  ice,  when  thm,  merely  yields ;  but,  if  thick  and  little  flexible,  it  is  broken  with  tre- 
mendous noise.  A  very  interesting  account  of  such  a  phenomenon  is  given  by  a  party  of 
missionaries  who  passed  along  the  coast  of  Labrador  in  sledges  drawn  by  dogs.  They  nar- 
rowly escaped  destruction;  but  were  near  enough  to  witness  all  its  grandeur.  "The  mis- 
sionaries met  a  sledge  with  Esquimaux  turning  m  fh>m  the  sea,  who  threw  out  some  hints 
that  it  might  bo  as  well  for  them  to  return.  Afler  some  tune,  their  own  Esquimaux  hinted 
that  there  was  a  grotmd  swell  under  the  ice.  It  was  then  scarcely  perceptible,  except  on 
lying  down  and  applyiiu;  the  ear  close  to  the  ice,  when  a  hollow  disagreeable  grating  noiso 
was  heard  ascendmg  from  the  abyss.  As  the  motion  of  the  sea  under  the  ice  had  grown 
more  perceptible,  they  became  alarmed,  and  began  to  tiiink  it  prudent  to  keep  close  to  tho 
diore.  The  ice  also  had  fissures  in  many  places,  some  of  which  formed  chasms  of  one  or 
two  feet ;  but  as  tliese  are  not  uncommon  even  in  its  best  state,  and  the  dogs  easily  leap 
over  them,  they  are  firightful  only  to  strangers.  As  the  wind  rose  to  a  storm,  the  swell  had 
now  increased  so  much  that  its  effects  on  the  ice  were  extraordinary,  and  really  alarming. 
The  sledges,  instead  of  gliding  smoothly  along  as  on  an  even  surface,  sometimes  ran  wim 
violence  after  the  dogs,  and  sometimes  seemed  with  difiiculty  to  ascend  a  rising  hill.  Noises, 
too,  were  now  distinctly  heard  in  many  directions,  like  the  report  of  cannon,  from  the  burst- 
ing of  the  ice  at  a  distance.  Alarmed  by  these  frightful  phenomena,  nu?  travellers  drove 
with  all  haste  towards  the  shore ;  and  as  they  approached  it,  the  pro?  >  t  before  them  woa 
tremendous.  The  ice,  having  burst  loose  Scorn  the  rocks,  was  tossed  tc  :>i>d  fro,  and  broken 
in  a  thousand  pieces  against  the  precipices  with  a  dreadful  noise ;  which,  aided  to  the  raginff 
of  the  sea,  the  roaring  of  the  wind,  and  tho  driving  of  the  snow,  so  completely  overpowered 
them  as  almost  to  deprive  them  of  the  use  both  of  their  eyes  and  ears.  To  make  the  land 
was  now  the  only  resource  that  remained ;  but  it  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  that  the 
frightened  dogs  could  be  driven  forward ;  and  as  the  whole  body  of  the  ice  firequently  sunk 
be£>w  the  summits  of  Uie  rocks,  and  then  rose  above  them,  the  onl^  time  for  landing  was  the 
moment  it  ^fained  the  level  of  the  coast, — a  circumstance  which  rendered  the  attempt 
extremely  nice  and  hazardous.  Both  sledges,  however,  succeeded  in  gaining  the  shore,  and 
were  drawn  up  on  the  beach,  though  not  without  great  difficultr.  Scarcelr  luid  thev  reached 
it,  when  that  part  of  the  ice  firom  which  they  had  just  escaped  burst  astmder,  and  the  water, 
rushing  up  from  beneath,  instantly  precipitated  it  into  the  ocean.  In  a  moment,  as  if  by 
signal,  the  whole  mass  of  ice  for  several  miles  along  the  coast,  uid  extending  as  flu:  as  the 
eye  could  reach,  began  to  break  and  to  be  overwhelmed  with  the  waves.  The  spectacle  was 
awfully  grand.  The  immense  fields  of  ice  rising  out  of  the  ocean,  clashing  against  one 
another,  and  then  plunging  into  the  deep  with  a  violence  which  no  language  can  describe 
and  a  noise  like  the  discharge  of  a  thousand  cannon,  was  a  sight  which  must  have  struck  the 
most  unreflecting  mind  with  solemn  awe.  The  brethren  were  overwhelmed  with  amaze* 
ment  at  their  miraculous  escape;  and  even  the  pagan  Esquimaux  expressed  gratitude  to 
God  for  their  deliverance."t 

The  term  iceberg  is  applied  to  huge  masses  of  ice  resembling  mountains,  whether  resting 
on  the  land  or  floating  on  the  sea.    The  latter  part  appear  to  be  sometimes  formed  in  the 

*  Honburgh  mentioni  loebergi  iMviBf  been  met  with  in  Bouth  lat.  3S0  54|',  and  Wwt  loBg.  ITO  59'  .—PMl.Mig 
t  Brown'i  Iliitorv  of  llie  Propaiatioo  of  Cbriitianity,  vol.  ii.  p.  57 
Vol.  I.  17  Z 


ItM 


SCIENCE   OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtII. 


■Oft  itnlf,  by  the  ftceumulation  of  ice  and  mow ;  at  other  timet  to  be  fhm;mont»  of  land  ie«* 
beruBor  ^lacion,  which  have  been  pilin^f  up  on  thr  ihore  till  quite  overgrown,  and  ultimately 
broken  and  launched  into  tiie  ocoan  by  their  own  weight  Maaiiea  of  this  sort  abound  in 
Biffin's  Bay,  where  they  are  aometimea  two  milea  lonff,  and  half  or  one  third  aa  broad.  They 
are  bristled  with  various  spires,  riaingf,  perhaps,  100  reet  above  the  surflue,  and  descendioff 
half  aa  much  below  it  when  compact  ice  floats  in  water,  the  part  under  the  aurfkce  it 
about  nine  times  as  great  aa  that  above  it ;  and  hence  the  icebergs  may  sometimes  descend 
to  a  great  depth,  tliouffh  they  should  bo  ftr  fVom  consisting  of  very  compact  ice.  Icebergs 
of  an  even  surfkce,  rising  00  feet  above  the  sea,  and  havin{[  an  area  of  five  or  aix  square 
miles,  are  very  common.  Those  of  East  Greenland  are  of  inferior  size,  and  they  are  still 
smaller  around  Spitzberren,  where  some  of  enormous  dimensions  occur  on  shore.  The 
reason  which  Mr.  Scoresby  assigns  for  this  is,  tliat,  owing  to  the  shallowness  of  the  water 
into  which  the  huge  masses  are  precipitated,  they  are  all  shattered  against  the  bottom  into 
a  thousand  pieces  nsfore  they  are  rairlv  launclied  into  deep  water.  "  On  an  excursion  to  one 
of  the  Seven  Icebergs,  in  July  1818,"  says  Mr.  Scoresby,  "  I  was  particularly  fortunate  in 
witnessing  one  of  the  grandest  effects  which  these  polar  glaciers  ever  present  A  strong 
north-westerly  swell,  having  ibr  some  hours  been  beating  on  the  shore,  had  loosened  a  num- 
ber of  fragments  attached  to  Uie  iceberg,  and  various  heaps  of  broken  ice  denoted  recent 
shoots  of  the  seaward  edge.  As  wc  rowed  towards  it  with  a  view  of  proceeding  close  to 
its  base,  I  observed  a  few  little  pieces  Ml  from  the  top ;  and  while  my  eye  was  fixed  upon 
tlie  place,  an  immense  column,  probably  50  feet  souare  and  160  feet  high,  began  to  leave 
the  parent  ice  at  the  top ;  and  leaning  majosticaJly  forward,  with  on  accelerated  velocity 
fell  with  an  awfiil  crash  into  the  sea.  The  water  into  which  it  plunge<)  was  converted  into 
an  appearance  of  vapour  or  smoke,  like  that  from  a  furious  cannonading.  The  noise  wu 
equal  to  that  of  thunder,  which  it  nearly  resembled.  The  column  which  fell  was  nearly 
square,  and  in  magnitude  resembled  a  church.  It  broke  into  a  thousand  pieces.  This  cir- 
cumstance was  a  happy  caution ;  for  we  might  have  inadvertently  gone  to  the  very  base  of 
the  icy  cliff,  from  which  masses  of  considerable  magnitude  were  continually  falling."  A 
huge  mass  of  this  sort  which  fell  on  a  Russian  ship,  broke  the  fore  and  main  masts,  sprung 
the  bowsprit,  and  flung  the  ship  over  with  such  violence  that  a  piece  of  ordnance  was  thrown 
overboard  from  under  the  hdf-deck,  and  the  captain  and  some  of  the  crew  were  projected  in 
the  same  rr  ^ner.  The  captain,  however,  escaped  unhurt;  but  the  mate  and  two  others 
were  killed,  and  many  were  wounded. 

Icebergs  variously  affect  navigation.  They  are  often  highly  useful  by  protecting  naviga^ 
tors  fh)m  gales,  as  well  as  firom  the  concussions  of  drift  ice,  which  moves  more  quiclcly  when 
acted  on  dv  the  wind  than  the  massy  iceberg.  To  the  latter,  ships  aro  sometimes  moored, 
but  not  without  danger;  for  these  floating  masses  are  sometimes  so  nicely  balanced  as  to  be 
easily  overturned,  should  they  happen  to  catch  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  concussion  pro- 
duced in  this  way  sometimes  detaches  large  fragments ;  and  sometimes  the  iceberg  rolls 
forward,  to  the  imminent  danger  of  tlie  vessel,  though  perhaps  100  yards  distant — so  great 
are  the  waves  and  whirls  caused  by  such  an  occurrence.  Many  dangers  and  discourage* 
ments  attend  the  navigation  of  the  polar  seas :  but  the  recent  attempts  to  discover  a  north- 
west passage  through  the  Arctic  Sea  have  rendered  the  ice  a  subject  of  considerable  interest 
These  attempts  have  not  yet  been  crowned  with  success:  but  different  navigators  have 
brought  such  different  accounts  of  the  state  of  the  ice,  that  it  is  probably  very  changeable 
and  very  difficult  to  examine.  It  is  not  quite  agreed  that  any  navigator  has  been  within  6° 
of  the  North  Pole ;  although  some  accounts  pretend  to  a  still  nearer  approach.  Captain 
Parry,  in  his  last  voyage,  reached  to  82"  45'  N.  lat  The  failure  of  Captain  Cook's  attempt 
to  penetrate  to  the  SouIJi  Pole  gave  rise  to  an  idea,  which  has  been  prett\  generally  enteN 
tained  since  his  time,  that  the  South  Pole  is  surrounded  with  fixed  ice  to  the  distance  of  18" 
or  19° ;  and  a  more  recent  Ri  jsian  expedition  gave  still  worse  hopes,  as  they  could  not  get 
beyond  the  latitude  of  70°  S.  Mr.  Weddell,  however,  has  since  reached  255  miles  nearor 
the  pole,  and  met  with  no  such  obstruction :  this  enterprising  navigator  contends  strenuously 
that  the  South  Pole  must  be  firee  finm  ice,  and  might  be  reached  by  sea.  Some  of  his  ar^ 
ments  are  rather  plausible ;  but  the  question  is  invdved  in  so  many  uncertainties,  that  nothing 
leas  than  actual  trial  can  decide  it 

The  expansion  and  contraction  of  ice  has  important  effects.  Though  water  undergoes  a 
great  cixinnsion  in  the  act  of  fireezing,  yet  ice  obeys  the  ordinary  law  of  solids, — that  of 
expanding  by  heat  and  contrs^ting  by  cold.  The  efiect,  therefore,  of  intense  cold  is  to  ohi- 
tract  ice,  which,  if  of  large  dimensions,  or  fixed  all  around,  has  no  alternative  but  to  rend 
where  it  is  contracting  most  This  is  often  attended  with  a  tremendous  report  On  the 
contrary,  a  rise  of  temperatures  may  not  only  bring  the  parts  to  meet  again,  but  often  makes 
them  lap  over,  or  burst  up  with  great  violence.* 

The  motion  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean  is  almost  perpetual ;  and  it  is  believed,  that  withoot 


*  The  moat  ntiiftetofv  iceonnt  of  the  polar  iea  is  that  of  Boomby,  flnt  puUiihed  in  the  Memoln  of  the  WiC 
■anu  Natural  Hiftoiy  Bocietjr 


PAaxfl. 

iffmcnU  of  land  io«« 
Town,  and  ultimately 

this  sort  abound  in 
Jiird  aa  broad.  They 
fkco,  and  descending 
inder  the  surikco  u 
^  aomotimos  descend 
npact  ice.  Icebergs 
)f  five  or  aix  aquara 
Q,  and  they  are  still 
Bur  on  shore.  The 
owness  of  the  water 
ainst  the  bottom  into 
I  an  excursion  to  one 
icularly  fortunate  in 
r  present  A  strong 
had  loosened  a  num* 
1  ice  denoted  recent 

proceeding  close  to 

eye  was  nxed  upon 
ligh,  began  to  leave 

accelerated  velocity 
1  was  converted  into 
ng.  The  noise  was 
hich  fell  was  nearly 
nd  pieces.  This  ciN 
e  to  the  very  base  of 
tinually  fallmg.*'  A 
i  main  masts,  sprung 
ordnance  was  thrown 
ew  were  projected  in 
nate  and  two  others 

by  protecting  naviga^ 

^s  more  quicKly  when 

sometimes  moored, 

¥  balanced  as  to  be 
he  concussion  pro- 
es  the  iceberg  rolls 

distant, — so  great 

rers  and  discourage* 

to  discover  a  north- 

onsiderable  interest 

ent  navigators  have 

ibly  very  changeable 

has  been  within  6° 
approach.  Captain 
>tain  Cook's  attempt 
ttv  generally  enteN 

the  distance  of  16" 
s  they  could  not  get 
ed  255  miles  nearer 
iontends  strenuously 

Some  of  hisarga 
ainties,  that  nothing 

water  undergoes  a 
of  solids, — that  of 
tense  cold  is  to  con« 
mative  but  to  rend 
tus  report  On  the 
in,  but  often  makes 

ilieved,  that  without 

Memoin  of  tiM  Wti 


r:  / 


BooiII. 


''i"T~rr':?-'^."^'",  ■/LT'ff^i^^'nTTi^'j 


METEOROLOGY.  «' 


105 


this  provision  in  the  economy  of  nafurp  tho  sea,  in  place  of  tempering  and  puriiyingthe  air, 
would  both  become  putrid  and  nxhale  noxious  vapours. 

Wave$.  The  motions  which  first  present  thomsolves  to  our  notice  are  the  partial  and 
sltomate  rising  and  fklling  of  the  surface,  known  by  tho  name  of  undulations  or  wavet.  Thi^ 
sort  of  motion  is  caused  by  the  wind,  which,  by  dislodging  or  depressing  a  certain  portion  of 
the  waters,  has  destroyed  the  equilibrium  or  level,  which  they  naturally  end -savour  to  recover. 
Waves  may  be  compared  to  the  reciprocation  of  water  in  a  syphon  or  bent  tub?.  !t  was  in 
tnis  way  that  Newton  deduced  the  velocity  of  waves,  and  the  time  required  to  an  undulation. 
If  water  ascend  and  descend  alternately  in  tho  logs  of  a  bent  tube,  and  a  pendulum  bo  con* 
itructed  whose  length  between  the  point  of  suspension  and  centre  of  oeoillation  is  o<iual  to 
half  the  length  of  the  water  in  the  tube,  then  this  fluid  will  ascend  and  descend  during  each 
oscillation  of  the  pendulum.  Hence  tlie  velocity  of  tho  waves  is  as  the  square  roots  of  their 
breadths ;  the  breadth  being  the  distance  between  the  tops  of  the  ridges.  In  the  same  way, 
it  maybe  shown  that  tho  apparent  progressive  motions  or  waves  through  spaces  equal  to  their 
breadths  are  performed  in  the  times  in  which  pendulums  oscillate  whose  lengths  are  equal  to 
these  breadths.  Hence  waves,  whose  breadth  is  39|  inches,  will  seem  to  pass  over  that  space 
m  one  second.  Waves  are  scarcely  ever  without  profinressive  motion ;  but  the  real  process 
of  the  surface  of  the  water  is  generally  small,  compared  to  the  apparent  motion  of  the 
waves ;  as  is  easily  proved  from  any  floating  body  which  does  not  rise  above  the  surfhce  so 
as  to  be  hurried  forward  by  the  w  ina.  Waves  are  distinguished  into  natural  and  accidental. 
The  natural  are  proportional  to  the  strength  of  the  wind  producing  them: — the  accidental 
ore  occasioned  by  repercussion  of  the  wind  from  hills  and  bold  coasts,  and  by  the  dasiiing 
of  the  waves  on  rocks  and  shoals.  Divers,  it  is  soid,  find  the  waters  perfectly  still  at  the 
depth  of  thirty  yards,  during  tho  greatest  tempest.  But  this  can  only  be  known  of  some 
sheltered  spots;  for  when  do  divers  descend  in  an  open  sea  during  a  tempest  1  Waves  are 
always  seen  rolling  towards  the  shore ;  but  an  obstacle  opposed  to  them  becomes  the  centre 
of  a  new  series  which  spreads  in  circles.  One  set  of  waves,  however,  may  not  interfere 
with  the  motion  of  another,  and  they  may  mutually  cross  without  interruption.  Sometimes 
the  ordinary  oscillations  are  combined  with  a  distant  swell,  called  the  bore,  which  rises 
impetuous  afler  certain  intervals.  Breakers,  or  waves  which  break  against  some  obstacle, 
when  formed  over  a  great  extent  of  shore,  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  turf.  The  surf 
is  greatest  in  those  parts  of  the  ocean  where  the  wind  blows  always  nearly  in  the  same 
direction. 

Currents.  There  are  two  permanent  and  general  sorts  of  currents  in  the  ocean,  which 
are  supposed  to  originate  in  two  great  movements,— that  of  the  tropical  waters  westward 
round  the  globe,  and  that  of  the  polar  waters  towards  the  equator.  But  it  is  plain  that  the 
latter,  or  polar  currents,  imply  the  existence  of  a  third  set,  moving  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion ;  otherwise  the  waters  at  the  poles  would  soon  be  exhausted,  together  with  the  ice  from 
which  they  are  partly  derived.  It  is  well  known  that  the  rain,  fog,  or  snow,  which  falls  in 
the  polar  regions,  could  never  supply  any  perceptible  current  towards  the  equator.  The 
movement  of  the  tropical  waters  westward  is  ascribed  to  the  agency  of  the  trade  winds, 
which,  blowing  constantly  from  the  east  must  impress  their  motion  on  the  sea  to  a  certain 
extent  But  the  resulting  current  is  necessarily  modified  by  the  position  of  the  great  conti- 
nents. This  grand  westerly  motion  prevails  TOnerally  between  30°  S.  and  80"  N.  latitude. 
According  to  Humboldt,  its  mean  velocity  is  from  nine  to  ten  miles  a-day.  In  the  Atlantic 
it  separates  into  two  branches,  ctn;  of  which  forms  the  well-known  Gulf  Stream.  This 
branch  flows  northward,  through  the  middle  of  the  Atlantic,  till  it  reaches  the  Cape  Verd 
Islands :  it  then  turns  west,  passes  through  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  strait  between  Cuba 
and  Yucatan,  winds  round  the  Mexican  Gulf,  and  rushes  out  by  the  Bahama  Chaimel ;  then 
Bpreading  out  to  a  greater  breadth,  it  sweeps  along  the  shores  of  the  United  States  to  New- 
foundland. At  this  point  it  is  deflected  south-eastward  by  a  southerly  current  from  Baffin's 
Bay,  and  passing  the  Azores  and  Canary  Isles,  returns  in  a  great  measure  into  itself,  and 
repeats  its  circumgyration.  The  waters  of  the  North  Atlantic,  between  the  latitudes  of  11° 
and  43°,  thus  form  a  conthued  whirlpool,  completing  a  circuit  of  3800  leagues  in  about  34 
months.  Its  velocity  is  greater  aa  the  depth  and  breadth  are  less.  Its  breadth  is  51 
leagues  in  the  Bahama  Channel,  and  velocity  from  three  to  five  miles  an  hour.  In  its 
retrograde  course  from  longitude  50°  to  the  Azores  the  breadth  is  160  leagues,  and  velocity 
fbm  seven  to  eight  miles  a-day.  An  insulated  expanse  of  almost  motionless  vrater,  140 
leagues  in  breadui,  occupies  the  interior  of  the  circuit  This  grand  current  sends  off  one 
branch  near  Newfoundland,  which  proceeds  north-eastward,  and  sometimes  deposits  tropical 
fhiits  on  the  shores  of  the  British  isles  and  Norway.  In  1776,  Dr.  Franklin  traced  this 
current  by  means  of  its  high  temperature,  quite  across  the  Atlantic ;  and,  since  his  time, 
it  has  been  more  closely  traced,  especially  by  Captain  Sabine.  A  second  branch,  escapine 
at  the  Azores,  enters  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  forms  the  upper  and  middle  current  which 
prevails  m  that  strait  Another  branch  of  the  great  tropical  current  sets  along  the  coast  of 
nrazil,  and  at  length  passes  through  the  Straits  of  Sugellan.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean  the 
waters  have  a  general  westward  motion  fiom  tlie  coast  of  Peru,  which  must  be  partly  sup* 


100 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pait  !I. 


plic<l  by  the  last-mentioned  current  after  doubling  Ckpe  Horn.  The  current  frtm  the 
coa«t  of  Peru  is  leM  porcoptibtc,  till  it  enter*  the  Indian  Ocean ;  wlion,  •trongthoned  by  tlie 
northerly  current*  there,  it  fluvvii  along  the  ooMtcrn  coast  of  Africa,  and  doubles  the  Capo  of 
Good  Hope,  in  a  rapid  ■troam,  130  miles  brood,  and  from  7°  to  8°  wannnr  than  the  conti- 
guuut  sea.  A  current  from  the  South  Pole  sots  along  the  west  sido  of  Now  Holland  into 
tho  Day  of  Bengal :  it  is  supposed  that  other  portions  of  the  general  polar  current  ileflect 
tlie  great  westerly  current  nortliward,  ailur  it  has  passed  thu  aouthem  promontories  of  Africa 
and  America.  In  tho  Nortliem  Ocean,  in  tlio  space  comprised  between  Greenland  and  thl 
coasts  of  Britain  and  Norway,  and  between  Labrador  and  Hpitzborgon,  a  gi^oat  body  of 
waters,  acted  on  by  threo  or  four  lateral  currents,  is  supposed  to  porform  a  perpetual  circuit. 
These  watora  receive  their  impulse  eastward  from  a  branch  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  which 

E asses  from  Newfoundland  along  tlio  north-west  coasts  of  Scotland  and  Norway.  At  the 
lorth  Capo  m  Lopland,  a  groat  westerly  current  from  Nova  Zembla  turns  the  waters  north- 
W08tw(ud  along  both  sides  of  Spitzbergen.  Boyond  this  iuland,  being  met  by  a  current  from 
thn  pole,  they  turn  south-westward,  and  pass  along  the  coast  of  Greenland  to  Davis's  Straits, 
whore  they  are  deflected  southward  by  a  fourth  current  from  Buflin's  Bay ;  and  having  re- 
turned to  Newfoundland,  recommence  thoir  revolution.  Thus  two  great  whirlpools,  con- 
nected with  ono  another,  touch  at  the  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  which  seems  to  be  a  bar  cast 
up  by  their  conflicting  waters;  and  revolving  in  opposite  directions,  occupy  four-flilhs  of  the 
North  Atlantic.  The  small  current  which  sots  trom  the  Bay  of  Biscay  across  the  mouth 
of  the  Englisli  Channel,  and  through  St.  George's  Channel,  is  most  probably  a  branch  of  the 
Gulf  Stream  which  had  come  off  at  the  Azores.  Were  other  parts  of  tlie  ocean  as  minutely 
examined  as  the  North  Atlantic,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  otlier  great  vortices  would  be 
discovered. 

Local  or  temporary  currents  are  produced  by  winds,  the  discharge  of  rivers,  the  melting 
of  ice,  &c.  In  general,  currents  which  do  not  descend  to  a  groat  depth  are  liable  to  change 
with  tjie  winds,  particularly  when  they  blow  for  a  long  time  with  equal  force,  as  the  mon- 
soons do.  These  winds  give  by  turns  entirely  opposite  directions  to  the  currents  which  pre- 
vail from  the  Maldivia  Islands  to  Arabia  and  Zangucbar.  When  the  suppljr  of  fresh  water 
in  an  inland  sea  falls  short  of  what  \ft  carried  off  by  evaporation,  its  level  will  have  a  tend- 
ency to  fall  below  that  of  tlie  ocean ;  and  hence  the  water  will  flow  into  it  from  tlie  ocean. 
But,  as  formerly  noticed,  a  continual  influx  of  salt  water,  to  be  concentrated  by  evaporation, 
must  have  a  tendency  to  render  such  inland  sea  Salter  than  the  ocean ;  and  tlie  Salter  water 
being  the  heavier,  naturally  endeavours  to  keep  under  the  lighter,  which  enters  from  the 
ocean.  In  this  way,  it  forms  an  outward  current  in  the  bottom  of  the  entrance.  Such  is 
said  to  be  the  cose  with  the  ulediterranean,  as  was  first  hinted  b^  Dr.  Hudson  in  1724.  The 
reverse  of  all  tliis  takes  place  where  the  supply  of  fresh  water  m  an  inland  sea  exceeds  the 
evaporation,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Baltic,  the  Black  Sea,  and  tho  Sea  of  Azof.  In  these 
the  outward  fresher  current  is  uppermost,  while  the  heavier  salter  current  enters  below. 
Since  the  mean  quantity  of  salt  brought  in  must  equal  what  is  carried  out,  if  no  permanent 
change  take  place  in  the  saltness  of  the  inland  sea,  it  follows  that  the  salter  current  is  the 
smaller  of  the  two.  However,  the  weather  sometimes  produces  temporaiy  exceptions  to  this 
general  rule.  The  current  which  flows  into  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
sets  along  the  shores  of  AtVica  and  Egypt  to  Syria,  where  it  turns  north-westward ;  and, 
joined  by  the  current  from  the  Danlanelles,  it  makes  the  circuit  of  the  Adriatic,  tlien  of  the 
coasts  of  Tuscany,  France  and  Spain,  and  ultimately  returns  to  the  Straits.  In  the  Cattegat, 
a  northern  current  proceeds  from  the  Baltic  along  the  coasts  of  Sweden ;  and  another,  a 
southern  current,  enters  into  the  Baltic  along  the  coasts  of  Jutland.  In  the  German  Sea, 
a  north  current  sets  from  the  Straits  of  Dover  along  the  continental  shoret  while  a  south 
■  current  comes  from  the  Orkneys  along  the  British  coast 

Whirlpools  or  eddies  are  produced  by  the  meeting  of  currents  which  come  in  different 
directions.  These,  by  encountering  in  a  narrow  passage,  turn,  as  it  were,  about  a  centre, 
which  is  sometimes  spiral,  till  they  unite  or  one  of  them  escapes.  The  most  celebratec 
whirlpools  are  the  Euripus  near  the  coast  of  Negropont,  the  Charybdis  in  the  Straits  of 
Sicily,  and  the  Malstroem  on  the  northern  coast  of  Norway.  Such  eddies  sometimes  aug- 
ment their  force  by  means  of  two  contrary  high  tides,  or  by  the  action  of  die  winds.  It 
certeun  states  of  the  tide,  some  of  them  cease  altogether;  but  they  do  not  &il  to  make  up  foi 
this  aflerwards.  Thoir  danger  to  navigation  is  well  known ;  but  is,  perhaps,  inferior  to  the 
dread  which  they  inspire.  They  draw  vessels  along,  and  dash  them  against  the  rocks,  or 
engulf  them  in  the  eddies.  The  wrecks,  perhaps,  do  not  appear  till  some  time  aflerwaids; 
or,  indeed,  they  may  never  be  seen  at  all.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  notion  that  Uiese  vortices 
have  no  bottom.  The  phenomena  and  dread  of  whirlpools  have  aflbrded  excellent  matter 
for  marvellous  fables,  both  to  the  ancient  poets  and  more  modem  writers. 

The  tides  form  a  remarkable  phenomenon,  consisting  in  the  alternate  me  and  fall  of 
the  surface  of  the  sea  twice  in  the  course  of  a  lunar  day,  or  at  a  mean  rate  every  12''  25*° 
14'.  The  instant  of  low  water  is  nearly,  but  not  exactly,  in  the  middle  of  the  interval 
between  two  hi?h  waters.    The  tide  generally  takes  nine  or  ten  minut«M  koiger  in  eU>ing 


Pabt  II. 

e  current  frcm  th« 
■trongthoned  by  Uie 
iloubles  tho  Cftpe  of 
nor  than  the  conti< 

Now  lloUaml  into 
olar  current  deflect 
amontoriei  of  Aflrica 
I  Urocnland  and  thl 
)n,  a  gi^at  body  of 

a  perpetual  circuit. 
Gulf  Htroam,  which 
d  Norway.  At  the 
na  the  waters  north- 
ot  by  a  current  flrom 
id  to  Davis's  Straits, 
lay ;  and  having  re< 
reat  whirlpools,  con- 
lems  to  be  a  bar  cost 
upy  four-fifUis  of  the 
ly  across  the  mouth 
)ably  a  brancti  of  the 
le  ocean  as  minutely 
it  vortices  would  be 

f  rivers,  the  melting 
are  liable  to  change 
J  force,  as  the  mon- 
currents  which  pre- 
upply  of  fVesh  water 
el  will  have  a  tend- 
to  it  from  tlie  ocean, 
rated  by  evaporation, 
and  the  Salter  water 
lich  enters  from  the 
I  entrance.  Such  is 
udsoninl724.  The 
land  sea  exceeds  the 
I  of  Azof.  In  these 
irront  enters  below. 
)ut,  if  no  permanent 

Salter  current  is  the 
Liy  exceptions  to  this 

Straits  of  Gibraltar 
orth-westward ;  and, 
Adriatic,  then  of  the 
its.  In  the  Cattegat, 
den ;  and  another,  a 
a  the  German  Sea, 
shore,  while  a  south 

ch  come  in  different 
rete,  about  a  centre, 
'he  most  celebratec 
IS  in  the  Straits  of 
lies  sometimes  aug- 
1  of  the  winds.  In 
t  fiiil  to  make  up  foi 
haps,  inferior  to  the 
famst  the  rocks,  or 
ae  time  afterwards; 
that  these  vortices 
id  excellent  matter 

to  lise  and  fall  of 

rate  every  12'  25"" 

die  of  the  interval 

OS  longer  in  ebbing 


nooK  iL 


HYDROLOGY. 


11>7 


than  flowing.  At  the  new  and  fttU  moon  tho  tides  attain  the  greatest  height,  and  tno  in- 
terval between  two  high  waters  is  least,  viz.  12"  10"  26".  At  tho  quarters  of  tho  moon  tho 
tides  are  the  least,  and  the  intervals  the  greatest,  viz.  12^  30"  T,  The  time  of  high  water 
IS  mostly  regulated  by  tho  moon ;  and  in  gcnernl,  in  the  open  sea,  is  from  two  to  three  honri* 
after  that  planet  passes  the  meridian,  either  above  or  under  the  horizon.  On  the  shores  of 
large  contments,  and  where  there  are  shallows  and  obstructions,  great  irrogulnritics  toko 
place  in  this  respect ;  and  when  tlioto  exceed  six  hours,  it  may  seem  as  if  tho  high  watpr 
preceded  the  moon's  pasaago  over  tho  meridian.  Though  tho  tides  seem  to  be  regulated 
chiefly  by  tho  moon,  thny  appear  also  in  a  certain  degree  to  bo  imder  the  influence  of  tho 
sun.  Thus,  at  tho  svzigies,  when  the  sun  and  moon  come  to  the  meridian  together,  tho 
tides,  every  thing  else  considered,  are  the  highest  At  tho  quarters,  when  the  sun  and 
moon  ore  OO"  distant,  tho  tides  aro  least.  Tho  former  are  called  the  Mjtring,  the  latter  tho 
neap  tides.  The  highest  of  the  spring  tides  is  not  that  immediately  after  the  new  or  full 
moon ;  but  is  in  general  the  third,  and  in  some  cases  tho  fourth.  The  lowest  of  the  neap 
tides  occurs  mucn  about  the  same  time  after  the  quarters.  Tho  total  magnitude  of  the  tido 
is  estimated  by  tho  diflbrcnce  between  tho  heights  of  high  and  low  water.  Tho  higher  the 
flood  tide  rises,  the  lower  the  ebb  tido  generally  sinks  on  tho  same  day.  At  Brest,  tho 
medium  spring  tide  is  about  10  feet,  and  the  mean  neap  tido  about  0.  On  other  parts  of 
the  coast  of  Franco  opposite  to  England,  tho  waters,  being  confined,  rise  to  a  great  height, 
and  do  so  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel.  At  St  Malo  it  is  from  43  to  50  feet  Nearly  as  iiigh 
tides  occur  at  Annapolis  Royal,  in  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  the  obstruction  which  the  land  pre- 
sents to  tho  motions  of  the  waters  which  occasions  tides  of  uijr  consequence  nt  all :  wero 
the  globe  entirelv  covered  with  water,  the  tides  would  be  very  insignificant  Thus,  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  the  spring  tide  amounts  only  to  5  feet  and  the  neap  to  from  2  to  2.5  feet. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  free  communication  with  tiie  ocean  is  indispensable,  to  produc-  n,  high 
tide.  Thus,  in  inland  seas,  the  tides  are  very  trifling,  because  the  luminaries  at;,  .learly 
equally  over  the  whole  surfkce  at  the  same  time. 

The  height  of  the  tide  increases  as  tho  sun  or  moon  is  nearer  the  earth,  but  in  a  higher 
ratio.  The  rise  of  the  tides  is  likewise  greater  when  the  sun  or  moon  is  in  tho  equator,  and 
less  as  they  decline  from  it.  When  the  observer  and  the  moon  are  on  the  same  side  of  the 
equator,  the  tide  which  happens  when  the  moon  is  above  the  horizon  is  greater  than  when 
she  is  below  it  Tho  reverse  occurs  when  the  observer  and  the  moon  are  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  equator.  If  tho  tides  be  considered  relatively  to  the  whole  globe  and  to  tne  open  sea, 
it  appears  that  there  is  a  meridian  about  30°  eastward  of  the  moon,  where  it  is  always  high 
water,  both  in  the  hemisphere  where  tho  moon  is  and  in  the  opposite.  On  the  west  side  of 
this  circle  the  tide  is  flowing ;  on  tho  east  it  is  ebbing ;  and  on  the  meridian,  which  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  same,  it  is  everywhere  low  water.  These  meridian  circles  move  west- 
ward, keeping  nearly  at  the  same  distance  from  tho  moon  :  only  approaching  nearer  to  her 
when  new  or  full,  and  withdrawing  at  the  quarters.  In  high  latitudes  the  tides  are  very 
inconsiderable.  It  is  probable  that  at  the  poles  there  are  no  diurnal  tides;  but  there  is  some 
ground  for  thinking  that  the  water  will  rise  higher  at  the  pole  to  which  the  luminaries  are 
at  any  time  nearest  than  at  the  opposite. 

The  o^cnt  wavo  which  follows  the  moon  as  above  described,  and  constitutes  the  tide,  is 
to  be  considered  as  an  undulation  or  reciprocation  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean ;  in  which 
there  is,  except  when  it  passes  over  shallows  or  approaches  the  shore,  very  little  progressive 
motion.  In  ail  this  we  are  as  yet  overlooking  the  operation  of  local  causes,  winds,  currents, 
&c.,  by  which  these  general  laws  are  modified,  overruled,  or  even  reversed.  Most  people 
find  little  difllculty  in  conceiving  how  the  waters  should  rise  on  the  side  of  the  globe  which 
is  next  the  moon ;  but  there  can  scarcely  be  a  harder  task  than  bringing  many  to  see  why 
the  watera  should  at  the  tame  time  rise  on  the  side  which  is  turned  from  the  moon.  Wo 
must  however,  confine  ourselves  to  a  very  brief  and  palpable  explanation.  The  force  by 
which  the  moon  draws  any  particle  of  our  globe  towards  her  is  greater  when  it  is  nearer  to 
ner,  and  less  when  more  remote.  The  force,  therefore,  with  which  the  moon  attracts  the 
particles  on  the  side  nearest  her  is  greater  than  the  average  force  which  she  exerts  on  the 
whole  globe.  These  particles,  therefore,  rise  or  endeavour  to  come  near  the  moon.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  force  by  which  the  moon  draws  the  particles  which  are  farthest  from  her 
being  less  than  the  average  force,  these  particles  endeavour  to  recede  from  the  moon,  and  in 
BO  doing  they  also  recede  from  the  earth's  centre ;  that  is,  they  rise  higher  than  the  general 
level.  The  action  of  the  sun  is  sunilar  to  that  of  the  moon ;  but  his  being  almost  four 
hundred  times  as  distant  greatly  diminishes  his  effect  At  the  new  and  mil  moon  the 
luminaries  act  together,  and  produce  spring  tides.  The  highest  of  all  are  a  little  after  the 
autumnal,  and  before  the  vernal,  equinox ;  and  the  least  spring  tides  occur  a  little  after  the 
wlstices.  At  the  quarters  of  the  moon  her  action  is  opposed  by  that  of  the  sun,  and  there- 
to neap  tiiies  are  the  result 

The  time  of  high  water  deserves  consideration.  The  preceding  is  sufficient  to  show  tliat 
the  phenomena  of  the  tides  are  effects  that  might  be  expected  from  the  principle  of  attraction 
or  gravitation  *  but  since  the  waters  necessarily  occupy  some  time  in  moving  from  ouo 

17* 


108 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  n. 


Bool 


li-!^.'^' 


•■'<H 


'mi 

I: £;«.**:  ■'■' 


place  to  another,  this  is  tlie  reason  why  the  high  water  occurs,  not  when  the  moon  is  on  the 
meridian  but  from  two  to  three  hours  afterwards.  For  the  same  reason,  when  the  sun  is 
before  or  west  of  the  moon,  he  hastens  the  rise  of  the  tide;  and  when  behind  her,  he  retards 
it  Considerable  extent  of  surface  is  necessary,  in  order  that  the  sea  should  be  sensibly 
affected  by  the  action  of  Uie  sun  and  moon ;  for  it  is  only  by  the  inemiality  of  such  action 
on  different  parts  of  the  mass  of  waters  that  their  level  is  disturbed.  In  narrow  seas,  and 
on  shores  far  from  the  main  body  of  the  water,  the  tides  are  not  caused  by  the  direct  action 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  but  are  waves  propagated  from  the  great  diurnal  undulation.  Of  this 
the  tides  on  the  coast  of  Britain,  and  in  the  German  sea,  are  remarkable  examples.  The 
high  water  transmitted  from  the  tide  in  the  Atlantic  reaches  Ushant  between  three  and  four 
hours  afler  the  moon  has  passed  tiie  meridian,  and  its  ridge  stretches  north-west,  so  as  to  fall 
a  little  south  of  tlie  coast  of  Ireland.  This  wave  soon  afler  divideij  itself  into  three  branches ; 
one  passing  up  the  British  Channel,  another  ranging  along  the  west  side  of  Ireland  and 
Scotland,  and  the  third  entering  the  Irish  Channel.  The  first  of  these  flows  at  the  rate  of 
about  50  miles  an  hour,  so  as  to  pass  through  the  Straits  of  Dover,  and  to  reach  the  Nore 
about  midnight  at  the  time  of  spring  tide.  The  second  being  in  a  more  open  sea,  moves 
more  rapidly,  reaching  the  north  of  Ireland  by  six  p.  h.  ;  about  nine  it  has  got  to  the  Ork- 
neys, and  forms  a  wave  or  ridge  stretching  due  north ;  at  twelve  the  summit  of  the  same 
wave  extends  from  the  coast  of  Buchan  eastward  to  the  Naze  of  Norway ;  and  in  twelve 
hours  more  it  passes  southward  through  the  German  Sea  and  reaches  the  Nore,  where  it 
meets  the  morning  tide  that  left  the  mouth  of  the  Channel  only  eight  hours  before.  Thus, 
these  two  tides  travel  round  Britain  in  28  hours ;  in  which  time  the  primitive  tide  has  gone 
quite  round  the  globe,  and  nearly  45  degrees  more.  Various  curious  anomalies  are  observed 
in  the  tides  of  particular  places :  such  as  their  ceasing  altogether  for  a  day  or  two,  at  a 
certain  age  of  the  moon ;  while  at  other  times  they  become  considerable,  though  perhaps 
occurring  only  once  a  day  It  is  said  that  on  some  coasts  there  is  never  more  than  one 
tide  in  the  course  of  a  lunar  day,  which  is  probably  owing  to  some  oversight:  but  it  may  be 
shown  from  theory,  that  if  tlie  observer's  distance  from  the  pole  be  equal  to  the  moon's 
declination,  he  will  see  but  one  tide  in  the  day.  Small  tides  occur  six  times  a  day  on  the 
shore  of  the  Isle  of  Negropont.* 

The  agency  of  the  tides  is  probably  very  extensive  in  many  of  the  operations  of  nature, 
and  in  particular  in  those  which  regard  geology.  The  late  Professor  Robison  suggested  how 
experiments  might  be  made  to  determine  the  mean  density  of  the  globe,  from  the  temporary 
change  which  is  undoubtedly  caused  on  the  direction  of  gravity  by  the  great  body  of  watei 
brought  to  Annapolis  Royal,  and  then  withdrawn  by  the  stream  tides. 

Sect.  II. — Springs. 

Springs  are  composed  of  the  waters  issuing  from  crevices  in  the  earth.  Of  such  there 
are  great  varieties.  Some  of  the  principal  distinctions,  independently  of  the  qualities  of 
their  waters,  are, — temporary  springs,  which  only  flow  during  a  certain  season  of  the  year; 
perennial,  which  always  run ;  intermitting,  which  alternately  run  and  cease,  either  wholly 
or  m  part,  at  short  intervals ;  periodical,  wliich  flow  and  ebb  regularly  at  particular  periods ; 
spouting,  which  issue  with  considerable  force,  forming,  perhaps,  a  jet  of  w»*er.  The  mag- 
nitude of  springs  passes  tlirough  every  gradation,  from  being  scarcely  perceptible,  to  con- 
>jiderable  rivulets.  They  have,  likewise,  a  wide  range  of  temperature;  but  necessarily 
limited  between  the  freezing  and  boiling  points.  It  is  most  usual  for  springs  which  are 
large,  and  which  appear  to  issue  from  a  considerable  depth,  to  have  nearly  the  mean  tempe- 
rature of  the  place ;  and  in  some  instances  the  temperature  is  remarkably  steady, — ^not  the 
slightest  variation  being  perceptible  in  the  course  of  the  year.  Hence  apparently,  or  rela- 
tively to  the  au",  they  are  colder  in  summer  and  hotter  in  winter.  It  is,  no  doubt,  tliis  con- 
trast which  has  given  rise  to  the  popular  notion,  that  good  springs  are  really  colder  in  sum- 
mer and  hotter  in  winter.  Nothing  is  more  common  tlian  to  see  a  well  smoking  during 
intense  frost,  which  shows  nothing  of  the  kind  during  warm  weather ;  but  it  does  not  require 
a  really  high  temperature  to  exhibit  such  an  appearance,  but  only  a  temperature  not  so  low 
as  that  of  the  air.  The  most  that  any  spring  keeps  within  the  range  of  both  seasons,  is  to 
remain  always  at  one  temperature.  The  greater  number  of  the  smaller  springs,  however, 
become  a  little  warmer  in  summer  and  colder  in  winter ;  particularly  those  which  come 
along  for  a  considerable  way  at  a  small  depth  under  ground.  By  so  domg,  they  participate 
in  tlie  temperature  of  the  surface,  which  varies  with  the  season :  but  all  springs  preserve  a 
greater  warmth  than  the  mean  temperature  of  winter ;  and,  excepting  the  thermal  or  hot 
springs,  tliey  do  not  reach  the  mean  heat  of  summer. 

Hot  springs  are  those  which  preserve  a  heat  above  the  mean  temperature  of  the  place. 
Such  as  are  merely  tepid  are  common  in  most  countries,  especially  in  mines.  Those  having 
a  considerably  higher  temperature  are  less  frequently  met  with,  and  mostly  in  volcanic  dis- 
tricts ;  but  some  of  them  reach  the  boiling  point,  or  are  actually  boiling  and  spouting  forth 

•  Fide  Stevenson's  great  work  on  the  Bell-Rock  Light-house,  for  observations  on  Tides  in  the  British  seui 


Pabt  H 

the  moon  is  on  the 
1,  when  the  sun  is 
ind  her,  he  retards 
should  be  sensibly 
lity  of  such  action 
narrow  seas,  and 
r  the  direct  action 
dulation.  Of  this 
3  examples.  The 
sen  three  and  four 
rwe8t,soas  to  fall 
to  three  branches; 
de  of  Ireland  and 
}ws  at  the  rate  of 
)  reach  the  Nore 
!  open  sea,  moves 
U3  got  to  the  Ork- 
nmit  of  the  same 
ly ;  and  in  twelve 
le  Nore,  where  it 
rs  before.  Thus, 
tive  tide  has  gone 
lalies  are  observed 
I  day  or  two,  at  a 
J,  though  perhaps 
er  more  than  one 
lit :  but  it  may  be 
lal  to  the  moon's 
mes  a  day  on  the 

rations  of  nature, 
m  suggested  how 
)m  the  temporary 
iatbody  ofwatei 


Of  such  there 
the  qualities  of 
son  of  the  year; 
36,  either  wholly 
xticular  periods ; 
i*er.  The  mag- 
ceptible,  to  con- 
but  necessarily 
rings  which  are 
he  mean  tempe- 
steady, — ^not  the 
arently,  or  rela- 
loubt,  this  con- 
f  colder  in  sum- 
smoking  during 
loes  not  require 
ture  not  so  low 
th  seasons,  is  to 
rings,  however, 
se  which  come 
they  participate 
ings  preserve  a 
thermal  or  hot 

•6  of  the  place. 

Those  having 
in  volcanic  dia- 

spouting  forth 

e  Britiih  Nui 


BookII. 


HYDROLOGY. 


sat' 


with  great  violence,  which  indicates  their  having  had  a  still  higher  temperature  before  get- 
ting vent  The  most  remarkable  are  the  hot  springs  of  Iceland,  some  of  which  are  con- 
■idered  among  the  greatest  vvonders  of  the  world.  They  are  believed  to  be  more  abundant 
in  Iceland  than  in  any  other  country.  But  the  interest  which  the  number  and  variety  of 
these  hot  springs  excites  in  a  person  who  never  saw  any  thing  similar,  is  quickly  lost  in  the 
feelings  which  are  roused  on  beholding  the  magnificent  and  tremendous  explosions  of  the 
Geysors,  as  they  are  called.  Besides  the  principal  fountains,  there  is  a  great  number  of 
boiling  springs,  cavities  full  of  hot  water,  and  several  from  which  steam  issues.  There  are 
also  some  places  full  of  boiling  mud  of  gray  and  red  colours.  The  silicious  depositions  of 
the  waters  of  the  Grep.t  Geyser  have  formed  for  it  a  basin  56  feet  in  diameter  in  one  direction, 
and  46  in  the  other;  a  projection  from  one  side  causing  it  to  deviate  from  the  perfect  circle, 
In  the  centre  of  this  basin  is  a  cylindrical  pit  or  shan  10  feet  in  diameter.  Through  thii 
the  hot  water  rises  gradually,  filling  it  and  mo  basin,  after  which  it  runs  over  in  small  quan* 
titles.  At  intervals  of  some  hours,  when  the  basin  is  full,  explosions  are  heard  from  below, 
like  the  report  of  distant  cannon,  and  at  the  same  time  a  tremulous  motion  of  the  ground  is 
felt  all  around  the  basin :  immediately  tlie  water  rises  in  a  mass  from  the  pit,  and  sinking 
again,  causes  the  water  in  the  basin  to  be  agitated  and  to  overflow :  another  and  a  stronger 
propulsion  follows,  and  clouds  of  vapour  ascend.  At  length,  strong  explosions  take  place, 
and,  large  quantities  of  steam  escaping,  the  water  is  thrown  to  a  height  of  from  30  to  90 
feet,  and  even  to  200  or  300  feet  The  steam,  coming  into  contact  with  the  cold  air  of  that 
climate,  is  condensed  into  thick  clouds,  which  are  tossed  and  rolled  with  great  rapidity ;  the 
whole  forming  a  very  singular  and  magnificent  exhibition.  After  continuing  for  some  tune, 
the  explosions  cease,  when  the  basin  and  pit  are  found  empty.  Bursts  of  steam  sometimes 
take  place,  when  the  water  is  rising,  without  any  warning  by  subterraneous  noise.  These 
phenomena  seem  to  be  occasioned  by  Stream  finding  its  way  from  below  into  cavities,  where 
part  of  it  is  condensed  into  water,  which  water  is  at  length  forced  out  by  the  action  of  the 
steam  under  high  pressure.  The  New  Geyser  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  other.  There 
are  many  hot  springs  of  less  note  ir.  Iceland ;  but  perhaps  the  most  curious  of  the  whole  is 
the  Tunguhver.  Among  a  great  number  of  boiling  springs  are  two  cavities,  within  a  yard 
of  each  other,  from  which  the  water  spouts  alternately :  while  from  one  the  water  is  thrown 
about  ten  feet  high  in  a  narrow  jet,  the  other  cavity  is  full  of  water  boiling  violently.  This 
jet  continues  about  four  minutes,  and  then  subsides ;  when  the  water  from  the  other  imme- 
diately  rises,  in  a  thicker  column,  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet  This  continues  about 
three  minutes ;  when  it  sinks  and  the  other  rises,  and  so  on  alternately. 

The  natural  jets  of  water,  called  spouting  springs,  only  diflfer  from  the  rest  in  comir 
down  some  close  canal  from  a  fountain  on  a  higher  level.    Being  thus  closely  confined,  th&y 
burst  forth  in  consequence  of  the  pressure,  in  me  same  manner  as  the  artificial  spouting  Ibun- 
tains  do.* 

Intermitting  fountains  have  sometimes  been  viewed  by  the  multitude  as  of  a  miraculous 
nature.  One  at  Como,  in  Italy,  rises  and  falls  every  hour:  another  at  Colmars,  in 
Provence,  rises  eight  times  as  often.  At  Fronzanches,  in  Languedoc,  one  has  a  period  of 
24  hours  15  minutes.  England  afibrds  many  examples  of  such  springs ;  particularly  those 
on  the  sea  coast,  whose  waters  rise  and  fall  with  the  pressure  of  the  tides.  The  town  of 
Tideswell,  in  Derbyshire,  is  named  from  a  noted  fountain  of  this  sort  which  once  flowed 
there,  but  has  now  ceased  to  observe  its  tides.  The  principles  on  which  intermitting  springs 
depend  are  attempted  to  be  explained  in  every  popular  treatise  on  hydrostatics  and 
hydraulicB.t 

Various  have  been  the  opinions  of  philosophers  concerning  the  origin  of  springs.  Some 
suppose  that  sea  water  is  conveyed  through  subterraneous  ducts  or  canals  to  tlie  places 
where  the  springs  flow  out  of  the  earth ;  but  in  this  way  fresh-water  springs  could  not  be 
produced ;  because  sea  water  cannot  be  freed  from  its  salt  by  filtration.  It  is,  besides,  dif- 
ficult to  conceive  how  the  water  should  filter  upwards.  In  order  to  overcome  these  objec- 
tions, recourse  has  been  hod  to  subterranean  heat,  by  which  the  water  is  conceived  to  rise 
upwards  in  vapour  through  certain  fissures  and  cavities  of  the  mountains  where  it  is  col- 
lected, and  issues  forth,  as  we  see,  in  springs.  Others  vary  the  hypothesis  a  little,  by  saying 
that  the  sea  water  is  raised  through  the  mountains  by  capillary  action ;  but  here  we  ought 
still  to  have  salt  springs;  and  it  has  been  further  objected  that  a  current  cannot  be  produced 
by  capillary  action. 

The  most  probable  theory  is  that  proposed  by  Dr.  Halley,  who  maintained  that  springs 
are  nothing  more  than  a  pt^  of  the  water  which  fiiUs  on  higher  ground  filtrating  through, 
and  afterwards  issuing  forth  at  a  lower  level.  This,  it  is  true,  does  not  at  first  sight  appea 
to  account  for  the  permanent  flow  of  springs  during  dry  weather.  To  complete  the  theory 
it  is  supposed  that  the  water  at  first  collects  in  lairge  subterranean  cavities,  from  which  it 
nflerwanls  filtrates  slowly,  and  passes  towards  the  springs.    The  disposition  of  the  rocks  in 

*  Vide  Ed.  New  Phil.  Journal,  vol,  iz.  for  observations  on  spouting  springs  and  Artesian  welli. 
t  V'de  Gd.  New  Fliil.  Journal,  vol.  viii.  for  an  account  of  intermitting  springs. 


200 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


mi\^ 


::l.vt 


strata  contributes  much  to  the  collecting  of  the  vratera  under  the  surface,  and  conveying 
them  without  waste,  as  if  in  close  pipes,  till  they  are  united  in  fountains,  lakes,  rivers, 
&c.  Dr.  Halley  showed  that  the  evaporation  from  the  sea  alone  is  a  sufficient  supply  for 
all  the  waters  that  the  rivers  carry  into  it.  His  calculation  was  founded  on  a  very  complex 
view  of  tne  subject,  and  liable  to  several  objections.  Buffon  took  a  more  simple  view  of 
the  matter,  by  selecting  one  of  those  lakes  that  send  out  no  stream  to  the  ocean,  and  show- 
ing that  the  probable  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  lake  ia  equal  to  all  the  water  car- 
ried  into  it. 

The  theory  of  hot  springs  is  deserving  of  consideration.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
greater  number  of  warm  and  hot  springs  occur  in  volcanic  countries — where  volcanoes  for- 
merly burnt  or  are  still  in  a  state  of  activity ;  and  of  those  that  do  not  occur  in  volcanic  dis- 
tricts, some  are  associated  with  trap  and  granite  rocks,  to  which  most  geologists  assign  an 
igneous  origin.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that  they  owe  theu:  temperature  to  the  same  cause  or 
causes  as  gave  rise  to  volcanic  and  ignigenous  rocks.  That  the  heat  of  such  springs  is 
oflen  connected  with  volcanic  action  cannot  admit  of  doubt;  for,  from  the  Geyser  of  Iceland, 
the  transition  is  almost  uninterrupted  to  the  hot  springs  in  the  dormant  volcano  of  the 
island  of  Iscbia,  and  from  thence  to  those  connected  wiUi  the  process  which  formerly  took 
place  in  the  now  extinct  volcanoes  of  Hungary  and  Auvergne.  The  hot  and  warm  springs 
of  Bath  and  Bristol,  however,  occur  in  a  limestone  country  where  no  igneous  recks  are  visi- 
ble ;  but  these  may  be  under  the  limestone.  This  opinion  is  further  countenanced  by  the 
fact  that  many  of  the  hot  springs  met  with  in  primitive,  and  also  in  secondary,  formations, 
occur  in  spots  where  the  strata  appear  to  have  been  disturbed  by  igneous  agency.  Of  this 
there  is  a  striking  example  at  the  hot  springs  of  Carlsbad  in  Bohemia ;  the  hot  springs  of 
Cliflon  issue  from  a  limestone  which  appears,  at  an  early  period,  to  have  been  disturl]«d  by 
igneous  action :  the  hot  springs  of  PfefTers,  in  the  Grisons,  gush  fh>m  a  ravine  firom  400  to 
&4  feet  in  depth,  and  so  perpendicular  that  the  provisions  required  for  the  inmates  of  the 
bath  are  lowered  from  ropes  attached  to  the  summit  of  the  cliff,  and  so  narrow  that  the  rocks 
in  some  places  touch  overhead,  and  nowhere,  perhaps,  are  more  than  30  feet  apart  The 
most  obvious  explanation  of  such  a  phenomenon  is  to  be  found  in  some  convulsion  of  nature, 
such  as  that  caused  by  an  earthquake,  or  the  sudden  elevation  of  a  large  tract  of  country. 
The  other  hot  springs  in  Switzerland  appear  in  circumstances  for  the  most  part  similar. 
Those  of  Weissenburg,  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  rise  out  of  a  gorge  of  the  same  kind  as  tiiat 
of  Pfeffers :  those  of  Louechi  appear  at  the  foot  of  the  mural  precipice  of  the  Gemmi:  whilst 
the  spring  of  Baden,  in  the  canton  of  Argovia,  from  which  the  only  remaining  one,  that  of 
Schinzath,  is  not  far  removed,  lies  near  the  point  where,  in  consequence  of  the  two  moun- 
tains of  Stafielegg  and  Lagem  having  been  severed  asunder  by  some  great  convulsion,  the 
waters  of  the  Rhine  and  of  the  other  rivers, — ^which  appear  to  have  once  constituted  a  single 
lake  extending  from  Coire  in  the  Grisons  to  this  mountain  ridge,  including  the  lakes  of 
Zurich  and  of  Wallenstadt,  with  the  intermediate  country, — in  one  contiimous  sheet  of 
water,  flowed  off  by  the  channel  now  taken  by  one  of  the  riveis,  the  Limmat  alone.  Thus 
the  Rhine,  says  Dr.  Daubeny,  may  be  supposed  to  owe  its  original  direction  to  the  event 
which  produced  one  hot  spring,  and  its  present  course  to  that  which  occasioned  another. 

Some  springs  apparently  emit  inflammable  matter ;  for  when  a  light  is  applied,  it  seemA 
to  take  fire  like  ardent  spirits.  But  it  is  not  so  much  the  water  that  is  inflammable,  as  some 
gas  which  it  exhales,  or  bituminous  matter  floating  on  its  surface. 

Springs  in  the  sea.  Powerful  springs  are  occasionally  met  with  boiling  up  in  the  bottom 
of  the  sea,  so  as,  in  some  instances,  to  rise  above  the  sur&ce.  From  some  of  them  naviga- 
tors can  draw  up  fVesh  water  fit  for  taking  on  board  as  store.  The  natives,  in  certain  places, 
know  where  to  dive  under  the  surfiice  of  the  sea  for  fi-esh  water ;  which,  perhaps,  may  be 
the  only  source  whence  they  could  obtain  it. 

Mineral  waters,  and  the  quantity  of  matter  they  deposit.  Springs  in  their  course  through 
strata  convey  along  with  them  portions  of  the  strata,  not  only  firom  higher  to  lower  situap 
tions,  but  also  from  below  upwards.  They  contain  salts,  earths,  acids,  metals,  and  inflam- 
mable matters,  of  very  varied  nature:  the  variety  depending  sometimes  on  the  nature  of  the 
strata  through  which  they  pass ;  at  other  times,  as  m  those  that  rise  upwards  in  volcanic 
districts,  on  igneous  agency.  Hofl!man  remarks,  that  when  warm  and  hot  springs,  and 
those  richly  impregnated  with  mineral  matters,  occur  in  countries  at  a  distance  from  active 
and  extinct  volcanoes,  we  observe  the  strata  fVom  which  they  issue  to  be  much  deranged, 
tlius  intimating  that  formerly  earthquakes  and  other  igneous  agencies  were  at  work  in  the 
districts  where  these  springs  now  flow.  The  quantity  of  mineral  water  brought  from  the 
interior  of  the  earth  by  springs  is  very  great ;  whether  that  matter  is  abstracted  from  the 
strata  traversed  by  the  springs,  or  is  brought  by  them  fix)m  a  great  depth,  as  in  volcanic 
countries.  Even  some  calcareous  springs  in  Britain  dennnit  annuaUy  vast  quantities  of  csl' 
carcous  tufia  and  calcareous  sinter.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh  there  are  great 
calcareous  deposits  from  calcareous  springs  that  flow  through  limestone  rocks ;  and  appear- 
ances of  the  same  description  abound  around  all  the  calcareous  springs  in  England.  Near 
to  Clennont,  in  France,  some  calcareous  springs,  rising  through  rocks  of  jranite  and  ^neisSj 


Part  II. 

,ce,  and  conveying 
ains,  lakes,  rivers, 
ufficient  supply  for 
on  a  very  complex 
)re  aimplo  view  of 
e  ocean,  and  show- 

0  all  the  water  car- 

iflcertained  that  the 
rhere  volcanoes  for- 
cur  in  volcanic  dis- 
cologists  assign  an 

1  the  same  cause  or 
.  of  such  springs  is 
e  Geyser  of  Iceland, 
lant  volcano  of  the 
?hich  formerly  took 
tt  and  warm  springs 
leous  recks  are  visi- 
ountenanced  by  the 
condary,  formations, 
LIS  agency.    Of  this 

the  hot  springs  of 
e  been  disturbed  by 
ravine  from  400  to 
r  the  inmates  of  the 
arrow  that  the  rocks 
30  feet  apart  The 
lonvulsion  of  nature, 
rge  tract  of  country. 
e  most  part  similar. 
le  same  kind  as  that 
f  the  Gemmi:  whilst 
naining  one,  that  of 
:e  of  the  two  moun- 
reat  convulsion,  the 
!  constituted  a  single 
luding  the  lakes  of 
;ontinuous  sheet  of 
mmat  alone.  Thus 
Bction  to  the  event 
Bsioned  another. 

is  applied,  it  seemS 
nflammablc,  as  some 

ng  up  in  the  bottom 
ne  of  them  navigar 
IS,  in  certain  places, 
ch,  perhaps,  may  be 

their  course  through 
her  to  lower  situa^ 
metals,  and  infiam- 

the  nature  of  the 
)wards  in  volcanic 
[  hot  springs,  and 
istance  from  active 
le  much  deranged, 
vere  at  work  in  the 
r  brought  from  the 
.bstracted  from  the 
pth,  as  in  volcanic 
t  quantities  of  cal- 
h  there  are  great 
ocks;  and  apoear- 

England.  Near 
ranite  and  gneiss, 


BdoeII. 


HYDROLOGY. 


201 


m 


have  formed  a  hi>y  or  hill  S240  fbet  high.  Manv  of  the  {[reat  edifices  in  Rome  are  built 
of  calcareous  dept>  :■■■  Stom  caicareous  springs.  The  hot  spnngs  of  Carlsbad  annually  deposit 
much  calcareous  tii£a  and  sinter.  Other  springs,  as  the  hot  springs  in  Iceland  and  in  the 
AEores,  deposit  annually  great  quantities  or  silica.  Salt  springs  auo  bring  from  the  ulterior 
of  the  earth,  and  spread  over  their  vicinity,  much  salt,  which  salt  may  be  derived  from  the 
saline  clays  and  stut  beds  through  which  {hey  pass;  in  other  instances  the  salt  may  come 
from  a  great  depth  as  an  igneous  production. 

Chemical  nature  of  tpring  watert.  The  water  of  springs,  when  very  pure,  is  named 
soft ;  if  impregnated  with  calcareous  salts,  hard ;  and  if  impregnated  with  various  minora 
matters,  mineral.  It  was  long  believed  that  hard  water  was  unfit  for  brewing  and  distilla- 
tion ;  and  hence  soft  water  was  often  procured  for  these  operations,  at  great  expense ;  but  it 
is  now  found  that  water  which  owes  its  hardness  to  lime  is  the  most  proper  of  all  for  the 
fermentation  of  worts.  A  time  will,  however,  be  necessary  to  remove  the  popular  prejudice 
in  favour  of  soft  water.  We  have,  in  the  Table  on  the  following  page,  given  a  view  of  the 
composition  of  the  most  celebrated  mineral  springs. 

According  to  some  chemists,  the  salts  found  by  chemical  analysis  in  springs  are  considered 
as  existing  m  the  waters ;  the  late  Dr.  Murray  considers  the  compound  existing  before  con- 
centration of  the  water  as,  in  all  cases,  the  most  soluble  salts  that  can  be  formed  out  of  the 
ingredients  present  But,  in  reality,  so  far  from  our  having  determined  in  any  given  case 
the  nature  of  the  existing  combinations  between  the  ingredients,  we  are  ignorant  even  of 
any  method  by  which  such  knowledge  ia  attainable.  If,  says  Berzelius,  the  physician 
inquires  of  the  chemist,  what  the  proportion  these  salts  bear  to  each  other  in  any  given  case 
may  be,  the  latter  must  reply,  that  this  is  a  question  as  to  which  we  are  at  present  entirely 
in  the  dark ;  as  the  proportion  depends  not  only  on  the  quantity  of  acids  and  bases  present 
which  admits  being  ascertained,  but  also  on  the  relative  force  of  affinity  subsisting  between 
the  one  and  the  other,  for  determining  which  we  have  as  yet  no  data  whatever. 

Sect.  III. — Lakes. 

A  lake  is  a  body  of  water  which  does  not  communicate  with  the  ocean.  Independently 
of  the  qualities  of  their  waters,  lakes  are  distinguished  into  several  sorts :— 1.  Those  whicn 
receive  streams  of  water,  and  have  an  outlet,  are  the  class  of  lakes  best  known.  It  is  rare 
for  a  lake  to  give  rise  to  more  than  one  river,  which  often  bears  the  name  of  the  principal 
stream  which  flows  into  the  lake,  though  the  two  rivers  may  differ  materially  in  every 
respect  2.  Those  which  receive  streams  of  water,  and  often  great  rivers,  without  having 
any  visible  outlet  This  class  is  less  numerous  than  the  former,  and  is  confined  to  warm 
climates ;  but  the  largest  of  all  lakes,  the  Caspian  Sea,  belongs  to  it  8.  Those  which 
receive  no  running  water,  but  have  an  outlet, — circumstances  which  imply  that  such  lakes 
are  fed  with  springs  from  beneath,  or  with  small  imperceptible  streams  from  the  adjacent 
land.  4.  Those  which  receive  no  running  water,  and  have  no  visible  outlet  Lakes  of  this 
class,  exclusive  of  marshes,  are  for  the  most  part  small,  and  merit  little  attention.  Without 
regarding  the  foregoing  distinctions,  some  writers  subdivide  lakes  into  two  kinds,  according 
to  the  general  character  of  the  surface  in  which  their  basins  are  situated :  viz.  those  which 
ore  formed  in  deep  hollows  between  the  ridges  or  at  the  foot  of  mountains,  and  fed  by 
springs  or  torrents ;  and  those  which  are  formed  in  low  and  level  countries  fur  want  of  a 
general  declivity,  or  dammed  up  by  a  mere  accumulation  of  alluvial  matter. 

Subterranean  lakes  form  a  class  of  lakes  differing  remarkably  from  all  the  preceding,  and 
are  bodies  of  water  contained  in  cavities  quite  covered  over  by  earthy  strata.  It  is  only 
when  such  cavities  are  laid  open  by  earthquakes,  by  the  falling  asunder  of  mountains,  bv  the 
action  of  the  weather  or  of  rivers,  by  the  "operations  of  mining,  or  when  the  roof  falls  in, 
that  their  situation  becomes  known.  But  they  are  probably  very  numerous,  though  perhaps 
often  of  small  size.  It  is  not  easy  to  account  for  the  permanent  and  uniform  fiow  of  many 
springs  on  any  other  supposition.  Some  of  them  appear  to  give  rise  to  rivers,  while  others 
are  Imown  to  receive  very  considerable  streams  which  lose  themselves  in  the  interior.  Such 
are  the  numerous  cavities  of  the  Julian  Alps.  It  is  to  similar  reservoirs  that  we  must  attri- 
bute the  periodical  disappearance  of  certain  lakes  situated  above  ground.  There  are  some 
caverns  in  Norway  which  afibrd  a  passage  to  rapid  currents  of  water,  as  appears  from  the 
sound  heard  through  their  roofs.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  many  streams,  finding  nt 
readier  outlet,  flow  into  subterranean  cavities,  are  absorbed  by  the  earui,  or  discharge  them- 
selves under  ground  into  the  sea.  In  this  way  may  be  explained  the  origin  of  those  springs 
of  fresh  water  that  are  to  be  seen  spouting  up  even  in  the  midst  of  the  waves  of  the  oceaiu 
The  waters  thrown  up  by  volcanoes,  the  sudden  and  terrible  inundation  of  mines,  the  number 
of  rivers  which  disappear,  the  mountains  which  are  suddenly  engulfed  in  the  bosom  of  new 
lakes, — all  these  facts  leave  no  doubt  of  the  existence  of  extensive  subterranean  cavities 
containing  large  bodies  of  water.  The  digging  of  wells  has  supplied  a  fiict  still  more  inter- 
esting to  physical  geography.  It  appears  that  there  are  lakes,  or  rather  sheets  of  water, 
which  extend  under  ground  to  considerable  distances.  In  digging  wells  near  Aire,  in  the 
province  of  Artois,  they  always  come  to  a  clayey  bed ;  which  being  pierced,  tlie  water  gushes 
\ou  J.  2  A 


-"l*?!**^ 


"^iX'Ty'""  *'J^  -"■'"  ■  *':'■>■.  ■■'■^i*- 


Wi 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  n. 


p*BT  n. 


•■1 


y-T'TFT''^''^^-^'*"  " 


"H^ 


1-1  u) 


iSS 


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rH  pH  rHgt 


M§l 


Book  II. 


.  \h 


HYDROLOGY.  I  ir 


forth  in  large  bubbles,  and  forma  permanent  springa.  In  the  country  of  Modena,  we  find 
everywhere,  at  the  depth  of  twenty  Tarda,  a  bea  of  clay  five  feet  thick ;  which  bemg  pierced, 
the  water  apouts  up  with  conBiderable  force— indicating  that  it  is  connected  with  a  reservoir 
which  stands  at  a  higher  level.  There  is  a  district  m  the  interior  of  Algiers,  where  the 
inhabitants,  after  diggmg  to  a  depth  of  about  900  &thoDU,  invariably  come  to  water,  which 
flows  up  in  such  abundance  that  they  call  it  the  subterranean  sea. 

Lakes  which  receive  much  water,  but  have  no  outlet,  were  believed  necessarily  to  com* 
municate  with  the  ocean  by  some  subterraneous  channel  The  great  distance  of  some  of 
them  from  tiie  ocean  seemed  to  stand  in  the  way  of  such  an  explanation ;  and  doubts  might 
still  have  remained,  were  it  not  for  the  discoven  of  the  remarkable  ikct,  that  some  of  the 
princi(>al  lakes  of  this  description  have  their  surmces  far  depressed  below  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  Thus  the  surface  of  the  Caspian  Bea,  which  is  the  largest  known  lake,  and  without 
an  outlet,  was  found  by  Engelhardt  a!nd  Parrot  to  be  334  feet  beneath  the  level  of  the  Black 
Sea.  A  similar  depression  has  been  ascertained  of  the  level  of  the  &mous  Dead  Sea,  in 
Judea,  which  is  also  a  lake  without  an  outlet  Its  surface  is  below  that  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean in  its  neighbourhood,  and  consequently  still  farther  below  tlie  higher  level  of  tlie  Red 
Sea.  The  true  explanation  as  to  the  consumption  of  the  waters  of  such  lakes  seems  to  be, 
that  it  is  carried  off  by  evaporation.  The  climates  in  which  the  two  last-mentioned  are 
situated  accord  well  with  this  supposition.  The  level  of  these  lakes,  however,  varies  with 
the  weather,  and  with  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  the  waters  discharged  into  them  by  rivers 
at  particular  seasons  of  the  year.  The  variation  in  the  height  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  from 
four  to  eight  feet ;  but  the  level,  at  a  particular  point  of  its  uiore,  must  be  affected  by  the 
direction  of  the  wind,  and  probably  by  a  very  trifling  tide.  When  the  banks  of  lakes  are 
very  porous,  they  cannot  fiul,  during  very  dry  weather,  to  absorb  a  large  portion  of  tlie  water, 
and  to  throw  it  off  by  evaporation. 

The  depth  of  great  lakes  has  been  seldom  ascertained  with  much  exactness.  The  gene- 
ral depth  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  firom  60  to  70  fathoms ;  but  this  increases  towards  the  south 
end  to  such  a  degree,  that  no  bottom  can  be  found  with  a  line  of  380  fathoms.  In  lakes,  aa 
in  the  ocean,  the  slope  of  the  bank  is  continued  downward  for  a  considerable  way  below  the 
water;  that  is,  deep  lakes  are  to  be  found  in  mountainous  districts,  and  shallow  marshy  ones 
in  flatter  countries.  The  depth  of  Loch  Ness,  in  the  Hiehlands  of  Scotland,  is  in  soma 
places  130  fiithoms,  which  is  four  times  the  mean  depth  of  the  German  Sea;  and  its  bottom 
IS  actually  30  flithoms  below  the  deepest  part  of  that  sea,  between  the  latitudes  of  Dover 
and  Inverness.*"  The  Lake  of  Geneva  attains  the  still  greater  depth  of  161  fathoms.  Many 
other  lakes  are  known  to  be  exceedingly  deep,  without  the  amount  being  ascertained.  Seve- 
ral have  passed  for  ages  as  bottomless ;  but  uiis  opinion  now  obtains  little  credit.  It  is  more 
Srobable,  tliat  most  lakes  are  daily  getting  more  shallow,  firom  being  filled  up  with  mud  or 
ebris. 

The  temperature  of  the  surface  of  lakes  depends  on  the  clunate  and  season ;  but  at  the 
bottom  of  deep  lakes  it  undergoes  little  or  no  change  throughout  the  year,  and  approaches 
to  that  which  corresponds  to  the  maximum  density  of  water,  which  diflTerent  writers  estimate 
variously,  from  39"  P.  to  42.5" ;  but  40"  is  most  commonly  received.  In  Loch  Catrine  and 
Loch  Lomond,  the  temperature,  at  all  depths  below  40  fathoms,  is  41° ;  but  the  mean  for 
the  climate  is  47°.  The  deep  lakes  of  Thun  and  Zug,  in  Switzerland,  have  a  temperature 
of  42°  at  the  depth  of  15  brasses.  Thun  was  41.5°  at  the  depth  of  105  brasses,  while  the 
surface  was  60° ;  and  Zug,  41"  at  38  brasses,  with  surface  58°.  The  bottom  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  has  a  temperature  of  42° :  that  of  the  Lago  Sabatino  at  Rome  is  44.5",  at  a  depth 
of  80  fathoms.  Tepid  springs  may,  in  some  cases,  keep  up  the  temperature,  when  they 
occur  at  the  bottom  of  lakes.  From  what  we  mentioned  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  climate  has  much  influence ;  and  yet  most  powerful  springs  of  fresh  water 
are  known  to  boil  up  in  its  shallower  parts.  Such  springs  probably  approach  to  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  climate;  or,  perhaps,  those  who  contend  for  an  uicrease  of  heat  with  the 
depUi  of  the  solid  strata  would  claim  for  them  a  higher  temperature.  Deep  lakes  almost 
never  fi-eeze,  except  in  a  very  cold  climate ;  because  tiie  whole  body  of  water  must  cool 
below  40°  before  congelation  could  commence.  Accordingly,  neiUier  Loch  Ness  nor  its 
effluent  river  of  the  same  name  are  ever  frozen  over. 

The  qualities  of  the  watera  of  lakes  are  various,  accordmg  to  the  nature  of  the  substances 
with  which  they  may  be  mixed  or  contammated.  The  principal  distinctions,  in  this  respect, 
are  freshj  saline,  and  alkaline.  Lakes  which  receive  much  nresh  water,  and  have  a  copious 
efllux,  are  almost  always  fl*esh ;  but  those  which  lose  much  of  their  water  by  evaporation 
may  be  slightly  saline,  especially  if  the  neighbouring  soil  abound  in  salt  When  lakes  have 
no  outlet,  uiey  are  invariably  saline.  To  account  ror  this,  two  reasons  have  been  given, 
which  are  quite  compatible  with  each  other.  The  one  is,  that  salt  lakes  having  no  outlet 
are  concentrated  portions  of  the  waters  of  the  deluge,  retained  by  the  hollows  of  the  earUi'a 
surface ;  and  that  all  other  lakes  were  originally  such,  and  saline ;  but  tiiose  have  had  tiieii 

*  Vide  Stevenioi^  Wernerion  Menioin,  and  Edinburgh  Pbil.  Journal. 


"r"''' 


804 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


Book 


Bait  washed  out  and  carried  to  the  ocean,  which  are  travened  by  riven  or  other  fireeh  wator 
The  other  opinion  ia,  that  the  salt  in  lakes  has  come  flrom  springs,  or  been  washed  from  the 
noil  of  the  adjacent  country  by  means  of  the  rain  and  rivers:  for  such  lakes  are  most  abun- 
dant where  the  soU  contauis  saline  matter ;  and  where  lakes  only  lose  water  by  evaporation, 
the  vapour  goes  off  fresh  and  leaves  the  salt  behind.  The  Dead  Sea  is  the  saltest  of  all 
known  lakes,  and  appears  to  have  been  so  for  upwards  of  4000  years ;  for  in  the  book  of 
Genesis  it  is  called,  oy  way  of  distinction,  the  "  Salt  Sea,"  even  at  a  time  when  the  adjacent 
plain  was  as  noted  for  fertility  as  it  is  now  for  barrenness.  The  waters  of  this  lake  are  in  a 
state  of  saturation,  containing  about  eight  times  as  much  salt  as  those  of  the  ocean.  The 
salt  must  be  accumulating  in  beds  at  its  bottom ;  for  the  rivor  Jordan,  which  is  brackish, 
necessarily  carries  in  more.  Masses  of  bitumen  frequently  float  on  iJie  surfkce,  and  seem 
to  rise  firom  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  other  Ablatio  lakes,  some  of 
which  are  impregnated  with  borax.  In  the  island  of  Trinidad,  there  is  a  lake  which  pro. 
duces  an  enormous  quantity  of  bitumen  fit  for  naval  purposes. 

Some  lakes  are  both  saline  and  alkaline,  as  is  the  case  with  a  series  of  lakes  in  Lower 
Egvpt  These  are  called  tiie  Natron  Lakes,  from  their  abounding  in  soda,  which  is  there 
called  trona  and  nattwt,  the  nt'fre  of  the  Sacred  Writings. 

Lakes  appear  to  have  been  much  more  numerous  at  a  former  period  than  at  present,  and 
to  have  occupied  a  large  proportion  of  the  surface  of  the  land.  Traces  of  their  existence 
occur  everywhere.  Many  of  them  have  been  filled  up  with  dibris,  and  become  level  plains 
traversed  by  a  river;  some  have  been  drained  by  the  gradual  deepening  of  their  outlets;  or 
both  causes  have  often  operated  togeUier.  Others  have  got  vent  through  cracks  caused  by 
earthquakes,  or  by  the  subsiding  of  a  part  of  the  basin.  The  kingdom  of  Hungary  is  eup. 
posed  to  have  been  originally  the  basin  of  a  lake ;  and  some  go  so  far  as  to  allege  ^he  same 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Geological  phenomena  also  show  that  new  lakes  arise,  and  old 
ones  disappear,  during  those  great  risings  and  sinkings  of  the  land  which  have  taken  place 
during  former  periods,  and  even  now  are  not  without  example. 

There  are  several  modes  in  which  new  lakes  may  be  formed.  In  hot  tropical  climates, 
many  large  lakes  are  formed  during  the  rainy  season,  and  entirely  disappear  on  a  change  of 
weather;  but  such  hardly  deserve  the  name,  being  rather  land-floods,  tiiough  they  would  be 
permanent  lakes  in  a  colder  country.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  formation  of  a  visible 
or  open  lake  from  the  felling  in  of  the  roof  of  a  subterranean  one.  When  a  mountain  falls 
asunder,  it  often  happens  that  it  stops  up  a  neighbouring  river  and  valley,  and  forms  a  lake. 
But  the  water  of  a  river  obstructed  in  this  manner  will  always  overflow,  and  can  scarcely 
foil  to  regain  its  former  level,  either  by  wearing  away  a  cut  for  itself  above,  or  by  under- 
mining Uie  ruins  beneath.  Shallow  marshy  lakes  are  frequently  formed  by  the  surplus 
waters  of  rivers  detained  on  flat  ground  by  an  accumulation  of  mud.  Ice  and  snow  some- 
times accumulate  in  narrow  passes  between  mountains,  so  as  to  obstruct  and  make  the  water 
stagnant,  and  form  a  temporary  lake,  increasing  perhaps  for  years,  till  at  length  the  pressure 
of  the  water  is  augmented  to  such  a  degree  as  to  burst  the  icy  barrier.  The  consequences 
are  sometimes  dreadful.  So  great  a  discharge  of  water  and  ice,  precipitated  from  the 
mountains,  tears  up  not  only  alluvial  substances,  but  fi-equently  portions  of  rocks,  which  are 
scattered  over  the  plain  below.  Thus  villages  and  fertile  fields  are  almost  instantly  con- 
verted into  deep  hollows  and  heaps  of  rubbish.  These  cavities  perhaps  continue  filled  with 
water,  forming  small  lakea 

There  are  certain  lakes  which  disappear  and  re-appear  periodically,  without  regard  to 
the  rainy  season.  Such  are  supposed  to  be  filled  and  emptied  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
cavities  of  intermitting  springs,  or  to  communicate  with  some  subterranean  lake  which 
undergoes  such  periodical  changes.  That  any  lakes,  remote  from  the  sea,  should  communi- 
cate with  it  under  ground,  so  as  to  rise  and  fall  with  the  tide,  is  very  improbable.  In 
Portugal  there  is  a  small  lake  near  Beja,  which  emits  a  loud  noise  on  the  approach  of  a 
storm.  Other  lakes  appear  agitated  by  the  disengagement  of  gas.  Near  Boleslaw,  in 
Bohemia,  a  lake  of  unfathomable  depth  sometimes  emits  blasts  of  wind  which  raise  up 
pieces  of  ice.  Some  of  the  Scottish  lakes,  and  the  Wetter  in  Sweden,  experience  violent 
agitations  even  during  serene  weather.  A  coincidence  of  dates  has  given  ground  for  believ* 
ing  that  these  agitations  are  connected  with  earthquakes  in  distant  countries. 

Sect.  IV. — Rivert. 

The  origin  and  pro^fress  of  rivers  have  been  compared  by  Pliny  to  the  life  of  man.  "Its 
beginnings  are  insignificant,  and  its  in&ncy  is  frivolous ;  it  plays  among  the  flowers  of  a 
meadow,  it  waters  a  garden,  or  turns  a  little  mill.  Gathering  strength,  in  its  youth  it 
becomes  wild  and  impetuous.  Impatient  of  the  restraints  which  it  still  meets  wiUi  in  the 
hollows  among  the  mountains,  it  is  restless  and  fretful ;  quick  in  its  turning,  and  unsteady 
in  its  course.  Now  it  is  a  roaring  cataract,  tearing  up  and  overturning  whatever  opposes 
lis  progress,  and  it  shoots  headlong  down  from  a  rock ;  then  it  becomes  a  sullen  and  gloomy 
pool,  buried  in  the  bottom  of  a  glen.  Recovering  breath  by  repose,  it  again  dashes  along, 
till  tired  of  uproar  and  mischief,  it  quits  all  that  it  has  swept  along,  and  leaves  the  opening 


Part  tl 

other  fresh  waior 
1  woahed  from  the 
tea  are  most  abun- 
ter  by  evaporation, 
I  the  saltest  of  all 
for  in  the  book  of 
when  the  adjacent 
'  this  lake  are  in  a 
'  the  ocean.  The 
vhich  is  brackish, 
Burfkce,  and  seem 
itic  lakes,  some  of 
a  lake  which  pro- 

[>f  lakes  in  Lower 
da,  which  is  there 

m  at  present,  and 
of  their  existence 
Bcome  level  plains 
>f  their  outlets;  or 
I  cracks  caused  by 
f  Hungary  is  gup> 
to  alleg'e  the  same 
ikes  arise,  and  old 
I  have  taken  place 

tropical  climates, 
lar  on  a  change  of 
igh  they  would  be 
mationof  a  visible 
n  a  mountain  falls 
and  forms  a  lake, 
and  can  scarcely 
K)ve,  or  by  under- 
jd  by  the  surplus 
i  and  snow  some- 
id  make  tlie  water 
mgth  the  pressure 
["he  consequences 
■pitated  from  the 
rocks,  which  are 
ost  instantly  con- 
ntinue  filled  with 

vithout  regard  to 
ner  similar  to  the 
[lean  lake  which 
should  commnni- 

improbable.  In 
he  approach  of  a 
ear  Boleslaw,  in 

which  raise  up 
tperience  violent 
rround  forbeliev- 

!S. 


e  of  man.  "Its 
the  flowers  of  a 
in  its  youth  it 
leets  witii  in  the 
ig,  and  unsteady 
whatever  opposes 
illen  and  gloomy 
n  dashes  along, 
ives  the  opening 


Boor  IT. 


Y  '    HYDROLOGY. 


206 


r; 


of  tJie  valley  strewed  with  the  rejected  waste.  Now  quitting  its  retirement,  it  comes  abroad 
into  the  world,  journeying  with  more  prudence  and  discretion,  through  cultivated  fields, 
rielding  to  circumstances,  and  winding  round  what  would  trouble  it  to  overwhelm  or  remove, 
t  passes  through  the  populous  cities,  ohd  all  the  busy  haunts  of  man,  tendering  its  services 
on  every  side,  and  becomes  the  support  and  ornament  of  the  country.  Increased  by 
numerous  alliances,  and  advanced  in  its  course,  it  becomes  ^ve  and  statelv  in  its  motions, 
loves  peace  and  quiet,  and  in  majestic  silence  rolls  un  its  mighty  waters  till  it  is  laid  to  rest 
m  the  vast  abyss."  The  sun  and  the  host  of  heaven  have,  in  all  ages  and  nations,  been 
obiects  of  sincere  worship.  Next  to  them,  the  rivers  seem  to  have  attracted  tho  grateful 
acKnowledgements  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  countries.  They  have  every- 
where been  considered  a  sort  of  tutelar  deities,  and  each  little  district,  every  retired 
valley,  had  its  river  god,  who  was  preferred  to  the  others.  The  expostulation  of  Naaman 
the  Syrian,  who  was  offended  with  the  prophet  for  enjoming  him  to  wash  in  the  river 
Jordan,  was  the  natural  eflusion  of  tliis  attachment  "  What  (said  he),  are  not  Abona  and 
Pharpar,  rivers  of  Damascus,  more  excellent  than  all  the  waters  of  Judeal  Might  I  not 
wash  in  them  and  be  clean  1  so  he  went  away  wroth."  In  those  countries  particularly 
where  the  labours  of  the  husbandman  and  shepherd  depended  on  what  took  place  in  a  &r 
distant  country  by  the  falling  of  periodical  rains,  or  the  melting  of  the  collected  snows,  the 
Nile,  the  Ganges,  the  Indus,  were  the  sensible  agents  of  nature  in  procuring  to  the  inhabit- 
uits  of  their  fertile  banks  all  their  abundance,  and  they  became  objects  of  grateful  adoration. 
Their  sources  were  sought  for  even  by  conquering  princes,  and  when  found  were  worshipped 
with  the  most  affectionate  devotion.  These  rivers  preserve  to  this  day  the  fond  adoration  of 
the  inlmbitants  of  the  countries  through  which  they  pass,  and  their  waters  are  still  held  sacred. 

The  term  river  is  applied  to  any  large  current  of  water  which  is  not  in  the  ocean  or  its 
branches,  and  which  may  discharge  itself  into  the  ocean,  into  lakes,  marshes,  or  into  other 
rivers ;  for  the  waters  of  some  rivers  never  reach  the  ocean ;  as  is  the  case  with  tlie  Wolgo, 
the  Jordan,  and  others,  which  discharge  themselves  into  salt  lakes,  having  usually  the  name 
of  seas.  When  the  atmosphere  supplies  a  country  with  more  water  than  it  has  an  oppovtu- 
nity  of  carrying  off  again  by  evaporation,  the  surplus  either  penetrates  through  the  sur&ce 
or  collects  into  small  streams,  which,  afterwards  uniting  an(^  receiving  the  water  of  springs, 
gradually  form  larger  and  larger  currents,  which,  if  allowed  to  proceed  increasing,  at  .engta 
Become  rivers.  Some  rivers  proceed  from  lakes  or  marshes,  but  none  come  immediately  from 
the  sea.  They  invariably  occupy  the  lowest  parts  of  the  districts  from  which  their  waters 
are  derived,  and  these  districts  are  called  their  basins.  The  basins  are  usually  boimded  by 
high  lands,  and  sometimes  by  mountains.  They  form  natural  divisions  in  physiced  geography. 
Those  of  the  Rhone,  Garonne,  Loire,  Seine,  and  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Rhine,  comprehend 
the  greatest  part  of  France.  In  some  cases,  the  boundaries  of  basins  are  not  well  defined ; 
as  wnere  the  surfiice  becomes  flat  or  marshy.  This  is  the  case  between  the  basins  of  the 
Amazon  and  Ormoco,  which  are  connected  by  a  natural  and  navigable  communication.  In 
Europe,  the  sources  of  the  Dwina,  of  the  Niemen,  and  of  the  Borysthenes,  are  nearly  united 
in  a  marshy  plain.  It  is  evident  that  the  deep  ravines  through  which  rivers  flow  could  not 
m  many  instances  be  the  work  of  the  rivers  themselves;  because  the  margins  of  such  ravines 
are  often  higher  than  other  places  of  the  district,  through  which  the  rivers  ought  to  have 
flowed  before  such  valleys  were  cut,  as  some  fancy,  out  of  solid  rock.  A  more  rational 
explanation  is,  that  a  crack  or  rent, — the  effect  of  some  earthquake  or  subsidence, — had 
taken  place ;  and  that  the  water,  getting  through  such  rent,  had  gradually  widened  it  by  the 
attrition  of  its  sand  and  gravel :  the  still  more  corrodmg  action  of  the  weather  would  mate- 
rially assist  in  widening  the  upper  part  of  the  ravine.  Many  rivers  appear  to  have  been  at 
first  a  series  of  lakes  and  cataracts  alternately,  through  which  the  water  was  conveyed  from 
higher  to  lower  ground.  The  bottoms  of  these  lakes  are  gradually  filled  up  with  debris, 
the  outlets  are  by  degrees  deepened,  or  the  basins  rent  through  as  above  described.  The 
lakes  at  length  become  dry  plains,  traversed  by  the  river;  Uie  cataracts,  clefts  or  deep 
ravines ;  and  the  river  acquires,  upon  the  whole,  a  pretty  uniform  descent  There  are  traces 
of  these  changes  everywhere :  the  parallel  roads  of  Lochaber,  as  tliey  are  called,  seem  to  be 
nothing  else  than  the  horizontal  shelves  with  which  lakes  are  usually  surrounded.  From 
these  it  appears  that  the  valleys  of  Glen  Gluov,  Glen  Roy,  and  Glen  Spean,  have  formerly 
been  the  basins  of  lakes,  which  are  now  cut  through  and  emptied.  Three  distinct  basins 
are  observed  in  the  course  of  the  Rhme :  first,  that  of  the  Lake  of  Constance ;  tlie  second 
reaches  from  Basle  to  Bmgen ;  and  the  third  from  this  to  the  sea.  They  are  separated  fi-om 
each  other  by  rocky  straits.  In  many  coses,  the  subsidence  of  the  water,  at  successive  stages, 
can  be  traced  from  one  level  to  another,  by  means  of  the  diflbrent  horizontal  shelves  still 
visible  on  the  sides  of  the  valleys.  Sir  Thomas  Lauder  remarked  this,  in  the  above  named 
glens  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  In  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  Professor  Playfair  dlBtin. 
guished  tour  or  five  such  terraces,  at  the  successive  heights  of  twentjr,  thirty,  or  forty  feet 
aliove  one  another.  The  same  tiling  occurs  on  the  banks  in  the  great  chain  of  North  American 
tftkes  which  are  not  yet  empty. 

The  larger  rivers  are,  their  fall  or  declivity  is  generally  so  much  the  smaller.    The  reason 


200 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  Tl. 


of  thia  is,  that  large  rivew  necessarily  occupy  the  lowest  parts  of  the  country ;  and  also,  that 
there  are  no  materials  of  which  beds  of  rivers  are  ordinarily  formed,  that  could  have  resisted 
the  action  of  a  ffreat  river,  having  a  rapid  fall,  during  the  lapse  of  ages.  In  the  last  200 
leagues  of  the  Amaions,  the  fell  is  only  10.5  feet;  and  in  the  3000  miles  above  that,  the 
mean  fall  is  only  five  inches  per  mile.  The  Seine,  between  Valvins  and  Sevres,  has  a  fall 
of  about  0.6  inches  per  mile.  The  Loire,  between  Briaire  and  Orleans,  has  only  one  foot  in 
13,596.  Between  the  Himalaya  chain  and  the  sea,  the  Ganges  has  onlv  four  inches  per  mile. 
The  entire  fall  of  the  Wolga  is  957  French  feet,  or  five  inches  per  mile.  Notwithstanding 
the  rapidity  of  the  Rhine,  it  has  only  a  fiill  of  four  feet  per  mile  between  Schaffhauscn  ana 
Strasburg ;  and  of  two  feet  between  that  and  Schenckenschantz.  Sometimes  a  river  falling 
into  anotner  with  great  rapidity,  and  at  an  acute  angle,  will  at  the  time  of  flood  force  the 
latter  to  flow  back  fat  a  short  way.  Such  is  sometimes  the  effect  of  the  Arve  on  the  Rhone, 
which  is  forced  back  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 

The  bore  is  a  phenomenon  which  occurs  on  some  great  rivers,  which  enter  the  sea  with 
considerably  velocity,  and  experience  a  sudden  check  or  obstruction  fh)m  the  flow  of  the  tide ; 
the  consequence  is,  that  an  enormous  wave,  known  by  the  term  bnre,  and  various  other  names, 
is  generated  and  sent  backward  or  up  the  river  with  great  velocity,  to  the  no  small  dpneer 
of  the  navigation.  The  principle  on  which  this  phenomenon  depends  is  nearly  allied  to  that 
if  the  hydraulic  ram :  at  the  spring  tides,  it  appears  of  a  correspondingly  greater  magnitude. 
In  the  Amazons,  the  height  of^  this  wave  is  estimated  at  180  feet 

Rivers  are  subject  to  inundation.  In  the  Sacred  Writings,  some  allusions  are  made  to  the 
overflowings  of  the  Nile ;  but  those  of  the  Jordan  are  distinctly  mentioned,  as  covering  all 
the  banks  during  harvest,  and  expelling  the  lions  which  lurked  in  the  thickets,  so  as  to 
drive  tJhem  infuriated  through  tiie  country.  Modern  travellers,  however,  assert  that  this 
river  does  not  now  overflow ;  and  they  allege  as  a  reason,  that  its  channel  is  become  deep 
enough  to  hold  the  floods.  It  is  as  likely  that  the  banks  have  been  raised  by  the  deposition 
of  mud  and  the  growth  uf  vegetables :  perhaps  the  fall  of  snow  and  rain  upon  Mount  Leba- 
non, fipom  which  the  floods  came,  is  not  so  abundant  since  its  forests  of^  cedars  were  cut 
down ;  for  some  travellers  are  of  opinion  that  this  river  must,  firom  the  accounts  of  the  an- 
cients, have  been  formerly  of  much  greater  magnitude,  at  all  seasons  of  the  yeai,  than  it 
now  appears  to  be. 

The  excessive  rains  which  fall  in  tropical  regions,  during  a  certain  season  of  tite  year, 
occasion  the  inundation  or  overflowing  of  the  rivers  which  originate  in  the  torrid  zone. 
The  following  is  nearly  the  general  rulo  for  the  rainy  season ;  viz.,  that  periodical  rains 
3veiywhere  prevail  from  the  equator  to  the  parallel  of  latitude  over  which  the  sun  is 
vertical.  Humboldt  mentions  as  another  pretty  correct  and  still  more  general  rule,  apply- 
ing likewise  to  the  firigid  zone,  that  the  season  of  floods  falls  within  four  months  of  midsum- 
mer. The  floods  of  rivers  originating  in  high  latitudes  proceed  principally  from  the  melt- 
ing of  the  ice  and  snow  on  the  mountains,  by  means  of  the  summer's  heat.  Such  floods  are 
violent,  but  of  short  duration,  and  occur  in  the  four  months  preceding  the  summer  solstice. 
Some  of  these  rivers  have  two,  or  perhaps  three,  successive  floods,  corresponding  to  the 
seasons  of  thaw  in  the  low  ground,  on  the  sides  of  mountains,  and  on  their  summits. 

The  ancients  were  quite  aware  that  some  rivers  derived  their  floods  from  the  sources  we 
have  just  mentioned ;  but  the  overflowings  of  the  Nile,  in  a  country  remote  from  both  rain 
and  snow,  excited  their  surprise.  The  mystery  was,  however,  dispelled,  when  once  it  was 
known  that  the  Nile  principally  draws  its  waters  from  the  tropical  regions,  where  the  exces- 
sive periodical  rains  cause  other  rivers  to  overflow.  The  Nile  begins  to  swell  in  June,  and 
continues  to  do  so  till  the  middle  of  August,  when  it  has  reached  its  maximum  heiglit  of 
from  24  to  28  feet  With  the  exception  of  a  few  elevated  spots,  and  some  of  the  higher 
accumulations  of  alluvial  matter,  on  the  margin  of  the  river,  the  whole  of  the  Delta  and  the 
long  valley  of  Egypt  is  then  covered  with  water.  The  rising  of  the  Ganges,  which  is  partly 
owing  to  tiie  melting  of  snow  and  partly  to  the  rainy  season,  commences  in  April,  and,  like 
tlie  Nile,  attains  its  maximum  of  about  81  or  32  feet  in  the  middle  of  August  Tropical 
rivers  which  move  parallel  to  the  equator  spread  their  waters  pretty  uniformly  over  the  low 
ground  :  such  is  the  case  with  the  Orinoco  and  the  Senegal.  In  rivers  which  descend  from 
great  elevations,  or  move  at  right  angles  to  the  equator,  the  action  of  the  tropical  rains  is 
extremely  unequal ;  for  the  surplus  watf^r  only  overflows  the  low  and  flat  districts.  This  is 
exactly  what  happens  with  the  Nile :  but  it  is  sufficient  here  to  mention  the  general  princi- 
ples ;  as  the  inundations  of  particular  ri  'ers  will  be  described  along  with  their  respective 
countries. 

Waterfells,  or  cascades  and  cataracts,  jxe  often  formed  by  rivers  in  descending  from  pri 
mitive  mountams  into  secondary  countries.  Compact  durable  rocks  are  requisite  for  pro 
ducing  a  permanent  eflect  of  this  kind :  such  are  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  of  the  Gange«^ 
and  various  other  rivers.  Some  cataracts,  like  those  of  Tunguska,  in  Siberia,  have  gradu- 
ally lost  their  elevation  by  the  wearing  away  of  the  rocks,  and  have  now  only  a  rapid  de« 
seent  According  to  Humboldt,  the  height  of  the  great  cataract  of  the  Rio  de  Bogota,  in 
South  America,  long  estimate*'  at  1500  feet,  is  al»ut  800  feet ;  that  of  Staubbach  is  about 


■<-   X^i 


Part  T1. 

intiy ;  and  also,  that 
;  could  have  rcaisted 
1.  In  tho  last  200 
liles  above  that,  tlio 
id  Sevres,  has  a  full 
has  only  one  foot  in 
four  inches  per  mile. 
!.  Notwithstanding 
n  Schaifhauscn  and 
times  a  river  falling 
le  of  flood  force  the 
I  Arve  on  the  Rhone, 

i  enter  the  sea  with 
the'flowof  the  tide: 
various  other  names, 
the  no  small  dpnofer 
nearly  allied  to  that 
'  greater  magnitude. 

ions  are  made  to  the 
ned,  as  covering  all 
he  thickets,  so  as  to 
ver,  assert  that  this 
inel  is  become  deep 
!ed  by  the  deposition 
n  upon  Mount  Leba- 
5  of  cedars  were  cut 
accounts  of  the  an- 
of  the  yeai,  than  it 

season  of  tlie  year, 

!  in  the  torrid  zone. 

that  periodical  rains 

;r  which  the  sun  is 

general  rule,  upply- 

r  months  of  midsum- 

mlly  from  the  melt- 

at.    Such  floods  are 

the  summer  solstice. 

lorresponding  to  the 

»r  summits. 

from  the  sources  we 

note  from  both  rain 

I,  when  once  it  was 

ns,  where  the  exces- 

t  swell  in  June,  and 

maximum  hciglit  of 

some  of  the  higher 

if  the  Delta  and  the 

iges,  which  is  partly 

s  in  April,  and,  like 

■  August.    Tropical 

formly  over  the  lo^v 

which  descend  from 

he  tropical  rains  is 

it  distncts.    Tliis  is 

the  general  princi- 

th  their  respective 

sscending  from  pr» 
J  requisite  for  pro 
ile,  of  the  Ganget^ 
beria,  have  gradu- 
iw  only  a  rapid  de« 
Rio  de  Bogota,  in 
Staubbach  is  about 


Boot  n. 


HYDROLOGY.      A> 


207 


000  feet.  The  small  river  Ache,  in  Bavaria,  which  riaea  in  the  cavern  of  the  fflaoi«r  ot 
Mount  Tauron,  runs  through  the  valley  of  Achenthal,  and,  after  reaching  the  Gulf  of  Tau« 
ron,  throws  itsolf  over  an  elevation  of  2000  feet.  It  has  five  great  falls;  the  last  of  which 
forms  a  moat  magnificent  arch  of  waters,  which  is  resolved  into  spray  before  it  reaches  the 
ground.  The  noise  of  the  waters  is  so  terrible,  that  it  is  heard  at  the  distance  of  more  thu 
a  league ;  and  the  current  of  air  produced  by  tho  descent  of  the  water  is  so  violent,  that  it 
drives  back  those  who  attempt  to  advance  towards  thr:  gulf:  it  is  necessary,  Uierefore,  to 
approach  it  by  walking  backwards.  The  fall  of  Garispa  in  India  is  1000  feet.  One  of  the 
most  considerable  known  falls  takes  place  on  the  river  Niagara,  which  connects  Lakes  E^ie 
and  Ontario.  Tho  river  here,  just  before  the  &11,  is  divided  by  Goat  Island  into  two  parts: 
the  one,  600  feet  broad,  falls  to  tho  depth  of  150  feet ;  while  the  other,  85  yards  broad,  &lle 
164  feet  in  perpendicular  height  In  Scotland  the  most  considerable  fiiUs  are  those  on  the 
river  Clyde,  near  Lanark,  where  the  river  is  precipitated  down  three  successive  precipices 
of  red  sandstone.  In  the  upper  fall,  that  of  Bonniton,  the  whole  river  throws  tself  over  a 
precipice  30  feet  high :  lower  down,  at  Corra  Linn,  it  is  precipitated  from  a  height  of  84 
feet  The  lowest  fall,  that  of  Stonebyres,  consists  of  three  stages,  being  broken  by  two  ipn- 
iecting  rocks ;  its  fall  is  80  feet  In  tho  course  of  the  river  Foyers,  on  the  side  of  Loch 
Ness,  there  are  two  falls ;  the  upper  fall  is  40  feet  high,  the  lower  00  feet  In  the  miner- 
alogical  report  of  Lapland,  presented  to  tho  Swedish  government,  the  discovery  of  a  great 
waterfall  in  the  river  Lulea  is  particularly  mentioned.  It  is  said  to  be  one  eighth  of  a  mile 
broad,  and  to  fall  400  feet;  if  the  mile  be  German,  as  is  most  likely  (equal  to  four  and  a  half 
English  miles),  the  breadth  exceeds  half  an  English  mile. 


CHAPTER  m.  ,.    .      ,,      ,       ;;,^^, 

GEOGNOSY. 

This  branch  of  natural  history  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  structure,  materials,  relative 
position,  and  mode  of  formation,  of  the  great  mineral  masses  of  which  Uie  crust  of  the 
earth  is  composed. 

In  conveymg  to  our  readers  a  short  view  of  this  important  subject,  we  shall  adopt  the 
following  arrangement : —  .      ^ 

I.  Describe  the  physiognomy  of  the  earth's  surface.  ■'.' 

n.  (^ve  an  account  of  the  action  of  water  and  air  on  that  surface, 

III.  Give  an  account  of  the  action  of  volcanoes  and  carthc^uakes  on  the  earth's  surface. 

IV.  Descnhe  the  different  structures  observable  in  the  solid  mass  of  the  globe. 

V.  Define  and  describe  the  different  classes  and  species  of  rocks  of  which  the  crust  of  the 
earth  is  composed. 

Sect.  I. — Physiognomy  of  the  EartVt  surface. 

Dry  land.  The  dry  land,  or  the  land  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  arranged  into  masses 
of  various  magnitudes  and  forms.  It  is  not  equally  distributed ;  for  a  much  larger  portion 
of  it  occurs  to  the  north  than  to  the  south  of  the  equator ;  and  the  difference  in  thin  respect 
is  80  great,  that  the  southern  half  of  the  globe  is  principally  water,  while  the  northern  is 
chiefly  land.  About  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  it  was  asserted  that  a  great  continent 
must  exist  towards  the  south  pole,  in  order  to  counterbalance  the  mass  of  land  in  the  north* 
em  hemisphere ;  but  by  the  voyages  of  Cook  and  Bellinghausen,  and  particularly  the  late  enter- 
prise of  Weddel,  it  has  been  shown  that  in  hi?h  southern  latitudes,  in  place  of  a  continent, 
there  are  but  a  few  groups  of  islands.  The  absence  of  a  continent  near  the  south  pole  does 
not  itself  prove  that  there  is  less  land  there  than  in  the  north,  since  it  is  possible  that  the 
land  in  general  may  be  only  rather  more  depressed  in  the  south,  and  consequently  the  ocean 
is  spread  more  extensively  over  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  that  quarter.  The  dry  land 
is  arranged  into  two  grand  divisions  named  worlds,  viz.  the  Old  World  and  the  New 
World.  The  Old  World,  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  extends  from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.,  and 
comprehends  the  three  continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The  New  World,  in  the 
western  hemisphere,  extends  from  N.  to  S.,  and  is  composed  of  two  continents,  viz.  North 
and  South  America, 

The  general  direction  of  the  land  in  the  two  worlds  is  different  In  America,  it  is  from 
N.  to  S. :  in  the  Old  World,  it  is  S.  W.  to  N.  E :  and,  if  we  omit  Africa,  it  is  almost  parallel 
with  the  equator.  The  longest  straight  line  that  can  be  drawn  on  the  Old  World  com 
mences  on  tiie  western  coast  of  Africa,  from  about  Cape  Verd,  and  extends  to  Behring' 
Strait,  <m  the  north-east  coast  of  Asia :  it  is  about  11,000  miles  in  length.  A  similar  line 
traced  along  the  New  World  tcom  the  Strait  of  Terra  del  Fuego  to  the  northern  shore  of 
North  America  measures  nearly  ftOOO  miles. 

The  Old  and  New  Worlds  have  the  following  features  in  common :  northern  and  southern 
halves,  connecting  isthmuses,  a  peninsula  on  the  one  side,  and  a  group  of  islands  on  the 
other.    This  arrangement  will  appear  evident  from  the  following  details. 


90S 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  II. 


Tho  old  world  may  be  conaidorod  u  composod  of  two  great  halves :  the  ono,  tho  wontern, 
iucluduH  Kuropo  and  AtVica ;  the  otlier,  tho  eaatorn,  Aiia  and  Now  Holland.  In  tho  wostoni 
lialti  tJio  two  contineutB,  vii.  Europe  and  Africa,  are  connected  togfoUior  by  tho  iathinui  of 
Hu<)S,  and  liavo  on  tlie  one  hand  the  ialondii  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  tlto  oUior  the  pen- 
inaula  of  Arabia.  In  the  ooatern  half,  the  two  continnnta  of  Asia  and  New  Holland  are,  to 
a  certain  extent,  connected  tof^otlior  by  tho  islanda  of  Java,  Sumatra,  &^. ;  and  in  fh)nt  of 
this  broken  itthmtu  is  Papua  and  other  islands,  and  on  the  other  side  the  peninsula  of  Indii. 
The  Now  World  is  composed  of  two  halves,  a  northern  and  a  southern :  these  are  connected 
toffotiier  by  tlie  istlmius  of  Darien ;  and  on  tlie  front  are  situated  the  West  India  islands,  and 
beliind  tho  peninsula  of  California. 

Anotlior  general  feature  in  the  ffenoral  distribution  of  the  dry  land,  is  th(^  tapering  of  oil 
the  groat  peninsulas  to  tlie  soutli.  This,  for  oxainplo,  is  tho  case  with  the  continent  ot  AtVico, 
with  Arabia,  India,  South  America,  Scandinavia,  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  Coreo,  Alosltka,  Kam- 
tchatka,  California,  Florida,  and  Grocnlund. 

Besides  tlio  Old  and  New  Worlds,  as  above  described,  there  occur,  disporsod  through  tho 
ocean,  numerous  smaller  masses  of  land,  forming  islands  of  various  magnitudes  and  forms. 
Those  islands  situated  near  to  the  continents  aro  considered  as  bolongmg  to  them.  Thus 
the  British  isles  belong  to  Europo,  tlioso  of  Japan  to  Asia,  tlie  West  India  islands  to 
America,  and  Madagascar  to  Africa.  But  besides  tlieso  there  are  otlicr  islands  und  groups 
of  islands,  situated  at  a  distance  fi-om  continents,  and  which  cannot  bo  referred  to  any  of  the 

E receding  divisions,  but  to  tho  oceans  in  which  they  occur ;  as,  for  example,  tlio  Sandwich 
ilands,  in  tlio  Nortli  Pacific  Ocean. 

SvosECT.  1. — InequalUiet  of  the  Surface  qf  the  Dry  Land, 

The  surfiico  of  the  land  exhibits  groat  variety  in  aspect,  forming  mountains,  hills,  volleys, 
end  plains.  The  most  general  of  these  features  are  what  gcogrnplicrs  term  Mffh  land  and 
low  land.  High  lands  aro  loily,  uneven,  and  widely  extcnacd  masses  of  land :  thus,  the 
mountainous"-  tract  of  country  extending  from  tho  Naze  of  Norway  to  the  North  Cape  is  a 
high  land.  Low  landa  are  widely  extended  low  and  flat  countries :  thus,  tho  northern  part 
of  France,  tlie  Netherlands,  Holland,  part  of  Germany,  and  Silesia ;  Poland,  and  European 
Russia  form  what  may  bo  called  the  great  European  low  land.  We  shall  first  explain  the 
Btructuro  of  high  land,  and  next  that  of  low  land. 

(1.)  Structure  of  high  land.  In  a  high  land,  tho  central,  parts  are  generally  the  most 
rugged  and  lofly,  while  the  exterior  districts,  those  which  border  on  the  low  land,  are  lower, 
and  less  rugged.  The  central  part  is  named  alpine,  the  lower  and  the  exterior  part  hilly. 
The  alpine  part  of  a  high  land  is  composed  of  a  central  and  lofly  cliain  of  mountains,  named 
the  central,  or  high  mountaiti  chain,  towards  which  there  tend  a  greater  or  lesser  number 
of  lateral  or  principal ;  and  from  these  again  rubordinate  chains.  The  high  mountain  chain 
forms  tho  water-shed  (divorlia  aquarun^  of  the  district;  and  tho  hollows  that  traverse  the 
upper  part  of  this  chain  are  named  passes  (cols.)  On  passing  from  ono  side  to  another  of 
the  alpine  land,  we  do  not  always  travel  through  a  pass  or  col,  but  sometimes  across  a  com 
paretively  flat  tract,  many  leagues  in  extent ;  such  are  named  table4and».  In  crossing 
from  Norway  to  Sweden,  we  pass  in  some  parts  across  a  table-land ;  also  in  travelling  from 
Vera  Cruz  by  Mexico  to  Acapulco.  The  inclined  planes  on  which  the  lateral,  or  prmcipal 
and  subordinate,  chains  are  distributed  are  named  the  acclivities  of  the  high  land.  The 
hollows  that  separate  these  chains  from  each  other  are  named  valleys :  those  valleys  bounded 
by  principal  chains  are  named  principal  valleys,  and  sometimes  transverse  valleys ;  while 
the  valleys  between  subordinate  chains  ore  named  subordinate  valleys.  The  hilly  or  lower 
part  of  the  '^igh  land  is  composed  of  comparatively  low  and  less  rugged  chains,  called  chains 
of  hills,  whhdh  are  irregularly  grouped,  being  entirely  without  a  central  or  high  mountain 
chain.  The  valleys  in  this  hilly  land  are  shorter,  less  steep,  and  not  so  rugged  as  in  the 
more  central  or  alpine  part  of  the  high  land. 

(2.)  Structure  qf  low  lanJl.  Low  lai:d  is  formed  principally  of  extensive  plains,  little 
elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  which  we  occasionally  observe  gentle  risings  and 
lUululationB  of  the  surface,  that  often  extend  to  a  considerable  distance,  and  sometimes  form 
the  limits  between  noiglibouring  rivers.  Now  and  then  conical  and  table-shaped  hills  rise 
up  singly  and  suddenly  m  a  low  country,  as  is  the  case  with  volcanic  and  igneous  hills.  The 
plains  of  the  low  land  are  characterised  by  the  presence  of  particular  hollows  or  concavities, 
which  are  named  river-courses  or  river-valleys ;  because  in  these  riven  flow.  In  such  hol- 
lows we  distinguish  the  bed  of  the  river,  ana  the  holm  or  haugh  land;  further  we  observe 
the  high  and  low  banks  of  the  river,  and  the  ravines  or  small  valleys,  that  traverse  the  Iiigh 
bank  and  terminate  in  the  low  bank.  There  is  still  another  kind  of  hollow  met  with  in  the 
low  land ;  it  is  that  in  which  lakes,  generally  shallow,  are  contained. 

Coasts.  The  margin  of  the  dry  land,  where  it  meets  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  has  received 
the  general  name  of  coast.  It  varies  is  its  aspect.  ScrnGtinicS  it  is  low  and  shelving,  and 
then  the  neighbouring  sea  is  sliallow  to  a  considerable  distance ;  at  other  times  it  is  steep, 
lofty,  and  rugged,  am  then  the  sea  is  deep.    In  many  parts  of  Great  Britain,  and  on  the 


Pakt  II. 

0,  tho  woittorn, 
In  tho  woBtoni 
tho  iiithmui  of 
I  otlior  tho  pen- 
Holland  are,  to 
and  in  fVont  of 
linaulaof  Indii. 
D  aro  connected 
idia  islands,  and 

I  taporinff  of  all 
tinent  of  Africa, 
,  Alaslika,  Kam< 

sod  through  tho 
ides  and  forms, 
to  thorn.  Thus 
India  islands  to 
ands  and  groups 
rod  to  any  of  the 

1,  tlio  Sandwich 


US,  hills,  valleys, 
1  hiffh  land  and 
'  land :  thus,  tho 
North  Capo  is  a 
he  northern  part 
d,  and  European 
first  explain  the 

nerally  the  most 

'  land,  are  lower, 

terior  part  hiUy. 

lountains,  nameid 

)r  lesser  number 

I  mountain  chain 

Ihat  traverse  the 

dc  to  another  of 

!s  across  a  com 

In  crossing 

travelling  from 

ral,  or  prmcipal 

ligh  land.    The 

valleys  bounded 

valleys;  while 

hilly  or  lower 

I,  called  chains 

high  mountain 

tigged  as  in  the 

ive  plains,  litUe 
ntle  risings  and 
sometimes  form 
haped  hills  rise 
ous  hills.  The 
or  concavities, 
f.  In  such  hoi- 
her  we  observe 
averse  the  liigh 
net  with  in  the 

m,  has  received 
id  shelving,  and 
imes  it  is  steep, 
Ain,  and  on  the 


BookH. 


GEOGNOSY. 


20l> 


continunt,  as  in  Holland,  the  cout  is  low  and  sandy,  and  the  sand  is  occasionally  blown  into 
bills. 

Caves,  Thoso  are  cavities  o*"  greater  or  loss  nxtont,  which  aro  either  open  to  day,  u  in 
tho  cuHn  of  thn  ina^iiHcont  caves  in  tho  Islo  of  Isla,  ttiose  in  Arran,  thotto  near  VVcinysa  on 
the  couMt  of  Fifoshiro,  Sic,  when  they  are  named  external  or  open  caves ;  or  they  are  more 
rr  less  concoaled  in  the  interior  of  tlie  rocks  in  which  thoy  are  contained,  as  Maclean's  Cave 
in  the  Ulo  of  Egg,  and  many  caves  in  the  limestone  of  Derbyshire :  such  are  named  internal 
caves. 

SuBSKOT.  2. — Inequalities  qf  the  Surface  of  the  Submarine  Land. 

The  bottom  of  the  sea,  like  tho  surfaco  of  tho  dry  land,  varies  in  form.  In  some  seas 
thero  occur  flats  and  plains  ranging  to  a  considorablo  extent,  and  near  to  tlie  surfkce  of  the 
water,  ii)rming  what  are  callc<l  shoals ;  in  other  cases,  plains,  of  great  extent,  occur  deeply 
seated,  or  much  below  tlio  surface  of  tho  sea,  which  aro  donomirutcd  deep  submarine  plains. 
These  submarine  plains,  liko  tho  plains  on  tlio  dry  land,  somotimcs  contain  hollows  of  con- 
siderable extent,  and  of  groat  depth ;  tho  deep  hollows  under  tho  sea  off'  tho  coast  of  Scot- 
land, known  undor  the  name  of  Montrose  pits,  aro  of  this  description.  The  sea  bottom  is 
sometimes  hilly ;  these  hills  vary  in  form  and  magnitude,  and  are  cither  deeply  seated,  or 
rise  above  the  sur&ce  of  the  water,  forming  rocks  or  islands.  In  tropical  seas,  the  bottom, 
when  not  very  deep,  becomes  encrusted  with  coral ;  which  coral  sometimes  rises  to  the  sur- 
fhce,  and  then  forms  coral  shoals,  coral  reefs,  or  coral  isles.  If  the  bottom  is  very  deep, 
but  sends  up  from  below  hills  whose  summits  aro  not  far  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  these 
in  tropical  seas  aUw  become  covered  with  coral. 

Sect.  II. — Effects  qf  Water  and  the  Atmosphere  on  the  Surface  of  the  Land. 

Water  is  a  very  active  agent  iii  altering  and  variously  modifying  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  its  energy  is  increased  whon  it  carries  alonjcr  with  it  mechanical  matter,  as  sand,  gravel, 
&c.,  and  particularly  when  aided  by  the  gnawing  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  Through 
these  agents  the  wholo  surface  of  the  dry  land  is  kept  more  or  less  in  a  state  of  motion,  by 
their  breaking  up  the  strata,  and  removing  with  greater  or  less  rapidity,  the  broken  rocky 
matters  from  pomt  to  point,  and  often  into  lakes  and  the  sea. 

Water  acts  mechanically  and  chemically :  it  acts  mechanically  when  it  removes  part  of 
the  soil  or  broken  rocky  matter  over  which  it  passes,  or  corrodes  the  channel  in  which  it 
flows,  or  the  reservoirs  in  which  it  is  contained ;  it  also  acts  mechanically,  when,  on  being 
imbibNsd  by  rocks,  it  increases  their  weight,  and  thus  favours  their  rending,  slipping,  and 
overturning ;  and,  lastly,  it  acta  mechanically,  when,  by  its  freezing  in  firaures,  it  oreaks  up 
mountain  masses  and  rocks.  It  acts  chemically,  when  it  dissolves  particular  mineral  sub- 
stances, OS  rock-salt,  out  of  the  rocks  through  which  it  percolates. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Mechanical  destroying  Effects  of  Water. 

(1.)  Rivulets  and  Rivers,  Running  waters,  in  their  course  from  the  higher  to  the 
lower  parts  of  a  country,  carry  along  with  them  the  debris  already  prepared  by  the  action 
of  the  weather  on  exposed  rocks,  and  also  more  or  less  considerable  portions  of  the  strata 
of  the  basin  in  which  they  flow.  The  quantity  of  abraded  matter  depends  in  a  great  degree 
on  the  quantity  of  sand  or  gravel  the  river  carries  along  with  it ;  it  being  a  fact,  that  running 
water,  when  pure,  acts  but  feebly  on  compact  strata,  and  displays  its  scooping  or  excavating 
power  only  when  carrying  along  with  it  sand,  gravel,  and  such  other  matters,  which  com- 
municate to  it  a  mechanical  destroying  action.  As  the  velocity  of  tho  river  diminishes, 
its  carrying  power  diminishes ;  and  frequently,  long  before  it  has  reached  the  marsh,  lake, 
or  the  sea  into  which  it  disembogues  itself,  it  carries  only  slime  and  sleech,  leaving  the 
gravels  and  larger  solid  masses  in  higher  parts  of  its  course.  The  transporting  power  of 
water  is  much  greater  than  many  are  aware  of:  it  is  strikingly  shown  by  the  enormous 
quantities  of  rubbish,  and  great  blocks  of  stone,  which  are  swept  along  by  rivulets  when  in 
the  state  of  flood  or  swollen.  This  transporting  power  is  materially  assisted  by  the  diminished 
specific  gravity  of  the  rocks  when  immersed  in  the  water,  by  which  their  weight  is  often 
diminished  one-third,  and  even  one-half.  The  transporting  of  heavy  stones  by  water  in 
situations  where  ice  occurs  is  assisted  by  the  ice  which  adheres  to  them)  and  which  dimin- 
ishes the  specific  gravity  of  the  mass. 

(2.)  Lakes.  Around  the  margins  of  many  lakes  we  observe  a  beach,  formed  of  the  fing- 
ments  of  the  neighbouring  strata,  broken  off  in  part  by  the  waters  of  the  lake.  The  bursting 
of  lakes  also  occasions  great  changes  in  the  neighbouring  country,  which  changes  are  of  a 
mechanical  destroying  nature. 

(3.)  Ocean.  The  waters  of  the  ocean  exercise  a  powerfbl  destroying  effect  on  coasts. 
If  the  coasts  are  bold  and  rugged,  they  are  violently  asHaulted  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean ; 
the  crags  and  cliffii  split  and  tumble  down,  in  frightful  and  irregular  succession.  The  perfo- 
rated rock,  the  Doreholm,  on  the  west  coa«t  of  Shetland ;  the  perforated  rocks  described  by 
Captain  Cook  near  New  Zealand ;  the  stalks,  holms,  and  skemes  on  tiie  coasts  of  Shetland, 

Vol.  I.  18*  2B 


ill 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


'm 


.fy-< 


M,  >f! 


lifi^i- 


•Scotland,  aiwJ  Si/'ytty,  aro  effbcU  of  tho  destroying  power  of  tho  wavoa  of  th«  u:oan,  con- 
1  with  thu  gfiAwintf  »rtion  of  tho  woathor.   Un  tnoM  rocky  cooata  whvro  tho  atrata  aro 
I  'lual  hardaow,  tM  K>fl^r  portloni,  and  also  part  of  tho  aurroundin^;  harder  maas,  are 

roiiK  -ciX  i/y  llio  action  of  tho  wul'Ra;  and  tiiua  ira-cavei  aro  formcil. 

Tue  water*  of  the  ocean  ollen  »)ao  catmo  droadflil  rava^ca  in  low  countries  exposed  to 
their  fliry.  Hollnnd  Airnishofl  inn»);,  trtrikingf  examples  of  ita  dovastatinj;  pow  t.  In  the 
year  I'Ji!)  the  watvm  of  the  ocean,  ugituled  by  a  violent  tempest,  inuuJiited  tho  country  •, 
tlio  Rhino.  «\  ilon  at  tho  time  by  extruonlinary  floods,  and  retained  at  a  ;;.pat  hci^'ht,  partly 
by  tho  watoru  ul  the  ocean,  and  partly  by  tho  wind  blowing  in  a  contrary  direction  to  ita 
rounic,  spread  over  tho  neigh twuring  country :  but,  tlie  tempest  hoving  suddenly  subsided, 
Uw  highly  elevated  watera  rt  Tjd,  with  such  velocity  and  force  as  to  carry  with  them  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  soil,  and  loft  in  ita  place  the  sea  now  named  the  Zuvder  Sta. 
In  tho  year  1421,  a  great  inundation  submerged  the  southern  part  of  the  province  or  Holland, 
drowned  60,000  persons,  and  on  retiring  formed  the  Biei-Boo$. 

The  action  of  the  aoa  on  tho  submarine  land  is  also  worthy  of  notice.  Stevenson  apcaki 
of  Bgitiitions  of  tho  sea  reaching  to  a  depth  of  upwards  of  2(X>  feet;  stating  that,  at  a  con- 
sideniblo  depth  tho  power  of  tho  ocean  is  so  considerable  oa  to  break  rocks  in  nieces,  ur.' 
throw  them  upon  tho  coosta  in  masHcs,  of  varioiiH  sizes  and  forms.  Thus  ho  says,  '  numnmiir. 
proofk  of  the  sea  being  disturbed  to  a  considerable  depth  have  also  occurred  since  the  orC' 
tion  of  tho  Bell-Rock  Light-house,  situated  upon  a  sunken  rock  in  tho  seo,  twelve  'min?  off 
Arbroath,  in  Porfiirshire.  Some  drifl-atonet  of  large  dimensions,  mcasuri  ig  up"  i  i-  of 
thirty  cubic  feet,  or  more  than  two  tons  weight,  have,  during  storms,  been  oftcr  ti,  ,v  u  upon 
tho  rock  iVom  tho  deep  water.  These  largo  bouldor-stonea  are  so  familiar  to  tJio  light- 
house keepers  at  this  station,  as  to  bo  by  them  termed  travellers.*  On  thu  coast  of  tho  main 
land  of  Shetland,  particularly  on  tho  west  coast,  wo  have  observed  many  striking  displays 
of  the  power  of  tho  waves  in  moving  enormous  masses  of  rocks. 

Tho  currents  that  traverse  the  ocean,  like  rivers  on  tho  dry  land,  probably  scoop  out  beds 
for  themselves,  and  carry  awav,  and  often  to  distant  places,  great  (|uantitie8  of  abraded 
matter.  Tho  Kulf  stream,  and  other  branches  of  the  great  equinoctial  current,  may  act 
powerfully  in  this  way ;  and  tho  same  may  be  the  case  with  the  currenta  in  other  seas, 
and  thoso  tiiat  enter  mediterranean  seas  and  wind  round  them,  oa  tho  Baltic  and  Medi- 
terranean. 

(4.)  Action  0^  water  by  its  own  weight.  Water  by  its  own  weight  contributes  very  much 
to  the  degradation  of  the  surfiicc  of  the  globe.  Sometimes  great  masses  of  rock,  particu- 
larly those  of  a  soil  and  poro-j'  luture,  imbibe  much  water,  by  which  their  weight  is  in- 
creased, and  thus  occasions  br  '  .king  and  rending,  and  slipping  of  masses  often  of  enormous 
magnitude.  Clay  beds  sonietimcH  become  soft  from  the  percolation  of  rain  or  snow  water 
from  the  superincumbent  utrata.  Wlien  this  takes  place  the  superincumbent  beds  loso  their 
support,  and  if  tho  clay  and  superimposed  rocks  i^ro  inclined  at  a  considerable  angle,  the 
rocks  in  vast  masses  separate,  and  slide  down  into  tho  lower  part  of  the  country.  The  fall 
of  the  Rossberg,  in  Switzerland,  in  September  1802,  may  be  mentioned  as  an  example  of 
this  phenomenon.  This  mountain  (Rossberg)  is  5193  feet  high,  and  lies  opposite  to  the 
Rigiberg,  which  rises  6182  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Rossberg  is  composed  of 
molasse,  with  beds  of  clay,  and  all  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  50°.  It  is  said  that  the 
clay  in  some  of  the  beds  was  much  softened  by  the  percolating  water,  and  the  thick  supep 
incumbent  beds  of  molasse,  in  this  way  losing  their  support,  were  separated  from  the  inclmed 
and  soft  surface  underneath,  and  slid  into  the  valley  below.  This  avalanche  of  debris  and 
mud  overwhelmed  several  villages,  and  destroyed  from  800  to  000  persons.  In  the  year 
1714,  the  west  side  of  the  Diablerets,  in  the  Valais,  sepsrt^  d,  .ii.d  in  its  course  downwards 
covered  the  neighbouring  country  with  its  ruins  for  two  .u'lc.  m  ^.  ngth  and  breadt'i;  the 
immense  blocks  of  stones  and  I  japs  of  rubbish  intern  .ru'd  ^^  >  se  of  the  ,,  and 

lakes  were  thus  formed.  In  the  year  1618,  the  onc(  '■>  .ul.'-'ril)'  lown  of  Pleurs,  m  the 
Grisons,  with  the  neighbouring  village  of  Schelano,  wtiu  overwhelmed  by  a  vast  mass 
of  rock,  which  had  imbibed  much  water,  and  separated  from  tho  south  side  of'^the  mountain 
of  Corto, 

^5.)  effects  of  the  freezing  of  water.  In  those  regions  of  the  earth  where  the  freezing 
and  thawing  of  water  takes  place,  the  expansive  and  destroying  action  of  ice  is  often  dis- 
T.layxl  on  a  grand  scale.  In  the  history  of^  northern  countries  we  meet  with  many  accounts 
'■  t'  •  noises  and  rendings  of  rocks,  occasioned  hy  the  expansion  of  water  during  its  freezing 
'  >Jio  tuvi  .a  of  rocki*.  Terrible  disasters  take  place  m  alpine  countries  by  the  bursting 
cii    ffc'i  >A'  great  masses  of  rock,  split  by  the  freezing  of  the  water  m  rents. 

!.)  Destroying  cr'f's  of  ice  and  snow.    Water  in  the  form  of  ice  causes  considerable 
ohor.feit  on  the  surfi'.:<!  of  the  earth.    Thus,  when  floated  along  in  great  masses  by  rivers,  it 

ity  of  devastating  the  lower  country  j 
_    oi  iiie  strata  are  thereby  torn  oil  and 
carried  tu  a  distance.     When  aea  ico  is  drifted  against  the  cliffi  and  precipices  on  the  coast, 
the  breaking  and  destruction  it  occasions  sometimes  almost  pass  belief.    For  the  breakmg 


vauM  .i|f,vt'.  wax    i«aav   suaat.^'Q  vfi     vuv  cm  lai*  a  ■lUOj    VTIICII  lluaK/U 

brealk  up  their  banks,  and  thus  afTonts  them  an  opportunit 
and  the  masses  are  often  so  great,  that  enonncmB  aeapa  oi 


•  Vide  Wcrnerian  Soe.  Mcmoin  vol.  iii. 


Part  II 

)f  the  ocoan,  con- 
uro  tho  itrata  aro 
harder  mass,  ere 

mtrics  exposed  to 
r  jKiw  T.  In  the 
,te»l  tho  country} 
nat  hoi^'ht,  partly 
ry  direction  to  iti 
uddcnl^  Mtibflidcd, 
irry  with  them  a 
tho  Zuydfr  Sea. 
svince  of  Holland^ 

Stovcnion  Bpcaki 
in(r  that,  at  a  con* 
:ka  in  uiccos,  lp.' 
!  Bays,  '  numoni'  , 
ed  eince  the  ore 
,  twelve  'iiiioi  off 
uri  .pf  ui>'  11'  of 
oftop  t',  . '  I  upon 
I  liar  to  tiio  liglit- 
I  coast  of  tho  main 
f  striking  displays 

}1y  scoop  out  beds 
jititics  of  abraded 
current,  may  act 
nts  in  other  seas, 
I  Baltic  and  Medi- 

Tibutea  very  mncb 

of  rock,  particu- 

heir  weight  is  in* 

often  of  enormous 

ain  or  snow  water 

ent  beds  luso  their 

lerable  angle,  the 

ountry.    The  M 

Ls  an  example  of 

3  opposite  to  the 

g  is  composed  of 

is  said  that  the 

the  thick  supep 

from  the  inclined 

che  of  debris  and 

ions.    In  the  year 

ourse  downwards 

and  breadth  -,  the 

of  the         .,  and 

of  Pleurs,  in  the 

1  ^  a  vast  mass 

or  the  mountain 

rhere  the  fVeezing 
)f  ice  is  often  dis- 
th  many  accounts 
uring  its  freezing 
!8  by  the  bursting 

uses  considerable 
lasses  by  rivers,  it 
he  lower  country  J 
ereby  torn  oil  and 
>ice8  on  the  coast, 
For  the  breakmg 


fluot  II. 


0E00N08V. 


6 


I 


np  and  mo/ing  of  largo  masiios  ot  mk,  ono  of  the  most  poworibl  engines  employed  by 
nature  aro  tho  glaciers.  Thoco  iiniiNtcH  uf  '"<>ngonlnd  water  ami  snow,  in  thoir  course  ilowiv 
ward,  pusli  boforo  them  enormoiir  quantiin  s  'I"  hrDkon  rocky  matter,  which  form  gr«>«t 
aiouiids,  named  moraine. 

Sdheot.  '.'  '  hemical  tliKlmifing  l^fecU  qf  Water. 
Atmospheric  water  enters  into  fissures  of  oicks  in  a  pure  state,  but  inmies  forth  again 
iiioro  or  loss  impregnated  with  mineral  mntters  of  various  k'tiils  abraded  from  the  ■'•rat* 
through  which  tlioy  pniM.  Tho  most  abunilnnt  substance  brought  uu*  in  this  way  iVom  the 
interior  of  the  crust  of  tho  narth  m  lime,  whii  i  is  de|)osited  f.'om  tlicse  i  il'  urooiis  walcm  in 
tho  form  of  tufik.  Many  of  tho  excavations  in  liinoittdno  aro  partly  owing  to  this  defitroying 
efibct  of  water.  Spring  waters,  in  passing  through  beds  of  gypsum  and  rock  salt,  dissolva 
a  portion  of  them,  and  in  this  way  sometimes  occasion  consiilerabl''  changes  in  the  interior 
tint'  <veu  the  surface  of  tho  earth,  by  tho  superincumbent  strata  yielding  ov*  r  the  hollowi 
ii  iTi.  ■'',  by  the  removal  of  tho  salt  and  gypsum. 

SuBsixT.  n. — Mechanical  forming  mfecln  <\f  Walcr. 

(1. '  Forming  rffectg  of  springe.  Springs  bring  from  tho  interior  of  tlie  eartli  muddy 
matter  of  various  descriptions;  and  in  the  course  of  time,  if  tho  nprings  are  spouting-springs, 
hillocks  and  hills  of  cunsiderablo  magnitude  are  thus  formed. 

(2.)  Iinkcs.  When  lakes  are  filled  up,  or  are  emptied,  wo  find  tlie  npace  formerly  occu- 
lied  by  them  covered,  to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  with  the  alluvial  matter  brought  into  them 
ly  the  rivers  that  flow  into  them.  When  lakes  burst  thoir  barriers,  at  (iitrorent  times,  thoy 
leave  on  thoir  sides  a  series  of  natural  terraces  or  platforms,  of  whicii  u  <)  Imvo  a  Hplendid 
example  in  Glen  Iloy.  In  Glen  Roy  those  terraces  aro  known  under  the  naino  of"  Parallel 
Roads  of  Glen  Roy ;  becauso  some  have  fancied  they  wore  not  natural  n  angemonts,  but 
works  of  art, — roads  formed  by  the  ancient  inhabitants. 

(3.)  Rivers.  When  rivers  aro  in  a  state  of  flood  they  often  overflow  heir  banks,  and 
cover  the  neighbouring  country  with  their  waters.  Thus  the  Ganges,  near  it  ^  mouth,  in  the 
rainy  season  overflrws  tho  country  to  tho  breadth  of  one  hundred  miloM,  and  i  >  the  depth  of 
nearly  twelve  feet,  and  tho  Indus,  during  its  period  of  inundation,  extends  thirty  or  forty 
miles  fVom  its  banks.  This  flood  water  carries  with  it  muddy  and  other  matter  and  deposits 
them  upon  the  land.  Gerard  says  that  tho  annual  floods  of  the  Nile  had  raisi  1  the  surface 
of  Upper  Egypt  about  six  feet  four  inches,  English  measure,  since  the  comm<  iicement  of 
the  Christian  era,  or  four  inches  in  a  century.  In  other  countries  exteuKi  u  deposits, 
extending  along  the  sides  of  rivers,  are  formed  by  the  overflowing  of  their  waters.  Where 
rivers  enter  lakes  and  the  sea,  they  form  triangular  pieces  of  land  named  deltas,  %m  their 
resemblance  in  form  to  tho  triangular-shaped  Greek  letter  ^.  These  deltas  are  more  strongly 
marked  in  lakes  tlian  in  nearly  inclosed  seas,  as  the  Mediterranean ;  and  in  thcsu  Heas  than 
in  the  ocean,  where  tho  depositions  are  much  interrupted  by  currents.  Tho  m(  l  &mou8 
in  history  of  these  deltas  is  that  of  the  Niio.  This  delta  lias  been  considerably  enlarged 
since  the  time  of  Herodotus,  but  not  to  tlie  extent  stated  by  many  writers.  At  no  groat 
distance  from  the  shore  of  the  delta  the  depth  of  the  Mediterranean  is  about  sev'  :ity4wo 
feet,  and  farther  out  the  sea  suddenly  deepens  to  2000  feet, — a  depth  very  probabh  beyond 
reach  of  the  delta,  and  which  may  bo  conjectured  to  bo  tho  original  depth  of  thin  part  of 
tho  Mediterranean  sea.  The  deltas  of  the  other  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Mcditer-anean, 
as  the  Rhone  and  the  Po,  exhibit  phenomena  similar  to  those  observed  in  tho  delta  of  ^gypt ; 
and  by  their  C' msiderable  extent,  and  annual  growth,  furnish  amplo  proofs  of  the  t  -mmg 
power  of  rivers,  and  of  the  resemblance  of  alluvial  matters  to  strata  of  an  older  date  The 
groat  seo-dcltu-,  or  those  formed  where  rivers  flow  into  the  ocean,  are  sometimes  on  b  rreat 
scale,  as  is  the  case  witli  the  Ganges,  of  which  a  most  interesting  account  has  been  -iven 
by  Rennel  and  some  otlier  writers.  A  full  description  of  this  magnificent  delta,  as  ai  so  of 
the  vast  deposites  at  the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi,  Orinoco,  and  other  great  rivers,  w.ll  be 
given  in  tho  body  of  this  work.  At  present,  however,  we  may  remark,  that  the  quantity  of 
matter  car rietl  into  tho  Boa  by  all  the  rivers  on  the  globe  is  very  great,  and  fully  as  consuler- 
able  as  that  stated  by  some  authors,  who  have  been  held  as  exaggerating  the  amount  of  this 
earthy  matter  carried  from  the  dry  land  to  the  shores  of  the  ocean.  The  alluvial  mater 
brought  down  by  rivers  not  only  forms  great  tracts  of  land  at  their  mouths,  but  also,  throui^h 
the  agency  of  currents,  assistea  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean,  gives  riee  to  extensive  tracts  of 
low  and  flnt  laiid,  which  extend  along  tho  coasts. 

Dowif  Wh^n  the  sea-coast  is  low,  and  the  bottom  consists  of  sand,  the  waves  push 
this  sand  towards  the  yhore,  where,  at  every  reflux  of  the  tide,  it  becomes  partially  dried, 
and  the  winds,  which  often  blow  fix>m  the  sea,  drift  up  some  portions  of  it  upon  the  beach. 
By  this  forming  action  of  the  ocean,  sandy  flats  and  downs,  or  rangss  of  sand-hilla,  are 
formed  along  the  coast.  Wli«<n  ihis  sand  is  moved  about  by  the  wind,  it  foitns  what  is  called 
the  sand-flood.  Westward  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Findhom,  in  Morayshire,  a  district 
consisting  of  upwards  of  ten  square  miles  of  land,  which,  owing  to  its  fertility,  was  onco 


T:^>yatSSiaWI.,iaM:WWWHM|PWiJv'? 


212 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


1)  ■! 


named  the  Granary  of  Moray,  has  been  depopulated,  and  rendered  utterly  unprriductive  by 
the  sand-ilood.  This  barren  waste  may  be  characterised  as  hilly ;  the  accumulations  of  sand 
composing  these  hilla  frequently  varying  in  their  height,  and  likewise  in  their  situations. 
The  sand  liills  of  Barry,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tay,  composed  of  blown  sand,  are  from  200 
to  800  feet  high.  Belhelvie  links,  in  Aberdeenshire,  and  the  extensive  sandy  tracts  in  the 
Shetland  and  Western  Islands,  are  of  the  same  description.  These  blowing  sands  some- 
times block  up  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  rivulets :  thus,  many  years  ago,  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Findhom  in  Moray  having  become  blocked  up  with  blowuig  sand,  it  cut  out  for  itself 
its  present  channel,  which  conducts  it  by  a  more  direct  course  to  the  sea.  In  consequence 
of  this,  the  old  town  of  Findhom  had  changed  its  situation  from  the  east  to  the  west  side  of 
the  river,  and  its  site  has  since  been  covered  by  the  sea.  The  lake  at  Stratlibeg,  which 
covers  a  square  mile  of  country,  on  the  coast  of  Aberdeenshire,  about  ten  miles  north  from 
Peterhead,  was  formed  about  170  years  ago,  by  the  choking  up  by  blowing  sand  of  a  small 
stream  that  fell  into  the  sea.  Tliese  barriers  sometimes  give  way,  when  the  tract  is  again, 
for  a  time,  covered  by  the  sea ;  a  new  barrier  again  rises,  and  the  sea  is  excluded  a  second 
time.  These  operations,  on  a  great  scale,  would  afford  alternation  of  productions  of  the  land 
and  of  the  sea.  The  sands  of  the  African  deserts  may  be  sea  sands,  or  land  sands,  or  both 
together.  Dr.  Oudney,  Major  Denham,  and  Captain  Clapperton  have  added  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  blowing  sands  of  the  African  deserts.  The  coloured  engraving  of  the  sand-hills  of 
the  African  desert  in  Denham,  Oudney,  and  Clapperton's  Narrative,  is  a  striking  and  in- 
teresting representation  of  the  form  of  the  moving  sand-hills  of  Africa. 

Sand  banks.  The  bed  of  the  German  Ocean  supports  many  accumulations  of  sand, 
called  sand-lMnks.  One  of  these  extends  from  the  Frith  of  Forth,  in  a  north-easterly 
direction,  to  a  distance  of  110  miles,  while  another,  the  Dogger  Bank,  extends,  north  and 
south,  for  upwards  oC  350  miles.  The  average  height  of  mese  submarine  sand-banks  is 
estimated  at  about  se  ^enty-eight  feet:  the  whole  surface  of  the  various  shoals  in  this  sea 
laid  down  in  charts,  according  to  Stevenson,  is  equal  to  about  one-fiflh  of  the  whole  area  of 
the  German  Ocean,  or  about  one-third  of  the  whole  extent  of  England  and  Scotland.  These 
banks  are  composed  of  quartz  sand,  varying  in  the  size  of  the  grain,  from  coarse  to  fine, 
which  is  abundantly  mixed  .vith  broken  shells  and  fragments  of  corals.  These  banks  aro 
conjectured  to  owe  their  origin  to  the  action  of  currents  and  the  tides. 

SuBSECT.  4. — Chemical  forming  Effects  of  Water. 

(1.)  Springs.  Many  spring  waters,  afler  dissolving,  by  means  of  the  superabundant 
carbonic  acid  with  which  they  are  impregnated,  calcareous  matter  abraded  from  limestone 
rocks,  or  rocks  containing  lime,  allow  the  carbonate  of  lime  to  crystallize,  in  consequence  of 
the  escape  of  the  acid,  and  in  this  way  form  depositions  of  calc-sinter,  or  calcareous  alabaster, 
on  the  roofs,  sides,  and  floors  of  caves;  or  fill  up  fissures  in  rocks,  and  form  veins;  or  when 
flowing  over  the  surface  of  rocks,  form,  if  the  sur&ce  is  horizontal,  horizontal  beds — it 
inclined,  inclined  beds— of  calcareous  sinter  and  calcareous  tuffa.  These  beds  sometimes 
extend  very  far,  and  with  a  thickness  of  200  or  300  feet.  The  water  of  such  springs,  when 
collected  into  hollows  so  as  to  form  lakes,  oflen  deposits  vast  quantities  of  calcareous  sinters 
and  tuffas;  and  hence  such  lakes,  when  emptied,  present  extensive  calcareous  deposits. 
The  travertine  employed  at  Rome  for  buildmg  is  a  lake  or  spring  calcareous  deposit  of 
sinter  and  tufKi ;  and  the  town  of  Guancavelica  in  South  America  is  built  of  a  compact  cal- 
careous tuffa  from  the  calcareous  springs  in  the  neighbourhood.  In  the  mountain  limestone 
districts  in  England,  olso  in  the  lias  districts  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  the  roofs,  walls, 
and  floors  of  caves  are  often  elegantly  ornamented  by  numerous  varieties  of  calcareous 
sinter.  In  Persia,  as  mentioned  by  Sir  John  Malcolm,  there  are  great  deposits  of  a  very  fine 
calc  sinter,  which  is  extensively  employed  for  omamuntal  purposes ;  and  in  the  marshes  of 
the  great  plain  of  the  vast  circular  valley  of  Hungary,  according  to  Beudant,  there  is  a 
constant  deposition  of  horizontal  strata  of  calcareous  tuflk  and  sinter,  which  are  so  hard  as 
to  be  used  for  building,  all  the  houses  of  Czlea  being  constructed  of  these  minerals.  The 
pea-stone,  a  beautiful  calcareous  carbonate,  is  formed  in  very  considerable  abundance  from 
the  waters  of  calcareous  hot  springs,  as  those  at  Carlsbad  in  Bohemia.  As  these  calcareous 
springs  often  flow  into  rivers,  and  these  rivers  terminate  in  the  sea,  it  is  evident  that  in  this 
way  a  vast  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  must  reach  the  ocean  where  it  will  be  deposited  in 
the  various  forms  of  sinter,  tuffa,  and  limestone.  The  Geysers,  or  hot  springs  of  Iceland, 
and  those  of  St.  Michael's  in  the  Azores,  deposit  on  the  dry  land  vast  quantities  of  siliceous 
sinter.  This  siliceous  mineral,  which  is  sometimes  like  opal,  although  generally  pure,  is 
not  always  so,  being  occasionally  intermixed  with  other  earths,  and  thus  giving  rise  to  par- 
ticular mineral  substances.  Such  springs  also  pour  their  waters  into  the  ocean,  and  even 
rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  sometimes  a  considerable  way  upwards,  or  even  jet  above  the 
surface  level  of  the  sea,  all  the  time  throwmg  out  much  water  impregnated  with  silica, 
which  is  deposited  on  the  submarine  land  in  various  forms  and  states,  depending  on  a  variety 
of  circumstances,  which  our  limits  prevent  our  noticing. 

(2.)  Lakes.    Having  already  noticed  the  calcareous  depositions  from  the  waters  of 


Hill 


Part  II. 

y  unpmductive  by 
imuktifjnsof  saml 
in  their  situations, 
ind,  are  from  200 
andy  tracts  in  the 
iving  sands  some- 
the  mouth  of  the 
L  cut  out  for  itself 
In  consequence 

0  the  west  side  of 
Strathbeg,  which 
miles  north  from 

Qg  sand  of  a  small 
the  tract  is  again, 
excluded  a  second 
actions  of  the  land 
ind  sands,  or  both 
to  our  knowledge 
f  the  sand-hills  ot 

1  striking  and  in- 

lulations  of  sand, 
a  north-easterly 
(tends,  north  and 
ine  sand-banks  is 
shoals  in  this  sea 
the  whole  area  of 
Scotland.  These 
im  coarse  to  fine. 
These  banks  aro 


lie  superabundant 
d  from  limestone 
in  consequence  of 
careous  alabaster, 
a  vems ;  or  when 
}rizontal  beds — it 
)  beds  sometimes 
ich  springs,  when 
calcareous  sinters 
careous  deposits, 
areous  deposit  of 
of  a  compact  cal- 
)untain  limestone 
the  roofs,  walls, 
ies  of  calcareous 
)sitsof  a  very  fine 
in  the  marshes  of 
mdant,  there  is  a 
ch  arc  so  hard  as 
!  minerals.  The 
abundance  from 
these  calcareous 
'ident  that  in  this 
ill  be  deposited  in 
)rings  of  Iceland, 
itities  of  siliceous 
:enerally  pure,  is 
ving  rise  to  par- 
ocean,  and  even 
ven  jet  above  tha 
lated  with  silica, 
ding  on  a  variety 

the  waters  of 


Book  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


21b 


some  lakes,  we  may  now  mention  some  other  deposits  that  appear  to  owe  their  origin  ic 
lakes.  The  bog  iron-ore,  or  hydro-phosphate  of  iron,  is  often  found  in  such  situations  as  to 
show  that  it  has  been  deposited  from  the  waters  of  hikes ;  and  in  some  countries  it  is  col- 
lected from  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  lakes  once  in  a  certain  number  of  years;  thus  showing 
that  it  is  still  forming  in  such  situations.  In  salt  lakes  considerable  depositions  of  salt  take 
place ;  and  when  such  collections  of  water  dry  up,  or  are  drained  ofT,  the  sides  and  bottoms 
of  the  hollows  are  found  incrusted  with  salt,  which  is  sometimes  disposed  in  beds  alternately 
with  bedsofcla^. 

(3.)  Marine  tncrustations.  Collections  of  perfect  and  broken  sea-sheils  and  of  corals  are 
sometimes  found  agglutinated  by  calcareous,  clayey,  or  ferruginous  matters,  forming  banks 
or  beds  of  considerable  extent.  Beds  of  this  kind,  particularly  those  foimed  of  shells,  are 
met  with  in  many  parts  of  the  coasts  of  this  island.  In  other  countries,  aa  in  the  West 
Indies,  a  solid  conglomerate  of  shells  and  corals  lines  a  considerable  extent  of  coast  on 
several  of  the  islands.  The  human  skeleton  from  the  island  of  Guadaloupe,  in  the  British 
Museum,  is  imbedded  in  a  rock  of  this  description. 

SuBSECT.  5. — Effects  of  the  Atmosphere,  <^c. 

Effects  of  the  atmosphere.  The  air  and  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  eflTect  great  changes 
on  the  rocks  at  the  surface  of  the  earth.  They  either  simply  disintegrate  the  rock,  or  not 
only  break  it  down,  but  also  occasion  a  change  m  its  chemical  constitution.  Sandstone,  and 
other  rocks  of  the  same  general  description,  often  yield  very  readily  to  the  weather ;  their 
basis  or  ground  is  washed  away,  and  the  quartz,  mica,  and  other  particles  remain  in  the  form 
of  sand  and  gravel.  When  trap  veins  intersect  strata,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  softer 
parts  of  the  rock  are  destroyed,  while  the  harder  trap  appears  rising  several  feet  or  yards 
above  the  neighbouring  surrace,  and  crossing  the  countiy  like  walls ;  hence,  in  Scotiand, 
they  are  named  dykes.  The  variously  shaped  nummits  of  mountains  and  hills  owe  much 
of  their  form  to  the  destroying  influence  of  the  weather.  Some  caves,  as  certain  open  caves 
in  sandstones  and  limestones,  are  also  formed  by  the  destroying  powers  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  various  changes  in  the  form  of  rocks,  by  which  they  assume  columnar,  globular,  tabular, 
and  indeterminate  angular  forms,  and  fall  into  scales,  crusts,  layers,  gravels,  and  sands,  are, 
to  a  certain  extent,  effects  of  the  destroying  powers  of  the  atmosphere.  Valleys  owe  much 
of  their  form  and  extent  to  the  destroying  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  Their  sides  and 
summits,  everywhere  exposed  to  its  action,  become  covered  with  debris;  and  in  this  way 
valleys  experience  greater  changes  than  are  produced  on  their  bottom  by  the  passage  of 
the  nver,  and  on  its  sides  by  the  rushing  of  the  torrent.  The  chemical  destroying  efl^cts 
are  to  be  traced  to  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere,  and  to  the  vast  quantities  of  the 
same  matter  which  rise  from  the  interior  of  the  earth :  this  acid  dissolves  lime,  abstracts 
alkaline  matters  from  granite  and  other  similar  rocks,  and  by  combining  with  iron,  converts 
that  universally  distributed  substance  into  a  soluble  carbonate.  The  oxygen  of  the  atmo- 
sphere also,  by  its  action  on  the  iron  and  other  constituents  of  rocks,  assists  in  breJcing 
them  down. 

Effects  of  electricity  on  rocks.  Electricity,  as  a  chemical  agent,  may  be  considered  not 
only  as  directly  producing  an  infinity  of  changes,  but  also  as  influencing  almost  all  that  take 
place.  There  are  not  two  substances  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  that  are  not  in  different 
electrical  relations  to  each  other ;  and  chemical  attraction  itself  seems  to  be  a  peculiar  form 
of  the  exhibition  of  electric  attraction :  and  whenever  the  atmosphere,  or  water,  or  any  part 
of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  gains  accumulated  electricity  of  a  different  kind  fVom  the  con- 
tiguous surfaces,  the  tendency  of  this  electricity  is  to  produce  new  arrangements  of  the 
parts  of  those  surfaces.  Thus,  a  positively  electrified  cloud,  acting  even  at  a  great  distance 
on  a  moistened  stone,  tends  to  attract  its  oxygenous,  or  acidiform,  or  acid  ingredients ;  and 
a  negatively  electrified  cloud  has  the  same  eflject  upon  its  earthy,  alkaline,  or  metallic  mat- 
ter ;  and  the  silent  and  slow  operation  of  electricity  is  much  more  important  in  the  economy 
of  nature  than  its  grand  and  impressive  operation  in  lightning  and  thunder. 

Sect.  HI. — On  Volcanoes,  and  the  Changes  they  produce  on  the  Land  and  the  Bottom  of 

the  Sea, 

The  agents  which  the  globe  conceals  in  its  interior,  and  whose  existence  is  manifested  at 
its  surface,  are  made  known  to  us  by  the  phenomena  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes.  We 
shall  first  describe  these  phenomena,  and  afterwards  add  some  observations  on  their  causes. 

StBSECT.  1. — Distribution  of  Volcanoes. 

Voxcanoes,  as  is  well  known,  are  openings  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  whence  there  issue 
from  time  to  time  jets  of  burning  substances  and  currents  of  melted  matters  which  bear  the 
nam.e  of  lavas.  These  openings  are  generally  on  the  summit  of  isolated  mountains ;  they 
have  the  form  of  a  funnel,  and  take  the  name  of  craters. 

Position  of  volcanoes.  Volcanoes  occur  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  and  are  often  dis- 
tributed in  a  linear  direction. 


214 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIT 


Diitributiim. — Europe  contains  but  few  burning  volcanoes.  On  tlie  coast  of  Sicily,  we 
•ee  iGtna  rising  liko  a  colossus  to  a  height  of  10,870  English  feet.  On  the  opposite  coast 
of  Ita>y  we  have  Vesuvius,  which  docs  not  attain  more  than  tlie  third  of  this  elevation,  viz. 
3933  fecL  Between  them,  in  the  Lipari  islands,  we  find  the  small  volcano  of  Stromboli, 
and  the  volcanoes  of  Vulcano  and  Vulcanollo,  which  still  smoke.    The  islands  of  the  Archi- 

Selago,  at  Milo  and  Santormo,  contain  mountains  which,  during  an  early  historic  period,  pro- 
uced  terrible  igneous  phenomena.  Iceland  in  the  norUi,  in  the  midst  of  snow  and  ice,  pre- 
sents to  our  view  many  volcanoes,  of  which  the  most  prominent,  Hccla,  rises  to  a  height  of 
5500  feet.  Farther  to  the  north,  in  the  desolate  and  dreary  Jan  Mayen's  Island,  extending 
between  north  latitude  70°  40'  and  71°  8',  is  tlie  volcano  of  Esk  Mount,  which  rises  to  a 
height  of  1500  feet  above  tiio  sea-beach  in  Jameson's  Bay.  The  continent  of  Asia,  as  far 
as  IS  known  at  present,  exhibits  but  few  volcanoes.  We  can  scarcely  reckon  three  or  four 
on  its  western  shores,  or  on  the  edges  of  the  Caspian:  tliere  ore  none  ui  its  northern  part; 
some  but  vaguely  kiu^wn  exist  in  Central  Asia :  m  the  oast,  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka 
contains  five  or  six ;  but  in  the  islands  wliich  surround  this  continent  their  number  is  great. 
The  islands  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  such  as  Bourbon,  Madagascar,  the  Cape  de  Vcrd  Islands,  the 
Canaries,  and  the  Azores,  also  contain  several  volcanoes.  In  America,  if  we  except  those  of 
tho  West  India  islands,  we  observe  the  greater  part  of  tliem  on  the  ridge  of  that  great  Cordil- 
lera, which,  like  an  immense  wall  or  lofly  terrace,  l)orders  the  western  part  of  that  conti- 
nent. They  are  remarkable  not  only  on  account  of  their  position,  but  also  ibr  their  colossal 
form,  tho  nature  of  the  masses  of  which  tliey  are  composed,  and  the  materials  they  tlirow 
out.  Torrents  of  fire  rarely  issue  from  them,  but  streams  of  water  and  mud  are  of  nrequcnt 
occurrence :  tlie  total  number  of  American  volcanoes  is  about  eighty-six ;  they  ore  placed  as 
it  were  in  groups.  The  king(lom  of  Guatemala  presents  about  twenty ;  in  Mexico  there  are 
six,  in  the  number  of  which  is  the  Jorullo,  so  well  known  from  tho  account  of  Humboldt 
But  it  is  in  Peru  tliat  the  greatest  occur :  tiiere  arc  seven  in  that  country,  of  which  we  shall 
mention  Picliincha,  nearly  15,931  feet  high ;  Cotopaxi,  wich  rises  to  the  height  of  18,867 
feet;  and  Antisana,  wiiich  attains  a  height  of  19,136  feet.  On  a  rough  estimate,  we  state 
the  number  of  burning  volcanoes  including  solfiitaras  at  803 ;  of  these  194  are  in  islands, 
and  the  other  109  arc  on  the  continents :  the  most  distant  from  the  sea  are  those  of  America 
and  Asia ;  in  Peru  there  are  volcanoes  thirty  leagues  fi'om  the  sea ;  and  that  of  Popocatepetl 
near  Mexico,  which,  however,  is  now  only  a  smoking  volcano,  is  nRy-six  leagues ;  and  they 
occur  in  the  very  centre  of  Asia.  The  circumstance  of  the  most  active  volcanoes  being  situ- 
ated in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  is  a  fact  worthy  of  bemg  recollected ;  it  becomes  still  more 
60  when  we  observe,  that  there  arc  submarine  volcanoes  burning  in  the  midst  of  the  waters. 
The  islands,  and  tlie  plienomena  which  they  have  been  observed  to  produce,  at  Santorino, 
on  the  coast  of  Iceland,  in  the  Azores,  &c.,  leave  no  doubt  respecting  their  existence. 

Independently  of  volcanoes  in  a  state  of  activitv,  the  interior  of  our  continents  contains  a 
great  number  of  extinct  volcanoes,  but  which  still  present  their  original  form,  or  incontes- 
table remains  of  that  form  :  perhaps  no  country  contains  more  numerous  and  splendid  displays 
of  them  than  France ;  there  are  more  than  a  hundred  in  Auvergne,  Vivarais,  and  Cevennes. 
They  are  conical  mountains,  composed  of  lavas,  scoria;,  and  volcanic  ashes  heaped  upon  each 
other ;  many  of  them  present  a  crater,  which  has  retained  its  form  in  a  greater  or  less  degree ; 
and  sometimes  tliere  are  seen  as  it  were  issuing  fi-om  tlieir  bases  lavas  which  extend  to  a 
distance  of  several  thousand  yards,  and  which  have  perfectly  preserved  tlie  form  of  cur- 
rents :  the  matter  of  which  they  are  composed  resembles  that  of  lava  trap.  We  may  fur- 
ther remark,  tliat  volcanoes  are  never  or  scarcely  ever  isolated ;  they  are  collected  into 
groups.  This  is  the  case  witli  the  American  volcanoes ;  those  of  Asm,  and  the  different 
Archipelagoes  are  similarly  situated :  in  Europe,  the  Greek  islands  and  southern  Italy  pre- 
sent distinct  groups.  Sometimes  volcanoes  are  arranged  one  after  the  other  in  the  same 
line,  as  is  the  case  in  Soutli  America,  and  in  the  extinct  volcanoes  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Puy  de  Ddme. 

SvBSECT.  2. — Phenomena  and  Theory  of  Volcanoes. 

Volcanoes  do  not  incessantly  emit  flames,  nor  do  lavas  constantly  flow  from  them ;  they 
lemain  for  ages  in  a  state  of  inactivity.  Vesuvius  was  extinct  from  time  immemorial,  when, 
awakening  from  its  slumber,  it  suddenly  rekindled,  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  and  buried  the 
cities  of  Pompeii,  Herculaneum,  and  Stabioe  under  its  ashes.  It  became  quiet  again  at  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  and  in  16.30,  when  it  resumed  its  action,  its  summit  was  inha- 
bited, and  covered  with  wood.  The  inhabitants  of  Catania  regarded  as  fobles  the  accounts 
of  history  respecting  eruptions  of  ^tna,  till  the  period  when  then*  city  was  ravaged,  and  in 
part  destroyed,  by  tlie  fires  of  that  volcano. 

Subterranean  noises,  and  the  appearance  or  increase  of  smoke,  which  issues  from  the 
crater,  are  generally  the  first  symptoms  of  volcanic  action.  Presently  the  noise  becomes 
louder,  the  earth  trembles,  it  experiences  shocks,  and  every  thing  proclaims  that  it  is  in 
labour.  The  smoke  increases,  tliickens,  and  becomes  charged  with  ashes.  When  the  air  is 
tranquil,  the  smoke  is  seen  rising,  under  tho  form  of  an  immense  column,  to  a  very  great 


'•V 


PaetII 

loast  of  Sicily,  we 
the  oppoeite  coast 
this  elevation,  viz. 
:ano  of  Stromboli, 
anda  of  tiio  Archi- 
listohc  period,  pro- 
snow  and  ice,  pre- 
ises  to  a  heiglit  of 
Island,  extending 
,  which  rises  to  a 
ent  of  Aaia,  us  for 
ckon  three  or  four 
ite  northern  part: 
a  of  Kamtschatka 
r  number  is  great. 
3  Verd  Islands,  the 
ve  except  those  of 
'  that  great  Cordil- 
>art  of  that  conti- 
}  ibr  their  colossal 
terials  they  tlirow 
ud  are  of  frequent 
Lhey  are  placed  as 
Mexico  tliere  are 
unt  of  Humboldt 
of  which  we  shall 
height  of  18,867 
istimate,  we  state 
194  are  in  islands, 
I  those  of  America 
at  of  PopocatcpeU 
eagues ;  and  they 
canoes  being  situ- 
!Comes  still  more 
dst  of  the  waters, 
ice,  at  Santorino, 
r  existence, 
tinents  contains  a 
form,  or  incontes- 
splendid  displays 
s,  and  Cevennes. 
leaped  upon  each 
2T  or  less  degree ; 
ifhich  extend  to  a 
tlie  form  of  cur- 
).    We  may  fur- 
re  collected  into 
ind  the  different 
uthem  Italy  pre- 
ther  in  the  same 
leighbourhood  of 


i-om  them ;  they 
memorial,  when, 

and  buried  the 
liet  again  at  the 
immit  was  inha- 
les the  accounts 

ravaged,  and  in 

issues  from  the 
I  noise  becomes 
ns  that  it  is  in 
WTien  the  air  is 
to  a  very  great 


BookIL 


GEOGNOSY. 


215 


height  There,  finding  itself  in  a  rarer  atmosphere,  it  ceases  to  rise ;  its  upper  part  dilating, 
forms  as  it  were  an  expanded  summit,  placed  upon  a  lengthened  shaft.  The  cloud,  with  the 
supporting  column,  in  favourable  circumstances,  has  the  figure  of  an  immense  umbrella,  or 
of  tno  Italian  pine,  to  which  Plinv  the  Elder  compared  that  of  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in 
A.  D.  79,  end  which  was  accurately  represented  in  October,  1822.  At  other  times  the  smote 
disperses  in  the  air :  it  there  forms  thick  and  vast  clouds  which  obscure  tlie  day,  and  cover 
the  surrounding  country  with  darkness.  These  columns  and  clouds  are  often  traversed  by 
enormous  jets  of  red-hot  sand,  resembling  flames,  and  rising  to  extraordinary  lieights.  Some- 
times they  are  traversed  b^  flashes  of  lightning,  and  on  all  sides  loud  explosions  are 
heard.  Then  there  are  projected  red-hot  stones  and  masses  in  fusion.  They  issue  from  the 
volcano  with  a  noise  which  is  fVequently  very  loud.  They  rise  into  the  air,  spreading  out  in 
their  progress,  and  fall  around  the  mouth  of  the  volcano  under  the  form  of  showers  of  ashes, 
scoria;,  or  stones.  The  shocks  and  quakings  of  the  ground  continue  and  increase  in  violence. 
In  the  midst  of  these  convulsions,  and  on  tliese  accessions,  the  melted  matter  which  filled 
the  subterranean  furnaces,  already  carried  into  the  mountain,  is  raised  up  by  clastic  fluids ; 
it  ascends  to  the  crater,  fills  it  up,  and  passing  over  the  least  elevated  part  of  tills  enormous 
cavity,  spreads  out  upon  the  flanks  of  tlie  volcano.  It  then  descends,  sometimes  very  quickly ; 
sometimes,  and  more  fretiuently,  as  a  majestic  river,  quietly  rolled  along  its  peaceful  waters. 
Very  frequently,  when  the  lava  rises,  the  walls  wjiich  contain  it  being  unable  to  resist  its 
immense  pressure  or  its  heat,  give  way  and  burst  asunder.  It  rushes  forth  like  an  impetuous 
torrent  through  this  new  aperture :  rivers  and  torrents  of  fire  make  their  way  to  the  foot  of 
tlie  mountain ;  they  spread  out  upon  tho  neigiibouring  ground,  carrying  along  or  burying  all 
that  they  find  in  their  way,  breaking  down  or  overthrowing  every  obstacle  that  opposes  their 
passage.  In  the  midst  of  torrents  of  fire,  enormous  currents  of  water  and  mud  sometimes 
issue  from  volcanoes,  and  deluges  falling  from  the  atmospliere  increase  the  ravages,  lay 
waste  fields  which  lavas  had  spared,  and  carry  desolation  into  places  which  had  already 
thought  themselves  happy  in  having  escaped  the  scourges  of  the  eruption.  Mephitic  gases 
and  noxious  exhalations  sometimes  arise,  particularly  in  low  situations ;  they  destroy  onimala 
and  blast  vegetation,  and  thus  complete  the  scene  of  misery  and  desolation. 

Afler  the  emission  of  the  lavas  the  earth  seems  freed  of  the  evil  which  agitated  it,  Iho 
earthquakes  cease,  the  explosions  and  ejections  duninish  for  some  time,  and  the  volcano 
enjoys  a  moment  of  rest :  but  presently  a  new  accession  takes  place,  reproducing  in  a  still 
more  terrible  manner  tho  same  phenomena ;  and  this  state  of  things  continues  during  a 
variable  period  of  time.  At  length  the  crisis  ceases,  and  the  volcano  finally  resumes  itf 
original  tranquillity. 

Having  premised  this  general  account  of  volcanic  action,  we  shall  next  treat  of  the  sub- 
stances ejected  or  projected  into  the  atmosphere  by  volcanoes,  and  the  lavas  which  they 
pour  out 

a.  Ejected  Matters. 

Those  are,  1.  Smoke.  2.  Ashes.  3.  Sands.  4.  Scoriie.  5.  Volcanic  bombs.  6.  Unal- 
tered Masses  ? 

(1.)  Smoke.  The  enormous  columns  of  smoke  which  are  seen  issuing  from  the  crater, 
sometimes  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  are  chiefly  composed  of  a(jueous  vapour.  This  vapour 
is  generally  cliarged  with  ffoseous  substances,  and  particularly  with  hydrogen  gas,  sometimes 
also  with  carbonic  acid.  Sulphurous  acid  and  muriatic  acid  are  also  given  out  The  smoke 
is  gray  or  white ;  sometimes  also  brownish  black,  or  fuliginous,  and  then  tho  smell  is  not 
unlike  that  of  asphaltum,  or  mineral  pitch.  It  often  contains  a  great  quantity  of  volcanic 
a^es. 

(2.)  Ashes.  These  ashes,  which  appear  to  be  nothing  else  than  the  substances  of  the  lava 
reduced  to  a  state  of  minute  mechanical  division,  are  formed  of  flocculent  and  extremely 
minute  particles  of  a  gray  colour,  and  forming  a  paste  with  water.  They  are  always  mixed 
with  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  sand,  which  gives'  them  the  blackish  colour  which  they 
sometimes  exhibit  The  torrents  of  gas  and  vapour  which  issue  from  the  craters  carry 
these  ashes  along  with  them,  bearing  them  into  the  atmosphere,  where  they  form  vast 
clouds,  sometimes  so  dense  as  to  cover  the  surrounding  country  with  darkness.  During  the 
eruption  of  Hecla  in  1766,  clouds  of  this  kind  produced  such  a  degree  of  darkness  that  at 
Glaumba,  which  is  more  than  fifty  leagues  distant  from  the  mountain,  people  could  only  find 
their  way  by  groping.  During  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  1794,  c.t  Caserta,  four  leagues 
distant  people  could  only  walk  by  the  light  of  torches.  On  the  1st  of  May,  1812,  a  cloud 
of  volcanic  ashes  and  sand,  coming  from  a  volcano  in  the  island  of  St  Vincent,  covered  th 
wh:;le  of  Barbadoes,  arireoding  over  it  so  intense  a  darkness,  tliat  at  mid-day,  in  the  open  air 
one  could  not  perceive  the  trees  or  other  objects  near  him,  or  even  a  white  handkerchief 
placed  at  the  distance  of  six  inches  from  the  eye.  The  distance  to  which  these  volcanic 
ashes  are  carried  by  the  winds  is  truly  astonishing.  Barbadoes  is  more  than  twenty  leagues 
from  St  Vincent's,  and  Hecla  is  fifty  leagues  from  Glaumba.  Procopius  relates,  that  in  472 
the  asiies  of  Vesuvius  were  carried  as  far  as  Constantinople ;  that  is  to  say,  to  a  distance  of 


no 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartII. 


200  leofrues.  These  showora  of  ashcH  produce,  in  the  countries  where  they  fhll,  earthy 
beds,  oilon  of  great  thicknosH,  which,  on  being  heaped  up  and  penetrated  by  water,  form 
some  kind  of  volcanic  tuflk, 

(3.)  Volcanic  aanda.  ThoHe  are  small  particles  of  lavas  which  have  been  ejected  into  the 
air  in  the  form  of  drops,  and  there  harden.  Tlioy  are  uotliing  but  very  small  sized  scorisi, 
or  fragmcntH  of  ordinary  soorieD.  They  are,  moreover,  mineleu  with  numerous  small  crys- 
tals ot  augite  an<J  felspar,  or  witli  fragments  of  Uiese  crysttus.  The  quantity  of  these  sondr 
wiiich  volcanoes  eject  is  immense.  They  form  the  greater  port  of  the  ejections,  and  of  the 
mass  of  many  volcanic  mountaina,  of  ilDtna  for  example,  according  to  M.  Dolomieu.  The 
finetit  mingle  with  the  ashes,  and  form  part  of  the  clouds  already  mentioned.  Others,  accu- 
mulating in  too  great  (quantity  to  be  sustained  upon  the  acclivities  of  tlio  mountain,  slide 
down  and  Hproad  out  at  its  base.  In  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  of  1822,  a  current  of  sand  of 
this  description,  still  red-hot,  was  taken  at  a  distance  for  a  torrent  of  lava. 

(4.)  Scoriee,  Tiie  gases  which  come  from  tlie  depths  of  the  volcano,  passing  throu||rh 
the  moss  of  melted  lava  with  great  force  and  velocity,  carry  off  some  parts  of  that  viscid 
matter,  and  bear  them  aXovs  witli  them  into  the  atmosphere.  They  ore  there  further  divided, 
in  consequence  of  the  resistance  which  the  air  opirases  to  them ;  and,  in  cooling,  they  assume 
the  intumesced  and  slaggy  appearance  which  the  scoria)  of  forges  so  frequently  have. 

(5.)  Volcanic  bombs.  When  tlio  matter  of  lavas  is  projected  in  a  sotl  state,  as  is  most 
commonly  the  case,  it  sometimes  on  cooling  in  the  air  assumes  tlie  form  of  drops,  tears,  or 
elongated  spheroids,  to  which  the  name  of  volcanic  bombs  is  given.  They  abound  in  the 
extinct  volcanoes  of  Auvergne. 

(6.)  Unaltered  ejected  masses.  Volcanoes  sometimes  eject  stones,  many  of  which  bear 
no  marks  of  common  fusion.  Those,  by  some,  are  considered  as  fragments  of  rocks,  which 
form  the  walls  of  internal  cavities,  and  which  may  have  been  torn  off  and  projected  by  some 
current  of  elastic  fluids ;  others,  again,  maintain  tlmt  they  are  fragments  of  rocks,  which 
have  been  formed  by  igneous  solution  and  crystallization.  Fragments  of  these  dubious 
masses  are  found  in  great  numbers  on  the  Monte  Sonima.  There  they  are  of  granular 
limestone,  containing  mica,  and  many  other  minerals  besides. 

Projectile  ^toer  of  volcanoes.  Did  our  space  allow  of  it,  it  would  be  interesting  to 
inquire  what  is  the  intensity  of  that  force  which  throws  such  quantities  of  matter  to  so  great 
a  height  Wo  can  only  remark,  tliat  the  greatest  velocity  in  the  case  of  iEtnaand  Vesuvius 
was  found  to  be  equal  to  that  of  a  cannon-ball  at  the  moment  when  it  issues  from  a  cannon, 
the  velocity  being  from  four  to  Ave  hundred  yards  per  second.  The  gigantic  Cotopaxi  pro- 
jected a  piece  of  rock  about  an  hundred  cubic  yards  in  magnitude  to  Uie  distance  of  three 
leagues. 

b.  Lavas. 

Eruptions  of  lavas.  Wlien  we  have  an  opportunity  of  seemg  the  liquid  lava  in  the 
crater,  it  resembles  the  melted  matter  in  our  furnaces,  and  appears  as  it  were  boiling  with 
greater  or  less  violence.  Jets  of  the  melted  matter  are  thrown  up  from  the  liquid  sur- 
mcc,  through  the  agency  of  clastic  fluids.  It  is  by  these  elastio  fluids  that  the  lava  is  raised 
upwards  in  tlie  crater.  When  the  mountain  is  high,  as  Tcneriffe  or  iEtna,  these  fluids  are 
not  sufliciently  powerful  to  raise  the  lava  to  the  summit,  or  rather  the  sides  of  the  mountain 
are  not  sufliciently  strong  to  resist  the  weight  and  force  of  the  long  and  heavy  column  of 
lava ;  it  therefore  presses  or  melts  the  walls  which  surroimd  it,  and  thus  forms  an  opening, 
through  which  it  issues  with  groat  rapidity.  When,  on  the  contrary,  the  mountams  are 
comparatively  low,  as  Vesuvius  for  example,  the  lava  reaches  the  mouth  of  the  crater  and 
flows  over  its  lips,  and  fh)m  thence  downwards  along  the  acclivities  of  the  mountain.  On 
reaching  the  bottom  they  divide  into  several  branches,  according  to  the  nature  and  slope  of 
the  ground  over  which  they  flow.  The  currents  or  streams  of  lava  vary  much  in  regard  to 
the  velocity  with  which  they  move.  This  velocity  depends  upon  the  slope  of  the  ground 
upon  which  it  flows,  as  well  as  upon  tlic  quantity  and  viscidity  of  the  lava.  At  Vesuvius, 
M.  de  la  Torre  saw  currents  passing  over  a  space  of  about  800  yards  in  an  hour.  Sir 
William  Hamilton  observed  one  which  traversed  1800  yards  in  the  same  time.  The  eruption 
of  1776  presented  another,  which  moved  more  than  2000  yards  ui  14  minutes.  Buchk 
observed,  during  the  eruption  of  1805,  a  torrent  flow  from  the  summit  to  the  sea-shore,  a 
distance,  in  a  straight  line,  of  aboul  7000  yards.  Those  we  have  mentioned,  however,  are 
extraordinary  velocities ;  for  in  general  lavas  move  slowly.  Those  of  iEtna,  flowing  upon 
an  inclined  plane,  are  considered  quick  when  they  traverse  a  space  of  400  yards  in  an  hour. 
In  flat  grounds  they  sometimes  occupy  whole  days  in  advancing  a  few  yards. 

The  slowness  witli  which  lavas  cool  is  not  less  remarkable  than  that  with  which  they 
move.  If  tlieir  surfiice  is  quickly  cooled  and  consolidated,  the  case  is  different  witii  the 
interior;  the  heat  concentrates  tliere,  and  is  retained  for  whole  years.  Currents  are 
Hientioned  which  were  flowing  ten  years  afler  emerging  from  the  crater,  and  lavas  were  seen 
smoking  in  iEtna  twenty  years  after  an  eruption. 

The  heat  of  liquid  lava  is  nearly  that  of  liquid  trap,  as  greenstone  or  basalt    The 


Book 

partic 
James 

Th( 
issued 
8000; 
depth 
larger 
But 
twent] 

The 
other 
give 
centric 
innati 


PartH. 

they  fiill,  earthy 
.  by  water,  form 

I  ejected  into  the 
nail  Bizod  scoria), 
irous  email  crys- 
ity  of  these  sondr 
tions,  and  of  the 
Dolomieu.  The 
1.  Others,  accu* 
I  mountain,  slide 
irrent  of  sand  of 

passinfr  through 
ta  of  that  viscid 
e  further  divided, 
linff,  they  assume 
mtly  have, 
state,  OS  is  most 
if  drops,  tears,  or 
y  abound  in  the 

y  of  which  bear 
I  of  rocks,  which 
)rqiected  by  some 

ot  rocks,  which 
of  these  dubious 

are  of  granular 

be  interesting  to 
natter  to  so  great 
Itnaand  Vesuvius 
s  from  a  cannon, 
ic  Cotopaxi  pro- 
iistance  of  three 


[[uid  lava  in  the 

ere  boiling  with 

the  liquid  sur- 

ic  lava  is  raised 

these  fluids  are 

of  the  mountain 

loavy  column  of 

inns  an  opening, 

mountains  are 

the  crater  and 

mountain.    On 

ire  and  slope  ot 

iich  in  regard  to 

of  the  ground 

At  Vesuvius, 

an  hour.    Sir 

The  eruption 

linutes.    Buchk 

the  sea-shore,  a 

id,  however,  are 

.,  flowing  upon 

ards  in  an  hour. 

ith  which  they 
.erent  wilii  the 
Currents  are 
lavas  were  seen 

>r  basalt.    The 


Book  II. 


<JEOGNOSY 


217 


particular  temperatures  ore  given  by  Dr.  Kennedy,  Su:  James  Hall,  and  Professor 
Jameson. 

The  magnitude  of  lava  currents  varies  much.  The  largest  current  which  has  ever 
issued  fVom  Vesuvius  was  about  14,000  yards  long;  that  of  the  eruption  of  1805  was 
8000;  that  of  1704  was  in  length  4200  yards,  in  breadth  from  100  to  400  yards,  and  in 
depth  fVom  eight  to  ton  yards;  that  which  issued  from  i£tna  in  1767  was  four  times 
larger ;  and  Dolomieu  relates  that  that  volcano  furnished  one  more  than  ten  leagues  in  length. 
But  the  largest  current  known  is  that  which  in  Iceland,  in  1783,  covered  an  extent  of 
twenty  leagues  in  length  by  four  in  breadth. 

These  currents,  by  romg  superinduced  on  each  other,  and  having  interposed  between  them 
other  products  of  eruptions,  as  sand,  ashes,  and  scorioe,  form  a  series  of  inclined  beds  that 
give  rise  to  tho  cone  of  the  mountain.  In  short,  the  cone  is  composed  of  a  series  of  con- 
centric layers  or  coats  of  lava,  scoriie,  &c. ;  the  outgoings  of  which  are  sometimes  well  seen 
in  natural  sections  in  the  mountain. 

c.  Different  Kinds  of  Eruptions. 

Watery  nnd  muddy  eruptions.  In  the  accounts  of  volcanic  eruptions,  mention  is  often 
mode  of  torrents  of  water  and  mud  vomited  forth  by  volcanoes.  Many  of  these  watery  and 
muddy  eruptions  are  external  actions,  as  is  the  case  with  those  mentioned  as  having  taken 
place  in  Vesuvius,  ^Etna,  and  Hecla ;  others  are  internal,  aa  those  of  Quito. 

(1.)  External  aqueous  and  muddy  eruptions.  These  are  owing  to  great  rains,  which 
frequently  take  place  by  the  condensation  of  the  great  volumes  of  aqueous  vapour  that  rise 
ftom  the  craters  during  volcanic  action.  This  rain,  on  mixing  with  the  ashes  and  sands, 
forais  currents,  more  or  less  charged  with  earthy  matters,  which  descend  on  the  sides  of  the 
mountain,  .spread  themselves  at  its  base,  and  sometimes  to  a  distance  in  the  low  country. 
The  melting  of  bodies  of  snow  by  the  lavas  also  occasions  great  floods  of  water  and  mud. 
Of  this  a  striking  instance  is  related  as  having  taken  place  on  Mount  iEtna  in  1755,  where, 
by  the  sudden  melting  of  a  great  body  of  snow  by  a  stream  of  liquid  lava,  a  terrible  inunda- 
tion was  produced,  which  devastated  the  sides  of  the  mountain  for  eight  miles  in  length,  and 
afterwards  covered  the  lower  parts  of  iEtna,  together  with  the  plains  near  the  sea,  w^ith  great 
deposits  of  sand,  ashos,  scoriae,  and  fhigments  of  lava.  Similar  floods  of  ashes  and  sand  aro 
mentioned  by  autho'-s  as  taking  place  in  Iceland  and  in  America,  where  the  summits  reach 
above  the  snow  line. 

(2.)  Internal  aqueous  and  muddy  eruptions.  These  waters  also  frequently  make  their 
way  into  tho  mountain  by  infiltration.  They  there  collect  in  particular  reservoirs.;  and  at 
tho  period  of  explosion,  or  when  the  mountain  happens  to  split  in  consequence  of  some  shock, 
they  issue  forth,  and  cover  the  neighbouring  countries.  During  the  earthquake  which  over- 
turned Lima  u.\  1746,  four  volcanoes  opened  at  Lucanos  and  in  the  mountains  of  Concepcion, 
and  occasioned  a  fVightful  inundation.  The  mountains  of  Quito  sometimes  present  the  same 
phenomena :  but  it  is  there  accompanied  with  extraordinary  circumstances.  The  enormous 
cones  of  Cotopaxi,  Pichincha,  Tunguragua,  &c.,  are  but  in  some  measure  the  summits  of  the 
volcanoes  to  which  they  belong,  and  whose  acclivities  are  probably  encased  in  the  great  mass 
of  the  Andes.  No  true  lavas,  within  the  memory  of  man,  have  been  vomited  forth  by  these 
volcanoes ;  yet  Humboldt  saw  consolidated  lava  currents  on  Sanguay,  and  even  on  Antisana. 
It  might  be  said,  says  Humboldt,  that  the  volcanic  agents,  which  seldom  have  force  sufficient 
to  raise  tlie  column  of  lava  to  the  summit  of  ^tna  and  of  the  Peak  of  TenerifFe,  would  still 
less  be  able  to  raise  it  in  volcanoes  of  nearly  double  the  height.  In  iEtna  and  Teneriffe,  the 
lava  may  force  an  opening  at  the  lower  part  of  the  mountains,  and  thus  burst  out ;  but  this 
could  not  happen  in  volcanoes  whose  sides  are  strengthened,  to  a  height  of  nearly  3000 
yards,  by  the  whole  breadth  of  Jhe  Cordilleras.  These  volcanoes  confine  themselves  to  the 
emission  of  ashes,  scoria;,  and  pumice.  They  also  vomit  immense  quantities  of  \frater  and 
mud,  but  much  more  frequently  by  openings  which  take  place  on  the  sides  of  the  cone  than 
by  the  craters.  These  muddy  waters  form,  as  it  were,  great  lakes  in  the  different  cavities 
which  these  enormous  mountains  contain.  They  issue  from  these  cavities,  as  we  have  said, 
when  a  communication  is  opened  with  the  exterior.  Thus,  in  1698,  the  volcano  of  Cargu- 
arazo,  which  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Chimborazo,  and  perhaps  forms  a  part  of  it,  broke 
down,  and  covered  with  mud  eighteen  square  leagues  of  country.  Similar  muddy  waters 
are  still  contained  in  parts  of  the  same  country,  which  are  of  volcanic  origin,  but  which  no 
longer  present  any  indication  of  fire ;  and  they  are  equally  vomited  forth  during  great 
commotions  of  the  ground.  In  Peru  and  Quito  it  is  not  by  fire  and  currents  of  burning  mat- 
ters that  the  volcanoes  commit  their  ravages,  but  by  the  water  and  enormous  streams  of 
mud.  This  substance  is  mud  which  is  at  Srsi  of  a  soft  consistence,  soon  hardens,  and  bears 
the  name  of  moya.  It  presents  two  curious  phenomena.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  moya  which 
uundated  the  country  of  Pilielo,  and  which  destroyed  the  village  of  that  name  during  the 
earthquake  of  1797,  it  contains  a  combustible  matter,  which  renders  it  blackish  and  soiling, 
and  which  exists  in  so  large  a  quantity  in  it  that  the  inhabitants  make  use  of  this  moya  as  a 
kind  of  fuel.    Frequently  the  same  muddy  waters,  issuing  firom  subterranean  caverns,  carry 

Vol.  I.  19  20 


K8 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  TL 


■l-v,i    'i^ 


with  them  a  spreat  quantity  of  small  fishes.  These  fishes  are  a  species  of  pimelodet  (p. 
cyclopuni).  Most  of  them  are  not  more  than  four  inches  long.  Their  number  is  sometimes 
80  great  that  diseases  are  occasioned  in  the  country  by  their  putreikction.  They  are  the 
same  as  those  which  live  in  Uie  brooks  of  the  country.  What,  then,  has  introduced  them 
into  these  subterranean  lakes  1  It  would  appear  that  there  are  some  communications  between 
the  upper  and  lower  level  of  these  lakes  and  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  but  what  could  have 
raised  them  from  the  level  of  this  surfoce  to  the  summit  of  the  volcanoes,  for  they  sometimes 
issue  from  the  crater  1  It  is  very  difficult  to  give  any  explanation  of  this.  From  all  that 
has  been  said  above,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  mud  which  issues  from  these  volcanoes  comes 
from  the  subterranean  caverns  where  the  volcanic  fires  have  their  focus,  and  prepare  the 
matter  of  lava. 

Air  and  mud  volcanoes.  In  some  countries  we  observe  issuing  fVom  the  ground  jets  im- 
pelled  by  gases  and  charged  with  earth,  which,  on  bein^  deposited  in  the  form  of  mud,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  and  chiefly  around  the  apertures  which  have  vomited  them,  form  cones, 
which  represent  on  a  very  small  scale  volcanic  cones,  and  which  are  therefore  named  air 
volcanoes.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  those  is  that  of  Macalouba  in  Sicily.  It  consists 
of  a  hill  of  dried  mud  about  160  feet  high.  Its  upper  part,  which  is  2600  feet  in  circum- 
ference, presents  a  multitude  of  small  cones  of  which  the  largest  are  not  above  a  yard  in 
diameter.  They  have  a  small  crater  full  of  sofl  clay,  which  is  every  instant  traversed  by 
large  bubbles  of  gas,  which  burst  with  an  e;:ploding  noise,  and  scatter  the  clay  around. 
Some  of  these  explosions  have  been  seen  throwing  jets  of  mud  to  the  height  of^  160  feet 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  Modena  there  are  many  of  these  small  mud  volcanoes,  where  they 
are  called  aalsea  on  account  of  the  saltness  of  the  water  they  scatter  about.  The  gas  which 
occasions  the  phenomena  is  hydrogen  gas  charged  with  petroleum  and  carbonic  acid.  Similar 
mud  volcanoes  occur  in  the  Cfriinea,  Java,  Trinidad,  and  America. 

d.  Periods  of  Activity  of  Volcanoes,  and  the  Theory  of  their  Formation. 

Periods  of  activity  of  volcanoes.  The  periods  of  activity  of  volcanoes  are  but  transitory 
and  of  short  duration.  They  are  followed  by  years,  and  even  ages,  of  rest.  Humboldt  is 
of  opinion  that  the  frequency  of  eruptions  seems  to  be  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  size  of  the 
volcano.  The  smallest  of  them,  Stromboli,  is  continually  throwing  up  volcanic  matter ;  the 
eruptions  of  Vesuvius  are  less  frequent,  there  having  been  but  eighteen  recorded  since  1701 ; 
those  of  ^tna  are  much  rarer ;  those  of  the  Peak  of  TenerifTe  still  more  so ;  and  the  colossal 
summits  '  Cotopaxi  and  Tunguragua  scarcely  exhibit  one  in  the  course  of  a  hundred  years. 
To  periods  of  activity  there  sometimes  succeed  periods  of  repose.  The  crater  is  filled  up 
and  becomes  covered  with  forests.  These  burning  fiimaces,  whence  torrents  of  fire  have 
issued,  become  the  reservoirs  of  subterranean  lakes,  whose  waters  are  peopled  with  fishes, 
and  in  elevated  situations  the  sides  and  summits  of  the  mountains  become  covered  with  snow 
and  ice.  But  most  commonly  the  state  of  rest  is  not  complete ;  tlie  crater  remains  open, 
and  there  is  exhaled  from  it  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  vapours,  which  attack  the  masses 
that  lie  in  their  way.  Sometimes  they  produce  diflTerent  saline  and  metallic  incrustations 
Volcanic  districts  in  which,  however,  no  eruption  has  taken  place  since  the  commencement 
of  our  history,  and  in  which  the  volcanic  cones  are  nearly  eflaced,  still  betray  by  their  vapours 
and  exhalations  the  fire  which  formerly  ravaged  them,  and  which  is  not  yet  extinct.  Such 
are  the  Phlegrean  Fields,  on  the  coast  of  Puzzoli,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

Cause  of  volcanoes.  This  is  an  obscure  subject.  A  conjecture,  hazarded  many  years  ago, 
may  be  stated.  There  being  no  decided  proof  of  a  central  heat,  in  the  commonly  received 
sense,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  matter  of  lavas  is  seated  deep  in  the  crust  of  the  eartli.in 
spaces  of  greater  or  less  extent,  from  whence  it  is  sent  up  from  time  to  time  among  the 
previously  existing  strata,  by  the  agency  of  elastic  fluids. 

Sect.  IV. — Earthquakes. 

On  earthquakes,  and  the  changes  they  produce  on  the  eartWs  surface.  Werner  distin- 
guishes two  kinds  of  earthquakes.  Some,  he  says,  appear  to  be  cormected  with  c  particular 
volcano,  and  to  have  their  focus  in  the  same  region  as  it.  They  are  only  felt  to  the  distance 
of  a  few  leagues  around,  and  their  paroxysms  are  almost  always  connected  with  those  of 
the  volcano.  Others,  which  appear  to  have  their  focus  at  a  much  greater  depth,  and  whose 
effects  are  much  greater,  are  propagated  to  immense  distances  with  incredible  celerity,  and 
are  felt  almost  at  the  same  time  at  points  thousands  of  miles  distant  from  each  other.  Some 
of  the  latter  however  approach  the  former,  and  are  still  connected  with  volcanic  phenomena. 
Thus,  during  the  earthr  uake  which  overturned  Lima  in  1746,  and  which  was  one  of  the  most 
terrible  that  has  been  i  ecorded,  four  volcanoes  opened  in  one  night,  and  the  agitation  of  the 
earth  ceased. 

Universality  of  earthquakes.  If  in  the  more  violent  we  include  the  slighter  agitations 
of  the  earth's  surface  in  particular  places,  earthquakes  may  be  said  to  be  universal  or  general, 
and  we  may  afiirm  that  no  considerable  country  is  entirely  exempted  from  them.  Sandy 
deserts  and  fertile  regiais,  primitive,  secondary,  and  tertiary  hills,  oxtensive  plains,  and  even 


•i*fV^\:3*'.'  "7'iVT""'," 


"■■'''T'l 


Past  TL 

of  pimelodes  (P. 
nber  is  sometimes 
n.  They  are  Uie 
)  introduced  them 
nications  between 
t  wliat  could  have 
lor  they  sometimes 
J.  From  all  that 
le  volcanoes  comes 
,  and  prepare  the 

18  ground  jets  hn- 
c  form  of  mud,  in 
i  them,  form  cones, 
ere  fore  named  air 
Sicily.  It  consists 
0  feet  in  circnm- 
it  above  a  yard  in 
itant  traversed  by 
the  clay  around. 
Iieight  of  160  feet 
ianoes,  where  they 
it.  The  gas  which 
x)nic  acid.  Similar 


'ormation. 

a  are  but  transitoiy 

•est    Humboldt  is 

)  of  the  size  of  the 

ilcanic  matter ;  the 

corded  since  1701 ; 

;  and  the  colossal 

if  a  hundred  yeora 

crater  is  filled  up 

rrents  of  fire  have 

eopled  with  fishes, 

covered  with  snow 

uter  remains  opec, 

attack  the  masses 

[illic  incrustations 

commencement 

ay  by  their  vapours 

ret  extinct.    Such 

ties. 

'  many  years  ago, 
ommonly  received 
astof  the  eartli,iD 
time  among  the 


Werner  distin- 
with  e  particular 
elt  to  the  distance 
ted  with  those  of 
depth,  and  whose 
dible  celerity,  and 
ach  other.  Some 
canic  phenomena, 
as  one  of  the  most 
fi  agitation  of  the 

lighter  agitations 
iversal  or  general, 
im  them.  Sandy 
e  plains,  and  even 


ilnoK  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


219 


ni'irshy  diiilricts  but  little  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  affi>rd  no  pr  >tec.  jon  against 
tii',se  destructive  phenomena,  which  are  equally  prevalent  in  cold,  m  tempera'vd,  and  in  tropical 
climates.  They  are,  however,  generally  considered  more  firequent  near  to  coasts;  thus, 
Syria,  the  coasts  and  islands  of  Asia,  America,  the  European  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  Iceland,  are  most  subject  to  them ;  while  the  plains  of  Afirica,  Asia,  and  the  North  of 
Europe  are  least  exposed.  Viewing  the  whole  earth,  and  including  every  slighter  agitation, 
earthquakes  appear  to  be  exceedingly  numerous,  and  it  may  be  mamtained  that  not  a  week 
passes  in  which  the  earth's  surface  in  some  place  or  other  is  not  more  or  less  agitated.  The 
great  number  of  concussions  observed  in  civilized  countries,  and  the  ikct  that  some  districts 
are  constantly  agitated  by  them,  entitle  us  to  draw  the  conclusion.  Their  return  in  the 
places  most  subject  to  them,  and  in  the  places  where  they  are  less  frequent,  is  not  regulated 
by  any  precise  period  of  time.  Their  appearance  is  not  connected  witli  any  particular  season 
of  the  year  or  state  of  the  atmosphere,  and  they  take  place  by  day  as  well  as  by  night 

Phehomena  of  Earthquakes.  The  phenomena  peculiar  to  earthquakes  arc  in  themselves 
sufficiently  simple.  They  consist  in  tremblings  and  oscillations  of  the  earth's  surface,  called 
shocks ;  extending  over  greater  or  smaller  tracts  of  country,  and  frequently  following  a  par- 
ticular direction.  The  shocks  appear  at  first  chiefly  as  perpendicular  heavmgs ;  then  as 
horizontal  undulations  or  oscillations ;  lastly,  in  some  instances,  there  is  a  violent  agitation : 
the  motion  is  more  or  less  rotatory.  If  to  these  we  add  the  rending,  slipping,  rising  and 
sinking  of  the  ground,  the  violent  agitations  of  the  sea,  lakes,  rivers,  and  sprmgs ;  consist- 
ing, in  springs,  in  their  drying  up  or  bursting  forth  with  great  violence ;  in  lakes,  rivers,  and 
the  ocean,  in  their  fiilling  and  rising,  and  rushing  backwards  and  forwards,  owing  to  the 
sinking  and  rising  of  the  land,  we  obtain  an  enumeration  of  the  principal  phenomena.  As 
the  subject  is  very  interesting,  we  shall  view  it  somewhat  in  detau,  and  under  the  following 
heads :  —  1.  Shocks.  2.  Extent,  of  earthquakes.  3.  Duration  of  shocks.  4.  Magnitude  of 
rents  formed,  and  the  phenomena  connected  with  them,  5.  Elevation  and  subsidence  of  the 
land.    6.  Agitations  in  the  sea.    7.  Notice  of  particular  earthquakes. 

(1.)  Shocks.  The  slighter  shocks  of  an  earthquake,  consisting  of  perpendicular  heavings 
and  horizontal  undulations,  commonly  produce  rents  in  houses,  moving  light  objects  in  them, 
as  articles  of  furniture.  Persons  unacquainted  with  the  phenomenon,  or  who  do  not  per- 
ceive it  from  the  subterraneous  noise  resembling  thunder  which  accompanies  it,  feel  un- 
steady while  in  their  beds,  but  particularly  when  sitting,  and  believe  themselves  seized  with 
a  sudden  giddiness.  The  shocks  proceed  gradually  to  be  more  violent,  and  then  they  are 
very  easily  perceived  even  by  the  inexperienced.  Then  the  most  substantial  buildings  are 
shattered  to  pieces,  and  the  inhabitants  buried  beneath  their  ruins :  while  buildings  of  a  lighter 
construction  are  only  rent,  and  very  slender  reed  huts  are  least  of  all  exposed  to  destruction. 
In  some  cases  the  fi'acturing,  or  as  it  were  trituration,  surpasses  description.  Hence,  for 
the  plainest  reasons,  it  is  most  dangerous  to  remain  in  houses  or  inhabited  places ;  but  even 
the  fields  and  mountains  themselves  afford  no  perfect  security,  inasmuch  as  the  fields  fre- 
quently in  some  places  open  into  fissures,  and  are  rent  asunder ;  while  mountains  are  not 
only  rent,  but  slide  down  into  the  valleys,  dam  up  rivers,  form  lakes,  and  cause  inimdations. 
Although  the  desolation  produced  by  these  convulsions  exceeds  all  description,  this  is  much 
more  the  case  with  the  rotatory  motions ;  a  species  of  motion,  however,  the  existence  of 
which  has  been  denied  by  some  geologists.  In  proof  of  it,  however,  it  may  be  mentioned, 
that  during  the  earthquake  of  Catania,  whose  general  direction  was  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W., 
many  statues  were  turned  round,  and  a  large  mass  of  rock  was  turned  25°  from  South  to 
East  But  the  rotatory  motion  was  more  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  earthquake  at  Val- 
paraiso, on  the  19th  November,  1622,  by  which  many  houses  were  turned  round,  and  three 
palm-trees  were  found  twisted  round  one  another  like  willows.  These  rotatory  motions  of 
masses  of  rock  are  particularly  interesting  when  viewed  in  connexion  with  the  pheno- 
mena of  faults  or  shifts  among  strata  in  non-volcanic  districts.  It  is  only  the  slighter  earth- 
quakes that  pass  by  with  a  single  shock;  in  most  of  them  more  shocks  follow  at  short  inter- 
vals, and  for  the  most  part  the  number  is  proportioned  to  the  violence  of  the  concussion. 
The  first  shock  is  sometimes  the  most  powerful,  but  the  second  is  as  often,  if  not  oflener, 
equally  violent  Further,  the  concussions  are  also  repeated  after  longer  intervals,  as  the 
earthquakes  in  Sjrria,  that  sometimes  continue  for  a  number  of  months,  with  longer  or  shorter 
intermissions ;  but  the  first  catastrophe  is  generally  the  most  violent  and  destructive. 

(2.)  Extent  of  earthquakes.  It  is  the  agitation  of  the  sea  that  points  out  the  great  extent 
of  the  tracts  of  land  convulsed  by  earthquakes.  In  this  respect,  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon, 
in  1755,  was  the  most  remarkable  and  most  violent  that  ever  visited  Europe.  In  conse 
quence  of  it,  by  the  concussion  on  the  bottom,  or  momentary,  rising  or  upheavmg  of  the  sub- 
marine land,  the  sea  overflowed  the  coasts  of  Sweden,  England,  and  Spain,  and  of  the 
islands  of  Antigua,  SarbauoeB,  and  Martinique  in  America.  In  Barbadoes  the  tide,  which 
rises  only  28  inches,  rose  20  feet  in  the  bay  of  Carlisle,  and  the  water  appeared  as  black  as 
ink,  owing  probably  to  bituminous  matter  thrown  up  from  the  bed  of  the  ocean.  On  the  Is* 
of  November,  when  the  concussion  was  most  violent,  the  water  at  Guadaloupe  retreated 
twice,  and  on  its  return  rose  in  the  channel  of  the  island  to  a  height  of  from  10  to  12  feet 


220 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


Book 


Ipsi 


Similar  appearances  were  witnessed  at  Martinique.  A  wave  of  the  sea,  60  feet  high,  over- 
flowed a  part  of  the  city  of  Cadiz;  tuid  the  lakes  of  Switzerland,  such  as  Geneva,  were  ob> 
served  to  be  m  commotion  six  hours  after  the  first  shock.  It  is  also  remarkable  that  agita- 
tions wore  noticed  in  lake  Ontario,  in  October,  1756.  During  the  earthquake  at  Lima,  1666, 
a  wave  of  the  sea  rose  84  feet  high  in  the  harbour  of  Callao.  During  the  earthquakes  in 
Calabria  in  1783,  the  sea  not  only  overflowed  the  coast  and  drowned  many  people,  but  was 
in  general  so  much  agitated  that  the  guns  on  shipboard  sprung  ih>m  the  deck  to  a  height  of 
•everal  inches. 

(3.)  Slipping  of  Mountaint.  Besides  the  oonunon  operations  of  earthquakes  already 
mentioned,  others  occur  that  do  not  immediately  succeed  the  concussions,  and  therefore 
happen  less  frequently.  To  these  belong  the  sliding  down  of  parts  of  mountains,  as  at 
Dobratch  in  134o,  and  the  fidling  together  of  two  mountains  in  Jamaica  in  1692,  by  which 
the  bed  of  a  river  was  dammed  up.  In  the  latter  place,  a  part  of  a  mountain  slid  down  and 
covered  many  plantations ;  the  city  of  Port  Royal  sunk  to  the  depth  of  eight  fkthoms ;  and 
a  plain  of  1000  acres  foil  in,  with  all  the  buildings  upon  it. 

(4.)  Duration  of  shocks.  Single  shocks  frequently  succeed  one  another  very  rapidly,  and 
often  after  greater  or  smaller  intervals  of  time ;  they  ore  occasionally  single,  frequently  very 
numerous ;  and  in  volcanic  districts,  shocks  sometimes  happen  after  a  lapse  of  months  or 
vears,  are  then  followed  bjr  longer  or  shorter  ii.tervals,  and  even  periods  of  10  or  100 
years.  In  regard  to  this,  it  is  remarkable  that  since  the  earthquake  which  in  1204  shook 
Antioch,  Damascus,  and  Tripoli,  Syria  was  spared  till  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  although  no  region  of  the  earth  sufters  more  from  these  destructive  phenomena 
than  that  country.  It  is,  in  short,  difficult  to  deiine  the  duration  of  a  single  shock.  It  is 
undoubtedly  brief  in  general ;  and  in  slighter  shocks,  witnessed  by  tranquil  spectators  and 
consequently  observed  with  greater  attention,  it  is  not  longer  than  a  few  seconds.  In  the 
greater  convulsions,  for  instance  at  Lima,  Caraccas,  Calabria,  Catania,  Zante,  Antioch,  &c. 
the  time  is  reckoned  from  fifty  seconds  to  one  minute  and  five  seconds,  or  indefinitely  {TX)ni 
a  few  minutes  to  a  few  seconds.  When  we  consider  how  exceedingly  distracted  the  atten- 
tion is  when  the  shock  is  first  perceived,  that  the  duration  cannot  be  measured  by  means  of 
a  watch,  but  by  supposition,  and  that  by  such  a  mode  of  computation  we  are  in  the  habit  of 
reckoning  time  much  longer  than  it  really  is,  we  may  with  great  probability  conclude  that 
the  duration  of  a  single  shock  does  not  go  beyond  a  few  seconds,  and  we  may  affirm  that, 
at  the  most,  it  rarely  exceeds  half  a  minute. 

(5.)  Magnitude  of  rents  formed  by  earthquakes.  These  vary  fVom  a  few  feet  to  many 
ft  thorns  in  extent  They  have  either  a  direction  which  is  nearly  straight  or  more  or  less 
winding,  or  they  run  in  all  directions  from  a  centre.  During  the  terrible  Calabrian  earth- 
quakes of  1783,  rents  were  formed  of  great  dimensions ;  in  the  territory  of  San  Fili  there 
was  formed  a  rent  half  a  mile  long,  two  feet  and  a  half  broad,  and  twenty-five  feet  deep ;  in 
the  district  of  Plaisano,  a  rent,  of  nearly  a  mile  in  length,  one  hundred  and  five  feet  brood, 
and  thirty  feet  deep  opened ;  and  in  the  same  district  two  gul&  arose,  one  at  Cerzulli,  three 
quarters  of  a  mile  long,  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  broad,  and  about  one  hundred  feet  deep; 
and  another,  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  lon^,  about  thirty  feet  broad,  and  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet  deep.  UUoa  relates  that  m  the  earthquake  of  1746,  in  Peru,  a  rent  took 
place,  which  was  two  miles  and  a  half  long,  and  four  or  five  feet  wide.  These  rents  some- 
times close  again ;  thus,  in  the  year  1692,  in  the  island  of  Jamaica,  during  an  earthquake, 
the  ground  heaved  like  a  boiling  sea,  and  was  traversed  by  numerous  rents,  two  or  three 
hundred  of  which  were  oflen  seen  at  a  time  opening  and  closing  rapidly  a^in. 

(6.)  Elevation  and  subsidence  of  land  during  earthquakes.  It  is  evident  that,  if  the 
land  is  fhictured  and  then  traversed  with  vast  rents  by  earthquakes,  that  portion  of  the 
land  will  in  some  places  sink  and  in  others  rise,  and  this  not  once  but  several  times  in  the 
same  place.  In  the  year  1772,  during  an  eruption  of  one  of  the  loftiest  mountains  in  Java, 
the  ground  began  to  sink,  and  a  groat  part  of  the  volcano,  and  part  of  the  neighbouring 
country,  estimated  to  be  fifteen  miles  long  and  six  miles  broad,  was  swallowed  up.  During 
the  earthquake  at  Lisbon  in  1755,  a  new  quay  entirely  disappeared ;  thousands  of  the  in- 
habitants had  taken  shelter  on  it,  to  be  out  of  me  reach  of  the  tottering  and  falling  build- 
ings, when  suddenly  the  quay  sunk  down  with  its  thousands  of  human  bemgs,  and  not  one 
of  their  dead  bodies  ever  floated  to  the  surfiice.  In  the  year  1692,  during  an  earthquake  in 
Jamaica,  a  tract  of  land  about  a  thousand  acres  in  extent  sank  down  in  less  than  a  minute, 
and  the  sea  immediately  took  its  place.  On  the  north  side  of  the  island  several  large  tracts 
with  their  whole  population  were  swallowed  up,  and  a  lake  appeared  in  their  place  covering 
above  a  thousand  acres.  Numerous  examples  of  the  upraising  of  the  land  by  earthquakes 
might  be  given ;  we  shall  enumerate  a  few  of  them.  On  the  19th  of  November,  1822,  a 
most  dreacUul  earthquake  visited  the  coast  of  Chili ;  the  shock  was  felt  at  the  same  time 
throughout  a  space  of  one  thousand  two  hundred  miles  from  north  to  south.  When  the 
country  araind  Valparaiso  was  examined  on  the  morning  after  the  shock,  it  was  found  that 
the  entire  line  of  coast,  for  the  distance  of  more  than  a  hundred  miles,  was  raised  above  its 
former  levd.    The  area  over  which  this  upraising  took  place  was  estimated  at  one  hundred 


Part  II. 

60  foet  high,  over- 
I  Geneva,  were  ob- 
irkable  that  agita> 
lake  at  Lima,  1586, 
the  earthquakes  in 
ly  people,  but  was 
lecK  to  a  height  of 

irthquakca  already 
iona,  and  therefore 
f  mountains,  as  at 
in  1692,  by  which 
itain  slid  down  and 
iight  fathoms ;  and 

it  very  rapidly,  and 
fie,  frequently  very 
lapse  of  months  or 
ods  of  10  or  100 
ich  in  1204  shook 
of  the  seventeenth 
iictive  phenomena 
ngle  shock.  It  is 
pil  spectators  and 
V  seconds.  In  the 
lante,  Antioch,  &c. 
)r  indefinitely  from 
stracted  the  atten- 
isured  by  means  of 
are  in  the  habit  of 
lility  conclude  that 
ve  may  affirm  that, 

a  few  feet  to  many 

ht  or  more  or  less 

Calabrian  earth* 

of  San  Fill  there 

five  feet  deep ;  in 

ind  five  feet  broad, 

at  Cerzulli,  three 

undred  feet  deep; 

two  hundred  and 

Peru,  a  rent  took 

These  rents  some- 

ng  an  earthquake, 

ents,  two  or  three 

L^in. 

indent  that,  if  the 
lat  portion  of  the 
^eral  times  in  the 
mountains  in  Java, 
the  neighbouring 
)wed  up.  During 
>usands  of  the  in- 
and  &lling  build- 
iings,  and  not  one 
an  earthquake  in 
iss  than  a  minute, 
vera!  large  tracts 
air  place  covering 
id  by  earthquakes 
fovember,  1822,  a 
the  same  time 
rath.  When  the 
it  was  found  that 
s  raised  above  its 
id  at  one  hundred 


Book  II 


GEOGNOSY. 


221 


tliousand  sr^uare  miles:  the  rise  upon  the  coast  was  from  two  to  four  feet;  at  f  'i^taneeof 
a  mile  inland,  it  was  estimated  from  five  to  seven  feet  On  the  18th  of  Mar.  the  year 
1700,  at  St.  Maria  di  Niscomi,  some  miles  from  Terranuovo,  near  the  south  coasi  of  Sicilv, 
a  loud  subterranean  noise  was  heard  under  the  town  just  mentioned,  and  Uie  day  atlcr  earth- 
quakes were  felt ;  then  the  ground  gradually  sunk  down  for  a  circumference  of  three  Italian 
miles,  during  seven  shocks,  and  in  one  place  to  a  depth  of  thirty  feet ;  as  the  subsidence  was 
unequal,  rents  were  formed,  some  of  which  were  so  wide  that  they  could  not  be  leaped  over : 
this  gradual  sinking  continued  to  the  end  of  the  month.  About  the  middle  of  tliis  period 
an  opening  took  place  in  the  subsiding  land,  about  three  feet  in  diameter ;  through  these 
contmued  to  flow,  for  three  hours,  a  stream  of  mud,  which  covered  a  space  sixty  feet  long 
and  thirty  feet  broad ;  the  mud  was  saltish  and  composed  of  chalky  marl  and  a  viscid  clay, 
with  fragments  of  cr^rstalline  limestone ;  it  smelt  of  sulphur  and  petroleum.  On  the  16th 
June,  1819,  at  Cutch  in  Bombay,  a  violent  earthquake  took  place,  wring  which,  independent 
of  other  changes,  the  eastern  and  almost  abandoned  channel  of  the  Indus  was  much  altered : 
this  estuarv  was,  before  the  earthquake,  fordable  at  Luckput,  being  only  a  foot  deep  when 
the  tide  was  at  ebb,  at  flood  tide  never  more  than  six  feet ;  out  it  was  deepened  at  the  fort  of 
Luckput,  after  the  earthquake,  to  more  than  eighteen  feet  at  low  water,  snowing  that  a  con- 
siderable depression  had  taken  place.  The  channel  of  the  river  Runn  was  so  much  sunk 
•hat,  instead  of  being  dry  as  before,  during  that  period  of  tho'year,  it  was  no  longer  fordable 
except  at  one  place ;  and  it  is  remarked  by  Captain  Macmurdoch, — and  the  observation  is  of 
high  geological  import,  as  connected  with  the  formation  of  valleys,  of  river  districts,  &,c. — 
"should  the  water  continue  throughout  the  year,  we  may  perhaps  see  on  inland  navigation 
along  the  northern  shore  of  Cutch ;  which,  from  stone  anchors,  &c.  still  to  be  seen,  and  the 
tradition  of  the  country,  I  believe  to  have  existed  at  some  former  period."  Sindree,  a  small 
mud  fort  and  village  belonging  to  the  Cutch  government,  situated  where  the  Runn  joins 
the  Indus,  was  overflowed  at  me  time  of  the  shock.  The  people  escaped  with  difficulty, 
and  the  tops  of  the  houses  and  walls  are  now  alone  seen  above  water.  In  the  year  1790, 
in  the  Caraccas,  during  an  earthquake,  a  portion  of  granite  soil  sunk,  and  left  a  lake  800 
yards  in  diameter,  and  from  eighty  to  an  hundred  feet  deep ;  it  was  a  part  of  the  forest  of 
Aripao  which  sunk,  and  the  trees  remained  green  for  several  months  under  water. 

(7.)  Agitations  of  the  sea.  We  have  already  noticed,  in  a  general  way,  the  agitations 
observed  in  the  sea  during  earthquakes ;  we  shall  now  add  some  particulars  illustrative  of 
these  motions.  During  the  Lisbon  earthquake  of  1755,  the  sea  rose  along  the  coast  of 
Spain ;  and  at  Cadiz  it  advanced  in  the  form  of  vast  waves  sixty  feet  high.  At  Lisbon 
about  sixty  thousand  persons  perished.  The  sea  first  retired,  and  laid  the  bar  dry ;  it  then 
rushed  in,  rising  upwards  of  nfly  feet  above  its  ordinanr  level.  At  Einsale,  in  Ireland,  the 
sea  rushed  into  the  harbour,  and  invaded  tlie  land.  At  Tangier,  in  Africa,  it  rose  and  fell 
eighteen  times  on  the  coast  At  Funchol,  in  Madeira,  it  rose  fifteen  feet  above  high-water 
mark ;  although  the  tide,  which  ebbs  and  flows  there  seven  feet,  was  tlien  half  ebb.  Even 
ships  at  sea,  a  considerable  distance  from  land,  felt,  in  the  midst  of  these  convulsive  motions, 
as  if  hurried  across  a  ridge  of  rocks.  This  took  place,  to  a  distance  of  100  or  270  nautical 
miles  from  the  coast,  durmg  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon  in  1816.  During  the  Lisbon  earth- 
quake of  1755,  the  shock  was  felt  at  sea,  on  the  deck  of  a  ship  to  the  west  of  Lisbon,  and 
produced  nearly  the  same  feeling  as  on  land.  At  San  Lucar,  the  captain  of  the  Nancy 
frigate  felt  his  ship  so  violently  agitated  that  he  thought  he  had  struck  on  the  ground ;  but, 
on  heaving  the  lead,  found  he  was  in  deep  water.  Captain  Clark,  from  Derina,  in  N.  lat. 
36°  24',  between  nine  and  ten  in  the  morning,  had  his  ship  shaken  as  if  she  had  struck 
upon  a  rock,  so  that  the  seams  of  the  deck  opened.  Dr.  Shaw  relates,  that  in  1724,  being 
on  board  the  Gazelle,  an  Algerino  ship  of  50  guns,  they  felt  such  violent  shocks,  one  after 
another,  as  if  the  weight  of  twenty  or  thirty  tons  had  been  let  fall  from  a  good  height  on 
the  ballast.  Schouten,  speaking  of  an  earthquake  which  happened  in  the  Moluccas,  says, 
that  the  mountains  were  shaken,  and  ships  that  were  at  anchor  in  thirty  or  forty  fathoms' 
water  were  jerked  as  if  they  had  run  ashore,  or  come  foul  of  rocks.  Le  Genii  says,  "  that 
ships  at  sea  and  at  anchor  sufi!er,  during  earthquakes,  such  violent  agitations  that  they  seem 
to  be  falling  asunder ;  their  guns  break  loose,  and  their  masts  spring." 

(8.)  Notices  of  particular  Earthquakes.  A  full  account  of  all  the  principal  earthquakes 
that  are  known  would  much  exceed  our  limits;  we  shall,  tlierefore,  select  oaly  a  few  of  the 
more  interesting. 

No  part  of  Europe  is  more  visited  by  earthquakes  than  Italy  and  the  neighbouring 
islands.  The  first  earthquake  particularly  worthy  of  notice  was  that  which,  in  the  year 
63,  destroyed  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  Since  that  period  they  have  frequently  visited 
Italy  and  Sicily,  but  much  seldomer  from  A.  D.  63  to  the  twelfth  century,  than  from  that 
period  till  modem  times,  that  is.  till  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  Of  theao 
we  shall  describe  one  of  the  most  recent  in  Calabria,  and  another  of  still  later  date  ill 
Sicily. 

Earthquake  of  1783.  The  earthquake  that  so  much  affected  Calabria,  and  destroyed  the 
city  of  Messina,  raged  at  unequal  periods  from  the  5th  of  February  till  the  28th  of  March, 

19* 


33!l 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IT. 


17H3,  Acnmlinif  to  Rnrcia,  itn  princiiNil  Mrnt  \vu  tlio  iiniall  town  of  Oppido  in  Uio  noi^h- 
bourhiKNi  of  Atnunontu,  a  ■now-C(iV(>reU  pi'ak  of  tlio  Aponiiinna,  From  tliiM  point,  nivh  Hir 
William  Hamilton,  around  tu  a  tliMtanco  of  twonty-flve  miloM,  cumprcliomlii  thn  lurluce  of 
ooiuitry  which  Nuflbrud  moat,  and  whoro  all  tho  lownn  and  villai^PH  wuro  doitn>yo(l.  If  wo 
doMcribn  tho  ciroln  with  a  radiim  of  iiovontv*two  niiluH,  it  will  mcliido  tho  wholo  country 
which  waa  in  any  wny  atfurtud  by  tlio  eartiu|uako.  Tho  firat  ohock,  on  tho  5tli  Fobruury, 
in  two  minutoa  threw  do^  i  tho  groatoat  |)art  of  thu  htiuaea  in  all  tho  citiots  towoH,  and 
villaKoa  tVom  tho  woHtorn  acclivitioa  of  tho  Apiuininoa,  in  Calabria  Ultra,  to  Moitxina  in 
Hioily,  ami  convulaod  tho  wholo  Hiirtiico  of  tho  country.  Another  nhock,  which  took  pinco 
on  tho  W5th  of  March,  waa  nearly  ociually  violent  Tho  (rrunito  chain  which  oxtondt 
through  Calabria  iVoni  north  to  aoutli  wiia  but  alitthtly  a)(itatod,  tho  princi|)al  HhonkH  bi>iii|{ 
prt)|Hitfat(td  with  a  wavo-liko  motion  through  tho  tortiary  aandx,  aand-Htoi  <:>;,  and  clayn,  tVoin 
wi'Mt  to  oaift  It  wna  remarked  timt  the  violenc  of  tho  Hhock  was  ifnmiiiMt  ut  the  liiio  of 
junction  of  tho  Kftmito  und  tertiary  rjckii,  occaitioned  probably  by  tho  ititerruptioii  of  the 
undulatory  movement  of  tho  Noilcr  Htruta  by  tho  hiirder  Krai'ltc.  1'ho  ffrnnito  ran^'o  nliio 
proventeil  tho  iwiMaffo  of  tho  MhiH'ka  to  tho  countriea  on  tho  oppoitito  Hide  of  the  niounUiin* 
rauyo.  About  !2(K)  towns  and  villa{;ea  were  deatroved,  more  than  oiio  hundred  hillH  «li(l 
down,  fell  toffether,  daimnnd  up  riven,  and  formefl  lakoa :  numnrouH  rontH,  otlen  of  vast 
magnitude,  were  formed;  many  aubaidencea  and  ulao  upraiamffa  of  the  ground  took  pincc; 
anil  the  (ceneral  featurea  of  tiie  country  wcio  ao  much  cnanifcu  that  they  could  acarrnly  bo 
rccojfniae<l.  Thua,  in  a  vory  abort  hj^hico  of  time,  tlie  wholo  country  waa  as  much  cliuii|;cd 
aait  it  had  been  exiHwod  U)  conunon  mfluencoa  for  many  thouaand  ytara.  Tho  total  num< 
U^r  of  human  bvinga  that  itoriahed  waa  eatimated  at  1(X),(K)(),  and  it  a  ua  difficult  to  find  evon 
diatant  rotations  to  aucceed  to  the  prmwrty  of  aomo  funiiliea. 

Enrlhauttke  of  Litbon  in  llKy.  In  no  port  of  Kouthorn  Euiopt  has  go  tremcndoua  an 
earthqunko  occurred  as  that  which  begun  on  tho  lat  of  November,  1705.  On  tlio  morning 
of  that  day,  at  thirly-livo  minutes  alter  nine,  witliout  tho  least  warning,  except  a  noiae  liko 
thunder  heanl  under  ground,  a  moat  dreadful  eartlKpiuko  shook,  by  aliort  but  quick  vibro* 
tiona,  tlie  tbundationa  of  Liabon,  so  that  many  of  tho  principal  cilificea  fell  to  tho  ground  in 
an  inatunt :  then,  with  a  aearcoly  perceptible  |>auac,  tho  nature  of  tlio  motion  changed,  now 
resembling  that  of  a  wngon  driven  violentiv  over  rough  stonca,  which  laid  in  ruina  olmost 
every  house,  church,  convent,  and  public  building,  with  an  incredible  dcatruction  of  tho 
people.  It  continued  in  all  alHiut  six  minutca.  At  the  moment  of  its  beginning,  aomo  per- 
sona on  the  TaguB,  near  a  mile  fVom  tho  city,  Iienr  I  0>oir  boat  mako  a  noiao  na  if  it  liiid  run 
agn>und,  thougii  then  in  deep  water,  and  aaw  at  tnu  soino  time  houses  fulling  on  both  aided 
of  tho  river.  Four  or  five  minutes  after,  tho  boat  nfudo  tho  like  noise,  caused  by  nnothcr 
shock,  which  brought  down  more  houses.  Tho  bed  of  the  Tugus  was  in  many  placea  ruined 
to  itt  surface.  Siiipa  wore  driven  from  their  anchors,  and  jostled  together  with  great  vio 
jonce;  and  tho  musters  did  not  know  if  they  were  afloat  or  aground.  The  largo  (piuy  called 
Caet  lie  Prada,  was  overturned,  crowdeil  with  people,  and  sunk  to  an  unfalliomablo  depth 
in  tlio  water,  not  ao  much  as  one  boily  aflerwurtls  appearing.  The  bar  was  seen  dry  from 
shore  to  sh(tre ;  then  suddenly  the  sen,  like  a  mountain,  camo  rolliiiff  in,  and  about  IJclem 
cuatlo  tho  water  rose  fifty  f«!ct  almost  in  an  instant;  and  hud  it  not  ucen  for  tlio  great  bny 
opjiosite  tho  city,  which  received  aixd  spread  tho  great  flux,  tlie  lower  part  must  have  been 
under  water.  As  it  was,  it  camo  up  to  tho  houses,  and  drove  the  inhabitants  to  the  hills. 
About  noon,  there  was  nnotlicr  shock,  when  the  walls  of  several  houses  which  were  yet 
standing  were  seen  to  open  from  top  to  bottom  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  yard,  but  elated 
affain  so  exactly  as  to  leave  scarce  any  mark  of  injury.  It  is  remarked,  that  on  tlio  Ist  of 
Novinnber,  1750,  being  tho  anniversary  of  Uio  fatal  tragedy  of  this  unhappy  city,  another 
shock  gnvo  tho  inhabitants  so  terrible  an  alarm  that  they  were  preparing  for  their  flight  into 
tlic  country,  but  were  prevented  by  several  regiments  of  horse  placed  all  around  by  the 
king's  orders.  Many  or  tlio  largest  mountains  in  Portugal  during  tho  great  earthquniio  were 
elmken  ns  it  were  to  Uicir  fouiulation,  and  many  of  them  opened  at  their  summits,  split,  and 
rent,  and  huge  masses  of  tliem  were  cost  down  into  the  suiijucent  valleys.  The  same  drciuJ- 
flil  visitation  was  experienced  at  Oporto.  We  are  told  that  at  about  forty  minutes  past  nine 
in  the  morning,  tho  sky  being  serene,  was  heard  a  dreadftil  hollow  noiso  like  thunder  or  the 
rattling  of  coaches  over  rugjjed  stones  at  a  distance;  and  almost  at  the  same  instant  wns 
felt  a  severe  shock  of  an  oartiiquako,  which  lasted  six  or  seven  minutes,  during  which  every 
tiling  sliook  and  rattled.  It  rent  several  churches.  In  the  streets  the  earth  was  seen  to 
heave  untler  the  peojtle's  feet,  as  \f  in  labour,  Tho  river  was  also  airiazingly  aflTected;  for 
in  tho  space  of  a  minute  or  two,  it  rose  and  fell  five  or  six  feet,  and  continued  to  do  so  for 
ibur  hours.  The  river  Douro  was  observed  to  burst  open  in  some  parts,  and  discharge  vast 
quantities  of  air ;  and  the  agitation  was  so  great  in  the  sea,  beyond  tlie  bar,  that  it  was  ima- 
ginctl  the  air  erot  vent  tliere  also. 

On  tlie  fatal  day  of  the  great  earthquake  of  Lisbon,  at  Ayamonte,  near  where  the  Gua 
diana  fulls  into  the  bay  of  f 'adiz,  a  little  before  ten  o'clock,  immediately  on  a  rushing  noiss 
being  heard,  a  terrible  eartliquako  was  felt  which  during  fourteen  or  fifteen  minutes  damaged 


Book  IL 


GEOGNOSY. 


la 


aInioNt  ull  tho  hiiildinffi.  In  littln  mora  than  half  an  liour  aAor,  tho  soa  and  rivnr,  with  all 
Uieir  canals,  ovnrflowod  thoir  bouniia  with  (froat  viulonco,  laying  undor  water  all  tho  cooata 
of  tliu  iviandi  oiljauont  to  tho  city  and  itM  noi{;hbourhood,  flowin|r  into  tho  itrcutii.  The 
wator  nwo  throo  timcN,  aflor  it  hiiu  an  many  tiinoa  iiubaidod.  Ono  of  ttio  hwcHh  wan  at  the 
tiino  of  oltb,  Tho  water  catno  on  in  vot^t  black  mountain*,  white  with  foam  at  tho  top,  and 
dumoliHhnd  moro  tlian  half  of  tho  town  at  thu  bar  called  Do  Canala.  The  earth  was 
obaerved  to  open  in  Mvoral  placet,  and  fVoni  tho  aperturei  flowqd  vast  (iiiBntitioM  of  water. 

At  Cudi/.,  m  the  same  morninir,  nome  ininuton  nflcr  nine,  tho  whole  town  wiih  shaken 
with  a  violent  ourtluiuake,  which  lasted  alwut  flvo  minutos.  Tho  water  in  the  cistern* 
under  ((round  rolled  backwards  and  forwards.  At  ten  minutes  atler  eleven,  a  wave  waa 
Kcn  coniinff  iVom  sea,  oiKht  miles  oif,  at  least  sixty  feet  hiifhcr  than  usiiul.  It  dashed 
Ofifainst  tho  west  imrt  of  the  city ;  at  last  it  came  upon  tho  walls,  beat  in  tlio  breast-work, 
and  curried  pieces  of  eight  or  ten  tons  weight  tbrty  or  fitly  yards  fVom  tho  wall.  When  the 
wavo  was  gone,  lomo  parts  that  are  deep  at  low  wator  were  lotl  quite  dry,  for  tho  wato.' 
roturnod  tiiero  with  tho  same  violence  as  it  camo.  On  tho  same  eventful  morning  Gibraltar 
was  agitated  by  an  earthquake.  It  lasted  about  two  minutes.  The  guna  on  the  battery 
were  »een  to  ri»e,  othera  to  sink,  the  earth  hitvitiff  an  undulatinff  motion.  Most  i)eople 
wcro  seized  with  giddiness  and  sickness,  and  some  fell  down,  others  wero  stupefied,  tliough 
many  that  wcro  walking  or  riding  felt  no  motion,  but  were  sick.  The  sea  roso  six  feet 
every  fifleon  minutes,  and  fell  so  low  that  lioatH  and  all  tho  Hrnall  crafl  near  tho  Nhoro  were 
Ictl  aground,  as  wero  numbers  of  fish.  Ships  in  tiie  bay  soumed  as  if  they  hud  Ktruck  on 
rocks.  Tho  flux  and  reflux  lasted  till  six  next  morning,  having  decreased  gradually  from 
two  in  tho  afternoon. 

This  oartlKiuako  excited  much  attention,  from  the  incredibly  groat  extent  at  which  slighter 
contemporary  shocks  wore  oxperienccd.  Thev  cxtnnded  from  Greenland  and  lucland  to 
Norway,  Sweden,  Germany,  Britain,  Switzerland,  B'rance,  Himin,  Morocco,  Salce,  Fez, 
Teuton,  and  ovon  to  tlie  West  Indi(!8  and  tho  lake  Ontario  in  North  America. 

However  droadflal  many  of  tho  earthquakes  of  Europe  wore,  they  bear  no  comparison 
with  tlioeo  which  havo  desolated  many  parts  of  Asia.  Passing  over  those  which  wero 
observed  in  tho  islands,  on  tho  eastern  continent,  and  in  the  environs  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
our  attention  ia  particularly  drawn  towards  Syria,  on  account  of  tho  ravages  it  has  frequently 
experienced. 

Gibbtm,  in  tho  forty-third  chaptor  of  his  Decline  and  Fall  of  tho  Roman  Empire,  gives  the 
following  account  of  tho  carlh(iuake  that  took  place  at  Antioch  in  A.  1).  520,  May  SO. 
"  Tho  near  approach  of  a  comet  may  injure  or  destroy  tho  globe  which  wo  inhabit ;  but  tho 
changes  on  its  surface  have  been  hitherto  produced  by  the  action  of  volcanoes  and  earth- 
quakes. Tho  nature  of  tho  soil  may  indicate  tho  countries  most  exposed  to  these  formidable 
concussions,  since  they  aro  caused  by  subterraneous  fires,  and  such  fires  ore  kindled  by  tho 
union  and  fermentation  of  iron  and  sulphur.  But  their  times  and  efiects  ap[)ear  to  lie  beyond 
the  reach  of  human  curiosity,  and  tho  philosopher  will  discreetly  abstain  from  the  prediction 
of  earthcjuakcs,  till  ho  has  counted  tho  drops  of  water  that  silently  filtrate  on  the  inflam- 
mable mineral,  and  medsured  tho  caverns  which  increase  by  resistance  the  explosion  of  tho 
imprisoned  air.  Without  assigning  tho  cause,  history  will  distinguish  the  periods  in  which 
tlicso  calamitous  events  have  been  rare  or  frequent,  and  will  observe,  that  this  fever  of  the 
earth  raged  with  uncommon  violence  during  the  reign  of  Justinian.  Each  year  is  marked 
by  the  repetition  of  earthquakes,  of  such  duration,  that  Constantinople  has  been  shaken 
above  forty  days ;  of  such  extent,  that  the  shock  has  been  communicated  to  the  whole  sur- 
face of  tlio  globe,  or  at  least  of  tlie  Roman  empire.  An  impulsive  or  vibratory  motion  was 
felt :  enormous  chasms  were  opened,  liuge  and  heavy  bodies  were  discharged  into  the  air, 
the  sea  alternately  advanced  and  retreated  beyond  its  ordinary  bounds,  and  a  mountain  was 
torn  iVom  Libanus,  and  cast  into  tlio  waves,  where  it  protected,  as  a  mole,  the  new  harbour 
of  Botrys,  in  Phcenicia.  Tho  stroke  that  agitates  an  ant-hill,  may  crush  the  insect  myriads 
in  the  dust;  yet  truth  must  extort  a  confession,  that  man  has  industriously  laboured  for  his 
own  destruction.  The  institution  of  great  cities,  which  include  a  nation  within  the  limits 
of  a  wall,  almost  realizes  the  wish  of  Caligula,  that  the  Roman  people  had  but  one  neck. 
7^0  hundred  and  fiflp  thousand  persona  ore  said  to  have  perished  in  the  earthquake  of 
Antioch,  whose  domestic  multitudes  were  swelled  by  the  conflux  of  strangers  to  the  festival 
of  tho  Ascension.  Tho  loss  of  Eorytus  was  of  smaller  account,  but  of  much  greater  value. 
That  city,  on  tho  coast  of  Phoenicia,  was  illustrated  by  the  study  of  the  civil  law,  which 
opened  the  surest  road  to  wealth  and  dignity :  the  schools  of  Berytus  were  filled  with  the 
rismg  spirits  of  the  age,  and  many  a  youth  was  lost  in  the  earthquake  who  might  have  lived 
to  be  the  scourge  or  mo  guardian  of  his  country.  In  these  disasters,  the  architect  becomes 
the  enemy  of  mankind.  The  hut  of  a  savage,  or  the  tent  of  an  Arab,  may  be  tliro'.vn  down 
without  injury  to  the  inhabitonts :  and  the  Peruvians  had  reason  to  deride  the  folly  of  their 
Spanish  conquerors,  who  with  so  much  cost  and  labour  erected  their  own  sepulchres.  The 
rich  marbles  of  a  patrician  are  dashed  on  his  own  head ;  a  whole  people  is  buried  under  the 
ruins  of  public  and  private  edifices,  and  the  conflagration  is  kindled  and  propagated  by  tho 


m 


SCIENCE  OF  OEOORAPIIY. 


PabtII. 


innumornblfl  flrot  which  aro  necewary  for  tho  ■ubiiitonco  and  manufacturoa  of  a  groat  city. 
Iiutead  of  tho  mutual  aympatliy  which  tni^ht  comfort  and  aniit  tho  diiitroMoo,  they  droad- 
fhlly  oxporionco  tho  vicoi  and  pamioni  which  are  roloaaod  flromtho  fearof  puiiiniinicnt:  the 
totteriim  hiiiiMM*  are  pillaged  by  intrepid  avartco ;  revongo  ombracoa  the  moiiuuit,  and  nolecta 
tlio  victim ;  and  tho  earth  ofton  Bwallowa  tlio  aaMuain  or  tho  raviHhor  in  tlio  cunatinimation 
of  titeir  criineM.  Supenttition  involved  Uio  prcoont  (fanger  witli  inviiiible  terror* ;  and  if  tho 
iipage  of  doath  may  aomotinyn  bo  Hubaorviont  tu  tlio  virtue  or  rcpentnnco  of  individuals,  an 
aAiffhted  pernio  ia  moro  forcibly  moved  to  oxpoct  tho  end  of  tho  world,  or  to  dcprcrato  with 
aurviln  homaifo  Cn:  wrath  of  an  avonffiiiff  Doily."  In  1100  ainglo  ahocka  continued  tor  four 
montha;  and  in  IQkti  another  carth(^uiiko  doxtroycd  many  citiea,  flUod  np  tho  vulloya  of 
Lebanon,  and  shattered  tho  basaltic  dmtricts  of  Ilauran,  ao  that,  accordinf;  to  tho  exproasion 
then  current,  t(  wat  no  longer  ponible  to  lay,  Here  itnod  Ihii  or  that  city.  A  droadftil 
earthquiiko  took  place  in  17%;  tno  ahocks  continued  for  six  months.  At  the  HrHt  shock  the 
cities  of  Antioch,  Balbec,  Aero,  Tripoli,  &lc.  woro  laid  in  ruins,  and  n(),(MM)  persons  killed. 
The  more  rocont  eartliquake,  of  lti23,  lasted  still  longer,  and  committed  dreadflil  ravages. 
On  tho  13tli  of  August,  in  ono  horrible  night,  Alonpo,  Antioch,  Diha,  Cesser,  indeed  every 
aingle  villogo  and  cottage  within  tho  pashalic  of  Aleppo,  was,  within  ton  or  twelvo  seconds, 
completely  dostroyod,  and  converted  into  a  honp  of  rubbish :  no  less  than  '20,l)0()  people  lost 
their  lives,  and  many  more  were  mutilated ;  a  very  groat  number,  considering  tho  low 
population  of  those  places. 

Africa  is  very  littlo  known,  and  wo  are  therefore  ignorant  of  any  earthquakes  in  its 
interior,  where  Uicy  may  occur  as  frequently  as  in  other  places.  The  southern  extremity  of 
this  continent  is  rarely  visited  by  sliglit  shocks,  but  they  are  moro  numerous  in  tho  north, 
where,  in  March,  1825,  they  did  considerablo  damage  to  Algiers  and  Blida.  On  tho  contrary, 
America,  particularly  in  the  southern  parts,  is  inferior  to  no  part  of  tho  world  for  tho  magnitude, 
numbor,  and  duration  of  its  earthquakes.  Wo  shall  now  mention  a  fow  of  tho  greatest 
recorded  by  naturalists.  To  those  belong  the  oarthciuako  of  1746,  which,  witiiin  five  minutes, 
destroyed  the  greater  part  of  Lima ;  Callao  was  inundated ;  and  of  4000  persons,  200  only 
escaped.  Tho  destruction  of  New  Andalusia,  on  tho  21st  of  October,  1766,  was  equally 
terrible.  The  shocks  extended  rver  Cumana,  Caraccas,  Maracaibo,  the  shores  of  the  Casanas 
the  Meta,  the  Orinoco,  and  Veitures;  and  tho  granite  districts  in  the  mission  of  Encaranada 
were  also  slioken  by  their  vioU  nco.  An  e-jtliquake,  in  1707,  destroyed  a  great  part  of  Peru. 
It  proceeded  from  the  volcano  Tunguragua,  continued  with  slight  shocks  during  the  wholv 
of  February  and  March,  and  rfiturned  on  tho  15th  of  April,  with  increased  violence.  Many 
places  were  filled  up  by  the  summits  of  mountains  tumbling  down ;  muddy  water  flowed  from 
the  volcano;  and,  spreading  ovtr  the  country,  became  afterwards  an  indurated  crust  of  clay. 
The  entire  numbor  of  persons  who  perished  on  this  occasion  was  16,000.  No  earthquake 
could  well  be  more  destructive  to  any  place  than  that  which  destroyed  the  Caraccas  in  1812, 
and  of  which  Humboldt  has  given  an  excellent  description.  Tne  Caraccas  was  thought 
secure  on  account  of  its  primV.ive  mountains,  although  in  1641,  1703,  and  1778,  violent 
earthquakes  were  experieriued,  and  a  slighter  shock  in  1802.  Humboldt,  from  actual  inspec- 
tion,  had  no  doubt  but  tliis  country,  from  being  in  a  volcanic  region,  must  be  liable  to  such 
disasters.  In  December,  1811,  various  shocks  were  felt;  on  the  12th  of  March,  1812,  the 
city  of  Caraccas  was  destroyed.  The  sky  was  clear,  and  In  Venezuela,  there  had  not  been 
a  drop  of  rain  for  five  months :  there  was  no  forewarning  prognostic,  for  the  first  shock  at 
seven  minutes  past  four  in  the  afternoon  came  on  unexpectedly,  and  set  the  bells  a  ringing. 
This  was  immediately  succeeded  by  a  second  shock,  which  caused  a  waving  and  rdline 
motion  in  the  earth,  thon  a  subterraneous  rumbling  noise  was  heard,  and  there  was  a  Jiin 
shock,  in  which  the  motion  was  perpendicular,  and  sometimes  rolling  horizontally,  with  a 
violence  which  nothing  could  withstand.  The  people,  m  place  of  flying  directly  to  the 
open  fields,  flocked  in  crowds  to  the  churches,  where  arrangements  had  been  made  for  a 
procession ;  and  the  multitudes  assembled  there  were  buried  beneath  the  ruins.  Two  churches 
150  feet  high,  and  supported  by  columns  of  fit)m  twelve  to  fifteen  fe'^t  in  diameter,  fell  in  a 
mass  of  rubbish,  and  were  for  the  most  part  ground  into  dust  The  Caserne  el  Quartcl 
vanished  almost  entirely,  and  a  regiment  of  soldiera  stationed  there,  and  about  to  join  the 
procession,  disappeared  at  the  same  time  along  with  it ;  a  few  individuals  only  escaped ;  nine- 
tenths  of  the  city  were  completely  destroyed,  ond  most  of  the  houses  that  remained  were 
rendered  uninhabitable ;  the  number  of  people  killed  was  reckoned  at  nearly  10,000,  without 
including  those  who  perished  afterwards  from  bruises  and  want  of  sustenance.  The  clouds 
of  dust  having  fallen,  were  succeeded  by  a  serene  night,  which  formed  a  frightful  contrast 
with  the  destruction  on  the  earth,  and  with  the  dead  bodies  lying  scattered  among  the  ruuis. 
The  duration  of  each  particular  shock  wos  reckoned  by  some  50  seconds,  by  others  1  minute 
12  seconds.  These  shocks  extended  over  the  provinces  of  Venezuela,  Varinas,  Maracaibo, 
and  into  the  mountains  in  the  interior.  La  Guayra,  Mayquatia,  La  Vega,  St.  Felipe  and 
Sicfida,  were  alniOBt  entirely  destroyed.  In  La  Guayra  ana  St.  f'eiipo  the  number  of  persons 
killed  was  about  5000.    On  the  5th  of  April  another  violent  earthquake  took  place,  during 


PabtII. 

I  of  a  ffroat  city, 
••od,  they  (Iroad- 
puiiiNtiiiHMit:  the 
rnorit,  und  lolecta 
lio  cunmininiation 
rrun ;  and  if  tho 
[>f  iiulividuals,  an 
to  doprpcalo  with 
:ontinucd  for  four 
ip  tho  valloya  of 
to  thu  cxproasion 
city,  A  <iroadAil 
:he  HfHt  shock  the 

0  pcrsunH  i<iUod. 
druadftii  rovagci. 
Bor,  iridond  every 
r  twolvo  Boconds, 
!0,«MK)  peonlf)  loat 
aidering  tlio  low 

arthquakcs  in  ita 
horn  extremity  of 
irous  in  tho  north, 

On  tho  contrary, 
for  tho  mapnitudo, 
w  of  tho  greatest 
ithin  fivo  minutes, 
persons,  200  only 
1760,  waa  equally 
rcH  of  the  Casanas 
lion  of  Encaranada 
groat  part  of  Peru. 

during  the  whole 

1  violence.  Many 
water  flowed  from 
ated  crust  of  clay. 
I.  No  earthquake 
Caraccas  in  1812, 
iccas  was  thought 
and  1T7B,  violent 
roni  actual  inspec- 
t  be  liable  to  such 

March,  1812,  the 

hero  had  not  been 

■  the  first  shock  at 

w  bells  a  ringing. 

aving  and  roLlins 

there  was  a  Jiira 

wizontally,  with  a 

ig  directly  ta  the 

1  been  made  for  a 

ns.  Two  churches 

diameter,  fell  in  a 

'aseme  el  Quartcl 

1  about  to  join  the 

ily  escaped ;  nine- 

at  remained  were 

y  10,000,  without 

nee.    The  clouds 

frightful  contrast 

among  the  ruins. 

y  others  1  minute 

irinas,  Maracaibo, 

a,  St.  Felipe  and 

lumber  of  persons 

x>k  place,  during 


Boor  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


9tS 

It  waa  nid  that  tlie  nioufi- 


wliich  onorntouM  fmifmcnta  were  detached  fVom  the  mountains, 
tain  Milla  '<mt  (Vum  ;i.)0  to  300  foot  of  itn  height  by  tinking. 

('au»r  of  Htirtkquakei. — Tlio  original  hy|)ot)ioaia,  whicli  attributed  volcanic  eruptiona  ami 
oarthquakt'i)  to  tlio  oimration  of  central  Are,  waa  at  first  attacked  chiofiy  by  titukely,  who, 
from  the  plifnoiiiena  of  two  oarUiquokea  obaorved  at  liundon  on  the  bth  February,  and  Hth 
of  March,  I7tll,  i  ndoavourod  to  prove  that  they  wore  caused  by  a  highly  ovorchargcd 
state  of  till)  I  li'ctru;  fiuid.  Andrew  Bena  afi^irma,  that  they  are  sudden  oxploaions,  caui«o«l 
by  gaa  in  tli<  lr>'i>rior  of  the  earth,  which  he  believes  would  be  found  there  incloHod  in 
roservuira  of  hciI  hur  and  bitumen.  Beccaria,  oa  ia  known,  endeavoured  to  attribute  to  clcc* 
tricity  every  Hung  that  had  any  probable  affinity  for  it ;  hence  he  believed  that  an  accumu- 
lation of  it  u)  tho  cruat  of  the  earth  produced  conoussiona  with  tho  clouda,  and  then  exhibited 
the  appearance  of  earthquakes.  Humboldt  found  it  to  be  a  prevailing  opinion  in  America 
tliat  eartluiuakei  are  electrical  phenomena;  but  observes,  that  this  must  be  excused  bjr 
reason  of  tlie  partiality  entertained  for  Franklin.  The  invention  of  the  Voltaic  pile,  and 
tho  observation  of  its  singular  operations,  induced  many  philosophers,  at  least  those  naturalists 
who  were  iierfectly  intimate  with  the  nature  of  this  remarkable  apparatus,  to  consider  the 
whole  eartJi  as  a  column  or  pile  of  this  description,  or  that  it  contains  an  apparatus  of  this 
description  in  its  interior.  These  fancies,  however,  lead  to  nothing  satisfactorv.  Where 
then  can  wo  seek  for  the  cause  or  causes  of  earthquakes  ]  The  subject  is  entirely  hypothe- 
tical, aH  we  have  no  means  of  reaching  the  seat  of  these  remarkable  phenomena.  Tho 
theory  of  tlie  earthquake  is  the  same  as  tliat  of  the  volcano.  Tho  agitations  may  be  produced 
by  the  motions  of  the  liquid  and  gaseous  matter  at  a  great  depth  in  the  crutt  of  the  earth 
endeavouring  to  escape, 

SicT.  V. — Account  of  the  different  Structuret  observable  in  the  Crust  qfthe  Earth. 

Before  the  time  of  Werner,  little  had  been  accomplir*  ed  in  re^d  to  the  determination 
of  the  structures  that  occur  in  the  crust  of  the  earth.  Some  mamtained  that  everywhere 
irregularity  prevailed,  and  that  it  was  in  vain  to  look  for  order  or  regularity  in  the  coarse 
rocky  masses  of  which  mountains,  hills,  and  plains  are  composed.  Werner,  however,  on 
general  grounds,  assumed  that  if  determinate  structures  and  arrangements  occurred  in  tho 
vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  tho  samo  must  be  the  case  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  not 
only  in  simple  minerals,  but  also  in  the  great  and  more  generally  distributeil  ini.  isea  of 
which  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  principally  composed.  His  investigations  fully  con/rmed 
the  truth  of  this  opinion,  for  minerals  he  found  as  well  characterised  as  plants  and  ani-nals 
and  the  following  details  will  show  that  there  exists  amon^  mountain  rocks,  or  those  grea 
masses  of  which  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  composed,  a  beautiAil  series  of  structure,  from  that 
of  hand-specimens  to  the  general  arrangements  of  tho  great  rock  formations.  We  shall 
consider  tnese  structures  in  the  following  order,  beginning  with  the  smallest  and  terminating 
with  the  greatest. 

SuDSKCT.    — Different  Structures. 

1.  Structure  of  mountain  rocks  in  hand-specimens. 

2.  Structure  of  strata  and  beds. 
8.  Structure  of  formations. 

4.  Arrangements  of  formations  in  regard  to  each  other. 

5.  Structure  of  veins. 

(1.)  Structure  of  mountain  rocks.  The  kinds  of  structure  occurring  in  mountain  rocks 
are  the  following: — 1.  Compact.  2.  Slaty.  3.  Granular.  4.  Porphyritic.  5.  Amygda- 
loidal.  6.  Conglomerated.  In  the  compact  structure,  the  mass  is  uniform,  without  siaty 
or  any  other  arrangement,  and  when  broken  exhibits  various  fractures  as  earthy,  splintery, 
conchoidal,  even,  &c.  Common  compact  quartz  is  an  example  of  this  kind  of  structure. 
In  the  slaty  structure  the  rocks  split  readily  into  thin  layers  or  slates,  as  in  common  roofing 
slate.  Rocks  having  tho  granular  structure  are  composed  of  granular  concretions  or 
imperfect  crystals,  as  in  primitive  limestone  or  statuary  marble.  In  the  porphyritic  structure 
Uiere  is  a  wwis  or  ground  with  imbedded  crystals,  generally  of  felspar  or  ouartz,  or  both, 
as  in  porphyry :  in  uie  amygdaloidal  structure  there  is  also  a  basis  or  ground ;  but  here  the 
base  does  not  contain  imbedded  crystals,  but  amygdaloidal  cavities,  which  are  either  nearly 
empty,  half  filled,  or  completely  filled  with  minerals.  The  rock  named  amygdaloid 
exhibits  this  kind  of  structure.  Lastly,  the  conglomerated  structure  is  that  which  we 
observe  in  the  rock  named  conglomerate,  which  is  composed  of  fragments  imbedded  in  a 
basis  or  ground. 

(2.)  Structure  of  strata  and  beds.  When  a  mountain  or  hill  is  composed  of  tabular 
masses  of  the  same  kind  of  rock,  as  of  sandstone,  that  extend  throughout  the  hill,  it  is  said  to 
be  stratified,  and  the  individual  tabular  masses  are  named  stratOi  as  in  fg.  56.  If  asicng 
these  strata  there  occur  tabular  masses  of  a  different  rock,  the  masses  are  named  beds :  a,  fig 

Vou  I.  a  D 


m 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  II. 


'.i^j^ 


M.  ropreacnU  a  bed  of  liinc6tuno  in  tlio  clifT  of  stratified  sandstone.    These  strata  and  beds 

68    ■•     •■■  '       .         ■  ' 


vary  in  posilion ;  sometimes  they  are  fl.kt  ut  hjrizontal,  or  they  are  more  or  loss  inclined  until 
thoy  bccomo  vertical,  or  are  set  on  thoir  0(lg«.ik  They  also  vary  in  the  point  of  the  compass 
towards  which  thoy  ore  inclined,  or  dip ;  but  it  is  wortliy  of  remark  that  tho  dip  is  always 
at  riffht  angles  to  the  range  or  direction  of  tho  strata;  and  timt  if  tlio  dipiH  givon,  wo  know 
the  mrcction :  but  a  knowledge  of  tlio  direction  will  not  give  us  tlio  dip.  Their  direction 
also  varies.  Tho  position  of  strata  is  determined  by  a  well-known  instrument,  the  clinometer, 
which  is  a  compass  with  an  attached  quadrant  When  wo  examine  the  structure  of  indi- 
vidual strata  and  bods,  several  varieties  may  bo  discovered :  thus,  in  some  beds,  die  rock  is 
arranged  in  columns,  as  in  basalt ;  in  others,  tlio  arrangement  is  in  tables,  as  in  porphyry ; 
or  in  balls,  as  in  granite  and  greenstone. 

(3.)  Structure  qf  formations,  Tho  idoa  of  formations  was  first  clearly  brought  out  by 
Werner.  To  his  views  on  this  moat  important  subject  we  con  trace  tho  new  character  of 
peology,  and  tho  great  progress  made  in  geognosy  within  those  Inst  tliirty  years.  But  this 
18  not  the  place  for  discussing  the  subject  Ail  those  rocks  which  appnar  to  have  boon  formed 
at  tho  same  time,  and  in  the  same  or  similar  circumstances,  and  which  agree  in  position, 
structure,  mass,  petrifactions,  imbedded  minerals,  &c.  are  said  to  belong  to  tlic  same  formation. 
These  tbrmations  are  divided  into  simple  and  compound.  Simple  formations  are  those  prin- 
cipally composed  of  one  rock ;  compound  formations,  of  more  than  one  species  of  rock : 
granite  is  an  example  of  a  simple  formation ;  tho  first  secondary  sandstone,  or  tlio  great 
coal  formation,  of  a  compound  fbmwtion,  because  it  contains  several  rocks ;  viz.  sandstone, 
slate,  limestone,  coal,  and  ironstone. 

(4.)  Arranffement  qf  formations  in  regard  to  each  other,  ^Vhon  two  formations  occui 
togetlier,  and  tho  one  rests  upon  the  otiier,  tho  subjacent  formation  is  named  the  fundamen- 
(a?  rock,  and  that  whicli  covers  or  lies  upon  the  other,  tlie  superincumbent.  The  line  where 
die  two  rocks  or  formations  meet  is  called  die  line  of  separation  or  line  of  junction.  In 
^.  50.  a  is  die  fundamental  rock,  and  b  die  superimposed  rook,  and  c  o  die  line  of  juncUon. 


When  the  strata  of  the  superunjwsed  formation  is  parallel  with  tho  strata  of  tho  fitndamontal 
or  subjacent  rock,  tho  stratification  is  said  to  bo  eot{formable,  as  Jig,  60  where  a  formation  o 

3     ■» 


we  shall  say  of  limestone,  rests  on  b,  of  sandstone.    If  the  strata  of  the  superimposed 
tbrmation  are  dispoeed  as  at  c,  fig,  61.,  they  are  said  to  be  uncori/brffloiZe.    LaiBtly,  if  the 


•tnita  lie  over  the  ends  of  die  strata  of  die  fundamental  rock,  as  at  6,  in^.  59.,  they  are  said 


.-.,.         .,..,.-;...■,    r^--.,    .;/V7r-"v^/-;'^^TV*^Tr-jjr:'T*;-';.---;*,-iVi;?*.-:'-''     ■,',,■_■' fi.5^ 


Book  H.  GEOGNOSY.     ' 

to  bo  unc<n\fottnable  and  overlying.  If  the  strata  rest  ott  the  flindamental  rock,  as  represented 


.:.|,Avy  ynjrf 


mfig.  62.,  they  are  said  to  be  $addle-$haped ;  if  as  represented  \afig.  63.(  they  are  said  to 
be  fflan(Ie-(Aap«(2;  if  disposed  in  a  bason-shaped  hollow,  as  in  fig.  64.,  they  are  said  to  be 


bason-Bhapei ;  if  in  a  lengthened  or  trough-like  hollow,  as  in^^.  65.,  the?  are  said  to  be 


trough-  ]haped.  In  a  mountain  or  natural  section  of  Neptunian  or  aquatic  rocks,  as  limestone, 
sandstone,  slate,  &c.,  the  undermost  or  lowest-lying  strata  are  considered  to  be  the  oldest : 
therefore,  on  ascending  a  mountain,  as  that  in  fg.  66.,  from  a  to  6,  we  pass  from  the  newer 

66 


to  the  older  rocks ;  but  if  from  c  to  6,  from  the  older  to  the  newer.  Formations  were 
formerly  more  continuous  than  at  present,  portions  only  remaining  of  extensive  deposits. 
The  remaining  portions  occupying  different  situations  have  received  particular  names,  ac- 
cording to  the  situations  in  which  they  occur.  When  in  patches  on  the  summits  of  hills,  as 
represented  at  a  a  a  in^^.  67.,  they  are  called  mountaitt'caps.  When  in  hollows,  as  at  ft  6, 
they  are  named  upfillingt. 


(5.)  Structure  of  Veins.  These  are  tabular  masses  that  intersect  the  strata  and  beds  of 
the  mountain  or  tract  in  which  they  occur.  The  tabular  masses  of  trap  or  whinstone  veins 
that  cut  across  the  strata  of  Great  Britain  are  there  popularly  known  under  Uie  name  of 
whin  dyket.  Vems,  like  strata,  vary  in  position,  being  sometimes  vertical,  at  other  times 
not  much  inclined  to  the  horizon ;  their  direction,  inclmation,  and  dip  are  detem.ined  in  the 


iniersectuig  iuoSocS  vaijr  in  ufeoain  iroin  an  uicii  or  less 


to  many  fathoms ;  in  length,  from  a  few  inches  to  several  miles ;  and  in  depth,  from  a  few 
inches  to  an  unknown  and  vast  depth.  Veins  appear  to  have  been  originally  open  rents  or 
fissures  traversing  the  strata,  which  have  been  filled  by  an  afler-process  with  the  miperal 
nwttere  they  now  contain.    This  being  the  case,  we  naturally  expect  to  find  the  strata  on 


Ml 


4 


228 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  II, 


the  wallf  of  veins  exhibiting^  the  same  phenomena  as  occur  in  tbe  walls  of  rents.    When 
rents  cut  across  strata,  they  sometimes,  as  in  fg.  08.,  at  a,  b,  produce  no  derangement ; 


while,  in  other  cases,  the  strata  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  rent  do  not  correspond,  owing 
to  the  strata  on  one  side  sinking  down,  as  represented  in  Jig.  69. :  this  derangement  is  call- 
')d  a  thifl,  alip,  or  fault. 

69 


Such,  then,  are  the  different  structures  observable  in  the  great  masses  of  which  the  crust 
of  the  earth  is  composed.    We  next  proceed  to  give— 

Sect.  VL — An  Account  of  the  different  Classes  and  Specie$  qf  Rocks  qfv>kich  the  Ctm. 

of  the  Earth  is  composed. 

It  was  at  one  time  a  genei-al  opinion  that  the  formations  of  which  the  crust  of  the  earth 
is  composed  were  destitute  of  all  regularity  in  distribution  and  in  individual  characters. 
Lehman,  a  German  miner,  was  early  convinced  of  a  certain  degree  of  order  in  their  arrange- 
ment ;  and  in  his  v/cU-known  work,  first  stated  their  division  into  Primitive  and  Secondary ; 
under  the  first  including  those  destitute  of  fossil  organic  remains,  while  under  the  other  he 
arranged  all  those  containing  p<%trifactions  or  fossil  organic  remains.  The  first,  he  said, 
were  generally  in  highly  inclmed  strata,  the  other  in  horizontal  strata.  Werner  first  dis- 
tincUy  characterised  these  two  classes  of  rocks,  and  added  to  them  other  two  classes,  viz. 
the  Transitioic  and  Local,  or  what  are  now  called  the  Tertiary.  The  whole  rocks,  from 
tlie  oldest  to  the  newest,  were  arranged  by  Werner  under  the  following  names  and  in  the 
following  order  :—l.  Primitive.  2.  Transition.  3.  Secondary,  4.  Local,  the  Tertiary  of 
tlie  present  geology.  6.  Alluvial,  6.  Volcanic.  This  arrangement,  more  or  less  modified, 
still  remains,  being  adopted  by  the  principal  geologists  in  Europe  and  America. 

Primitive  rocks.  The  rocks  of  this  class  lie  under  those  of  the  succeeding  classes.  Coun- 
tries  in  which  they  predominate  are  in  general  more  rugged  and  lofly  than  those  composed 
of  rockb  of  the  other  classes ;  furtlier,  their  hMSb  ate  more  extensive,  their  valleys  narrower 
and  deeper,  and  more  uneven,  than  those  in  secondarj^  countries.  The  strata  of  primitive 
mountains  are  very  fi-equcnUy  highly  inclined ;  a  circumstance  which  contributes  in  on 
especial  monne'r  to  the  increase  of  the  ruggedness  and  inequalities  of  the  surface  of  primi- 
tive  regions.  The  primitive  strata  in  many  countries  maintain  a  wonderful  uni&rmity  of 
direction.  Thus,  in  Scotland  the  general  direction  of  the  strata  of  primitive  mountains  is 
from  N.  E.  to  S.  W. ;  and  the  same  is  nearly  the  case  in  tlie  vast  alpme  regions  of  Norway, 
and  in  many  of  the  lofly  and  widely  extended  primitive  lands  of  other  parts  of  Europe,  The 
rocks  of  which  primitive  mountains  and  plains  are  composed  are  throughout  of  a  crystalline 
nature,  and  present  such  cliaracters  as  intimate  their  formation  from  a  state  of  solution. 
These  characters  are  the  intermixture  of  the  concretions  of  which  thev  are  composed  at 
tlieir  line  of  junction,  their  mutual  penetration  of  each  other,  their  consideraUe  lustre,  pure 
colours,  and  translucency.  Thus,  in  granite  the  concretions  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica  are 
joined  togetlier  without  any  basis  or  ground ;  and  at  their  line  of  jiincture  are  either  closely 
attached  together,  or  are  intermixed ;  and  frequently  branches  of  the  one  concretion  shoot 
into  the  other,  thus  occasioning^  a  mutual  interlacement,  od  is  observed  in  bodies  that  have 
been  formed  simultaneously  and  from  a  state  of  solution.  These  characters  show  that  the 
concretions  of  prranite  (and  the  san?.e  applies  to  the  concFetions  of  limestone,  gneiss,  mica 
slate,  and  othor  rocks  of  the  primitive  class,)  are  of  a  crystalline  nature,  and  have  been 
formed  at  tlie  same  time.  The  strata  are  so  arranged  as  to  show  that  they  ore  crystalline 
formations.  Primitive  rocks  contain  no  organic  remains,  hence  are  inferred  to  have  been 
formed  before  animals  and  vegetables  were  called  into  existence.    Primitive  rocks  abound 


Part  II. 

of  rents.    When 
no  derangement  i 


correspond,  ovr'me 
rangement  is  csiU 


if  which  the  crust 


f  which  the  Otw. 

crust  of  the  earth 
/idual  characters. 
r  in  their  arrange- 
!  and  Secondary ; 
nder  the  other  he 
'he  first,  he  said, 
Werner  first  dis- 
■  two  classes,  viz. 
[vhole  rocks,  from 
names  and  in  the 
,  the  Tertiary  of 
» or  less  modified, 
rica. 

ig  classes.  Coun- 
those  composed 
valleys  narrower 
rata  of  primitive 
:ontributes  in  an 
surfiice  of  primi- 
iul  uniformity  of 
ive  mountains  is 
jfions  of  Norway, 
of  Europe.  The 
t  of  a  crystalline 
state  of  solution, 
are  composed  at 
uble  lustre,  pure 
'tz,  and  mica  are 
re  either  closely 
concretion  shoot 
Wdles  that  have 
re  show  that  the 
»ne,  gneiss,  mica 
I  and  have  been 
y  are  crystalline 
"ed  to  have  been 
re  rocks  abound 


BookII. 


GEOGNOSY. 


229 


very  much  in  metalliferous  minerals,  and  hitherto  no  metal  has  been  met  with  which  docs 
not  occur,  either  exclusively  or  occasionally,  in  this  class  of  rocks.  Tin,  wolfram,  lead,  cop- 
per, iron,  cobalt,  zinc,  manganese,  arsenic,  and  mercury,  occur  either  disseminated,  in  beds 
and  veins,  or  imbedded  in  various  rocks  of  this  class,  and  many  primitive  distxicts  are  char- 
acterised by  the  metalliferous  deposits  they  contain. 

The  most  beautiful  of  all  productions  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  the  gems,  occur  in  great 
variety  in  primitive  rocks.  Nothing  can  be  more  beautiful  than  the  drutay  cavitie$  met  with 
in  primitive  mountains,  whose  walu  are  lined  with  pure  and  variously  tinted  and  crystallized 
toimz,  beryl,  rock  crystal,  fluor  spar,  and  calcareous  sj^r ;  the  gneiss,  granite,  and  mica 
slate,  with  their  imbedded  crystals  and  grains  of  sapphire,  chrvsolite,  and  garnet ;  and  the 
veins  in  ^franitc,  clay  slate,  and  other  primitive  rocl«,  with  tneir  emeralds,  axinites,  and 
spinel  rubies,  afford  to  the  mineralogist  highly  interesting  combinations. 

Species  of  primitive  rocks. — ^The  following  are  the  species  of  rocks  that  form  the  primi- 
tive parts  of  the  crust  of  the  earth : — 1.  Granite.  2.  Syenite.  8.  Protogine.  4.  Trap. 
6.  Serpentine.  6.  Porphyry.  7.  Gneiss.  8.  Mica  slate.  0.  Clay  slate.  10.  Quartz  rock. 
11.  Limestone. 

Of  these  rocks  one  set,  consisting  of  certain  granites,  with  trap,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay 
slate,  quartz  rock,  and  limestone,  are  said  to  be  of  Neptunian  origin,  that  is,  have  been  de- 
posited from  a  liquid,  probably  water ;  the  other  set,  including  certain  granites,  with  syenite, 
porphyry,  protogme,  serpentine  and  diallage  rock,  are  named  Plutonic  or  igneous,  it  being 
probable  that  they  have  been  formed  from  a  state  of  igneous  solution.  We  shall  describe 
first  the  Neptunian,  and  next  the  Plutonian  primitive  rocks. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Primitive  Rocks. 

(1.)  Cfranite  is  a  granular  compound  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica.  It  occurs  in  beds  and 
in  imbedded  masses,  and  also  in  included  veins  in  ^eiss,  mica  slate,  and  clay  slate.  From 
its  intimate  connexion  with  these  rocks,  it  is  inferred  to  be  a  Neptunian  deposit 

(2.)  Trap.  Under  this  name  we  include  all  those  granular  primitive  rocks  in  which 
hornblende  is  the  sole  or  predominant  constituent  part  These  rocks  sometimes  appear 
arranged  like  the  steps  of  a  stair ;  hence  tlie  name  trap,  from  the  Swedish  word  trappa,  a 
stair. 

(3.)  Oneiss  is  a  granular  slaty  compound  of  felspar,  mica,  and  quartz. 

(4.)  Mica  slate  is  a  slaty  compound  of  mica  and  quart;:.  Talc  slate  and  micaceous  talc 
rocks  may  be  arranged  under  this  head. 

(5.)  Clay  slate  is  a  slaty  rock,  frequently  entirely  composed  of  mmute  scales  of  mica. 

(6.)  Quartz  rock.  This  rock  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  quartz,  either  in  granular 
concretiotis  or  in  the  compact  form ;  and  grains  of  relspar  and  scales  of  mica  not  unfriquently 
occur  in  it  When  the  felspar  increases  in  quantity,  the  compound  at  length  passes  into 
granite.  When  the  scales  of  mica  increase  and  the  felspar  disappears,  mica  slate  is  formed. 

(7.)  Limestone.  This  rock  has  generally  a  white  or  gray  colour,  is  composed  of  shining 
granular  concretions,  and  is  more  or  less  translucent  It  frequently  contains  scales  of  mica 
and  grains  of  quartz,  seldom  or  never  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar. 

SuBSEOT.  2. — Plutonian  or  Ignigenous  Primitive  Rocks.    :  .•' 

(1.)  Granite.  The  structure  and  composition  of  this  granite  is  in  general  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Neptunian  kind  already  noticed.  It  differs  from  it  in  occurrmg  in  vast  and  often 
widely  extended  masses,  which  form  the  central  parts  of  mountain  groups,  and  appear  to 
have  come  from  below  after  the  deposition  of  the  Neptuuiun  rocks  that  rest  upon  them. 
The  highly  inclined  position  of  the  primitive  strata  is  considered  to  have  been  occasioned  by 
this  granite,  with  its  syenites  and  porphyries. 

(20  Syenite  is  a  compound  of  felspar,  hornblende,  and  quartz :  in  short  it  is  a  granit*  in 
which  the  mica  is  replaced  hy  hornblende.    Some  of  the  primitive  traps  belong  to  this  hvad. 

(3.)  Porphyry  is  a  rock  with  a  felspar  basis,  including  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar  and 
quartz,  and  sometimes  scales  of  mica.    This  porphyry  is  a  mere  modification  of  granite. 

(4.)  Protogine  is  a  ^nular  compound  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  chlorite.  It  difiers  from 
granite  m  the  mica  being  replaced  by  chlorite. 

(6.)  Serpentine  is  a  simple  green-coloured  rock,  with  a  compact  ftacture,  feeble  trani^ 
lucency  on  the  edges,  which  yields  readily  to  the  knife,  and  feels  greasy. 

(6.)  Diallage  rock  is  a  compound  of  felspar  and  diallage.  It  belongs  probably  to  the 
primitive  trap  series.  ,,  / 

Sect.  VII. — TVansition  Rocks. 

The  rocks  of  this  class,  in  the  regular  succession,  rest  immediately  upon  those  of  the 
primitive  class.  Most  of  the  rocks  are  distinctly  stratified,  and  the  strata  are  frequently 
vertical,  and,  like  those  of  the  primitive  class,  exhibit  the  same  general  direction  throu^gfh- 
out  great  tracts  of  country.  Some  of  the  deposits  are  of  a  chemical,  others  of  a  mechawcal 
nature ;  I'jnestone  is  an  example  of  a  chemical,  greywacke  of  a  mechanical  deposit    They 

Vol.  I.  20 


280 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  IL 


are  diBtinffuished  from  primitive  rocka  by  tho  presence  of  foesil  orffanic  remaiiu,  and  the 
poeitive  cnamcters  are  drawn  from  the  occurrence  of  certain  foesil  crustaceous  animid% 
shells,  and  corals.  The  extensive  deposits  of  limestone,  particularly  of  the  variegated  kinds 
so  highly  prized  6>t  ornamental  purposes,  which  they  contain ;  the  fine  granites  and  por- 
phyries which  they  aiford ;  and  the  ores  of  lead  and  copper  distributed  among  them,  are 
proofs  of  their  importance  in  the  arts.  In  this  class  there  are  also  Neptunian  and  Plutonian 
rocks.  The  Nfptunian  are  the  fbllowing,  viz.  1.  Greywacke.  2.  Transition  clay  slate.  9. 
Gneiss  and  mica  slate.  4.  Quartz  rock.  5.  Red  sandstone.  6.  Limestone.  7.  Glance  coaL 
The  Plutonian  are,  1.  Granite.   2.  Syenite.   S.  Porphyry.   4.  Trap.   6.  Serpentine. 

SvBBEOT.  1. — Neptunian  Transition  Rockt. 

(1.)  Greywacke  is  a  conglomerated  rock,  having  a  basis  of  clay  slate,  in  which  fragments 
of  various  primitive  rocks,  as  clay  slate,  quartz  roc/.,  &c.  occur  imbedded.  When  the 
imbedded  fragments  become  very  small,  and  the  quantity  of  the  basis  increases,  the  rock 
acquires  a  slaty  fracture,  and  is  named  greyw%.?ke  slate, 

(2.)  Transition  clay  slate.  This  is  tlie  rock  known  under  the  name  roofing  slate.  It 
sometimes  contains  trilobites. 

(3.)  Gneiss  and  mica  slate.  These  have  the  same  general  aspect  as  the  varieties  met 
with  in  primitive  regions. 

(4.)  Quartz  rock.  This  rock  very  much  resembles  the  kinds  met  with  in  primitive  moun- 
tains. 

(5.)  Limestone.  It  frequently  occurs  with  less  lustre  and  translucencv  than  primitive 
limestones,  and  often  exhibits  in  the  same  bed  various  tints  and  shades  of  beautiful  colours. 
It  is  frequently  traversed  by  veins  of  calcareous  spar.  Some  varieties  are  conglomerated, 
forming  the  brecciated  marble  of  artists ;  and  others  contain  fossil  shells  and  cords,  and  also 
the  chuacteristic  trUobite. 

(6.)  Glance  coal,  or  Anthracite.  Beds  of  this  coal,  known  by  its  metallic  lustre,  and 
burning  without  flame  or  smoke,  are  met  with  in  transition  districta 

SiiBBEOT.  2. — Plutonian  Transition  Rocks. 

(1.)  Crranite.  This  rock  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of  the  primitive  period.  It  is 
principally  distinguished  bj  its  being  intermingled  with  greywacke  and  other  transition  rocks. 

(2.)  Syenite.  This  rock,  which  has  the  same  mineralogical  characters  with  the  primi- 
tive  varieties,  very  generally  contains  crystals  of  sphene. 

(3.)  Porphyry.  This  porphyry  has  sometimes  a  basis  of  felspar,  sometimes  of  clay  stone, 
and  as  usual  contains  imbedded  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar.  It  occurs  eitiier  alone,  or 
associated  with  syenite  and  trap,  forming  mountains,  and  even  ranges  of  mountains. 

(4.)  Trap.  In  this  as  in  the  pi-imitive  trap,  the  sole  or  predominating  mineral  is  horn 
blende.    It  passes  into  syenite. 

(5.)  Serpentine.  This  rock  does  not  differ  materially  from  the  primitive  rock  of  tlie 
same  name :  geognostically  it  is  distinguished  fi'om  it  by  its  alternating  with,  and  sometimes 
traversing  in  the  form  of  vebs,  greywacke  and  other  characteristic  transition  rocks. 

Sect.  VIII. — Secondary  Rocks. 
This  very  interesting  class  of  rocks  rests,  in  the  regular  succession,  immediately  upon 
those  of  the  transition  clasa  Much  of  the  mineral  matter  cf  which  they  are  composed 
appears  to  have  been  deposited  from  a  state  of  mechanical  suspension,  a  circumstance  which 
may  be  considered  as  distinguishing  them,  in  some  measure,  from  the  transition  class,  where 
chemical  deposits  prevail  over  those  of  a  mechanical  nature.  They  abound  in  fossil  organic 
remains,  and  it  is  here  that  for  the  first  time  we  meet  with  remains  of  vertebrated  animals, 
as  lacerta  and  other  species  of  the  same  general  description.  Coal,  which  occurs  but  in 
small  quantity  in  transition  deposits,  is  profusely  distributed  among  secondary  formations. 
Of  ores,  by  &r  the  most  abundant,  and  at  the  same  time  most  important  in  an  economical 
view,  are  those  of  iron  and  lead:  of  these  the  iron  (it  is  the  common  clay  ironstone,  the 
aluminous  carbonate  of  iron,)  is  the  most  abundant  and  most  widelydiBtributed.  In  this,  as 
in  the  preceding  class,  there  are  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks.  The  Neptimian  rocks  are 
the  following: — 1.  Sandstone.  2.  Slate.  3.  Limestone.  4.  Gypsum.  6.  Coal.  The 
Plutonian  are,  1.  Granite.    2.  Porphyry.    3.  Trap. 

SvasBCT.  1. — Neptunian  Secondary  Rocks. 

In  the  primitive  and  transition  classes  geologists  have  not  hitherto  observed  shy  very 
determinate  arrangement  among  the  Neptunian  deposits ;  whereas  in  the  present  class  a 
determinate  order  has  been  discovered  throughout  the  whole  series.  In  our  sketch  we 
shall  follow  the  order  of  succession,  beginningwith  the  oldest,  and  finishing  our  account 
with  a  •'cscriptinn  of  the  newest  formation.  jThe  whole  Neptunian  series  is  divided  into 
brmations  of  s^iid^tone  and  formations  of  limestone ;  the  other  members  of  the  series,  as  the 
slate,  gypsum,  coal,  and  ironstore,  occurring  subordinate  to  these. 

First  secondary  formation ;  or  the  old  red  sandstone.    This  formation  is  a  sandstone  of  ■ 


Past  II 

remains,  and  the 
taceous  animal^ 
variegated  kinda 
granites  and  por- 
unong  them,  are 
m  and  Plutonian 
m  clav  slate.  3. 
7.  Glance  coaL 
trpentine.    .. 


which  fragments 
led.  When  the 
reases,  the  rock 

oqfing  alate.    It 

he  varieties  met 

primitive  moun- 

than  primitive 
eautiful  colours. 

conglomerated, 
1  corals,  and  also 

Hie  lustre,  and 


tive  period.  It  is 
transition  rocks, 
with  the  primi- 

bs  of  clay  stone, 
either  alone,  or 
nitains. 
lineral  is  horn 

ve  rock  of  the 
and  sometimes 
1  rocks. 


nediately  upon 

are  composed 

mstance  which 

on  class,  where 

1  fossil  organic 

irated  animals, 

occurs  but  in 

iry  formations. 

an  economical 

ironstone,  the 

id.    In  this,  as 

nian  rocks  are 

Coal.    The 


rved  ahy  very 
resent  class  a 
ur  sketch  we 
our  account 
divided  into 
I  series,  as  the 

sandstone  of  • 


Book  IT. 


GEOGNOSY. 


SSt 


rod  colour,  and,  being  the  oldest  of  the  sandstones,  is  named  the  old  red  tandatone.  It  is 
composed  of  particles  of  quartz,  with  occasional  scales  of  mica  and  fragments  of  felspar, 
held  together  by  an  iron-shot  basis  or  ground.  Sometimes  it  is  associated  with  a  conglome- 
rate made  up  of  fragments  of  transition  and  primitive  rocks. 

Second  secondary  formation,  or  mountain  limeBlone,  or  metalliferou$  limestone,  or  car 
boniferous  limestone  of  geologists.  This  deposit  rests,  generally  conformably,  sometimes 
also  unconformably,  on  the  old  red  sandstone.  It  is  distinctly  stratified,^^d  the  strata 
are  frequently  more  or  less  inclined.  Its  colours  are  generally  gray;  the  fracture  in 
compact.  Sometimes  it  has  a  granular  foliated  structure,  particularly  where  it  occurs  in 
contact  with  trap  rocks.  Some  varieties,  viz.  those  named  lucuUite,  have  a  black  colour. 
It  contains  fossil  organic  remains  of  animals  of  various  descriptions.  Of  these  the  most 
characteristic  are  genera  of  the  trilobite  tribe. 

Third  secondary  formation ;  or  the  secor^d  secondary  sandstone,  or  the  great  coal  formo' 
tion.  This  very  important  deposit  is  a  compound  formation,  therefore  consists  of  different 
rocks.  Of  these  rocks  the  predominating  one  is  sandstone.  The  rocks  of  the  formation 
are  the  following : — 1.  Sandstone.  2.  Slate.  3.  Clay.  4.  Limestone.  5.  Coal.  6.  Iron- 
stone. 1.  Sandstone.  The  general  colours  are  white  and  gray ;  sometimes  also  it  is  reddish, 
and  then  it  much  resembles  the  old  red  sandstone.  Some  varieties  are  entirely  com- 
posed of  particles  of  quartz,  held  together  by  a  very  inconsiderable  basis  or  ground;  others 
contain,  besides  quartz,  also  felspar  and  mica ;  these  are  by  some  geologists  named  arkose. 
It  firequently  contains  coaly  matter,  and  casts  and  impressions  of  plants. — 2.  Slate.  Of  the 
slate  there  are  two  kinds,  named  slate  clay  and  bituminous  shale,  both  of  which  are  mere 
modifications  of  clay  with  the  slaty  structure.  These  also  contcin  fossil  organic  remains.— 
3.  Clay.  This  is  compact  clay  without  the  slaty  structure,  and  from  its  use  in  the  arts  is 
named  fire  clay. — 4.  Limestone,  This  limestone  very  much  resembles  the  mountain  lime- 
stone which  lies  below  the  coal ;  but  hitherto  no  trilobites  have  been  found  in  it.  It  alternates 
in  beds  with  the  other  rocks  of  this  formation.  Some  geologists  refer  it  to  the  mountain 
limestone,  and  consequently  that  limestone  to  the  coal  formation ;  an  opinion  which  may  be 
correct.—^.  Coal.  The  coal  in  this  formation  occurs  in  beds  that  alternate  with  the  slates, 
sandstone,  and  limestones.  The  coal  is  bituminous  or  black  coal. — 6.  Ironstone.  This  iron- 
stone is  the  common  gray  clay  ironstone  of  mineralogists.  It  is  an  aluminous  carbonate  of 
iron,  and  is  the  species  of  ironstone  which  affords  most  of  the  iron  manufactured  in  Great 
Britain.     It  occurs  in  beds  or  imbedded,  and  most  frequently  in  the  slate  of  this  formation. 

Fotirth  secondary  formation ;  the  second  secondary  limestone ;  the  magnesian  and  alpine 
limestone  of  authors.  This  formation,  in  the  regular  succession,  rests  immediately  upon 
the  coal  forriiation.  It  contains  several  varieties  of  limestone.  One  of  these,  which  fre- 
quently occupies  the  lowest  part  of  the  deposit,  has  a  brownish  black  colour,  a  thick  slaty 
fracture,  and  emits  an  animal  bituminous  smell,  and  is  named  bituminous  marl  slate. 
Another  variety  has  a  yellowish  gray,  or  even  at  times  an  ochre  yellow  colour,  with  a 
compact  or  small  granular  foliated  structure,  wi*h  a  low  degree  of  lustre,  and  is  named 
magnesian  limestone.  Another  variety  has  a  brownish  or  yellowish  colour,  is  sometimes 
compact,  sometimes  granular  or  cavernous,  impregnated  with  sparry  iron,  forms  the  upper 
part  of  the  deposit,  and  is  called  calcaire  ferrifere.  When  this  variety  becomes  charged 
with  bitumen  and  cavernous,  it  is  named  by  German  miners  rauchwache.  It  abounds 
in  the  fossil  shell  named  Productus  aculeatus.  This  formation  does  not  abound  in  fossil 
organic  remains.  No  true  ferns,  but  fossil  fuci  and  zostera,  occur  in  it.  Remains  of 
the  monitor,  and  it  is  said  also  of  the  crocodile,  have  been  met  with  in  it.  Fishes  of  the 
genus  chtetodon  and  of  other  tribes,  and  numerous  remains  of  shells  and  corals,  occur  more 
or  less  frequently  in  diflerent  varieties  of  the  limestone.  The  trilobite  tribe,  so  abundant  in 
the  transition  period,  and  also  in  the  first  secondary  limestone,  occur  here  along  with  ortho- 
ceratites.  It  is  the  species  named  trilobites  bituminous.  Entrochi  and  pentacrini  of  great 
size  also  occur  in  it.  The  shells  are  not  distributed  throughout  the  whole  mass  of  the  beds, 
but  rather  occur  in  particular  parts.    The  following  are  the  ehells : — 


Orthoceratiles,  very  rare. 
Ammonites  gibbosus. 
Terebratxda  paradoxa, 
Terebratula  elongata. 
Spirifer  alatus. 


Encrinus  racemosus. 

Productus  rugosus. 

Mytilus  rostratus. 

Terebratula  ovata,  lacunosa,  trigoncVa. 


Fifth  secondary  formation ;  the  third  secondary  sandstone,  or  variegated  sandstone,  ox 
new  red  sandstone.  In  this  formation,  besides  the  sandstone,  tliere  are,  when  the  deposit 
is  complete,  also  beds  of  marl,  with  gypsum  and  rock-salt  The  infp  tor  part  of  this  form- 
uticn  13  a  red  coloured  sandstone  conglomer^ie,  which  rareiy  coniams  subordinate  beds  of 
dolomite,  but  no  fossil  organic  remains.  Above  this  reposes  what  may  be  called  the  middle 
part  of  the  deposit,  which  is  the  variegated  sandstone,  so  named  because  it  sometimes 
exhibits  different  colours,  principally  red,  \vith  yellow  and  gray  blotches.  It  is  composed 
of  fine  grains  of  quartz,  with  a  little  mica,  ana  sometimes  felspar,  held  together  by  a  base 


28V 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartIL 


of  ferruginous  clay.  It  contains  but  few  organic  remains,  principally  of  voffetables.  The 
upper  part  of  the  deposit  is  ^onorally  composed  of  beds  of  a  clayey  marl,  always  more  or 
less  slaty,  and  generally  alternating  in  the  lower  part  with  beds  of  the  sanostone.  Its 
colours  are  red,  gray,  and  yellow ;  sometimes  it  is  variegated  in  the  same  manner  as  Uie 
sandstone  with  which  it  alternates.  It  contains  subordinate  bods  of  gypsum,  and  rock'Salt, 
and  sometimes  also  beds  of  dolomite.  It  contains  littoral  shells  and  bones  of  taurian  animals. 

Sixth  secondary  formation ;  the  shell  limestone,  or  muschel  kalkstein.  This  interesting 
deposit,  in  the  regular  succession,  rests  immediately  on  the  variegpted  or  new  red  sandstone 
formation.  This  limestone  is  of  a  gray,  yellow,  or  reddish  tint  of  colour. — It  is  compact, 
but  tlie  fracture  sur'nccs  exhibit  numerous  shining  facets  ih>m  animal  fossil  remains.  !wds 
of  marl,  which  are  sometimes  oolitic,  eltemate  wiut  it.  It  oflen  abounds  m  well  preserved 
fossil  shells ;  hence  the  name  shell  limestone.  It  sometimes  contains  gypsum  and  roek-t<dt. 
It  contains  besides  numerous  species  of  fossil  shells,  oflen  very  well  preserved,  bones  of  great 
saurian  animals,  and  imprcesions  of  fuel  and  ferns.  Corals  and  echinites  are  rare,  but 
entrociiites  are  sometimes  so  abundant  tliat  in  some  ports  of  Germany  it  is  named  trochital 
limestone  (trochiten  kalic).  The  encrinites  liliiformis,  very  common  in  this  formation,  is 
considered  to  be  characteristic  of  it  Of  the  fossil  shells,  the  Ammonites  nodosus  and  Avicula 
socialis  are  considered  as  characteristic  of  the  sliell  limestone. 

Seventh  secondary  formation ;  the  third  secondary  sandstone,  red  ground,  mames  irisiei, 
Keupcr,  This  deposit  is  principally  composed  of  sandstone,  marls,  and  dolomites  with  salt 
and  gypsum.  It  has  been  divided  into  the  following  four  groups- — 1.  Keuper  salt  and 
gypsum.  2.  Inferior  keuper,  3.  Variegated  marls.  4.  Upper  or  superior  keuper. — ^The 
salt  and  gypsum,  with  their  marls  and  beds  of  saline  clay,  the  most  important  members  of 
this  formation  in  on  economical  point  of  view,  occupy  the  lowest  port  of  the  series.  Several 
extensive  salt-mines  occupy  this  situation. — The  irferior  keuper,  that  which  rests  on  the 
gypsum  and  salt,  is  a  sandstone  which  is  red  in  the  upper  strata,  but  gradually  passes  into 
^"ay  in  the  lower.  This  sandstone  sometimeo  alternates  with  maris,  sla;^  clay,  ana  dolomites, 
anu  contains  beds  of  gypsum  and  coal.  The  slate  clay  contains  bivalve  shells,  a  species  of 
Ophiura,  and  several  species  of  Equisetum,  FUices,  and  also  some  CycadaceiB. — ^The  varie- 
gated marls  (mames  irisees),  restmg  upon  the  inferior  keuner,  exhibit  alternate  stripes  of 
white,  green,  violet,  red,  gray,  and  blue ;  they  are  generally  compact  or  slaty,  and  soft 
They  contain  few  or  no  organic  remains,  very  little  gypsum,  and  no  rock-salt. — The  upper 
keuper  is  sandstone  of  a  gray,  yellow,  or  variegated  colour.  It  is  composed  principally  of 
grams  of  quartz,  generally  but  loosely  held  together,  so  that  the  moss  can  frequently  be 
pressed  into  grains  between  the  fingers.  Contains  some  traces  of  coal,  and  a  few  fossil  shells 
and  impressions  of  plants. 

Eighth  secondary  formation,  or  fourth  secondary  limestone,  contams  the  lias  and  oolite 
limestones  and  Jura  limestone  of  autlion>  This,  which  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  and 
important  of  the  secondary  formations,  r.iay  be  divided  into  the  following  members ;  pro 
ceeding,  as  usual,  firom  below  upwards : — 1.  Lias.  2.  Oolite.  3.  Oxford  clay.  4.  Coral  rag. 
5.  Kimmeridge  clay.  6.  Portland  oolite. 

(1.)  Lias,  Lias  is  a  provincial  name  applied  to  limestone  shales,  and  marl  stones,  and 
some  sandstones  that  occur  along  with  them.  The  marls  are  sometimes  very  bituminous, 
and  contain  beds  of  lignite  or  brown  coal,  and  also  fossil  shells,  and  occasionally  beds  of 
gypsum.  The  fossil  vegetables  of  the  lias  are  lignites,  fossil  wood,  sometimes  siliceous 
impressions  of  ferns,  cycadaceiB,  and  fiici.  The  animal  remains  are  numero<is  and  interest- 
ing. It  is  in  this  deposit  that  bones  and  skeletons  of  extinct  tribes  of  saurian  animals  are 
met  with ;  such  as  the  genera  geosauntb^  ichthyosaurus,  and  plesiojaurus.  Different  species 
of  fishes  and  of  crabs  also  occur.  The  lia&  contains  an  immense  quantity  of  fossil  shells,  of 
which  the  predominating  one  is  the  Oryphtea  arvuulz ;  hence  the  marl  stones  or  limestones 
of  the  lias  have  been  named  gn^phite  limestones.  Besides,  the  following  may  also  be 
mentioned  as  characteristic  fossils,  viz.  Ammonites  Buclaridii,  Plagiostoma  gigantea, 
Belemnites  paxillosus,  and  Belemnites  digitalis. 

(2.)  Oolite.  The  oolite  ie  divided  into  inferior  oolite  and  great  oolite.  Inferior  oolite. 
This  is  a  limestone  composed  of  round  granular  concretions,  resembling  the  roe  of  fishes; 
hence  the  name  oolite,  or  roestone,  given  to  it  It  is  associated  with  compact  limestones 
and  marls,  and  sometimes  it  abounds  in  fossil  organic  remains.  It  contains,  as  at  Brora  in 
Sutherland,  beds  of  cool.  The  fossil  vegetables,  which  are  numerous  and  often  well  pre- 
served, are  of  the  fern  and  cycas  tribes.  It  also  contains  bones  and  skeletons  of  great 
extent,  saurion  animals,  also  tortoises  and  crabs.  Species  of  the  tribe  echinus,  which  mokes 
its  first  oppet  ranee  in  the  eighth  secondary  formotion,  ore  not  uncommon ;  the  crinoid  family 
has  also  representatives  here,  so  also  have  several  genera  of  the  coral  tribe.  The  charac- 
teristic fossil  shells  of  the  inferior  oolite  ore  the  Bf-lemnitps  aalensis  and  Bel,  sulcatus. — 
Great  oolite.  This  is  a  thick  deposit  composed  chiefly  of  an  oolitic  limestone.  It  contains 
beds  of  dolomite,  and  sometimes  rests  upon  beds  of  fullers^  earth.  Restmg  upon  this  oolite 
is  the  Brat(ford  clay ;  next  \he  forest  marble,  to  which  belongs  the  lithographic  limestones 
of  Bavaria.    This  forest  marble,  ^hich  includes  also  the  Stonesfield  slate,  contains  remains 


PahtIL 

raffetablea.    The 


ilwaya  more  or 
)  sandstone.  Its 
ie  manner  as  the 
m,  and  rock-salt, 
saurian  animals. 
This  interesting 
9w  red  sandstone 
— ^It  is  compact, 
1  remains.  BUb 
n  well  preserved 
im  and  roekstM, 
id,  bones  of  great 
es  are  rare,  but 
i  named  trochital 
his  formation,  is 
otus  and  Avicuia 

I,  mamea  iritiet, 
lomites  with  talt 
Keuper  salt  and 
or  keuper. — ^The 
-tont  members  of 
J  series.  Sevend 
fiich  rests  on  the 
ually  passes  into 
ly,  and  dolomites, 
lolls,  a  species  of 
^eiB. — The  varie- 
:emate  stripes  of 
'  slaty,  and  soft, 
iialt. — ^The  upper 
ed  principally  of 
lan  frequently  be 
I  few  fossil  shells 

3  lias  and  oolitt 

3t  extensive  and 

members;  pro- 

ly.  4.  Coral  rag. 

marl  stones,  and 
very  bituminous, 
isionally  beds  of 
etimes  siliceous 
ous  and  interest- 
rian  animals  are 
Different  species 
f  fossil  shells,  of 
es  or  limestones 
ig  may  also  be 
^oma   gigantea, 

Inferior  oolite, 
e  roe  of  fishes; 
pact  limestones 
I,  as  at  Brora  in 
often  well  pre- 
eletons  of  great 
IS,  which  makes 
«  crinoid  family 
5.    The  charac- 

„.!.-<...  _^ 

[le.  It  contains 
upon  this  oolite 
phic  limestones 
ontains  remains 


Dock  IL 


GEOGNOSY. 


28)) 


Tl 


of  flying  reptiles,  teirestrial  mamm^era  ?  saurian  animals,  insects,  marine  shells,  and 
vegetables.  The  upper  member  of  this  great  oolite  series  is  named  cort^ash,  which  is  a 
bluish  and  whitish  compact  limestone  witn  marl. 

(3.)  Oaford  clay  and  Kelloaay  rock.  The  Oxford  clay  is  a  bluish  arffillaceous  mari, 
which  becomes  brown  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  contains  subordinate  beas  of  calcarecus 
marl,  and  also  the  calcareous  clayey  nodules,  named  septaria.  Underneath  is  the  Kelloway 
rock,  a  particular  kind  of  calcareous  rock.  The  marls  sometimes  contain  bones  of  the  ich- 
thyosaurus.  The  fossil  sheila  are  pret'y  numerous,  but  our  limited  space  will  not  dlow  an 
enumeration  of  them. 

(4.)  Coral  rag  is  a  loosely  aggregated  calcareous  rock,  abounding  in  different  species  of 
inadrejpores ;  the  rock  is  sometunes  marly,  and  of  a  gray  colour.  Below  the  coral  rag  is  a 
bed  of  ferruginous  siliceous  sand,  contaming  a  calcareous  grit  or  sandstone,  and  siliceo- 
calcareous  concretions.  It  is  in  this  part  that  the  fossil  organic  remains  are  most  abundant 
and  most  perfectly  preserved.  Fossil  Cycadacea  occur ;  also,  as  in  the  calcareous  grit, , 
bones  of  saurian  animals.  Nearly  all  the  madrepores  belong  to  the  genera  Astrea,  Caryo- 
>hyllea,  and  Meandrina.  Echinites  of  the  genera  Cidaris  and  Gypeus  are  met  with, 
''he  fossil  shells  have  not  heem  thoroughly  examined. 

(5.)  Kimmeridge  clay.  'I  he  lower  beds  of  the  preceding  deposit  alternate  with  a  blue  or 
yellowish  gray  marl,  whicn  is  more  or  less  slaty,  and  contains  beds  of  a  very  bituminoua 
slate,  and  even  true  lignite  or  brown  coal,  sometimes  forming  beds  of  considerable  thickness. 
An  ichthyosaurus  different  from  that  in  the  lias  is  found  here ;  also  remains  of  the  plesio* 
saurus,  and  bones  of  whales,  it  is  said,  have  been  found  in  the  Kimmeridge  clay ;  also  fine 
impressions  of  fishes.  Serpula,  also  species  of  cidaris  and  asterias,  occur  in  this  formatiori. 
Many  species  of  different  genera  of  marine  shells  are  enumerated  as  occurring  in  it,  parti- 
cularly ammonites,  belemnites,  &c.  It  would  appear  that  the  prevailing  fossil  shells  in  the 
whole  oolite  formation  are  ammonites  and  belemnites.  The  belemnites  do  not  occur  lower 
down  in  the  series  than  the  lias. 

(6.)  Portland  oolite.  This  is  a  limestone  which  is  frequently  loosely  aggregated,  some- 
times oolitic,  forming  the  last  deposit  of  secondary  limestone  with  this  structure,  none  of  the 
superior  or  newer  secondary  limestones  possessing  it.  It  contains  petrified  monocotyledonoiia 
and  dicotyledonous  plants.  Remains  of  large  saurian  animals,  and  also  of  fishes,  are  met 
'vt'ith  in  it.  Ammonites,  trigonia,  and  gryphites,  are  abundant.  The  most  characteristic 
shells  are  the  Ammonites  triplicatus  and  the  Pecten  lamellosus.  A  cidaris  and  madrepore 
have  also  been  discovered  in  it 

Ninth  secondary  formation.  Wealden  clay  and  Purbeck  stone.  This  remarkable  form- 
ation abounds  in  fresh-water  shells  and  land  plants ;  but,  in  England  at  least,  contains  no 
marine  species ;  hence  it  is  an  example  of  a  fresh-water  deposit  l^tween  two  marine  depo- 
sits, viz.  the  oolite  and  chalk.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  future  observations  will  prove 
that  even  in  England  it  contains  marine  shells.  There  are  two  members  of  this  formation, 
viz.  the  Weald  clay,  and  Purbeck  stone, 

(1.)  Weald  Clay.  This  is  a  bluish  or  grayish  coloured  clay,  containing  subordinate  beds 
of  argillaceous  lunestone.  The  limestone  abounds  in  shells  belonging  to  the  fresh-water 
genus  paludinte ;  dso  a  great  quantity  of  the  crustaceous  tribe  nam^  cypris.  Broum  iron 
ore,  beds  of  lignite,  and  beds  of  sandstone  much  resembliiig  some  of  tne  varieties  of  the 
coal  formation,  also  occur  in  it  It  contains  impressions  of  ferns,  but  of  different  species 
from  those  in  the  coal  formation. 

(2.)  Purbeck  stone  is  a  clayey  limestone,  which  alternates  with  marls.  It  abounds  in 
paludina,  also  contains  beautiful  impressions  of  fresh-water  fishes,  and  of  tortoises  and 
crocodiles. 

Tenth  secondary  formation,  or  chalk  formation.  This  formation  is  well  characterised, 
by  its  0T^,'anic  remains  and  flints.  Five  beds  occur  in  this  formation ;  viz.  1.  Lower  green 
sand ;  2.'  Oatdt  clay ;  3.  Upper  green  sand ;  4.  Tuffaceous  chalk ;  5.  Chalk. 

(1.)  Lower  green  sand.  This  sand  does  not  differ  from  the  upper ;  but  the  fossil  organic 
remains  are  less  abundant  The  shells  are  ammonites,  tcrebratulites,  trigonia,  &c.  In 
Great  Britain  the  trigonia  alaformis  is  considered  as  characteristic  of  this  lower  greon 
sand. 

(8.)  Oault.  The  green  sand  is  divided  into  two  by  a  very  tiick  bed  of  bluish  gray  clay, 
known  in  many  of  the  districts  v;here  it  occurs  under  the  name  of  gault  It  contains  ant- 
monites  and  other  shells,  particularly  the  Inoceramus  sulcatua.  ^ 

(3.)  Upper  green  sand.  The  lower  part  of  the  tuffaceous  chaik,  containing  a  prodigiova 
quantity  of  fossils  and  of  iron  pyrites,  becomes  more  and  more  chirged  with  green  pointf, 
and  we  reach  a  mass  composed  of  a  green  sand  more  or  less  marly,  ami  often  a  green  coloured 
calciireouR  «andsti5ne=  F^gmente  of  silicified  wood,  and  also  parts  of  shells  penetrated  with 
silica ;  teeth  of  fishes,  but  parts  of  no  other  vertebrated  animals,  occur  in  it  The  fossil 
shells  are  very  num  jrous :  species  of  the  genera  cidaris  and  spatangtix  are  met  with,  and 
also  corals  of  various  kinds. 

f4.)  Tuffaceous  chalk,  which  is  generally  composed  of  a  cretaceous  matter,  clay  and  sand, 

Vot.1.  20*  2E 


284 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaetIL 


i>>i 


If 

^B 

m 

^^^1 

Ism 

m 

p 

',k 

i  i; 

U  is  Bofler  than  chalk,  and  towards  the  Icwer  part  of  the  mass  the  clay  prcdominatos,  and 
itlaty  clay  marl  is  found.  When  the  sand  predominates,  a  loosely  aggfregato  trrayish  sand- 
stone is  formed.  No  flints  occur  in  this  tuffbccous  chalk,  their  place  hem?  talren  by  chert. 
Fossil  vegfetables,  even  lignite,  are  found  in  it.  Fossils  are  most  abundant  m  the  I>,ver  part 
of  tliis  deposit  The  chief  are  belemnites,  ammoniteg,  nautilitet,  hamilet,  baculitei,  turru 
liles,  echmitet,  with  madreporea  and  encrinitea. 

(5.)  The  uppermost  is  tne  chalk  properly  so  called,  of  which  tliero  are  two  principal 
kinds,  viz.  the  vpper  or  soft  or  common  chalk,  which  abounds  in  flints  in  beds,  veins,  and 
imbedded  masses;  and  the  lower  or  hard  chalk,  in  which  flint  is  more  rarely  met  with. 
These  chalks  also  contain  iron  pyrites  and  calcareous  spar.  The  fossils  are  vertebra  and 
teeth  of  fiihea ;  numerous  ecAtnt7e«  and  terebralulites  occur  throughout  the  whole  mass; 
and  in  the  descending  order,  ammonitea  and  belemnites  first  make  their  appenranco  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  chalk. 

SuBSEOT.  2. — Plutonian  or  Igneous  Secondary  Rocks. 

Igneous  rocks  appear,  at  diflTercnt  determinate  periods,  to  have  broken  in  among  the 
Neptunian  rocks  of  this  class,  and  also  to  have  forced  up  through  them  older  rocks  of  various 
descriptions,  forming  mountains,  mountain  ranges,  and  groups  of  mountains.  The  igneous 
rocks  are  porphyry,  and  sometimes  also  granite  and  syenite. 

Sect.  IX. — Tertiary  Rocks. 
SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Tertiary  Rocks, 

The  rocks  of  this  class  were  first  pointed  out  by  Werner ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  puhli- 
cation  of  the  excellent  work  of  Cuvier  and  Brongniart  on  the  geology  of  Paris,  '.hat  their 
importance  was  felt  and  acknowledged  by  geologists.  In  the  regular  succession  they  rest 
immediately  upon  the  chalk  or  uppermost  member  of  the  secondary  class.  Although  the 
rocks  are  looser  in  texture  than  those  of  the  secondary  class,  yet  among  them  beds  occur 
equally  compact  with  those  of  the  secondary  class.  They  abound  in  fossil  remains  of  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms ;  although  many  species  are  diflerent  from  the  present  ones, 
many  of  the  genera  are  the  same.  The  following  are  the  Neptunian  rocks  in  the  order  of 
tiieir  occurrence,  from  below  upwards :  1.  Plastic  clay.  2.  Calcaire  grossier,  or  London 
clay.  3.  Gypsum  with  bones.  4.  Superior  marine  sandstones  and  sands,  sandstone  of  Fon- 
taincbleau.  5.  Upper  fi'esh-water  formation. 

(1.)  Plastic  clay.  This  clay  is  fircquently  divided  into  two  beds  by  a  bed  of  sand ;  the 
upper  bed  is  more  or  less  mixed  with  the  sand,  the  lower  bed  is  pure,  kneads  completely  with 
water,  and  is  infiisible  in  the  porcelain  furnace.  The  upper  bed  abounds  in  fossil  remains ; 
the  lower  bed  contains  none.  Jet  and  brown  coal,  which  are  fossilised  remains  of  dicotyle- 
donous and  monocotyledonous  plants  occur,  in  it  Remains  of  the  palm  tribe  are  very 
frequent ;  but  ferns  have  not  been  met  with.  Insects  well  preserved  in  amber  are  also  met 
witli.  The  fossil  shells  are  partly  fresh- water,  partly  marine,  which  are  sometimes  separate, 
sometimes  mixed  together. 

(2.)  Calcaire  grossier,  or  d  cerites  of  French  authors,  the  London  clay  of  English 
geologists.  This  deposit  is  sometimes  separated  fix>m  the  plastic  clay  by  a  bed  of  sand, 
which  occasionally  contains  pure  and  solid  sandstone,  but  no  petrifactions.  Resting  upon 
this  sand  is  a  bed  of  shelly  limestone,  abounding  in  green  coloured  grains  of  silicate  of 
iron,  and  which  sometimes  passes  into  a  kind  of  sand ;  it  is  in  this  limestone  that  the  num- 
mulite  shells  are  so  abundant,  and  which  are  mixed  with  corals  and  numerous  shells  in  a 
high  state  of  preservation.  Immediately  above  this  lies  the  great  bed  of  true  calcau:e 
grossier.  It  is  so  compact  that  in  the  Paris  basin,  where  it  abounds,  it  is  used  extensively 
as  a  building-stone.  It  is  the  common  building-stone  in  Paris.  It  contains  marine  shells 
well  preser\'ed,  and  also  remains  of  plants.  In  some  districts  it  is  divided  into  two  beds 
by  an  interposed  bed  of  lignite  or  Proton  coal,  which  is  intermixed  with  fresh-water  shells. 
It  is  interesting  to  notice,  that  here  a  limestone  abounding  in  marine  shells  is  separated 
into  two  beds  by  an  interposed  mass  of  coal,  filled  with  fresh-water  shells.  Around  London 
tiiere  is  a  great  deposit  of  clay  aboundmg  in  the  same  shtUs  as  occur  in  the  calcaire  grossier; 
thence,  for  this  and  other  reasons,  it  is  considered  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Paris  calcaire 
grossier.  The  uppermost  part  of  this  formation  consists  of  sand,  homstone,  and  sandstone, 
with  alternating  beds  of  limestone.    It  sometimes  abounds  in  cerites. 

(3.)  Gypsum  with  bones.  This  deposit  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  three  stages ; 
a  lower,  a  middle,  and  an  upper.  The  lower  part,  or  that  which  rests  immediately  upon 
the  calcaire  grossier,  consists  of  gray  and  white  limestone,  more  or  less  compact,  penetrated 
in  all  directions  by  silica.  This  silica,  when  it  finds  its  way  into  cavities  in  the  limestone, 
lines  them  with  chalcedony  or  with  quartz  crystals.  It  contains  species  of  the  &eah-water 
genera  Lymnea  and  Planorbis.  The  middle  part  is  composed  of  gypsum  which  alternates 
wiUi  layers  of  marl.    It  is  in  this  gypsum  that  remains  of  the  genera  Palaotherium,  Anoplo* 


PabtII. 

redominatos,  and 
to  sprayish  sand- 
y  tai:«?n  by  chert, 
in  the  w«ver  part 
baculite$,  turn- 


DooK  n. 


GEOGNOSY. 


235 


ro  two  principal 
beds,  veins,  and 
rarely  met  with, 
ire  vertebras  and 
the  whole  mass; 
ppenranco  in  the 


in  in  among  the 
Br  rocks  of  Various 
IS.    The  igneous 


t  until  the  puhli- 
Paris,  '.hai  their 
:cession  tliey  rest 
IS.  Although  the 
them  beds  occur 
il  remains  of  the 
the  present  ones, 
ks  in  the  order  of 
ossier,  or  London 
sandstone  of  Fon- 

bed  of  sand ;  the 
Is  completely  with 
in  fossil  romains; 
mains  of  dicotyle- 
tribe  are  very 
nber  are  also  met 
metimes  separate, 

clay  of  English 

by  a  bed  of  sand, 

Resting  upon 

ns  of  silicate  of 

me  that  the  num- 

lerous  shells  in  a 

of  true  calcabe 

used  extensively 

ns  marine  sheila 

led  into  two  beds 

esh-water  shells. 

lells  IS  separated 

Around  London 

alcaire  grossier; 

he  Paris  calcaire 

e,  and  sandstone, 

of  three  stages ; 
mmediately  upon 
(ipact,  penetrated 
In  the  limestone, 
le  fresh-watef 
which  alternates 
herium,  Anaplo' 


therium,  of  various  cai-nivora,  also  different  species  of  birds  and  of  fresh-water  fishes,  like- 
wise  the  Tronex,  Te$tudo,  and  Crocodilitt,  are  met  with :  and  of  the  shells,  the  most  char* 
acteristic  is  the  Cyclottoma  mumia.  Here  also  in  thu  marls  occurs  that  curious  kind  of 
opal  named  menilite  ;  a  mineral  wiiich  in  some  degree  may  be  considered  as  characterising 
this  ^psum  deposit.  In  this  gypsninr  is  situated  the  salt  of  Wielickza,  The  upper  pan 
consists  of  marls,  with  fVesh-wate.  ».>dil8  of  the  lymnea  and  pknorbis  tribes,  remains  of 
fishes,  and  frequently  remains  of  the  palm  tribe. 

(4.)  Superior  marine  tanda  and  landttonei.  The  lower  part  of  this  deposit  is  a  green- 
coloured  ar;  illaceous  marl  with  celeatine,  upon  which  there  are  marls  containing  fossil 
oysters.  The  middle  part  consists  of  micaceous  sands,  and  sandstones  without  shells.  The 
vpper  part  is  sandstone  with  marine  shells. 

(5.)  Upper  fresh-water  formation.  TheZowertMirt  of  this  deposit  consists  of  sands,  marls, 
and  vesicular  quartz  or  millstono  ^meulidre),  without  shells.  The  millstone  occurs  rarely 
<ji  beds,  usually  in  angular  masses  m  the  marls  and  sands.  The  upper  part  consists  of  cal- 
careous marls,  limestones,  and  millstones,  contauiing  fresh-water  shells.  This  formation 
contbins  of  fossil  plants,  species  of  Exagenites,  Lycopodites,  Poacites,  Chara,  and  Nymphea. 
It  is  further  characterised  by  the  numerous  fossil  fresh-water  shells  of  the  same  genera  as 
occur  at  present  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  of  diffeiont  species.  The  genera  are,  Lymntsa, 
Planorbis,  Potamides,  Cyclostoma,  Helix,  and  Bulimur,  The  gyrogonites  of  Lamarck, 
which  are  small  round  grooved  bodies,  are  not  animal  remains,  but  seeds  of  the  plant  chara. 

M.  Desnoyera  des«;rioes  a  marine  deposit  met  with  in  tlie  basin  of  the  Loire,  as  restbg 
upon  the  upper  fresh-water  formation.  The  deposit  appears  to  be  the  same  as  the  crag  of 
English  geologists,  and  has  been  lately  met  with  also  m  Provence. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Plutonian  or  Ignigenous  Tertiary  Rocks. 
The  rough  felspathose  porphyries,  known  under  the  name  trachyte,  which  occur  in  vast 
abundance  in  many  countries,  appear  to  be  of  the  same  age  with  the  tertiary  rocks.  Basalt, 
a  grayish-black  compound  of  augite  and  felspar,  in  which  the  minerals  are  not  distinguishop 
ble  by  the  nakod  eye  ;  greenstone  or  dolerite,  a  compound,  but  of  a  green  colour,  in  which 
the  augite  and  felspar  grains  are  distinguishable ;  wacke,  which  is  a  clayey  greenstone ; 
tmygdaloid,  whicL  is  greenstone  or  wacke  with  the  amygdaloidal  structure ;  and  clinkstone 
or  phonolite,  which  is  a  slaty  felspar,  are  found  associated  with  tertiary  rocks.  Some  classes 
of  mountains,  as  Mont  Blanc,  and  the  Scandinavian  ranges,  are  conjectured  to  have  been 
upraised  partly  during  and  partly  after  the  deposition  of  the  tertiary  rocks. 

Sect.  X. — Alluvial  Rocks. 

Under  this  head  we  include  the  various  calcareous  deposits,  peat,  clays,  loaras,  sands,  gra- 
vels, and  rolled  masses  or  boulders,  which,  in  the  regular  succession,  rest  upcm  the  newest 
or  uppermost  rocks  of  the  tertiary  class.  These  deposits  have  been  variously  arranged  ac- 
cording to  their  supposed  relative  antiquity  :  probably  they  may  be  arranged  with  sufficient 
distinctness,  according  to  their  situation,  in  the  following  manner : — 1.  Littoral  or  sea-coast 
aUuvium,  as  downs.  2.  River  alluvium,  that  met  with  on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  rivers. 
3.  Lake  alluvium,  that  on  the  sides,  &n.  of  lakes.  4.  Spring  alluvium,  that  formed  by 
springs,  as  calc  tuffa,  calc  sinter,  travertine,  siliceous  sinter,  &c.  5.  Rain  alluvium,  that 
deposited  by  and  moved  by  rain-water.  6.  Plutonian  alluvium,  that  Ibrmed  and  distributed 
over  tracts  of  country  by  the  upraising  of  chains  of  mountains. 

In  this  alluvium,  remains  of  vegetables  and  animals  are  of  .<Vequent  occurrence.  The 
vegetables,  as  far  as  is  knovra  at  present,  are  either  foreign  species  or  species  identical  with 
those  of  the  country  where  their  remains  are  found.  In  the  older  or  Plutonian  alluvia, 
neither  remains  of  human  industry  nor  hones  of  the  human  species  have  been  found ;  but 
numerous  bones  and  skeletons  of  land  quadrupeds. 

These  quadrupeds  are  either  of  extinct  species  of  living  genera,  as  the  elephant,  rhino- 
ceros, hippopotamus,  tapir,  bear,  and  lion;  or  of  living  species,  as  the  beaver,  rat,  ox,  deer, 
4heep,  and  dog ;  or  species  of  extinct  genera,  as  mastMon  and  megatherium. 

Sect.  XI. — Volcanic  Rocks. 

These  are  rocky  masses  which  owe  their  origin  to  volcanoes.  They  are  divided  into  old 
and  new,  or  ancient  and  modem. 

Ancient  volcanic  rocks.  Under  this  division  we  include  those  volcanic  rocks  connected 
with  volcL'noes,  which  have  not  been  in  a  state  of  activity  since  the  commencement  of  our 
history.  l>ese  rocks  very  much  resemble  basalt,  and  have  been  sent  from  the  interior  of 
the  earth  in  iSe  form  of  streams  or  currents.  In  almost  every  countiy  where  they  occur, 
we  find  craters  5-om  whence  they  have  streamed.  These  dark-coloured  basaltic-like  rocks, 
are  accompanied  \'ith  puzzolana  and  scorie,  very  much  resembling  those  of  active  volcanoes. 
Sonietimen  liguier  coloured  lavas,  named  leucostine,  and  which  resemble  'trachyte,  occur 
along  with  the  darker  varieties. 

Modem  volcanic  rocks.  These,  as  already  enumer  ited  and  described  at  p.  213, 214,  are 
lavas,  scoriffi,  ashes,  sands,  &c. 


jjpiUJiiiiijiitigaiiMl 


296 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pabt  IL 


BOOK   III. 

GEN£a.\L   PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY  UNDER  ITS  RELATION  TO 
ORGANIZED  AND  UVING  BEINGS. 

In  considering  the  extensive  range  of  subjects  which  this  book  embraces,  we  have  arranged 
thsm  as  they  successively  rise  above  the  scale  of  inanimate  nature. 

The  first  chapter  treats  of  geography,  in  its  relation  to  botany,  or  to  the  distribution  of 
plants  ove   the  surface  of  the  globe. 

The  oecond  chapter  considers  it  in  its  relation  to  zoology,  or  the  distribution  of  animals, 
including  man  viewed  simply  as  to  his  physical  condition. 

The  third  chapter  views  geography  in  reference  to  human  society,  to  man  in  his  political, 
moral,  and  social  condition. 


CHAPTER  L 

OEOORAPHT  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 

In  proportion  as  our  knowledge  increases  relative  to  any  of  the  sciences,  we  find  a  more 
intimate  relation  and  connexion  between  them.  Formerly  geograplw  was  only  studied  as  it 
regarded  the  surface  of  the  earth  itself,  its  figure,  the  constitution  of  the  several  ret^ions  and 
countries,  their  boundaries,  &.c. ;  and  boteuiy  has  had  too  many  votaries  who  devoted  their  atten- 
tion almost  exclusively  to  determining  the  generic  and  specific  names  of  plants,  neglecting  the 
more  beautifiil  and  philosophical  parts  of  the  science.  Of  late  years,  indeed,  our  systems  of 
geography  have,  in  some  mstances,  contained  a  meagre  catalogue  of  the  vegetable  produc- 
tions of  the  difiTerent  regions,  but  nothing  that  could  give  the  least  information  with  respect 
to  the  lawL  of  their  general  distribution :  and  now  that  some  of  the  most  able  naturalists  and 
philosophers  of  our  day  have,  by  their  labours,  thrown  new  light  upon  this  interesting  sub- 
ject, we  Aould  feel  tliat  our  work  would  ill  merit  the  character  which  we  hope  it  may  obtain 
with  the  public,  were  we  to  omit  a  notice  of  it.  At  the  same  time,  the  limits  of  our  publica- 
tion will  permit  us  to  give  only  a  sketch  of  what  indeed  must  be  considered  as  still  in  its 
infancy ;  and  those  who  have  most  devoted  their  attention  to  botanical  geography  will  most 
readily  join  with  Mirbel  in  declaring  that  "  we  are  even  yet  far  from  having  arrived  at  that 
period  when  it  will  be  possible  to  write  a  good  history  of  this  subject  What  we  do 
know  of  climates  and  of  vegetation,  is  little,  in  comparison  with  what  we  have  yet  to  learn; 
and  hence  it  would  be  rash  in  us  to  form  an  estimate  of  what  we  do  not  know  by  what  we 
are  already  acquainted  with.  The  surest  way  is  to  confine  ourselves  to  collecting  and 
arranging  facts,  leaving,  to  those  who  may  follow  us,  the  charge  of  discovering  and  de- 
velopmg  the  theory." 

To  exhibit  the  present  state  of  botanical  science,  we  shall  endeavour  to  put  together  the 
more  interesting  racts,  collected  principally  from  the  writings  of  our  most  authentic  travel- 
lers and  natunuists;  and,  devoting  this  memoir  to  vegetable  geo^phy  in  its  more  en- 
larged and  general  sense,  shall  afterwards,  in  the  different  countries,  under  the  head  of 
botany,  point  out  some  of  the  most  striking  and  important  productions  of  their  respective 
regions.  As  the  nature  of  the  present  work  does  not  permit  us  to  enter  minutely  into  the 
Bubject  in  all  its  bearings,  we  shall  give  a  popular  view  of  it,  as  little  encumbered  as  possible 
with  technical  terms. 

^  That  certain  vegetables  are  confined  to  certain  districts  or  limits,  depending  in  a  great 
measure,  but  by  no  means  altogether,  upon  soil  and  climate,  must  be  familiar  to  tlie  most 
careless  inquirer  into  the  works  of  nature.  In  regard  to  climate,  the  two  extremes  are  re- 
presented by  the  country  within  the  tropics,  and  that  which  approaches  the  poles.  In  the 
one,  nature  exhibits  herself  in  her  most  lovely  and  her  most  magnificent  and  exuberant  form, 
and  the  earth  is  covered  with  vegetables  which  indicate  a  never-ending  summer ;  whilst  in 
the  others  a  brief  summer,  a  few  days  of  freedom  fix>m  firost  and  snow,  call  into  existence  a 
thinly  scattered  vegetation  of  small  and  stunted  flowering  plants,  which  scarcely  rise  above 
the  mosses  and  lichens  that  surround  them ;  and  the  intermediate  zones  will  be  found  to  be 
occupied  by  other  races,  gradually,  however,  increasing  in  difference  as  they  approach  to 
one  or  other  of  these  extremities.  The  same  gradation  exists,  we  know,  upon  a  lofty  moun- 
tain, situated  within  the  tropics.  At  its  base  may  be  seen  those  plants  which  are  peculiar 
to  the  tropics ;  and  the  beauty,  the  grandeur  and  perpetual  verdure  will  gradually  diminish 
in  the  ascent,  until  a  soil  and  climate  be  found  on  the  higher  summits  similar  in  respect  to 
climate  and  productions  to  Uiose  in  the  vicinity  of  the  poles. 

In  regard  to  climate  and  vegetable  productions,  our  globe  has  been  aptly  compared,  in  itr 
two  bemisplieres,  to  two  immense  mountains,  placed  base  to  base,  tne  circumference  of 


Part  It 

I 

.'     ^    ...  ■     • 
r   •.'     (  ih   ',.'•,■ 
■ '  ..    . 

LATION  TO 

we  have  atranged 
the  distribution  of 
bution  of  animals, 
an  in  his  political, 


P  PLANTS. 

es,  we  find  a  more 
I  only  studied  as  it 
everal  regions  and 
levoted  their  atteri' 
nts,  neglecting  tiie 
ed,  our  systems  of 
vegetable  produc- 
lation  with  respect 
ble  naturalists  and 
is  interesting  sub- 
hope  it  may  obtain 
nitsof  ourpublica- 
|red  as  still  in  its 
pgraphy  will  most 
ng  arrived  at  that 
:t  What  we  do 
lave  yet  to  learn; 
know  by  what  we 
to  collecting  and 
scovering  and  de- 

9  put  together  the 
authentic  travel- 
'  in  its  more  en- 
nder  the  head  of 
if  their  respective 
minutely  into  the 
nbered  as  possible 

ending  in  a  great 
niliar  to  tiie  most 
I  extremes  are  re- 
he  poles.  In  the 
d  exuberant  form, 
immer ;  whilst  in 
1  into  existence  a 
larcely  rise  above 
rill  be  found  to  be 
they  approach  to 
pon  a  lofty  moun- 
rhich  are  peculiar 
radually  diminish 
lilar  in  respect  to 

'  compared,  in  it? 
circumference  of 


SooK  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


287 


which  at  the  ti.'^t  i^  constituted  by  the  equator,  and  ttio  two  poloi  represent  the  lummits, 
crowned  with  pei,'<  tual  glaciers. 

That  almost  every  v  ountry  posscssoa  a  vegetation  peculiar  to  itself,  is  also  well  known ;  and 
this  is  particularly  the  case  with  countries  whose  natural  boundaries  are  formed  by  moun< 
tains,  seas,  or  deserts,  even  in  the  same  or  different  degrees  of  latitude.  Europe  exhibits  a 
widely  different  class  of  p^'-nts  fVom  that  part  of  North  America  which  lies  immcdiatcl)  op- 
pjsite  to  it  The  botany  ol  >::iouthern  Africa  has  little  or  no  rcsemblauco  to  that  of  the  same 
parallels  in  South  America,  or  to  that  of  New  Holland.  In  Great  Britain,  some  plants  are 
confined  to  the  eo«tem  and  some  to  the  western  side  of  the  island.  In  Scotland,  the  Tut' 
lane  and  the  Me  qf  Man  Cabbage  are  never  found  but  on  the  western  side  of  the  country, 
and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  pale  Butterwort  (Pinguicula  Lusitanica),  both  in  England 
and  Scotland.  Nature  has  constituted  the  barrier,  for  by  art  they  may  be  cultivated  aa  well 
on  one  a«  the  other  side  of  the  island. 

Botanical  geography  is  constituted  by  considering  plants  in  relation  to  their  habitation, 
region,  or  the  country  in  which  they  grow,  and  in  regard  to  their  locr  Mty  or  particular  station, 
and  forming  a  collection  of  facts,  deduced  from  these  circumstances,  from  which  general 
laws  may  Im)  derived :  nor  is  this  a  science  destitute  of  advantages ;  such,  wo  mean,  as  are 
immediately  manifest;  for  there  are  few,  in  the  present  age,  who  will  be  disposed  to  deny 
that  the  study  of  the  works  of  nature,  like  every  thing  that  can  exalt  and  renne  the  mind, 
is  highly  deserving  of  our  attention.  Vegetable  geography  is  intimately  connected  with  hor- 
ticulture. Our  gardens  will  be  better  stocked  with  vegetables  and  miits,  our  forests  with 
trees,  our  fields  with  com,  and  our  postures  with  grasses,  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  relation  of  plants  with  the  exterior  elements.  Nay,  Schouw  has  justly  observed,  that  a 
good  chart  of  the  distribution  of  the  vegetable  forms  over  any  given  country  will  afford  a  far 
more  correct  idea  of  the  productive  strength  of  that  country  than  many  statistical  tables. 
The  systematic  botanist  may  thence  derive  oenefit;  for  by  it  he  will  be  better  able  to  deter 
mine  whether  certain  kinds  of  plants  are  species  or  varieties ;  he  will  consider  that  a  di& 
ferent  local  situation  produces  different  efTects  upon  them ;  that  those  growing  in  wet  places 
are  less  hairy  or  downy  than  those  growmg  in  dry ;  that  at  great  elevations  plants  are  more 
dwarf  in  ;>\eir  stature,  with  fewer  leaves,  but  with  larger  and  more  brilliant  flowers  than 
those  founa  at  lesser  heights.  The  station,  too,  of  certain  plants,  or  groups  of  plants,  fre« 
quently  leads  to  a  discovery  of  characters  diverse  from  other  individuals  of  other  countries 
with  which  they  had  been  associated.  Thus  the  Canadian  Strawberry  and  the  Canadian 
chickweed  Wintergreen  (Trientalis),  though  long  confounded  with  the  European  Stratobet' 
ty  and  Trientaiia,  wa  found  to  be  quite  distinct  The  regions,  too,  and  the  lunits  of  those 
regions,  of  very  important  medicinal  drugs,  are  determined  by  vegetable  geography. 

Sect.  I. — Progress  of  Botanical  Geography. 
This  branch  of  science  had  been,  however,  for  a  long  time,  wholly  neglected.  Linnieus, 
indeed,  with  whom  originated  so  many  improvements  in  botany,  besides  what  related  to  sys- 
tematic arrangement,  was  the  first  writer  who  gave  stations  for  plants,  as  he  called  them,  or 
rather  habitations,  or  frequently  both  combined,  and  this  plan  has  been  followed  by  every  suc- 
ceeding systematic  botanist.  Yet  although  these  stations  or  habitations  are  frequently  con- 
sulted in  the  geographical  arrangement  of  plants,  they  are  too  vague  and  uncertain  to  be 
generally  depended  upon ;  and  the^r  ipust  be  employed  with  caution.  De  Saussure,  who  so 
assiduously  studied  vegetable  physiology,  was  particularly  attentive,  on  that  account  to  the 
elevation  at  which  plants  grow  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  to  ascertain  that  elevation  barometrically.  Mr.  Young,  the  celebrated  agriculturist,  in 
his  Travels  upon  the  Continent,  determined  with  considerable  accuracy  the  northern  boun- 
daries of  several  of  the  most  important  cultivated  plants,  the  Olive,  the  Vine,  and  the 
Maize ;  whilst  Soulavie,  in  the  south  of  France,  has  characterised  the  limits  of  them,  and 
uf  the  Orange  and  Chestnut.  These,  and  other  authors  of  less  note,  prepared  the  way, 
during  the  lost  century,  for  the  more  important  labours  of  the  present  when  the  study  has 
begun  to  rank  as  a  science.  Stromeyer  described,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  boundaries  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  in  a  work  entitled  "A  Specimen  of  the  History  <f  Vegetable  Oeogra- 
phy,'^  Gfittingen,  1800.  The  work  of  Kielmann,  entitled  "  A  Dissertation  concerning  J^ge,. 
tation  in  the  Alpine  Regions,^^  Tubingen,  1804,  was  followed  by  that  of  Treviraniis,  named 
" Biologic"  which  seems  to  be  the  first  wherein  attention  was  paid  to  the  distribution  of 
plants  according  to  their  natural  fiimilies ;  the  latter  autlior  dividmg  the  globe  into  regions 
or  distinct  Floras ;  and  De  Candolle,  about  the  same  time,  partitioned  France  into  regions  in 
the  same  way,  and  wrote  on  the  influence  of  height  upon  vegetation.  To  the  celebrated 
Humboldt  however,  we  are  indebted  for  the  most  valuable  writmgs  on  vegetable  geography 
which  have  first  given  it  the  true  character  of  a  science.  Kis  "  Essai  sur  la  Geographie 
des  Plantea,"  in  1807,  and  his  beautiful  "  Tableaux  de  la  Nature,"  contained  his  first  ideas 
on  the  subject ;  while  his  celebrated  "  Prolegomena  de  distributione  geographica  Planttk 
mm  secundum  cceli  temperiem  et  altiiudinem  montium,"  forming  the  introductory  chapter 
V)  the  botanical  part  of^  his  travels ;  his  invaluable  "  Memoir  on  Isothermal  Lines  and  the 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pkat  II 


Di$trihHtion  of  Jltat  over  the  Qlobe,  piiblmhod  in  the  M^moirei  d'Arcucil,  ami  traiiHlafml 
Into  UrnwHtor'H  and  Janiogon'a  I'hiliwcphical  Juumnl,  vol.  iii. ;  togotlicr  with  hia  later  work 
on  tho  Hubject,  "  New  Knquiriet  into  the  Jmw*  which  are  obierveJ  in  the  Di»tribution  nf 
Yeuetable  Forma"  likewiie  inxertod  in  Iho  EUin.  Phil.  Journal,  vol.  vi.,  may  bo  connidnrod 
•H  the  moat  important  diaacrtationa  on  a  comprehonaiv*  acalo  that  havo  yet  appeared.  In  tliu 
mean  time,  other  ominnnt  naturaliata,  by  Uioir  well-directed  labuurH,  contributed  nmtoriuliy 
to  oytond  the  acience :  \Vahlenber(;,  for  example,  in  his  admirable  Flora  iMpponica,  and  in 
that  of  a  portion  of  Switzerland,  and  of  tho  Carpathian  Alpa;  whilitt  Von  Bucri,  'u  hia  I'ra- 
veh  in  Norway,  detailed  many  curioua  facta  reapccting  the  distribution  of  vcgtiabiea  in  tlmt 
climate,  and  alao  in  hia  intereatinff  Voyage  to  the  Canaries,  made  in  company  witli  I'ro^ 
feaaor  Smith.  Mr.  R.  Brown  haa  publiNhud  memoirs  which  rank  ainonir  tlio  must  vuluubio 
that  have  appeared  on  this  subject.  VV'o  particularly  allude  to  his  "  Rcmark$,  Geographical 
and  Systematic,  on  the  Botany  of  Terra  AuntraUs,  1814,"  and  "  Observations  on  the  Ihr- 
barium  collected  by  Professor  Christ.  Smith,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Congo,  1818."  Dr, 
Bchouw  compiled,  m  1824,  an  admirable  history  of  tho  science,  of  wliich  sumo  portions  havo 
been  translated  into  Brewster's  and  Jameson's  Journals.  This  valuable  work  is  accompa- 
nied by  an  Atlas  of  several  maps  of  tho  world ;  each  exhibiting  the  geographical  extent  of 
certain  tribes  or  families  of  vegetables,  indicated  by  different  colours ;  so  tlmt  we  see,  at  one 
view,  upon  a  plan  of  the  world,  the  countries  in  which  tlicso  plants  aic  found,  their  bounda- 
ries, add  their  comparative  abundance,  indicated  by  the  greater  or  less  depth  of  colour  em- 
ployed. Do  Candolle,  in  the  "  Nouveau  Dictiuimaire  des  Sciences  Naturelles,"  has  given 
an  admirable  resumi  of  these  writers,  and  has  added  much  important  original  information. 
A  somewhat  similar  plan  is  adopted  by  M.  Brongniart  in  tho  "  Dictionnaire  Classique 
tTHistoire  Naturelle.  Mr.  Allan  Cunningham,  both  in  Mr.  Barron  Field's  "  Memoirs  of 
New  South  Wales,"  and  in  tho  second  volume  of  "  Captain  King's  Survey  of  the  Inter- 
tropical Coasts  of  Australia,"  has  furnished  some  excellent  remarks  upon  the  distribution 
of  vegetables,  especially  of  tho  less  frequented  parts  of  New  Holland.  The  "  M- moires  du 
Museum  tTIIistoire  Naturelle"  contain  some  important  papers  on  this  subject,  particularly 
that  of  Mirbel,  "  Sur  la  Geographic  des  Conifcres"  a  tribe  of  plants  valuable  for  its  eco- 
nomical uses ;  and  his  "  Rcchercncs  sur  la  Distribution  Giographique  des  Vegetaux  pha- 
nirogames  dans  Vancien  Monde,  depuis  VEquateur  jusquau  Pdle  Arciique:  and,  lastly, 
we  snail  name  a  useful  little  manual,  entitled  a  "  Lecture  on  the  Geography  of  Plants,"  by 
Mr.  J.  Barton. 

Sect.  II. — On  the  Influence  of  the  Elements  on  Plants. 
In  regarding  the  limits  to  which  certain  plants  are  circumscribed  upon  tho  surface  of  the 
globe,  we  shall  see  that  it  is  with  them  as  with  the  mighty  oceon  ;  they  are  equally  subject 
to  that  flat  of  the  Almighty,  "  Thus  far  shalt  thou  go.  and  no  farther."  The  Palms,  tlie 
Tree-Fems,  the  parasitical  Orchiden;,  are  ever  confined  lo  the  tropics;  the  Cruciferous  and 
Umbelliferous  plants  almost  exclusively  to  the  temperate  regions ;  while  the  Coniferoim 
plants,  and  many  of  the  Amentaceous  tribes  flourish  in  those  of  the  north ;  and  since  these 
are  oil  affected  by  physical  ajrcnts,  we  must  considiT,  before  proceeding  any  farther,  the 
influences  which  tho  elements  or  exterior  agents  exercise  upon  plants.  These  M.  de  Can- 
dolle considers  to  be  Heat,  Light,  Moisture,  Soil,  Atmosphere. 

ScBSECT.  I. — Ontkir  Influence  of  Heat. 
Heat  is  the  most  obvious  and  powerful  agent  in  affecting  the  existence  and  growth  of 
plants :  and  of  this  we  have  continual  experience  before  our  eyes.  In  winter  all  vegetation 
IS  at  a  stand,  and  we  can  only  cultivate  those  plants  which  are  in  a  continued  state  of 
vegetation,  by  artificlnl  heat.  Plants  are  nourished  either  by  water  alone,  or  by  substances 
dissolved  or  suspendeil  in  the  water.  Hence  vegetation  is  arrested  when  the  temperature 
is  below  the  freezing  point;  for  the  water,  becoming  solid,  cannot  enter  the  vegetable 
tissue.  A^^ain,  as  in  the  great  rieserts  of  many  countries,  the  heat  may  be  so  great  that  the 
earth  is  dried  up,  and  cannot  part  with  its  nutritive  properties.  These  effecte,  however,  it 
is  but  reasonable  to  suppose,  are  more  remarkable  upon  the  siu-fuce  of  the  earth  than  at  a 
considerable  depth :  hence  it  happens  that  trees  which  have  long  tap-roots  resist  both  the 
extremes  of  temperature  better  than  those  whose  roots  are  nearer  to  the  surface ;  their  fibres 
penetrate  into  a  soil,  whose  temperature  is  greater  in  winter  than  that  of  the  outer  air,  so 
that  the  fluids  imbibed  keep  the  interior  of  large  trees,  as  has  been  ascertained  by  experi- 
ment, at  a  degree  of  lieat  pretty  nearly  the  same  as  that  indicated  by  a  thermometer  placed 
at  the  roots  of  such  trees.  Hence,  the  greater  the  thickness  of  the  stem  or  branch,  and  tho 
greater  the  number  of  layers  interposed  between  the  pith  (the  softest  part  being  the  moislest 
and  the  most  susceptible  of  cold)  and  the  exterior  air,  the  better  are  they  able  to  resist  the 
severity  of  the  cold.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  shrub  or  tree  ««  it  grows  older  become? 
more  hardened  against  frost.  De  Candolle  relates  that  at  Montpellier  the  Pride  of  India 
(M elia  Azedaracn)  when  young  is  destroyed  by  a  moderate  degree  of  cold ;  but  that  when 


Part  II 

m1,  and  troiiMlatpti 
th  hia  later  wurk 
e  DiMtribution  of 
imy  bo  corwidnrnd 
:  Bpi)carcd.  la  tlio 
rihiitcd  nmtoriully 
I,a])Vonica,  and  in 
Bu'^ri,  'u  his  7Va- 
vcgt'iabic!)  in  timt 
company  witli  I'ro> 
tlie  tnuHt  vuluubio 
rkt,  Geographical 
ationa  on  the  lltr- 
mgo,  1818."  Dr. 
iunio  portions  havo 
)  work  is  accompa< 
;raphical  extent  of 
that  we  BGC,  at  one 
!und,  tiicir  bounda- 
apth  of  colour  nm- 
trelles"  has  given 
iginal  information. 
onnaire  Cla$tique 
old's  "  Memoirs  of 
rvey  of  the  Inter- 
x)n  tiic  distribution 
["he  "  M>  moires  du 
ubject,  particularly 
.aluable  for  its  eco- 
les  Vigetaux  pha- 
ctique :  and,  lastly, 
iphy  of  Plants"  by 


the  surface  of  tlic 
are  equally  subject 
"  The  Palms,  the 
he  Cruciferous  and 
ilo  the  Coniferous 
1 ;  and  since  those 
any  farther,  the 
hese  M.  de  Can- 


nee  ond  growth  of 
nter  all  vegetation 
jontinued  state  of 
B,  or  by  substances 
m  the  temperature 
ter  the  vegetable 
e  so  great  that  the 
jffects,  however,  it 
18  earth  than  at  a 
)ts  resist  both  the 
irface ;  their  fibres 
)f  the  outer  air,  so 
rtained  by  experi- 
ermometer  placed 
or  branch,  and  the 
being  the  moislest 
f  able  to  resist  the 
0W9  older  becotnes 
le  Pride  of  India 
Id ;  but  that  when 


DnoK  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATICN  TO  BOTANY. 


QW 


it  attaiuH  a  more  advanced  ago,  it  will  endure,  in  the  garden  at  Qenova,  an  intcniity  of 
■tmoi<))hero  tbur  tiin<     bh  severo  m  that  which  killed  tho  young  plant  in  Uie  south  of  France, 

Again,  in  propor'  ,on  aa  the  exterior  layers  are  deprived  of  Mp  or  watery  fluid,  and  fortiAod 
by  a  (ic[XMit  of  cuibon  and  rciiinoua  matter,  the  nw>ro  jMwermlly  thoy  withntand  the  rnld. 
Lvery  ganlcner  and  cultivator  iu  acquainted  with  tho  fact  that  m  cold  and  wet  summem 
when  the  sun  and  heat  havo  been  inauflicient  tc  produce  food  bark  upon  tho  now  shuota  uf 
the  fruit-trees,  they  aro  liable  to  bo  aflTeoted  by  t  very  moderate  fVost  m  the  eniulng  winter. 
Succulent  plants  and  Monocotyledonoua  plants,  in  general,  which  have  no  distinct  bark, 
are  higiily  susceptible  of  cold ;  whilst  Uio  Birch,  wiiich  is  fenced  around  with  numoroua 
layeM  of  dd  and  dry  bark,  and  tho  Fir,  whoae  bark  abounds  with  resin,  endure  an  intense 
degree  ol  it  without  injury.  At  Fort  Enterprise,  in  North  America,  lat.  04°  30",  Dr. 
Richard 'tun  has  ascertained  that  the  Banksian  Pine  (Pinua  Banksiana),  the  white,  tlio  red, 
and  black  iSpruce,  tho  small-fruited  Larch,  and  other  Amentaceous  trees,  bear  a  degree  of 
cold  equal  to  44°  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit;  and  in  Siberia,  lat.  05°  28",  the  common  iarcA, 
tho  Siberian  Stone  Pine,  tho  Alder,  Birch,  and  Juniper,  &c.  attain  their  greatest  size,  and 
are  not  affected  by  'he  oxtremest  cold  of  that  severe  climate. 

Powerflii  summei  heats  aro  capable  of  causing  trees  and  shrubs  to  endure  tho  most  trying 
effects  of  cold  in  the  ensuing  winter,  as  we  finu  in  innumerable  instances ;  and  vice  versi. 
Hence,  in  Great  Britain,  so  many  vegetables,  fruit-trees  in  particular,  for  want  of  a  suffi- 
ciently powerful  sun  in  summer,  are  anected  by  our  comparatively  moderate  frosts  in  winter ; 
whilst  upon  continents  in  tho  same  degree  of  latitude  the  same  trees  arrivo  at  tho  highest 
degree  of  perfection.  Even  in  the  climate  of  Paris  the  Pistacia  tree  and  tho  Oleander  will 
not  bear  tiie  winter.  Yet  tho  winters  there  are  mild  in  comparison  with  those  which  prevail 
in  the  environs  of  Peking,  where  the  Oleander  was  fbimd  by  Lord  Macartney  to  remain 
abroad  the  whole  year ;  and  at  Casbin  in  Persia,  where  Chardm  assures  us  that  the  Pistacia 
nuts,  produced  in  the  open  air,  are  larger  than  those  of  Syria.  On  tlie  otlier  hand,  the 
heat  of  these  two  countries  in  summer  is  infinitely  greater  than  that  at  Paris :  tlie  Hummer 
temperature  of  Peking  especially  nearly  equals  that  of  Cairo,  and  surpasses  thai.  «f  Algiers. 
For  the  same  reason,  too,  the  Weeping  Willow  becomes  a  large  tree  in  England ;  while  in 
Scotland,  where  the  winters  are  at  least  as  mild,  but  where  tho  summer  affords  much  loss 
warmth,  this  beautiful  tree  can  only  bo  cultivated  in  highly  favoured  situations,  and  even 
there  its  vegetation  is  exceedingly  languid :  its  young  snoots,  not  ripened  by  the  summer 
sun,  are  destroyed  even  by  a  slight  frost 

Hence  tho  influence  of  temperature  upon  the  geography  of  plants  is  pointed  out  by  M. 
de  Candolle  under  three  points  of  view :— 1.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  year.  2.  Tho 
extreme  of  temperature,  whether  in  regard  to  cold  or  heat.  3.  Tho  distribution  of  tempera- 
ture in  the  different  months  oF  th    >  f-ar. 

The  mean  temperature  point  which  it  has  for  a  long  time  been  tlie  great  object  to 

ascertain,  is  in  reality  w  .u  is  of  the  least  importance  in  regard  to  tho  geography  of  plants. 
In  a  general  view,  it  <«»%  be  useful  to  tako  it  into  consideration;  but  the  mean  temperature 
is  often  determined  uy  circumstances  so  widely  different,  that  the  consequences  and  tlie 
analogies  to  be  dedaoMi  fkom  them  relative  to  vegetables  would  be  very  erroneous. 

By  attending  U^  the  extreme  points  of  temperature,  results  more  limited,  but  far  more 
exact,  aro  to  Iw  obtained.  Thus,  every  locality  which,  though  at  only  short  intervals,  affords 
a  degree  of  cuM  or  heat  of  certain  intensity,  cannot  but  produce  plants  which  aro  capable 
of  supporting  those  extreme  degrees.  When,  however,  these  widely  different  temperatures 
recur  at  very  long  intervals,  man  may  cultivate  in  such  a  country  a  vegetable  which  cannot 
exist  in  a  wild  state ;  either  because,  when  destroyed  by  tho  rigour  of  ^e  season,  he  restores 
it  by  seeds  or  by  plants  derived  from  a  more  temperate  counti7 ;  or  because  he  shelters  it 
from  tho  inclemency  of  the  r.ir;  or,  because  ho  is  satisfied  w  'i  tho  product  of  the  plant, 
although  it  should  not  bring  its  seeds  to  perfection.  And  tlius  it  is  that,  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  the  Vine,  Olive,  and  Orange  trees  oflen  vegetate  exceedingly  well  for  all  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  are  required,  though,  if  left  to  themse^es,  they  could  not  propagate 
themselves,  nor  sustain  the  winter.  Thus  we  see  a  wide  d  Iference  in  the  geography  of 
plants,  between  those  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  those  individuals  whose  growth  is  artificially 
encouraged  by  man. 

This,  indeed,  is  a  subject  closely  connected  with  the  acclimatation  of  plants,  or  the 
power  which  man  is  supposed  to  exert  over  them  in  inuring  them  by  degrees  to  a  climate 
not  originally  natural  to  them.  This  power  is,  howevei,  denied  by  very  able  vegetable 
physiologists.  Mirbel,  in  particular,  declares  that  he  has  known  many  species  indeed 
whose  wants  have  been,  to  a  certain  degree,  artificially  supplied ;  but  not  one  whose  con- 
stitution had  been  changed.  "  If,"  he  says,  "  fi"om  time  to  time,  exotics  mingle  themselves 
with  our  indigenous  tribes,  propagate  as  they  do,  and  even  dispute  the  very  possession  of  the 
soil  with  the  native  inhabitants ;  this,  assuredly,  is  not  the  work  of  man,  but  it  is  the 
climate  which  dispenses  this  fiicully  of  naturalization."  Cultivators,  however,  maintain  that 
seedlings  from  Myrtles,  which  had  ripened  their  fhiit  in  Devonshire  in  the  open  air,  are 
better  able  to  endure  the  cold  of  the  climate  than  those  seeds  perfected  by  artificial  heat|  or 


MO 


RCIRNCP  OP  OEOaRAPIIY. 


Part  IT, 


timt  linvn  coiiio  tVoin  tho  warmor  |mrtn  of  Kiirnpn,  It  i*  tnio,  tlio  power  of  no  ncclinmtlii(f 
lUtilf  nirtmily  i^xlutu  in  thn  votfdlnbln  \  but  It  im  iimn  tliat  onllM  it  iiiti)  notion,  for  nntiirally  tlio 
invrtlti  woiiiil  iiovor  Axtumi  itnolf  to  tlitiim  JntitiiileN.  Nny.  Moiiiothinff  nf  the  Htiine  kiiiil 
M,  Mirlifl  liiiniKilf  nllnwn,  wliurn  lin  wiyn,  "Wlimi  ww  ooiiNidor  Hint  tho  Vinn  \»  ciiltivntod 
ill  th«i  plniiiN  nf  tliiidoMtnii  nii«l  Arnliin,  notwoon  tlin  lilth  niiil  Ifttli  p«rnllolit;  tliitt  it  in  ciil- 
tlvntml  on  llio  Imnltit  of  tlin  Itliinn  iind  Mnino,  in  Int.  ni°;  in  'I'liilmt,  nt  nn  tilovution  iibove 
thd  lovoi  of  tlin  Minof  thnn  IMHM)  to  nonrly  U,(MH)  tbot,  unilur  thn  i\'M  doKnut  of  hititiiHo; 
wimt  nNtoniNlinN  niiil  intnrnttlN  im  thn  iiKwt  in,  not  that  tho  vino  intmt)itit  coiintri«<H  wi  rnnioto 
lyoiii  onn  niioUior,  or  thnt  it  gttmn  nt  no  arttnt  nn  nlnvnt ion  nikivn  tho  Nnn,  hut  tliitt  it  pomnonnoh 
in  M)  Dininont  K  (Inuroo  tlio  yrt^jwrly  <if  apdmnmodatiuff  U$ti{f  to  different  ctimatvii  s  npro. 
iwrty,  inilood,  inunli  mom  roNlriotnd  in  n  gtmi  niitnlwr  of  voKolnbloM,  whinh  oxtnnd  fVoin  tho 
wpmtor  to  thn  tropicN  on  liotJi  HldoN,  witliont  ovnr  onMHtinff  thoin;  fhr  notwilliNtaiidinir  tho 
(rmntnr  diNlnncn  Iwtwoun  tJio  iiSid  doirrno  uf  Noiitli  hititudo  nnd  tho  S3d  At^grm  of  north  Inti- 
tiidn,  tho  I'llnmtIn  dilll^rniionN  nrn  much  Iniw  iVom  ono  tropic  to  tlio  othor  than  iVom  thu  plains 
of  ilindoNtnn  to  tlio  Imnkiof  tlin  Mninn," 

'riin  diittrihutioii  of  linnt  nt  diflbrnnt  inontlw  of  tho  yniir  In  what  wn  Mhall  Iind  to  be  uf 
thn  nioHt  iiii|)nrlAnon  in  mjfnrd  to  vnuntnldo  ptotfrnphy.  Homo  nlimntoM  nrn  nminnntly  nni- 
Uirnii  n  j'nrlnin  ninnn  tom|»nrnturn  l«  prfMlucnd  l»y  a  mild  wiiitor  nml  n  inodnrato  dcKroo  of 
wnrinth  in  Nunimnr.  ThiN  in  IViupiontly  thn  caMO  on  tlin  mui-nonNtH,  bncaiiNU  tho  nxIrt'inoH  of 
liont  nrn  I'ontiminlly  motlillod  hy  thnrttm;  that  vnHt  roNorvnir  of  nnarly  oipial  tom|M)raturu, 
whinh  <hi<i-ofon<  im^MtrtN  linat  in  wintnrnnd  cold  in  nuinmnr,  nnd  onahloH  ovon  trnpinnl  plaiitH 
to  NulwiNt  in  Noinn  Hitiintioim  of  tlin  tomporntn  koiui,  HiicIi  nro  tho  woNtorn  nhoroN  of  iMiroim 
nnd  Ainnrinn,  iind  n  ifmnt  ]M)rtion  nf  tho  Noiithnrn  homiNphnm.  A  niinilar  monn  tomporntiiro 
inny  indniMl  Im  produnnd  hy  n  ooiiihinntion  of  very  Hovorn  wintnrN  nnd  very  hot  HiiinmorN,  ns 
in  thn  ((rtntt  contin«<ntM  comiwrnd  with  iHland*,  or  Uto  HhoroN  of  tlioNO  contiiuMilM;  or  tho 
nnHtnrn  NJdo  of  nontinnnt»  nn  rom|iiirt<d  with  thn  woNtorii ;  or  tlin  nortJiorn  with  thn  Noiithcrii 
linmiNphnrti ;  but  thnno  two  climatoN,  an  nmy  bo  expoctod,  will  pnKluco  a  vury  diflbront 
\wntntioii. 

Aniiunl  |)lnnt«,  whinh  roipiiro  hiiit  during:  tlin  miminnr  to  ri|inii  thnir  ernodN,  ami  which 
pnNN  thn  w.ntnr,  no  to  imy,  in  torpidity,  in  thn  ntntn  of  KWiii't  indiflhmut  to  tho  intnnNify  of 
oold,*  nUuind  miwt  in  tluwo  mnitmN  whnr»>  thn  oxtromnH  tiro  tho  pfrniitoHt;  wliilHt  tho  |»«tpm- 
nM  jitiiHlf,  whinh  can  In^tlnr  diH|>nimo  with  tho  miituriiitf  of  tlinir  Hnnd«,  nnd  which  nre 
ii\jur(>d  liv  tho  novnritii'H  of  wiiitnr,  alltn't  tlio  tompt^mtn  niimntna.  Of  tlin«p,  attain,  tliosit 
kind*  which  hnvn  doeiduoiw  Inavn*  nrcomnnHlnto  tliomnnlvoH  hoHt  to  unnqiinl  toinporaturoH; 
whilst  tlu>  individnaiN  on  whinh  thn  foliiiffo  miiminH,  or  cvr'r.ifrcAnR,  (;ivo  tho  prolbrnnco  to 
didtrictn  whnn?  thn  tnmnnraturo  in  morn  nonstantly  tMiiial. 

MirlH<l  mnkoim  that  tlioro  am  alntnt  150  or  1(10  natural  frmupn  or  ihmilinn  of  plants  in  tho 
Old  World,  tyiH'ii  of  nil  which  »>xi8t  in  thn  tropirol  |mrt«  ol  it.  Bnyond  those  limit»,  n  trnut 
nninlM^r  l)noomo  i^mdunlly  extinct.  In  tho  4Hth  depnio  of  latitude,  ■cnfcoly  ono  hnlf  of 
that  nimilM>r  np|>nnr;  in  tlio  (>nUt,  not  40;  nnd  but  17  in  tlio  vicinity  of  Uio  ]H)lar  rouinns, 
I  In  liirthnr  nNtimatON,  that  within  tJin  t  ninicH  tlin  pro]iortion  of  woodjr  niMjcios,  trni's  nnd  sliniKs 
otiualm  if  it  d(W«  not  exnnnd,  that  «>f  nnrlnu'oouH,  annual,  biennial,  niid  pernnniiil  jdnnts. 
'nin  rnlativo  numlH'r  of  tlin  winxly  »p«H'io«  to  tlin  hnrbticeoui,  annual,  biennial,  and  |>nrniininl, 
det^mnNnN  !K)in  tlin  <H(untor  to  tho  jhiIoh;  but,  nii  nn  n«piivnlent,  thn  pM|)orti(m  of  pnronninJ 
to  aimuni  or  biennial  plnnti*  jjons  on  increaHinjj.  Near  tlio  oxtreino  limits  of  vegotntioii 
tl>e«»  nn>,  at  least,  n»  twenty  to  iine. 

We  nmot,  however,  by  no  menjin  conclude  that  tlio  samo  elevation  in  cnrresixindinu 
decrees  of  latitude  is  neceswirily  i^iiitetl  to  the  vetf«>tntion  of  tho  same  plants.  A  number  of 
eircumstaiieoa  may  exist  to  motlity  tlio  deurroo  of  heat  nt  tho  snmo  elevation.  In  8witze> 
land,  Ihr  example,  tlio  elevation  of  the  vnlley  of  Untereee  is  tho  same  nn  tlmt  of  Oestoin; 
yet  the  thermometer,  in  18"22-S,  fell  only  to  8°  Iwlow  r.ero  in  tlio  (bnnor  sjwt ;  whoreiu 
at  Gestein  it  ftdl  to  10J<»,  nnd  nt  Berno  to  10".  Tho  depth  of  tlio  valleys  influencci 
vejj»>t«tioii ;  tlio  deeiwr  they  nre,  tlio  more  intense  ia  the  cold  on  tho  sumniita  of  tho 
surMimdiiijr  mountains.  Thus,  tlio  pine  diws  not  tJirivo  on  tho  Brnfyel,  nt  n  heijjht  of  ftlOO 
iVet;  wlmn'os  it  »uec<>eds  j>erfl»ctly,  nt  tho  same  elevntion,  on  tlio  Klietinn  Alps,  tho  vnlloyj 
of  the  I.iiith,  the  Muotta,  and  KKhmi  Uiinji  deeiHT  than  tlioso  of  tlio  hitter  districts.  In  like 
maimer,  in  the  vaiiey  of  tlie  Havivs  nffricultural  pnxluco  is  certain  in  places  much  more 
olevntrtl  thiiu  the  n«>rneso  volleys,  be«'nu«o  tlio  latter  nro  deeper.  Tho  wnnn  winds  fifom 
Italy  have  a  jH^n'optible  jwwer  owr  tho  vogotatimi  of  the  contiguous  parts  of  Switzerland; 
b«t  the  dejrrees  of  that  influence  depend  ujwn  circumstnnces.  In  uie  vnlley  of  tho  Inn, 
barley  and  flax  nro  cultivated  with  success  nt  an  olovntion  of  more  than  MOO  foot;  whereas 
•t  IaivU  in  the  valley  of  I)avo«,  tliouirh  the  heifflit  is  only  4000  feet,  no  irrain  will  thrive. 

*vt,  Matxw  «iu<v,sniv  luina    ill   iinok  ici'|>i'vis,  mm   (uv  BUiruuiiutni    11/  iiiuiiiiuuiia  ui   oiiii'm 

altitudes ;  they  are  U)th  sheltered  from  the  north-oast  wind ;  thoir  soil  is  of  tho  snmo  nature ; 

•HmsIm  tvlnr  in  itini^ral.  (lirnUhnl  with  A>w  nrtRnt  xvhirh  abnunit  in  mn|itun>,  nra  in  a  ilogrrs  inmniible  lo 
tiM  i*>trvim'«  or  hriil  an>l  rtiUI ;  w  Itoiiri)  it  ariaea  that,  in  conveying  tU'm  IVom  one  country  to  anothvr,  thay  pat 
Uiruujti  a  varialy  of  rlimatc  uuiiti»riHl. 


Paht  it. 

'  w)  iiccliiiiiitinif 
I'or  natiirnlly  tho 
the  Htiinn  kind 
iw  i«  ciiUivittoi] 
I ;  timt  it  In  oiil* 
nltivation  above 
[TOO  of  lutitiido; 
itrii<H  HO  roniuto 
tliitt  it.  poMiOMioa 
dimiili'ii ;  a.  pro- 
oxtiutil  tVotii  tlio 
'itlmtiiiulin({  tlio 
0(1  of  north  littl- 
1  tVoin  tlio  plnini 

all  Ami  to  be  of 
n  ominoiitly  «ni- 
lorato  tiojjreo  of 
tho  oxtrt'inoH  of 
lul  toni|iaraturo, 
in  tropical  |)liintH 
ilioroH  (if  Kiiropn 
onn  loniporutiiro 
iiot  Hnniniflm,  na 
mtituMitH ;  or  tho 
/ill)  llio  Konthcrii 
A  wry  (liflbrunt 

wmmIh,  nn«i  which 
tho  intonsiiy  of 
whilHt  tho^jweti' 
Ik,  mul  wliioh  are 
lOHo,  a)|[ain,  thoHo 
il  tonipt^raturos; 
ho  proforonco  to 

*  of  plants  in  tho 
HO  liniitH,  n  Lfroiit 
coly  ono  half  of 
10  ix)lar  rotfions. 
troos  nnil  siirubs, 
lorcnnial  plants, 
il,  and  poronnittl, 
tion  of  poronniiJ 
its  of  vogotation 

in  corro8j)ontlin|j 
t»,  A  n»ui»ber  of 
on.  In  Switzc^ 
that  of  Oostoin; 
ir  Bjwt;  whorens 
jlcys  influoncci 
Huininits  of  tho 
I  Itoifrht  of  MOO 
Alps,  tho  vallevi 
liHtricts.  In  lilte 
leoB  much  moro 
arm  winds  from 
of  Switzerland; 
ulloy  of  tho  Inn, 
lOfect;  whereas 
Train  will  thrive. 

L.-: p  _:_:i— 

IIUUIIB  Ul    Blllino 

ho  same  nature ; 


DOUK  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  To  IIOTANV 


841 


iloiiroo  Inrimibl*  W 
Ottiiothor,  ihtjrpw 


nut  in  llio  valloy  of  tho  Inn,  tiio  warm  winda  iVoin  Italy  uro  ir.tuinoptou  only  by  a  lingle 
rliuin  of  uioinitainH,  whorouii  two  cliaiim  lio  botwoon  Italy  and  tho  valloy  of  Davoa:  end, 
boHldoH,  thu  lattor  boin|{  of  Hinallor  oxtunt  than  tho  tbrmor,  it  ndinitii  of  tho  rocoption  of  1cm 
Molar  boat.  In  tho  Oliurland  of  itorno,  an  inurooHO  in  height  of  2(K)U  foot  diminiahee  the 
crop  ono  third.*  ..  -i-.  7  .  u-s.-  j ,?,  *  , 

HiUMKOT,  2. — On  the  Influence  of  JAffht. 

Tho  infliionno  of  tho  Nolar  light  upon  vogotation  Do  Candollo  connidGrs  to  be  as  importan 
AN  that  of  toniportiturn ;  and  although  it  actH  Iumm  poworfUlly  upon  thu  geographical  distri- 
bution of  plantM,  it  novortholoMM  inorilM  a  particular  notice. 

Light  Ih  that  agont  which  oporatcn  in  producing  tho  greatest  number  of  phenomena  in 
vogotablo  liti).  ft  dotorniinoN,  in  a  groat  inoasure,  tho  abHorption;  for  plantu  imbibe  less 
humidity  during  tho  night  and  in  darknoHS.  It  complotolv  influencoH  tho  watery  exhalations 
of  tho  grotin  parts  of  |)lants;  for  thcHO  parts  do  not  oxhalo  during  tho  night  or  in  obscurity, 
whilst  thoHO  oxhalations  are  very  considorablo  during  tho  day,  and  especially  under  tho 
direct  inlluoni^o  of  tho  rays  of  tho  nun.  Tho  light  affocts,  in  most  cases,  tho  decomposition 
of  tho  uarlmnio  acid ;  anil  consn(pi(Mitly  tho  duposition  of  carbon  in  vegetables,  their  sub- 
iitanuo  and  thoir  growth,  tho  intouHity  of  their  Honsiblo  proportins,  and  tho  direction  of  many 
organs.  It  is  tho  principal,  and  iiorhaps  tho  only,  cauHO  of  those  singular  movements  luiown 
by  tho  naiuo  of  tho  iiUvft  <ifi>lunt» ;  uiul,  laHtly,  during  tho  absoncu  of  light  tho  green  parts 
absorb  a  certain  (piautity  or  oxygon  gas,  Altliough  thoHO  different  causes  affect  all  vegc- 
tabloH,  yet  thoy  aro  not  affected  »\  tho  Hnino  degree. 

Light  is  moro  o(|iially  dlHtrilniled  than  luMit  upoti  tho  surfiicn  of  tho  globo;  but  its  mode 
of  dimiNJon  inducoH  mimo  very  important  con.HOtpienccH,  In  tho  countries  situated  under  the 
otjuator,  an  iiil(  nso  light,  since  it  actH  moro  jiorpcndicularly,  influences  vegetables  nearly 
equally,  during  twelve  hours  each  day,  throughout  tho  whole  year.  In  proportion  as  we 
recodu  tVom  the  ocpiator  and  approach  tho  poloM,  tho  intensity  of  tho  moro  oDli(|uo  rays  gra- 
dually diminishes ;  but  in  regard  to  tho  distribution  of  these  rays,  tho  light  is  completely 
wanting  (luring  the  winter,  wlion  tho  ubsonco  of  vegetation  indeed  renders  it  nearly  useless 
to  pluntH ;  and  it  is  continuod  during  almost  the  whole  period  of  vegetation,  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  lis  hMiglhenod  innuoneo  componHates  wholly  or  in  part  for  its  want  of  intensity. 
Thus  wo  MOO  that,  iiidepondontly  of  what  coiicoriiH  tho  toiii|)crature,  plants  which  loso  thcii 
leaves  can  bolter  oxlHt  in  northern  countries,  and  that  those  whoso  vegetation  is  continued 
havo  need  of  tho  Houlhorn  regions.  And  another  beautiful  and  just  remark  is  made  by  Do 
Candollo,  in  roforeiuui  to  tho  distribution  of  light;  namely,  that  those  plants  whose  foliago 
and  flowers  maintain  habitually  and  constantly  tho  saino  position,  can  live  in  northern  cli- 
mates, whore  tho  light  Ih  almost  continued  in  summer;  whilst  it  is  in  the  regions  of  the 
Rontli  that  wo  And,  as  might  naturally  bo  expected,  those  species  which  are  remarkable  for 
tlio  ultornato  closing  and  oxi>unding,  or  sleeping  and  waking,  of  their  flowers,  a  motion 
which  has  an  intimate  connexion  with  tho  alternation  of  days  and  nights.  Thus  wo  see 
why  it  is  found  so  ditlicult  in  our  country  to  cultivate  many  of  the  tropical  vegetables,  or,  at 
any  rate,  to  nng  them  to  perfection.  M.  do  Humboldt  lias  proved  that  it  is  less  owing  to 
tho  absence  of  heat  than  to  tho  want  of  uufllcicnt  solar  light  that  tho  Vinv  docs  not  ripen 
it«i  ftuit  beneath  tho  foggy  skies  of  Normandy ;  and  M.  Mirbol  has  satisfled  himself  that  the 
uninterrupted  action  of  tho  sun's  rays,  during  a  great  number  of  days,  is  the  cause  of  the 
astonishingly  rapid  dovolopemoni.  uf  aij  ino  plants  in  high  northern  roffions,f  Dr.  Ilicliard- 
wm,  too,  states  that  tho  sugar-ltoilors  in  tho  Canadian  forests  observe  that  tho  flow  of  sap  in 
tlio  Suffitr  Miiplo  (Negundo  fraxinifolium)  is  not  so  immediately  influenced  by  a  high  mean 
tomperaturo  as  by  tho  |K)wer  of  tho  direct  rays  of  tho  sun.  Tho  greatest  (quantity  of  sap  is 
collected  when  a  smart  frost  during  night  is  succeeded  by  a  warm  sunshiny  day.  Again, 
Humlioldt  assures  us,  that  in  all  places  where  tho  mean  temperature  is  below  02°  6',  the 
revival  of  nature  takes  placo  in  spring  in  that  month  whose  moan  temperature  reaches  42"^ 
8',  or  40°  4'.    At  Cumoorlond  IIouso,  Dr.  Richardson  found  vernation  to  begui  in  Mdy, 

♦  Wo  inny  tinro  iiKintlon  a  ciiriniii  ftir.t  of  voffetnllon  rdBllnit  upon  a  bnuli  of  Icn.  Tho  glacier  of  Koccowcco, 
wliieli  AirmH  ono  of  tlin  brnnrhoa  of  tho  nrrnertn,  lina  on  itn  niiiiiinit  n  valloy  fliliid  with  iro  ;  ami  on  this  tho  ava- 
lunclu'i  hnvo  brouslit  down  mniiMi  of  earth.  Thia  oarth  prodiicos  a  niimbor  01'  aluino  plnnta,  that  aflTuril  abiin- 
ilnnt  and  iioiiriahlnii  food  10  tho  lluolta  of  tlio  inbabltunti  uf  Sunmdcn.  Tliis  lingular  pasture  has  boon  used  over 
•liico  thoyuar  l.intl. 

t "  Veir<<tBWr»,"  iinvB  M .  Mirhcl,  In  his  KMm«n»  if«  PhyahhffU  Vtgttnle,  "  when  secluded  (Vom  tho  liuht,  send  out 
IniiK,  thin,  nnd  whitlah  iilmola;  their  suhatnnro  bneomoa  lax,  nml  without  flrmness;  In  fhct,  they  are  bleached. 
Tho  operation  of  thu  luminous  beams  on  Ihoso  orRaniaod  hodiea  consists  chiefly  in  aeparnting  tho  constituent 
parts  of  wnler  and  carlmnic  acid,  which  they  contain,  nnd  in  diHcngagingthe  oxygon  of  tho  latter.  Tlin  carbonic 
acid,  with  iln'  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the  water,  prodnco  thono  gtitna,  resins,  nnd  oils,  which  flow  in  tlie  vessels 
and  which  nil  tho  colls.  These  Juices  nourish  tho  mombrancs,  and  bring  them  into  tlio  ligneous  state  ;  n  result 
which  bucmiius  moro  marked  as  the  liglit  is  strongest  and  its  action  moat  protracted.  DarknAis  nnri  light  proilucr, 
iiinrGfiirii,  uiamntrirnily  iiji|H>siin  cifects  on  vegetation.  Darkness,  by  keeping  up  tho  soilness  of  tho  vegetalde 
parts,  fhvflurs  their  increase  in  length ;  light,  by  ininlstoring  to  their  nourishmont,  consolidates  them,  and  arrests 
their  growth.  IIoucr  it  follows  that  a  flne  state  of  vegetation,  such  as  unites  in  Just  proportionssizo  and  strength, 
must  depend,  in  n  measure,  on  the  nicely  balanced  alternation  of  day  and  night.  Now,  the  hyperborean  plants 
spring  up  at  a  period  when  the  sun  Is  constantly  above  the  horixon,  and  the  light  which  incessantly  acts  upon 
thorn  conflrnis  and  perfects  tliem  before  they  have  time  to  attain  a  c»iisidcrablo  degree  of  length.  Thoir  vegeta- 
tion is  active,  but  soon  over ;  they  are  robust,  but  small.'' 
Vol.  I  31  2  F 


ziz 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


PartIL 


when  the  mean  temperature  was  only  40°,  nearly  3°  below  that  which  Baron  Humboldt 
considered  neccssaiy  for  the  evolution  of  deciduous  leaves;  but  he  adds,  "the  %t\fl%ience  qf 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  u,as  at  this  time  very  great,  and  the  high  temperature  of  the  last 
decade  of  the  month  compensated  for  the  first  We  can  imitate  the  native  climes  of  many 
of  the  delicate  exotics,  as  far  as  regards  temperature ;  and  in  summer,  when  the  days  are 
long,  we  see  them  flourish  almost  as  if  they  were  in  their  natural  situations ;  but  in  winter 
they  languish,  and  often  die,  especially  the  more  tender  species,  such  as  tlic  Hedysarum 
gyrans,  and  the  humble  plant  (Mimosa  pudica).  It  is  evident  that  they  wont  tliat  clistribu< 
tion  of  light  which  is  most  congenial  to  them. 

Plants^  then,  are  arranged  in  their  different  localities,  according  to  the  certain  quantity  of 
light  which  they  may  require.  All  those  with  very  watery  leaves,  which  evaporate  much, 
wnich  are  of  a  succulent  nature,  which,  having  few  pores  or  organs  of  evaporation,  need  a 
stimulus  to  determine  their  action,  all  which  have  a  tissue  abounding  in  carbon,  or  which 
contain  very  resinous  or  oily  juices,  or  which  offer  a  great  extent  of  green  surface,  require 
much  light,  and  are  generally  found  in  exposed  places ;  the  rest,  according  as  they  are  more 
or  lees  distinguished  by  these  properties,  exist  either  under  the  slight  shadow  of  bushes,  or 
beneath  the  more  powerful  shelter  of  hedges  and  walls,  or  of  forests ;  or,  as  is  the  case  with 
many  Fungi,  in  caves  and  darkness.  These  last  are,  indeed,  destitute  of  any  green  colour; 
but  Mosses,  Ferjis,  and  even  some  evergreens,  such  as  the  Ivy,  flourish  best  beneath  tiie 
shade  of  dense  forests,  if  the  trees  of  those  forests  have  deciduous  leaves ;  and  in  situations 
where  plants  that  vegetate  only  during  the  summer  could  scarcely  live. 

The  subject,  however,  of  the  action  of  light  upon  vegetation,  has  not  yet  received  the 
attention  which  it  deserves.  Many  more  observations  and  experiments  are  required  before 
we  can  employ  it  with  certamty  in  connexion  with  botanical  geography. 

SvBSECT.  3. — On  the  Influence  of  Moisture. 

Water  being  the  vehicle  by  means  of  which  nourishment  is  conveyed  into  the  plant,  and, 
indeed,  itself  yielding  a  large  proportion  or  even  the  whole  of  the  nutriment  of^  many  ve- 
getables, it  follows  that  this  element  is  not  only  of  the  highest  importance  in  vegetable 
economy,  but  one  of  the  causes  whioh  afiects  most  powerfully  the  geographical  distribution 
of  plants  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

Those  vegetables,  in  particular,  necessarily  absorb  a  great  quantity  of  water,  which  have 
a  large  and  spo.jgy  cellular  tissue ;  those  which  possess  broadly  expanded  sofl  leaves,  fbr- 
nished  with  a  great  number  of  cortical  pores;  those  having  few  or  no  hairs  on  their  surface; 
those  whose  growth  is  very  rapid,  which  deposit  but  little  oily  or  resinous  matter;  those  of 
which  the  texture  is  not  subject  to  be  changed  or  corrupted  by  humidity ;  those,  in  fine, 
whose  roots  are  voiy  numerous,  generally  need  to  absorb  much  moisture,  and  cannot  live 
but  in  places  where  they  find  naturally  a  large  proportion  of  it.  On  the  other  hand,  those 
plants  which  are  of  a  firm  and  compact  cellular  tissue,  which  have  small  or  rigid  leaves, 
furnished  with  very  few  pores,  which  are  abundantly  clothed  with  hairs,  of  which  the 
growth  is  slow,  and  which  deposit,  during  the  progress  of  their  vegetation,  much  oily  or 
resinous  matter ;  those  whose  cellular  tissue  is  liable  to  be  changed  and  decayed  by  too  much 
moisture,  and  of  which  the  roots  are  not  numerous,  require  little  water,  and  prefer,  for  their 
natural  situation,  dry  places.  Great  differences,  however,  are  produced,  accordmg  to  the 
nature  of  the  water  that  is  absorbed ;  the  less  it  is  charged  with  the  nutritive  principle,  the 
more  necessary  is  it  that  the  vegetable  shall  absorb,  in  a  given  time,  enough  to  suffice  for  its 
support  Again,  the  more  the  water  abounds  with  substances  which  alter  its  fluidity  or 
transparency,  and  which,  inasmuch  as  they  are  solid  particles,  tend  to  obstruct  the  orifices 
of  the  pores,  or  to  impede  absorption  by  their  viscosity,  the  less  do  such  vegetables  imbibe  in 
a  given  time. 

The  very  nature  even  of  those  substances  dissolved  or  suspended  in  the  %vater  has  a  grett 
influence  upon  the  topographical  distribution  or  the  locality  of  plants.  The  matters  so  dis< 
solved  are,  I.  Carbonic  acid.  2.  Atmospheric  air.  3.  Animal  and  vegetable  substances.  4 
Alkaline  principles  or  earths.  Those  plants  whose  cellular  tissue  is  found  to  contain  much 
carbon,  such  as  trees  producing  hard  wood,  avoid,  more  than  others,  the  vicinity  of  waters 
which  are  extremely  pure,  and  which  contain  but  little  carbonic  acid  gas.  Plants  which 
exhibit  much  azote  m  their  chemical  composition,  such  as  the  Cruciferous  Plants  and  the 
Fungi,  seek  those  spots  where  there  is  much  animal  matter  in  solution.  Those,  again,  which 
present,  when  chemically  analyzed,  a  considerable  quantity  of  certain  earthy  substances, 
Buch  as  silica'*  in  the  Monocotyledonous  Plants,  gypsum  in  the  Leguminosa,  &c.  will  re- 

auire  it  in  a  greater  or  less  proportion  in  the  soil  where  they  grow ;  and  if  it  does  not  exia 
lere  naturally,  the  agriculturist  must  supply  it  artificially ;  and  those  species  which  yield, 

•  Thii  filica,  we  know,  ahounds  in  the  itrasiea,  aa  weii  ag  in  other  monocotyledonous  plant* ;  and  M.  de  candoiie 
obiervei.tbatit  ii  inconiequunceofita  existence  in  the  frames,  &c.  andoftha  comparative  indissolubility  whicli 
is  the  result,  that  it  is  preferred  by  almost  all  nations  or  the  world  fbr  a  covering  to  their  houses.  The  peopi* 
of  the  North  tbus  employ  straw  for  that  purpose,  on  the  same  principle  that  those  uf  the  tropica  use  tba  lenvesof 
Ibe  palms. 


PartIL 

Baron  Humboldt 
the  ir^fluence  qf 
ftture  of  the  last 
I  climes  of  many 
m  the  days  are 
3 ;  but  in  winter 
the  Hedysarum 
int  that  distribu< 

rtain  quantity  of 
evaporate  much, 
iporation,  need  a 
:aTbon,  or  which 
surfiice,  require 
».s  they  are  moro 
ow  of  bushes,  or 
is  the  case  with 
ny  green  colour ; 
lest  beneath  the 
uid  in  situations 

^et  received  the 
required  before 


a  the  plant,  and, 
lent  of  many  vo- 
ice in  vegetable 
hical  distribution 

ater,  which  have 
soft  leaves,  ftir- 
on  their  surface ; 
batter ;  those  of 
y ;  those,  in  fine, 
and  cannot  live 
therhand,  those 
or  rigid  leaves, 
s,  of  which  the 
m,  much  oily  or 
lyed  by  too  much 
I  prefer,  for  their 
Lccording  to  the 
ve  principle,  the 
I  to  Bufiice  for  its 
er  its  fluidity  or 
tract  the  orinceB 
etables  imbibe  in 

mter  has  a  grett 
e  matters  so  dis< 
e  substances.  4 
to  contain  much 
icinity  of  waters 
.  Plants  which 
Plants  and  the 
)se,  again,  which 
rthy  substances 
»«,  &c.  will  re- 
it  does  not  exii 
ies  which  yield, 

and  M.  de  candoiie 
ndiaiolubiUty  which 
lousei.  The  peopl* 
Id  ufe  tb«  l«»T6iot 


Book  lit 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


when  burned,  a  more  abundant  portion  of  alkaline  substances  than  usual,  can  only  flonriah 
or  even  live  where  these  matters  abound.  The  species  which  have  need  of  carbonate  of 
soda  will  only  grow  successfully  near  the  sea  or  saline  lakes  or  springs.  Thus  the  different 
property  of  the  substances  dissolved  in  the  water  is  evidently  one  of  the  many  causes  which 
determme  the  stations  of  the  vegetable  species. 

'     '^      ■  SuBSGCT.  4. — On  the  Influence  of  the  Soil.  .   tiWifiV. 

The  influence  of  soil  M.  de  Candoiie  considers  as  perhaps  more  complicated  tha.x  that  of 
the  preceding  agents.    He  reduces  it  to  the  following  heads : — 

(1.)  The  soil  serves  as  a  means  of  supjurt  to  vegetables,  and  consequently  its  c(mn»tene« 
or  tenacity  ou^'  it  to  possess,  in  this  point  of  view,  a  peculiar  fitness  fbr  sustaining,  in  a 
|[reater  or  less  degree,  plants  exhibiting  very  various  forms.  Thus,  soils  composed  of  blow- 
ing sand  can  only  serve  as  a  support  to  vegetables  which  are  of  very  humble  stature  and 
prostrate  growth,  so  that  the  winds  may  not  overturn  them ;  or  to  trees,  furnished  with  very 
deep  and  branching  roots,  which  may  attach  them  into  this  moveable  matrix.  The  contrary 
holds  good  in  regard  to  very  compact  soils.  Small-rooted  plants  may  thus  be  firmly  enough 
fixed,  and  they  may  subsist;  but  the  very  large  roots  are  incapable  of  penetrating  into  soils 
that  are  very  tenacious.  The  two  extremes  of  these  soils  present  an  equally  sterile  vege- 
tation. Sands  which  ore  not  sufiiciently  stationary  (as  those  very  remarkable  ones  on  the 
nortliern  shores  of  the  Moray  Fritl.),  water  which  is  subject  to  very  rapid  currents,  clay  of 
an  extremely  compact  nature,  or  rocks  of  great  hardness,  are  equally  unfiriendly  to  the 
growth  of  plants. 

(2.)  The  chemical  nature  of  the  earths  or  stones  of  which  the  soil  is  composed,  affects 
the  choice  of  vegetables,  as  regards  their  flourishing  in  such  situations.  But  this  subject, 
simple  as  it  appears  at  first  sight,  is  in  reality  very  complicated.  For  the  difibrent  earUis 
t<ct  upon  vegetation  by  physical  circumstances ;  as,  for  example,  according  as  they  absorb 
th  .  Dunding  water  with  more  or  less  fiicility,  retain  it  with  more  or  less  force,  or  part 
more  or  less  easily.  Now,  the  celebrated  Kirwan  ascertamed  by  a  comparative 
iff.';  i  of  earths  which  were  reckoned  excellent  for  the  growth  of  wheat  in  various  coun- 
tries, that  they  contain  more  silica  if  the  climate  is  more  subject  to  rain,  more  alumine  if 
the  contrary  be  the  case ;  in  short,  that  the  soil,  to  be  good  for  any  given  vegetable,  ought 
to  have  the  power  of  absorbing  more  moisture  in  a  dry  climate,  less  in  an  humid  atmosphere  t 
whence  it  is  plain  that  in  different  localities  the  same  species  of  vegetable  may  be  found  in 
different  soils. 

(3.)  Every  kind  of  rock  has  a  certain  degree  of  tenacity,  and  a  certair^  disposition  to 
decompose  or  become  pulverized :  whence  results  the  greater  or  less  facility  of  particular 
soils  to  be  formed  either  of  sand  or  gravel,  and  to  be  composed  of  fragments  of  a  nearly 
determined  form  and  size.  Certain  vegetables,  from  causes  which  we  shall  presently  indicate, 
will  prefer  such  or  such  of  this  sand  or  gravel ;  bi'*,  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  soil  does  not 
act  here  immediately;  thus,  when  we  find  calcaieous  rocks  which  decompose  like  argilla- 
ceous schist,  the  same  species  of  vegetation  is  observed.  These  two  considerations  are 
particularly  applicable  to  lichens. 

(4.)  Rocks,  according  to  their  colour  or  their  nature,  are  more  susceptible  of  being  heated 
by  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun ;  and  consequently  they  may,  in  some  degree,  mwlify  the 
temperature  of  a  ^iven  place ;  and  influence  also,  though  slightly,  the  choice  of  plants 
capable  of  succeedmg  upon  them. 

But,  independently  of  all  these  physical  causes,  it  may  be  asked,  whether  the  chemical 
nature  of  rocks  has  any  effect  upon  vegetables  1  It  is  generally  considered  to  be  so;  but  it 
must  be  allowed  that  tiiis  action  has  been  frequently  very  much  exaggerated.  Bory  de  St 
Vincent,  indeed,  has  assured  us  that  calamine,  or  native  carbonate  of  zinc,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  is  always  uidicated,  to  a  certainty,  by  particular  plants;  and  the  fiict  is 
confirmed  by  a  little  work,  since  published,  called  A  fiora  of  the  Environs  of  Spa.  The 
yellow  heartsease,  a  small  variety  of  the  comnum  eyehright  (Euphrasia  officinalis),  the  white 
Campion  (Silene  inflata),  a  Sandwort  (Arenaria;,  a  shrabby  lAchen,  a  species  of  BromKt 
(Brome-grass),  constitute  this  poor  but  Constant  vegetation.  These,  however,  no  doubt, 
grow  in  greater  abundance  and  perfection  in  other  soils :  the  wonder  is  that  they  do  not 
altogether  perish  here ;  for  even  the  gallinaceous  birds,  which  eat  gravel  to  triturate  their 
food,  die  fi"om  swallowing  fragments  of  calamine.  It  must  be  remarked,  in  reality,  that  plants 
do  not  often  live  upon  pure  rock,  but  among  the  decomposed  matter  of  that  rock ;  thot  the 
rocks,  even  though  very  circumscribed,  often  present  very  different  natures ;  that  vegetable 
mould  is  not  only  formed  by  the  rocks  which  immediately  surround  it,  but  also  by  the 
admixture  of  earthy  substances  carried  by  the  waters,  and  transported  by  the  winds,  or  by 
the  remains  of  animals  and  vegetables  which  have  before  existed  there.  ITcnce  it  will  be 
understood  how  Uie  vegetable  earths  differ  much  less  in  themselves,  than  the  rocks  which 
produce  them  or  serve  to  support  them ;  and  that  the  greater  number  of  plants  yield,  in  most 
situations,  the  alimentary  earths  which  are  necessary  for  them.  Indeed,  after  various 
botanical  'ourneys  made  through  France,  M.  de  Candoiie  has  found  nearly  the  same  plants 


244 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  . 


Part  H. 


vegotatinff  spontaneously  in  almost  all  the  different  rocky  substances.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  Box  (Buxus  s  jnipervirens)  grows  only  in  calcareous  soils,  and  it  certamly  prefers  f*  ^i ; 
but  it  is  found  abundantly  =n  the  argillaceous  calcareous  schistose  rocks  of  the  Pyre  lo.  s\ 
and  it  is  e\en  seen  a* .—.^  the  granite  of  Britany  and  upon  the  volcanic  parts  of  Auvergne. 
The  Chestnut  has  been  said  to  avoid  a  calcareous  country ;  but  there  are  ceautiiul  cbestauts 
on  botli  sides  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  at  the  foot  of  the  calcareous  mountaiiu  of  Jura  and 
Chdblais. 

Pure  magnesia,  M.  Carradori  has  found,  by  chemical  experiment,  acts  as  a  poison  on  most 
r  ■^ts:  yet  M.  Dunal,  in  visiting  a  portion  of  the  environs  of  Lunel,  where  the  soil  presents 
R  Treat  quantity  of  almost  pure  magnesia,  found  there  the  same  plants  as  in  the  surrounding 
calcareous  soil,  and  the  roots  flourishing  in  the  clefts  of  th'iz  n:rnTiesian  rock.  Thus  we  must 
be  careful  not  to  attach  too  much  importance  to  the  nature  of  the  t- arth,  which  is  frequently 
acted  upon  by  causes  purely  physical. 

-;,<.  t.v.,,.;  SimsBCT.  5. — Atmosphetic  Ii\fluence, 

The  atmosjthere,  taken  in  its  pure  state,  we  know  to  be  composed,  at  all  times,  of  the 
same  proportions  of  azote  and  oxygen;  and  in  such  cases  we  may  suppose  its  action  to  be 
similaf  upon  all  vegetables.  But  the  atmosphere  also  is  of  different  de^ees  of  transparency 
or  density ;  it  holds  in  solution  other  matters  or  substances,  which  mix  with  it  in  certain 
places,  and  render  it  more  or  less  suitable  to  certain  species  of  plants.  In  mines,  for  instance, 
the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  or  of  hydrogen,  may  l)e  so  great  as  to  preclude  vegeta- 
tion altogether  :  or  to  allow  only  of  th?  jrowtii  of  such  individuals  as  are  very  strong  and 
vigorous,  or  particularly  absorbent  of  these  oubalances.  Then,  too,  the  air  charged  witli 
saline  emanations  from  the  sea  injures  some  plants,  and  on  the  other  hand  encourages  the 
developemcnt  of  such  as  require  carbonate  of  soda ;  as  may  be  seen  in  the  valleys  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  where  maritime  plants  affording  soda  may  be  cultivated  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  ocean,  provided  that  they  lie  open  towards  clie  sea,  and  are  exposed  to  the 
winds  that  blow  from  it 

We  cultivate  in  our  inland  gardens,  languidly  and  but  for  a  year  or  two,  many  of  the 
maritime  plants,  such  as  the  Lithospermum,  The  Nitraria  Schoberi  is  improved  by  era- 
ploying  salt  where  it  is  grown.  Many  of  the  Statices  may  be,  however,  easily  cultivated, 
and  one  of  them,  the  ommon  Thr\ft  (S.  Armeria)  even  succeeds  in  crowded  towns,  whence 
its  English  name ;  yet  its  native  country  is  either  on  the  shores  of  the  sea  or  in  salt  marshes, 
or  upon  the  summits  of  the  highest  moimtains. 

The  most  general  influence,  however,  exercised  by  the  atmosphere,  is  its  power  of  con- 
taining and  parting  with  moisture,  or  its  hygroscopic  action.  The  atmosphere  is  habitually 
charged  with  moisture ;  sometimes  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  invisible,  and  then  only  ascer- 
tainable by  the  hygrometer ;  at  other  times  visible  in  a  state  of  vapour  or  dew ;  and  we  find 
that  vegetables  m  general  succeed  better  in  a  climate  where,  at  a  given  degree  of  tem- 
perature, the  air  is  moderately  moist,  than  in  another  where  it  is  eidier  too  much  saturated 
with  moisture  or  too  dry.  This  is  a  circumstance  which  cannot  well  be  imitated  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  plants  in  the  open  air:  but  in  our  stoves,  and  especially  by  the  aid  of  steam,  the 
various  degrees  of  humidity  necessary  to  a  vigorous  vegetation  may  be  produced  to  the 
greatest  nicety. 

The  agitation  or  movement  of  the  air  by  win(!s  and  other  causes  exercises  some  power 
over  vegetation ;  but  we  are  too  little  acquainted  with  this  subject  to  be  able  to  deduce  any 
particular  theory  from  it. 

Of  all  the  atmospheric  influences,  the  most  difEcult  to  reduce  to  its  proper  value  is  that  of 
density;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  influence  of  height  or  elevation  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  This  M.  de  Car.doUe  has  made  the  subject  of  a  memoir  in  the  volume  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Arcueil,  and  we  -vhall  here  ^ive  his  general  ideas  upon  it. 

In  proportion  as  wr  are  elevated  in  the  air,  the  temperature  as  well  as  the  moisture  con- 
tmues  to  diminish ;  u  circumstance  which  appears  to  depend  upon  this,  that  Uie  rare  air  ha« 
more  capacity  for  heat  than  dense  air.  The  facts  that  go  to  prove  that  the  diminution  of 
the  temperature  upon  high  mountains  is  one  of  the  causes  which  most  affect  the  distribution 
of  vegetables,  are  the  following: — 

(1.)  The  natural  situation  of  each  plant  at  a  determined  elevation  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  is  so  much  the  greater  in  proportion  as  the  country  is  nearer  the  i^^uator,  and  less  in 
more  temperate  regions ;  that  is  to  say,  the  farther  we  recede  from  the  equator,  the  greater 
influence  has  the  exposure  upon  the  temperature. 

(2.)  In  temperate  climates,  as  France,  for  instance,  those  plants  which  are  but  little  affect- 
ed by  temperature,  and  which  grow  in  all  its  latitudes,  are  found  also  at  all  those  elevations 
where  the  earth  is  not  covered  by  eternal  snows ;  from  the  level  of  the  sea  to  the  summits 
of  the  mountains.  M.  de  Uandolle  has  detected  about  700  examples  of  this  law ;  the  com- 
mon Heath,  the  Juniper,  the  Birch,  &c.  grown  indifferently  at  tne  level  of  the  sea,  and  at 
a  height  of  10,000  feet. 

(3 ;  If  plants  which,  accwdhig  to  tlieir  nature,  avoid  either  too  high  or  too  low  a  dogrooo'" 


Past  I[. 

18  been  said  that 
ly  prefers  t''  ^; 
f  the  Pyre  10.  sr 
rts  of  Auveigne. 
autiful  cbestnuts 
ains  of  Jura  and 

a  poison  on  most 
the  soil  presents 
the  surrounding 
Thus  we  must 
ch  is  frequently 


ill  times,  of  the 
its  action  to  be 
I  of  transparency 
ith  it  in  certain 
nes,  for  instance, 
)reclude  vegeta- 
very  strong  and 
lir  charged  witli 
1  encourages  the 
le  valleys  of  the 
,t  a  considerable 
e  exposed  to  the 

v;o,  many  of  the 
improved  by  em- 
Bssily  cultivated, 
i  towns,  whence 
'  in  salt  marshes, 

its  power  of  con- 
lere  is  habitually 
then  only  ascer- 
ew ;  and  we  find 
I  degree  of  tern- 
)  much  saturated 
itated  in  the  cul- 
aid  of  steam,  the 
produced  to  the 

ises  some  power 
le  to  deduce  any 

'  value  is  that  of 
x)ve  the  level  of 
ume  of  the  Soci- 

he  moisture  con- 
the  rare  air  has 
le  diminution  of 
;  the  distribution 

the  level  of  the 
itor,  and  less  in 
ator,  the  greater 

but  little  afTect- 

those  elevations 

I  to  the  summits 

s  law ;  the  com- 

f  the  sea,  and  at 

low  a  degroe  o» 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


m, 


temperature,  yet  grow  at  different  latitudes,  we  may  observe  that  it  is  at  heights  where  the 
ei-.eti  ?f  elevation  may  compensate  that  of  latitude ;  thus  the  native  plants  of  the  northern 
plains  will  bo  seen  to  grow  upon  the  mountains  of  the  south. 

(4.)  Plants  which  are  cultivated  upon  a  large  scale  are  glided  by  laws  which  entirely 
correspond  with  the  preceding ;  those  which  are  cultivated  m  various  latitudes  will  grow 
indifferently  at  various  heights;  those  which  are  only  found  at  certain  latitudes  will  extend 
no  farther  than  to  proportional  elevations.  The  potatoe,  which  succeeds  so  well  in  our 
plains,  is  cultivated  m  Peru  at  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet  rbove  the  level  of  the  sea:  the 
olive,  which  nowhere  passes  44°  north  latitude,  will  not  grow  at  a  height  exceeding  1250 
feet 

(5.)  The  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  when  we  compare  the  temperature  of  the 
seasons,  establishes  effects  very  analogous  to  those  which  result  from  the  distance  from  the 
equator ;  so  that  there  is  tlie  more  analogy  between  the  results  on  vegetation  in  the  two 
cases.  In  proportion  as  we  rise  in  a  direct  line,  it  follows,  from  the  lessened  density  of  the 
air,  that  the  mtenseness  of  the  solar  light  continues  to  increase;  this  eflbct  is  represent- 
ed in  the  line  of  distances  from  the  equator,  because  the  perpetuity  of  light  during  the 
continuance  of  vegetation  is  so  much  the  greater  in  proportion  as  the  latitude  is  more 
elevated. 

(6.)  In  proportion  to  the  greater  height  upon  the  mountains,  so  will  the  hygrometer  be  seen 
to  indicate  a  less  degree  of  humidity ;  the  same  general  effect  takes  place  as  we  recede  from 
the  equator  towards  the  poles. 

On  mountains,  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  where  the  plants  are  constantly  moistened 
with  water  in  a  freezing  ctate,  those  species,  to  which  a  warm  temperature  is  unfriendly, 
will  live  at  inferior  heights  to  those  which  they  brave  in  the  same  latitude,  when  they  »re 
not  watered  from  those  cold  sources. 

It  would  appear  therefore,  from  all  these  considerations,  that  the  situation  or  iixed  locality 
of  plants  at  certain  heights  depends  mainly  on  the  fall  of  the  temperature  attributable  to 
that  elevation.  Now,  the  only  purely  theoretical  point  of  view,  sayoM.  de  CandoUe,  accord- 
ing to  which  we  can  comprehend  how  the  rarefaction  of  the  air  bears  in  itself  a  direct  influ- 
ence upon  vegetation,  is  this ;  that  plants  require  to  absorb  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  oxy- 
gen gas  in  their  green  or  their  coloured  parts.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  there  is  a  certain 
point  of  elevation  where  the  atmosphere  becomes  too  much  rarefied  to  supply  the  wants  of 
plants;  but  where  this  is  the  case  the  mountains  ore  always  clolhed  with  snow.  M.  de 
Humboldt,  too,  inclines  to  think  that  the  pressure  of  the  air  may  act  in  encouraging  and  in- 
creasing Uie  quantity  of  evaporation.  But  we  must  say  that  direct  experiment  is  still  want- 
ing to  confirm  these  opinions  (and  this  is  perhaps  unattainable  in  the  present  state  of 
science),  in  order  that  we  may  form  a  conclusive  judgment  on  their  value. 

Sect.  III. — Station  and  Habitation  of  Plants. 

The  station  and  habitation  of  plants  must  next  engage  a  portion  of  our  attention.  They 
are  both  important:  the  former  impli>)s  their  situation  as  regarding  local  circumstances,  and 
the  action  of  physical  causes  upon  vegetables ;  the  latter  implies  the  geographical  position. 
When  we  say  mat  such  a  plant  is  found  in  marshes,  on  the  sea-shore,  in  woods,  or  upon 
mountains,  in  England,  in  France,  in  North  America;  by  the  marshes,  shore,  woods,  or 
mountains,  we  mean  what  we  here  term  the  station ;  and  by  England,  Prance,  » r  North 
America,  the  habitation :  such  is  the  sense,  at  least,  in  which  we  shall  here  use  the  terms ; 
for  in  systematic  botanical  writings  the  meaning  is  by  no  means  always  thus  restricted. 

The  seeds  of  plants,  by  varied  and  beautiful  means,  are  widely  dispersed  by  the  liberal 
hand  of  nature ;  whilst  some,  however,  fall  upon  barren  ground,  or  a  soil  imfit  for  the  nature 
of  that  particular  vegetable,  others  take  root  in  situations,  both  with  regard  to  the  earth 
and  surrounding  medium,  which  are  in  harmony  with  their  growth,  and  produce,  "  some 
thirty,  some  sixty,  and  some  an  hundred-fold."  There  ere,  again,  tribes  which,  under  these 
circumstances,  increase  so  prodigiously  that  they  destroy  vegetables  of  a  less  vigorous 
growth,  and,  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  appropriate  to  themselves  a  great  extent  of  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  Such  are  termed  by  Humboldt  social  plants.  In  this  way,  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  extreme  poverty  of  the  soil,  the  Seaside  Sedge  (Carex  arenaria),  the  wpright  Sea 
Lymegrass  (Elymus  arenarius),  and  the  Sea-reed  or  Marram*  (Arundo  arenaria;,  occupy  a 
prodigious  surfece  of  the  sandy  shores  of  Great  Britain,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
vegetation ;  their  long,  creeping,  and  entangled  roots  nerving  to  bind  the  sands  together,  and 
thus  foiming  a  barrier  to  the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  Thus  it  is  witn  the  healths  in  the 
same  country,  where  the  sterile  moors  are  purple  with  the  blossoms  of  the  heath. 

The  flowers  of  the  Gentians  cover,  as  with  a  carpet  of  the  most  brilliant  ultramarine 
blue,  the  sides  of  the  alpine  hills  in  Switzerland  and  the  south  of  Europe.  In  England  the 
fields  are  too  oflen  red  with  Poppies,  and  the  marshes  are  whitened  with  the  "  snowy  beard" 
of  the  Cottongrass,  and  the  pastures  with  the  blossoms  of  the  Cardamine  pratensis,  so  that 

*  The  Celtic  name  of  thin  plant  is  Marain.    A  tillage  upon  the  seacoast  of  Norfolk  ii  named  Mafham,  fVont 
tiic  ateat  abuiidauco  in  which  the  Jlrnndo  arenaria  grow?  in  its  vicinity, 

21* 


910 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


PabtU. 


Book 


£j/u. 


i 


they  appear  at  a  distance  as  if  covered  with  linen  laid  out  for  bloachinff,  whence  arises  the 
Tuigar  English  name*  of  the  latter  i^  nt.  Some  of  these  plants  thus  Uving  in  society  are 
continually  strivmg  with  their  neig.  irs,  till  the  strongest  obtam  the  victory.  Many  low 
perennial  and  herlnceous  vegetables  ure  overpowered  by  a  colony  of  taller  shrubs ;  such  as 
the  Whin  or  Furze  and  the  Broom :  and  these  in  their  turns  must  occasionally  give  place 
to  trees  and  shrubs  of  a  larger  and  stronger  growth.  Mr.  Brown  has,  however,  noticed  a 
curious  fact  in  regard  to  the  Field  Eryngo  (Erynffium  campcstre,)  and  the  Starthiitle 
(Centaurea  Calcitrapa),  which  cover  much  cultivated  ground  upon  the  continent:  viz.  that 
these  two  engrosders  are  never  mixed  together  indiscrmiinately,  but  that  each  forms  groups 
of  partial  masses,  placed  at  certain  distances  from  their  rivals. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  plants,  which,  from  the  circumstance  of  their  not  increa<)ing 
much  by  root,  or  bearing  few  seeds,  or  such  seeds  as  from  their  light  and  volatile  nature  are 
much  dispersed,  and  which  are  not  particular  in  their  choice  of  soil,  do  net  form  groups,  but 
lie  scattered  (JPlantei  epartes,  errenees,  or  rares,  of  the  French). 

The  former  kind,  or  "  social  plants,"  are  t'aose  which  it  will  be  most  important  for  us  to 
consider  in  relation  to  Botanical  Geography. 

The  stations  of  plants  bein  -  thus,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  liable  to  the  influence 
of  physical  agents,  it  becomes  necessary  to  define  them  by  terms  which  are  calculated  at 
once  to  point  out  the  places  and  the  circumstances  in  which  they  grow.  This,  however,  is 
a  task  of  no  small  difficulty ;  for,  without  swelling  the  list  to  an  unmeasurable  length,  it  will 
be  impossible  to  define  the  various  local  situations  of  plant&  There  ore  many  situations 
which  produce  only  one  of  two  kinds:  for  example,  the  snow,  in  the  highest  arctic  regions 
to  which  travellers  have  attained,  has  been  found  to  nourish  and  to  bring  to  the  greatest  per- 
fection that  highly  curious  vegetable,  the  Red  Stiow  (Protococcus  nivalis).  The  truffle 
(Tuber  cibarium)  is  found  entirely  hid  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Some  fungi  are 
detected  upon  the  dead  horns  and  hoofs  of  animals  (no  plant  exists  upon  living  bodiesf),  and 
upon  dead  chrysalides;  and  both  fungi  and  mosses  grow  on  the  dung  of  animals.  Paper 
nor 'rishes  the  minute  Conferva  dendroidea :  the  glass  of  windows,  and  the  glass  table  of  the 
microscope,  if  laid  by  in  a  moist  state  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  produce  the  Conferva 
fenestralis.  Wine-casks  in  <^amp  cellars  give  birth  to  the  Racodium  cellare :  and  Dutrochet 
has  detected  living  vegetables  i..  Madeira  wine  and  in  Goulard  water,  (a  solution  of  Saturn). 
These,  however,  and  many  othei-s  that  might  be  noticed,  may  be  numbered  among  the  extra- 
ordinary stations,  and  they  principally  afiect  cryptogamic  vegetables.  In  a  popular  view  of 
the  subject,  though  we  cannot  altogether  omit  tlie  notice  of  such  minute  yet  curious  vege- 
table productions.  We  shall  mainly  direct  our  attention  to  the  more  conspicuous  plants ;  and 
they  may  be  thus  divided.  1.  Maritime  or  saline  plants.  These  are  terrestrial,  but  grow- 
ing upon  the  borders  of  the  ocean  or  near  salt  lakes ;  as  the  Saltworts  (Salsolse)  and  Glass- 
worts  (Salicomiffi),  &c.  Hence  these  plants  abound  in  the  interior  of  Africa  and  the  Rus- 
sian dominions,  where  there  are  saltpans,  as  well  as  on  the  shores.  2.  Marine  Plants. 
This  tribe  is  indeed  mostly  cryptogamic,  and  comprises  the  Algie,  Fuci,  VlvtB,  &c.  The 
phsnogamous,  or  perfect  marine  plants,  are  tlie  Sea-wracks  (Ruppia  and  Zostera),  and  a 
few  others  allied  to  them.  3.  Aquatic  plants.  Growing  in  fresh  water.  Both  stagnant 
pools  and  running  streams  in  various  situations,  abound  in  plants.  Some  are  entirely  sub> 
merged,  but  in  this  case,  with  the  rare  exception  of  the  little  Awlwort  (Subularia  aquatica), 
the  flowers  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  fructification.^  4.  Marsh  or 
swamp  plants.  5.  Meadow  nnd  pasture  plants.  6.  Field  plants.  This  tribe  ofl^n  includes 
such  OS,  introduced  with  the  grain  sown  in  those  districts,  are  equally  placed  there  by  the 
hand  of  man.  7.  Rock  plants,  which  may  include  the  natives  of  very  stony  spots,  and  such 
as  grow  upon  walls.  Walls,  although  artificial  structures,  are  known  to  produce  many  plants 
in  greater  perfection  than  natural  rock ;  yet  we  must  not  suppose  that  any  vegetable  is 
exclusively  confined  to  this  habitat  The  Holosteum  umbellatum  and  Draba  muralis  may 
be  cited  as  examples  of  this  tribe  in  England ;  and  amongst  mosses,  the  Qrimmia  pulvinata, 
Tortula  muralis,  &c.  8.  Sand  Plants.  9.  Plants  «/  dry  moors,  where  heaths  (Ericte) 
abound.  10.  Plants  which  attach  themselves  to  the  vicinity  of  places  inhabited  by  man. 
Such  are  the  Dock,  Nettle,  &c. ;  these  species  follow  everywhere  the  human  footsteps,  even 

*£aiiy'f  Smock.    Sucb  planu  were  in  olden  time  dedicated  to  Our  Lady  the  Virgin  Mary. 

t  Sr.houw,  indeed,  has  a  tribe  of  plants  which  lie  calls  "  Planta  Epixoa"  attaeh$d  to  Hvinf  aninuiU.  Thus,  he  lay*, 
Fuei  and  other  Mg»  are  attached  to  whalco,  mussels,  and  barnacles.  But  in  this  case  the  plants  manirestly  adhere 
to  a  dead  portion  of  the  animal ;  like  those  vegetables  which  exist  upon  the  outer  and  dead  part  of  the  bark  of  trees. 

1  Raymond  certainly  observed,  in  the  Pyrenees,  a  species  of  Crorifoot,  the  Water  Crmfoot  (I  anunculus  aqua* 
tills,)  producing  its  flower  and  fVuit  wholly  under  water ;  but  upon  a  closer  investigation  of  the  phenomenon,  he 
found  that  in  these  cases  the  calyx  enclosed  a  globule  of  air,  with  which  this  important  flinetion  of  fertilization 
was  performed.  The  curious  aquatic,  ValHiniria  spiralt;  has  a  still  more  wonderfUl  contrivance  for  bringing  the 
male  and  female  flowers  in  contact.  The  plant  is  dioicious.  The  female  flower  is  attached  to  the  parent  plant 
by  means  of  a  very  long  stalk,  spirally  twisted  like  a  corkscrew,  so  that  when  it  is  in  perfection,  it  rises  to  the 
surface  by  the  untwisting  of  the  stalk.  The  male  flowers,  upon  a  separate  plant,  am  nimnat  «e;:!>e,  borne  .~n  s 
vnrv  nhnrt  Btrni'ht  "ten!,  which  never  ccald  reach  the  nurfaco  without  detaching  themselves  from  the  plant.  Thii 
they  do  at  the  proper  season  ;  they  float  upon  the  top  of  the  water  along  with  the  <bmale  flowers,  scatter  their 
pollen,  and  die.  The  female  blossoms  on  the  contrary,  by  the  spiral  twisting  of  their  stalks,  retire,  and  ripec 
their  seeds  unter  water. 


Book  HI. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


m 


tant  for  us  to 


to  the  huts  and  cabins  of  the  highest  mountains ;  encouraged,  perhaps  by  the  presencti  of 
animal  substances,  and  the  azote  which  in  such  substances  is  known  to  abound.  11.  Fore$f 
plants,  consisting  of  such  trees  as  live  in  society.  12.  Plants  of  the  hedges,  as  are  many 
climbing  plants,  the  Honeysuckle,  the  Traveller's  joif,  the  Bryony,  &c.  13.  Subterranean 
plants.  Those  that  live  in  mines  an  1  caves,  and  which,  though  tolerably  numerous  and  im> 
portant,  are  yet  mostly  cryptogamous.  One  species,  a  fungus  yields  a  pale  phosphoric  light 
of  considerable  intensity.  14.  Alpine  or  mountain  plants,  '  it  is  very  difficult  to  draw  the 
limit,  and  indeed  they  will  depend  much  upon  latitude.  A  ^nt  which  grows  upon  a  hill  ot 
inconsiderable  elevation  in  Norway,  Lapland,  and  Iceland,  will  of  course  inhabit  the  loftiest 
Alps  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Again,  upon  mountpins  that  have  no  perpetual  snow  lying  on 
them,  alpine  plants  will  be  found  much  higher  thdn  on  such  as  have  continued  streams  of 
cold  snow-water  descending,  which  aifect  the  stf.te  of  tlie  atmosphere  at  much  lower  regions. 
15.  Parasitic  plants,  such  as  the  Misseltoe,  the  various  species  of  Loranthus,  &c.,  and  the 
most  wonderful  of  all  vegetable  productions,  the  Rafflesia  Amoldii :  these,  as  their  naiiie 
implies,  derive  nourishment  from  a  living  portion  ot  the  vegetable  to  which  they  attach 
themselves.  This  is  the  case,  too,  with  many  Fungi  whicii  subsist  upon  the  living  foliage 
of  plants;  some  exclusively  on  the  upper,  others  as  invariably  on  tlie  lower  side  of  these 
leaves ;  and,  lastly,  the  name  of  16.  Pseudo-parasites  has  been  given  to  a  very  extensive 
tribe,  which  subsists  upon  the  decayed  portions  of  the  trunk  or  branches  of  the  trees  to 
which  they  are  attached,  as  many  of  the  Lichens,  Mossf's,  &c. ;  or  which  are  simply  attach- 
ed by  the  surface  of  their  roots  to  tropical  trees,  obtaining  no  nourishment  from  them,  but 
from  the  surrounding  clement.  Among  this  number  may  be  reckoned  that  numerous  and 
singular  family  of  the  Orchidea,  called,  from  their  nature  and  property,  "  air  plants." 
Greatly  as  tliis  list  might  be  swelled,  we  shall  find  that  even  here  there  is  a  gradation  and 
an  approximation  of  one  tribe  to  another ;  but  these  are  amply  sufficient  for  our  purpose. 

We  have  been  able  to  r.ccount  in  some  measure  for  the  stations  of  plants,  affected  as  these 
are  by  local  circumstances ;  but  the  study  of  the  succeeding  part,  which  refers  to  their  habi- 
tations, considered  in  their  most  extensive  scale,  for  instance,  as  Iselonging  to  certain  regions 
or  countries,  we  shell  find  to  be  much  more  difficult ;  and  we  must  frequently  be  content  to 
study  and  to  admire  the  amazing  variety  of  vegetable  forms  which  the  beneficent  hand  of 
nature  has  scattered  over  the  different  parts  of  our  world,  without  being  able  to  account  for 
these  important  phenomena.  In  New  Holland  we  find  almost  exclusively,  all  tiie  siieciea 
of  Banksia,  Goodenia,  and  Epacris,  and  the  curious  Acaci<B  without  leaves,  but  with  peti- 
oles so  much  enlarged  as  to  assume  the  shape  and  perform  the  functions  of  leaves.  At  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Fig  Marigolds  (Mesembryanthema),  the  Slapelia,  the  numerous 
kinds  of  Ixia,  Gladiolus,  Pelargonium,  and  Protea  abound.  Tlie  Aurantiaceee,  the  family 
of  plants  to  which  the  Orange  and  Lemon  belong,  are  of  Asiatic  origin ;  as  the  Camellia 
and  Thea  arp  of  Chinese.  Those  curious  plants,  the  Mutisia,  the  various  species  of  Fuch- 
sia, the  Cinchona:  or  medicinal  barks,  the  Cacti,  are  uU  peculior  to  South  America.  If  a 
few  of  them  are  found  in  other  countries,  such  circumstances  are  of  very  rare  occurrence, 
and  do  not  overturn  the  general  laws  for  the  exclusive  existence  of  many  plants  in  certain 
countries.  There  are  in  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe  one  species  of  Ixia,  one  of  Gladio- 
lus, and  in  tlie  north  of  Africa  and  south  of  Europe  a  few  kinds  of  Fig  Marigold.  Within 
the  tropics  the  genera  of  plants  throughout  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  ure  similar,  but  rare- 
ly are  the  species  the  same.  This  rule  nearly  holds  good  on  the  opposite  continents  in  tem- 
perate climates.  We  find  the  Oriental  Plane  (Platanus  orientalis)  in  the  old  world,  and 
the  Occidental  Plane  (P.  occidentalis)  in  the  new.  Even  in  the  two  hemispheres,  in  simi- 
lar parallels  of  latitude,  the  genera  of  plants  have  a  great  affinity :  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  great  continent  of  America  has  many  in  common  with  the  north  of  Europe ;  and  the 
plants  of  the  latter  region,  transported  thither,  succeed  extremely  well. 

To  what  extent  plants  migrate,  unaided  by  man,  it  is  not  easy  to  say ;  but  that  such  ,\\- 
gration  is  going  on,  by  various  means  and  causes,  cannot  be  questioned.  Islands  which  lie 
near  to  continents,  ond  whicii  evidently  appear  at  one  period  to  have  been  joined  with  them, 
as  England  for  example,  although  they  may  contain  a  vegetation  similar  to  that  of  the  neigh- 
bouring continental  shores,  have  always  a  smaller  number  of  species ;  and  this  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  the  interruption  which  straits  or  seas  occasion  to  the  progress  of  the  seeds. 

The  Field  Erj/ngo  (Eryngium  campestre),  to  which  we  hs  ?e  already  alluded,  the  Venus's 
looking-glass  (Campanula  Speculum),  and  many  other  plants  of  France  and  Germany,  seem 
to  stop  at  the  line  formed  by  the  se» ;  yet  these,  and  many  other  vegetables  of  France,  reach 
a  limit  upon  the  same  continent  more  northern  than  any  part  of  England. 

The  migration  of  plants  may  be  reckoned  to  be  facilitated  by  the  following  causes.  1.  Th 
sea  ani  its  currents,  but  to  a  very  limited  extent;  for  if  the  seed  be  of  such  a  nature  tlia 
the  water  penetrates  its  integuments  and  reaches  the  embryo,  life  is  destroyed.  Yet  to  such 
a  distance  are  they  carried  by  this  medium,  that  upon  the  coasts  of  Britain,  of  Iceland,  and 
Norway,  the  seeds  of  the  West  Indies  are  frequently  cast,  and  it  is  said  sometimes  even  in 
a  fit  state  for  vegetation.  2.  Rivers,  by  the  continual  movement  of  their  waters,  convey  ' 
many  plants  to  a  considerable  distance  from  their  original  place  of  growth ;  and  the  banlcb 


■m 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pabt  II. 


ot  itrcomB  nro  ((oncrally  luldrnud  witli  a  vegetation  of  a  moro  varied  kind  tlion  tiio  diatriott 
remote  iVom  tiicm.  TIiiib,  too,  tlio  diflbrent  epecios  of  Saxifrage  and  other  alpine  planta 
are,  in  mountiiinoua  rc^innn,  brouf^fht  down  ironi  the  hi^lior  Bituatiunv,  and  llouriitli  iii  the 
valloyB.  3.  Windg,  wiucii  wail  tlic  lif^ht,  win((od,  and  pii|)|M;iio  sooda  to  inununHo  diatancoii, 
and  by  moans  of  which  tlicy  are  widely  diHiKirttud,    4.  AnimuU,  wliicii,  in  wnndnrintf  from 

5 lace  to  place,  oilon  carry  on  their  coats  tliooo  scodH  which  have  hooked  bristlnH,  &i.o.  6. 
Urdi,  wiiich,  swallowintf  berries  and  other  fruits,  pass  tlie  seeds  in  a  perfect  state,  und,  il 
is  even  said,  somotimcs  letter  fitted  for  germination  than  before.  In  this  manner  the  seedi 
are  oilon  dopositud  in  Uie  places  necessary  for  their  ^rowUi,  and  to  which  they  could  not 
othorwiso  have  reached ;  of  whicli  a  familiar  instance  is  found  in  the  Mitselloe. 

Man  is  howuver  tlio  most  active  a^cnt  in  tlio  disjicrsion  of  plants,  and  wo  must  not  over> 
look  the  ini|X)rtant  consoquoncoa  of  hm  iniluonco.  Sometimes,  indeed,  tho  causes  are  acci- 
dental, but  more  iroquontly  intentional.  The  shipwreck  of  a  vessel  on  tho  island  of  Guernsey, 
liaving  some  bulbs  on  board  iVom  tho  Capo  of  Good  IIo|)c,  caused  a  plant  to  propagate  in  the 
sands  u\wn  the  shores  of  that  mild  climate,  to  which  has  l)cun  since  given  tho  name  of  ylma- 
rtjllia  Horniengii  or  Guernsey  Lily,  and  a  branch  of  trade  of  some  importance  is  carried  on 
in  the  sale  of  this  very  root.  At  JJunnos  Ayros,  a  species  of  Artichoke  f  Cynara  Cardun- 
cuius)  has  increased  so  much  by  seeds  iinjiortod  from  Luropo,  that  Mr.  lluad,  m  his  anmsins 
"  Sketches  of  a  Journey  across  tlie  I'amiMis,"  &c.  tells  us  that  "  there  are  tliroe  regions  ot 
vegetation  between  Buenos  Avres  nnd  tho  base  of  tho  Cordilleras;  a  space  of  WM  miles: 
tho  iirst  nf  which  is  covered,  tor  180  miles,  with  clover  and  thistlea.  This  region,"  the 
author  continues,  "  varies  with  tlio  seasons  of  tho  year  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner.  In 
winter,  tho  leaves  of  the  thistles*  are  largo  &m\  luxuriant,  and  the  whole  surihce  of  tho 
country  has  tho  rough  appearance  of  a  turnip  Held.  The  clover  in  this  season  is  extremely 
rich  and  strong;  and  tho  sight  of  the  wild  cattle  grazing  in  full  liberty  on  such  pasture  ii 
very  beautiful.  In  spring  tho  clover  has  vanished,  tho  leaves  of  the  thistles  have  extended 
along  tho  ground,  and  the  country  still  hxjks  like  a  rough  crop  of  turnips.  In  Icpj  than  n 
month  the  change  is  most  extraordinary ;  tho  whole  region  becomes  a  luxuriant  wood  of 
enormous  thistloH,  which  have  nuddcnly  shot  up  to  a  height  of  ten  or  eleven  feet,  and  are  all  in 
Cull  bluom.  The  road  or  (mth  is  hemmed  in  on  lioth  sides;  the  view  is  completely  obstructed; 
not  an  animal  is  to  bo  seen ;  and  tho  stems  of  the  thistles  are  so  close  to  each  other,  and  so 
s'rong,  iluit,  independent  of  the  prickles  witli  which  they  are  armed,  they  form  an  impene- 
trable barrier.  The  sudden  growth  of  these  plants  is  quite  astonishing ;  and  though  it 
would  be  an  unusual  misfortune  in  military  history,  yet  it  is  really  possible  that  an  invadir; 
army,  unacquainted  with  tliis  country,  might  be  imprisoned  bv  tlicse  thistles  before  it  I  ad 
lime  to  escape  iroin  them.  Tho  summer  is  not  over  before  the  sceiio  undergoes  another 
rapid  change :  the  thistles  suddenly  lose  their  sap  and  verdure,  their  heads  droop,  the  leaves 
phriiik  and  ibdc,  tho  stems  become  black  and  dead ;  and  they  remain  rattling  with  the 
breeze,  ono  against  another,  until  the  violence  of  tlie  pampero  or  hurricane  levels  them  with 
the  ground,  when  tliey  rapidly  dccomiioso  and  disappear,  tiie  clover  rushes  up,  and  Uie  scene 
is  again  verdant." 

Tlie  strong-scented  Everlasting  (Elichrysum  foctidum),  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
has  found  a  soil  and  climate  equally  suited  to  its  growth  on  the  shores  of  Brest,  where  it 
covers  a  great  portion  of  tho  sands,  to  the  exclusion  of  tho  aboriginal  natives  of  tho  soil. 
Tl7i«!«(  is  supposed  to  be  indigenous  to  Barbary.  The  potatoc,  first  found  in  South  America, 
i.s  now  cultivated  all  over  the  world.  JRice,  from  Asia,  is  grown  to  an  immense  extent  in 
America,  &c. ;  tliesc,  and  many  other  plants  similarly  circumstanced,  which  we  could  men- 
tion, together  with  tliose  that  adorn  our  gardens,  often  owe  their  wide  diflTusion  to  having 
cscaiJeti  into  uncultivated  places,  and  become  to  a  certain  degree  naturalised  there. 

But  tliero  are  limits  to  migration,  for  some  of  which  wo  can  account,  and  for  others  we 
cannot.  Even  many  gartlen  plants,  which,  escaping  by  accident,  or  designedly  placed  in 
uncultivated  spts  so  as  to  appear  wild,  have  only  for  a  time  maintained  a  languid  existence, 
and  then  have  disappeared  oltogetlier.  Thus  we  know  that  the  beautiful  Gcntianella  (Gen- 
liana  acaulis)  connot  have  a  title  to  a  place  in  trie  British  Flora,  nor  can  some  others,  whicli 
ore  mere  outcasts  firom  gardens.  Some  plants  are  wholly  confined  to  particular  spots,  and 
can  bo  found  nowhere  else.  The  Tree-Pink  ^Dianthus  arboreus)  grows  still  on  the  single 
rock  in  the  island  of  Crete,  where  Prosper  Alpinus  first  detected  it;  and  tho  Double  Cocoa- 
nut  of  the  isle  Prasliu,  one  of  the  littlo  ^roup  of  islands  called  the  Seychelles,  notwith- 
standing tho  annual  migration  of  its  nuts  tor  many  thousands  of  miles,  has  never  established 
itself  in  any  other  place.  Nature  has  planted  the  common  Thrift  (Statice  Armcria),  the 
Scurvy  Orasscs  (Cochlearia  anglica  and  danica),  and  the  Rose-root  (Rhodiola  rosea),  in 
rocky  and  stony  , ".  '9s,  upon  shores  and  on  the  tops  of  tlio  highest  mountains;  yet  these 
plants  arc  never  found  in  any  intermediate  places.  ,  , 

The  visible  obstacles  to  the  miffration  of  plants,  are — 
(1.)  The  sea,  which,  though  we  have  introduced  ii.  as  a  means  of  extending  the  habitations 

*  From  tpcciincna  in  niir  Horbariiini,  wo  hnve  nurertnined  that  this  tkitlle  ii  tho  Cardoon  (Cynnia  Cardunculuiy, 
introduced  no  djubt  (torn  Europe  as  aii  iirticic  of  Tood,  but  now  growing  wild,  uselceo,  and  pernicious. 


Part  11. 

d  tlian  tlio  didtricta 
)thor  alpino  plaiiU 
and  iluuriuli  in  the 
iniinoniio  diatancoH, 
in  wandorinif  from 
d  bristloH,  &,c.  6. 
)rfoot  Htato,  and,  it 
mannor  tho  seedr 
licli  thoy  could  not 
iseltoe. 

wo  must  not  over* 
10  cauBOB  aro  acci- 
aland  of  Guernsoy, 
;o  propugttto  in  the 
tho  naiiio  of  Ama- 
banco  is  carried  on 
^Cynara  Cardun- 
ad,  in  his  aniusinD 
0  tliruo  rojEfiona  ot 
Tttco  of  9()0  miles : 
This  rejfion,"  tho 
innry  mannor.  In 
olo  surfaco  of  tho 
mson  is  extremely 
on  such  posturo  is 
los  have  extended 
)8.  In  Icpj  than  a 
luxuriant  wood  of 
feet,  and  are  all  in 
pletely  obstructed ; 
each  other,  and  so 
y  form  an  impcno- 
ig;  and  thou^ifh  it 
B  that  nn  invadir  j 
sties  before  it  1  ail 
mdoryocH  another 
3  droop,  the  leaves 
rattling  with  the 

0  levels  tliem  with 

1  up,  and  tlie  scene 

ape  of  Good  Hope, 
jf  Brest,  wiiere  it 
atives  of  tho  soil, 
n  South  America, 
nmense  extent  in 
ch  we  could  men- 
liffusion  to  having 
ed  there, 
nnd  for  others  we 
ignedlv  placed  in 
languid  existence, 
jrentianella  (Gen- 
amo  others,  which 
rticular  spots,  and 
till  on  the  single 
10  Double  Cocoa- 
chelles,  notwith- 
ncver  establi^ed 
ice  Armcria),  tho 
lodiola  rosea),  in 
ntains ;  yet  these 


ig  tho  habitations 

Jynnio  Cardunculufj, 
lernicious. 


Book  IH. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


340 


of  plants,  is  yet  a  ikr  greater  impediment,  by  the  injury  it  doea  to  th<»  Kida,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  their  being  convoyed  to  dutani,  countriea  in  a  sufficiently  short  time  to  prevent  the 
natural  death  of  the  seed.  It  must  be  observed,  too,  that  the  greater  number  of  seeds  have 
a  apociflc  gravity  heavier  than  that  of  water  when  in  a  living  atate.  The  Double  Cocoa- 
nut,  when  found  floating,  haa  alwava  lost  ita  vegetative  property.  The  living  nut  is  im* 
rnonsely  heavy,  and  would  inevitably  aink. 

^3.)  Dry  and  burning  de$ert».  These,  in  apite  of  their  oases,  which  have  been  happily 
assimilated  to  tho  isles  of  the  ocean,  prove  a  powerAil  obstacle  to  the  transport  of  seeda. 
Thus,  those  districts  of  Africa  which  are  separated  fVom  one  another  by  the  scorching  sanda 
of  Sahara  exhibit  a  great  dissimilarity  in  their  vegetation.  The  planta  of  Morocco  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Africa  have  little  resemblance  to  the  indigenous  growth  of  Senegal ;  whilst 
the  affinity  of  tho  vogctnblos  brought  by  Caillaud  from  Upper  Egypt  to  those  collected  by 
Palisot  do  Beau  vols  in  (J  ware  and  Benin  would  in  itself  lead  to  the  concluaion  that  no  very 
great  and  continued  deserts  intervene  between  these  far  distant  countries. 

(3.)  Mountain  ranget.  The  barriers  which  these  present  would  almost  Ire  insurmountable, 
were  it  not  for  tho  defiles  which  here  and  there  occur,  forming  passagea  for  men  and  ani- 
mals, OS  well  as  for  plants.  Thus,  the  plants  on  the  Italian  side  of  tho  Alps  are  quite  differ- 
pnt  from  those  on  tlie  Switzerland  side ;  those  of  the  Spanish  Pyrenees  from  tliose  of  the 
French  Pyrenees ;  and  it  was  a  subject  oi'  peculiar  rer;ret  to  the  enterprising  Drummond, 
when  he  reached  tho  summits  of  tho  Itocky  Mountains  in  North  America,  that  his  commis- 
aion  did  not  allow  him  to  pcnetrato  farther  into  the  western  side  of  that  great  continent, 
where  ho  found,  every  step  he  took,  a  vegetation  very  diifurent  from  what  hoc  been  presented 
to  him  by  the  eastern  side. 

A  knowledge  of  the  Natural  Orders  of  plants  is  in  no  department  of  botany  so  important 
as  in  treating  of  their  geographic':il  distribution.  The  system  of  Linneeus,  or  the  Artificial 
Arrangement,  does  not,  as  wo  know,  regard  the  habits  and  affinities  of  vegetables,  but  simply 
and  beautifully  points  out  to  us,  by  certain  characters,  the  means  of  arriving  at  the  know- 
ledge of  any  given  species.  The  natural  method,  which  owes  so  much  to  the  labours  of 
JuHsieu,  Decandolle  and  Brown,  has  i.  higher  object  in  view,  that  of  grouping  plants  together 
according  to  their  natural  affinities ;  and  by  such  an  aiTangement  we  are  often  led  to  other 
and  vor*  important  results.  Tho  primary  divisions  of  the  Natural  Method  are,  first,  acoty- 
LGDONEs,  or  plants  which  liavp  no  cotyledons  to  the  seed :  these  are  pynonymous  to  the 
Cryptogamia,  and  include  tho  Mosset,  Lichens,  Sea-weeds,  Fungi,  Ferns,  &c. ;  secondly, 
M0NocoTYi,FiDONKS ;  thoso  whoso  soods  have  one  cotyledon,  such  as  the  Grasses,  Liliaceous 
Plants,  tlie  Rushes,  Sedges,  the  Palms,  4*c. ;  and,  thirdly,  diootyledones,  or  the  plants 
v.iiich  liavo  two  or  rarely  more  cotyledons  to  the  seed,  such  as  our  Slirtibs  and  Trees,  and 
very  many  Herbaceous  Plants.  Each  of  these  possesses  external  characters  which,  though 
not  very  easily  defined  in  words,  yet  cannot  fail  to  strike  the  observer  who  devoted  his  atten- 
tion, even  for  a  little  while,  to  the  subject ;  and  we  find  that,  in  a  great  proportion  of 
instances,  Uiey  have  not  only  a  peculiar  station,  but  that  their  geographical  distribution  is 
different. 

Tho  ACOTVLEDONOvs  plants  increase  in  number  in  proportion  to  the  other  great  classes,  as 
we  recede  from  the  etjuator  to  the  poles ;  with  the  exception,  however,  of  the  Ferns.  The 
latter  abound  more  within  the  tropics  than  anywhere  else:  not,  however,  so  much  in  open 
plains  a^  in  the  sheltered,  moist,  and  hilly  countries ;  so  that  their  maximum  is  ui  the  moun- 
tainous part  of  the  tropics.  The  island  of  Martinique  afforded  to  the  Abbe  Plumier  a  rich 
and  abundant  harvest  of  ferns ;  and  some  isles  of  small  extent  are  said  to  have  one-third  of 
their  vegetation  composed  of  this  kind  of  plants. 

Among  the  monocotyledonovs  Plants,  the  Palms  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  tropics : 
the  Liliaceous  plants  abound  there  and  in  the  warm  zones ;  the  three  families  of  Grasses, 
Sedges  (Cyperaceaj),  and  Rushes  (Junci),  present  some  important  differences  in  regard  to  a 
comparison  with  the  phtenogamous  or  flowering  plants.  The  disparity  between  these  latter 
and  the  grasses  is  not  great  in  each  of  the  zones ;  whilst  the  two  other  families,  the  Ct/pe- 
raceee  and  Junci,  diminish  near  the  equator  and  increase  towards  the  north.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  for  the  grasses  are  very  rare  upon  the  coasts  of  Greenland. 
In  what  we  have  now  said,  we  allude  to  the  grasses,  &c.  in  a  wild  state ;  having  no  refer- 
ence to  those  regions  where  so  many  of  the  grass  tribe,  as  the  Wheat,  Barley,  Oat,  Maize, 
Rye,  Rice,  &c.,  are  found  simply  in  a  state  of  cultivation. 

The  picoTYLEDONOus  plants  are  the  most  extensively  distributed,  and  we  must  ofler  some 
further  remarks  upon  them.  The  Compound  or  Syngenesious  plants  (Composite),  as  every 
one  knows,  form  a  very  extensive  natural  family.  They  are  diffused  throughout  the  whole 
earth,  but  they  are  most  abundant  in  the  temperate  and  tropical  climates.  Fewer,  however, 
of  them  are  found  in  the  warm  regions  of  equinoctial  America  than  in  the  sub-alpine  and 
fomnasHiio  #iiafwi«*fa  r\f  ^he  co*^e  c'^"n(r^  At  the  Con'^c  and  Sierra  r.A/tno  in  ^A>ina  in  tiia 
East  Indies  and  New  Holland,  thev  exist  in  comparatively  smaller  numbers  than  in  other 
regions  situated  in  similar  parallels,  but  which  afford  situations  more  congenial  to  their 

Vou  I.  2G 


MO 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  IT, 


K    i 


growth.    Again,  in  tho  firozcn  zone,  in  Kanitschatlia  and  lApland,  the  relative  proportion  ot 
plant!  of  this  fhmily  m  ono-lmlf  Icm  than  in  tho  temperate  cliinatoB. 

Tho  Ltguminmu  ptantt  (to  which  tho  Pea,  tho  Boan,  Sic.  Mong,  and  Huch  ai  bear  papi- 
lionaceous flowers,)  abound  most  in  tlio  equinoctial  rc|f  iuns :  they  diniinioh  gradually  in  each 
homisphero  in  diverging  ftom  tho  equator,  except  indeed  in  certain  countries  where  particu- 
lar  gi'iiora,  hy  tho  multiplicity  of  tlicir  species,  give  a  peculiar  feature  to  the  vegetation,  at 
in  Hiboria  and  tho  vast  provinces  of  Russia,  where  so  many  Astragali  or  Bitter-vetches  are 
found. 

Mr.  Brown  has  Judiciously  separated  tho  natural  order  of  Rtibiacrt^  into  two  groups 
thoeo  with  vorticillate  leaves  nnd  no  stipules  (tho  fltellata  of  Linnnus),  to  whicli  belong  the 
OooBegrass  (Galium),  Madder  (Kubiu),  &c.,  and  which  are  almost  peculiar  to  the  temperate 
soncs;  and  the  true  Rul)iace<c,  with  ijiposito  imirs  of  loaves,  and  two  opposite  stipules 
(which  are  in  fact  abortivo  leaves,  and  tlais  show  their  affinity  with  tho  SteilatO'),  to  which 
oolong  tho  real  medicinal  hurha  (or  Cinchona;),  and  somo  other  nearly  related  plants  pos- 
sessing similar  virtues:  viicso  iattcr  nro  almost  wholly  confined  to  tho  equinoctial  regions. 

Tho  two  well-known  aid  oxtonsivu  natural  families,  tho  UmhrllUeroua  and  CVwq/croun 
plants,  aro  very  rare  in  the  truplv  -,  i."  "^  ■  »cept  tho  mountains.  They  abound  in  tlio  aoutli 
of  Europe,  and  espociully  oi)' 111)  tho  valley  or  t.* -in  of  tho  Mediterranean. 

Sect.  IV. — ViV/o  qf  Botanical  Regions, 

To  divide  the  globo  into  botanical  regions  or  districts  will  not  bo  difficult,  seeing  thot  cer- 
tain countries  possess  a  peculiar  vego*  tion,  and  that  numerous  impediments  prevent  emi- 
Sation;  seeing,  too,  that  ccrtiiui  tonus  or  tribes  ure  incompatible  with  certain  climates. 
.  Do  Candollo  has  constituted  twenty  of  those  regions ;  but  although  each  is,  to  a  certain 
degree,  peculiar  in  its  vegetable  productions,  it  would  require  more  space  than  we  ran  devote 
to  such  a  subject  to  characterise  them.  Wo  must,  therefore,  content  ourselves  with  giving 
a  bare  list.  1.  Hyperborean  region.  This  district  includes  the  northern  extremity  ot  Asia, 
Europe,  and  America;  ond  grndimlly  merges  into  the  following.  2.  European  region; 
comprising  all  Europe,  except  tho  part  bordering  upon  tho  polo,  and  tho  southern  districts 
anproaching  tho  Mediterranean.  To  tho  cast  it  extends  to  the  Altaic  mountains.  3.  Sihe- 
nan  region,  comprehending  the  j^rcat  plains  of  Siberia  and  Tartary.  4.  Mediterranean 
region;  comprising  all  tho  basin  of  this  great  inland  sea;  that  is,  Africa  on  this  bide  tlie 
Salmra,  and  that  part  of  Europe  which  is  sheltered  iVom  tho  north  by  a  more  or  less  conti- 
nued range  of  mountains.  5.  Oriental  region ;  thus  called  relatively  to  southern  Europe, 
and  containing  the  countries  bordering  upon  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  6.  India,  with 
its  archipelago.  7.  China,  Cochinchina,  and  Japan.  8.  New  Holland.  9.  The  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  or  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  beyond  the  tropics.  lU.  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and 
the  Mozambique  Coast  (imperfectly  known).  11.  Equinoctial  Africa ;  viz.  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Congo,  tlie  Senegal,  and  Niger.  12.  The  Canary  Isles,  13.  The  United 
States  of  North  America,  14.  The  Western  and  Temperate  ( 'oasts  of  North  America. 
l!^,  The  West  Indian  Isles.  10.  Mexico,  17.  Tropical  South  America.  18.  Chili,  19. 
Southern  Brazil  and  Btieno-  Ayres,    20.  The  Straits  of  Magellan, 

Many  of  the  productions  af  these  regions  will  bo  considered  somewhat  at  large  in  other 
parts  of  this  work;  and  wo  shall  conclude  our  introductory  sketch  of  Botiinical  Geograpliy 
by  a  notice  of  Professor  Schouw's  Phy to- Geographies  or  General  Botanical  Division  of  the 
Globe.  This  is  illustrated  by  a  map,  which  accompanies  this  memoir.  Unlike  M.  De  Can- 
dollo, Professor  Schouw  characterises  the  regions  by  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  tlieir 
vegetation,  adopting  commonly  used  geographical  terms  only  where  he  conceives  that  a  cer- 
tain division  of  the  earth  ought  to  constitute  a  distinct  region,  but  is  not  sufficiently  acquainted 
with  its  productions  to  determine  and  define  their  forms.  He  makes  the  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  his  regions  to  depend  on  these  foots :  first,  that  at  least  one-half  oi"  tho  species  should 
be  peculiar  to  that  region ;  secondly,  that  at  least  a  quarter  of  the  genera  should  belong 
exclusively  to  it,  or  at  least  have  there  a  decided  maxmium,  so  that  their  species  in  other 
districts  might  merely  be  considered  as  their  representatives ;  and,  thirdly,  that  individual 
families  of  plants  be  either  peculiar  to  the  region,  or  else  have  their  maxima  there ;  npve^ 
theless,  when  this  last  characteristic  is  wanting,  while  the  difference  in  genera  and  species 
is  very  considerable,  it  may  yet  be  admitted  as  a  region. 

Professor  Schouw  in  this  manner  reckons  twenty-two  regions : — 

(1.)  Region  of  Saxifrages  arid  Mosses,  or  the  Alpine  Arctic  Flora. — ^This  corresponds 
with  De  Candolle's  first  region,  and  comprehends  all  the  countries  within  the  polar  circle ; 
namely,  Lapland,  the  north  part  of  Russia  and  Siberia,  Kamtschatka,  Russian  America,  part 
of  British  America,  Greenland,  and  Iceland ;  but  Professor  Schouw  adds  to  it,  with  much 
propriety,  part  of  the  Scottish  and  Scandinavian  mountains,  as  tar  as  they  foil  within  the 
alpine  region,  as  also  the  mountains  in  the  southern  and  central  parts  of  Europe,  inasmuch 
OS  they  are  related  to  the  alpine  regions.  It  is  characterised  by  the  abundance  of  mosses 
and  lichens,  the  presence  of  tlse  Saxifrages,  Gentians,  Chichweed  tribe  (Alsineee),  Sedges, 
and  Willows ;  an  entire  absence  of  tropical  fomilie't  \  a  considerable  decrease  of  the  peculiar 


Part  II, 

live  proportion  ot 

uch  u  bonr  papi. 
^dually  in  each 
38  wlicre  particu- 
lie  vcKL'tation,  u 
Bittcr-vctches  are 

nto  two  ffroupti 
which  belon{]r  the 
to  the  tompcrate 
opposito  BtipulcB 
mat<c),  to  which 
latcfl  plants  poa- 
noctial  regionu. 
and  CVuq/erom 
uund  in  tho  south 


,  secinjif'that  cer- 

nts  prevent  omi- 

certain  climates. 

ch  is,  to  n  certain 

lan  we  can  devote 

olves  with  (riving 

3xtreniity  ot  Asia, 

uropcan  region; 

southern  districts 

mtains.    3.  Sibe- 

I.  Mediterranean 

a  on  this  bide  the 

lore  or  less  conti- 

southern  Europe, 

6.  India,  with 

9.  The  Cape  of 

mnia.  Nubia,  and 

E.  tho  neighbour- 

13.  The  United 

North  America. 

18.  Chili.    19. 

at  lariQfe  in  other 
inical  Geograpliy 
1  Division  of  the 
dike  M.  De  Can- 
feature  of  tlieir 
ccives  that  a  cer- 
iently  acquainted 
hiiracteristic  fea- 
10  species  should 
1  should  belong 
species  in  other 
that  individual 
la  there ;  never- 
nera  and  species 


Phis  corresponds 
the  polar  circle ; 
m  America,  part 
to  it,  wiUi  much 
fall  within  the 
urope,  inasmuch 
dance  of  mo$te» 
Isineffi),  Sedges, 
e  of  the  peculiar 


Book  in. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


361 


furms  uf  tho  temperate  zone;  by  tho  forcsta  of  beech  or  fir,  or  else  tlio  total  wmt  of  trees; 
tlic  scarcity  of  aninmls,  and  tho  prevalence  of  cnspitoso  plants,  whoce  blossoms  are  large  in 
proportion,  and  generally  uf  a  pule  colour. 

Qj.)  Region  of  the  Umbellifei  ou»  and  Cruc\ferou$  flanli.—Thia  tribe  takes  in  the  whole 
of  Europe,  except  what  belongs  to  tho  preceding  division,  from  tlio  Pyrenees,  tho  mountains 
of  the  south  of  France,  rf  Hwitzerland,  and  tho  north  of  Greece,  llio  greater  part  of  Siberia, 
and  tho  country  about  Mount  Caucasus.  Bchouw  has  characterized  it  by  the  crvctferouM 
and  umbelliferoua  plants,  because  they  form  a  larger  portion  of  the  total  number  than  any 
other  kinds,  and  because  it  may  thus  be  best  separated  from  the  vegetation  of  North  America 
in  tho  same  parallel.  It  is  not  easily  distinguished  from  tho  next  region ;  but  it  may  he  said 
of  it,  chat  Fungi  abound  moro,  that  the  Ro$aceous  family  and  the  CrowfootM  (Ranunculacee), 
tlio  Amentaceoui  and  Cancerous  tribes  (Pines),  form  rather  a  large  proportion ;  that  it  bean 
a  rcseinblanco  to  many  of  Uie  polar  forms,  especially  in  the  abundance  of  its  Sedges  (Cype- 
rocRo;) ;  that  its  meadows  are  most  flourishing,  and  that  almost  all  the  trees  are  deciduous  in 
winter.  In  tho  northern  part  of  this  region,  the  Cichoracea  (a  tribe  of  the  Composits  or 
Eyngcnesious  plants,  including  tho  Endive,  Lettuce,  Dandelion,  iic.)  much  prevail ;  while 
in  its  Boiithorn  division,  or  in  northern  Asia,  the  Cynarocephalee  (Artichoke  and  Thistle 
tribr  ;,  together  witii  tho  Butter-vetches  (Astragali),  and  iSa/tne  plants  (Sea-worts  and  Glass- 
worts),  seem  to  have  theli  maximum. 

(3.)  Region  of  the  Labiate  fowers  and  Caryophyllea  (to  which  tlie  Pink,  the  Catcf^fiy, 
the  Sandworts,  dec.  belong) ;  or  the  Mediterranean  Flora. — This  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
tlic  Pyrenees,  tho  Alps  of  Switzerland  and  of  the  south  of  France,  and  the  north  of  Greece, 
and  thus  includes  tho  three  peninsulas  of  southern  Europe,  namely,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece ; 
on  tho  cast  by  Asia  Minor  and  its  islands ;  on  the  south  it  takes  in  Egypt  and  all  the  north 
of  Africa  as  far  as  tho  deserts ;  and,  lastly,  it  includes  the  Canary  Islands,  Madeira,  and  the 
Azores.  It  is  marked  especially  by  the  two  families  above  mentioned,  \yhich  are  much  rarer 
both  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  countries  just  enumerated,  and  in  the  corresponding 
parallels  in  North  America.  The  Compositce,  the  StellatcB  {Goosegrass,  Madder,  Sic),  ana 
tiio  rough-leaved  plants  (Asper\folia),  are  hero  in  considerable  numbers,  as  well  as  in  the 
similar  latitudes.  A  few  tropical  plants,  or  individuals  allied  to  them,  now  appear;* one  or 
two  Palms,  the  Laurels,  the  Arum  tribe,  tho  Terebinthaceca  (Pistacia,  &c.),  some  tropical 
grasses  and  true  Cyperacea.  Nightshades  (Solaneie),  Leguminous  plants,  the  Mallow  and 
Nettle  tribes,  and  tho  Spurges  (Euphorbiaces),  increase ;  Evergreens  ore  numerous ;  vege- 
tation never  entirely  ceases,  but  verdant  meadows  are  more  rare.  This  region  may  be  sub- 
divided into  provinces:  of  the  Cisti,  Spain  and  Portugal;  of  the  Sage  and  Scabious,  the 
south  of  France,  Italy,  and  Sicily ;  of  tho  shrubby  Labiata,  the  Levant,  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  southern  part  of  the  Caucasian  country ;  and  of  Houseleeks  (Semporviva),  the  Canary 
Isles,  probably  also  the  Azores,  Madeira,  and  the  north-west  coast  of  Africa.  Many  iSfem- 
perviv<c,  some  succulent  plants,  Spurges  and  Cacalia,  cliaracteriso  especially  this  province. 

(4.)  The  Japanese  region. — Tho  eastern  temperate  part  of  the  old  continent,  namely, 
Japan,  the  north  of  China,  and  Chinese  Tartary,  probably  forms  a  peculiar  region ;  but  we  are 
too  little  acquainted  with  the  botany  of  these  countries  to  admit  it  with  certainty,  and  still 
less  aro  wo  able  to  define  correctly  the  characteristics  of  its  Flora.  Of  the  358  genera  found 
in  Japan,  270  occur  in  Europe  and  the  north  of  Africa,  and  about  the  same  number  in  North 
America ;  so  that  its  Flora  seems  to  occupy  a  middle  place  between  those  of  the  old  and  new 
worlds.  Its  vegetation,  indeed,  approaches  more  to  the  tropical  than  to  the  European ;  for 
wo  meet  with  the  Ci/cas  family,  the  Scitaminea  (to  ;vhich  belong  the  Ginger,  Cardamom, 
&c.),  the  Bananas,  ihe  Palms,  the  Anona  or  Custard-apples,  and  the  Sapindacea ;  so  that 
there  is  a  considerable  affinity,  as  might  be  expected  from  its  situation,  to  the  flora  of  India. 
The  fiimilies  of  tho  Buckthorns  (Rhamni)  and  Honeysuckles  are  found  in  a  relatively  con- 
siderable number,  and  they  exhibit  some  peculiar  genera ;  thus,  perhaps,  this  region  might 
be  correctly  termed  that  of  the  Rhamni  and  the  Caprifoliacem. 

(5.)  Region  rf  the  Asters  and  Solidagos  (Michaelmas-daisies  and  golden-rods.) — The 
eastern  part  of  North  America,  with  the  exception  of  such  as  belongs  to  the  first  or  arctic 
district,  comprehends  without  doubt  two  regions ;  for  amongst  417  genera  in  Walter's  Flora 
of  Carolina,  117  are  wanting  in  Barton's  Flora  of  Philadelphia.  The  northern  divisions  of 
the  United  States  have,  indeed,  but  few  genera  which  do  not  occur  also  in  the  southern ;  but 
tliis  only  shows  that  a  similar  relation  exists  here  to  what  takes  place  between  ;he  north  and 
south  of  Europe.  The  southern  region  will  include  Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  and  Carolina ;  the  northern  contains  the  other  states  of  North  America.  What 
characterises  this  region  is  (besides  the  number  of  species  bf  the  genera  Aster  and  Solidago), 
the  great  variety  of  Oaks  and  f^rs ;  the  very  few  Crucifera  and  Umbellifera,  Cichoracea 
and  CynarocephaltB ;  the  total  absence  of  the  genus  Erica,  and  the  presence  of  more  nume- 
rous species  of  the  allied  family  of  Vaccinium  (Whortleberries)  than  are  to  be  met  with  in 


iv 


(6.)  Region  of  Magnolia. — This,  which  comprises  the  southern  parts  of  North  America, 
it)  separated  from  the  preceding  region  by  the  nunioer  of  tropical  forms  which  here  appoar. 


VXi 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  fl 


and  which  show  themaelvea  mora  fVequently  than  on  the  Bimilarparallclsof  tlioold  continent 

ach,  for  inatance,  aa  the  Scitaminea,  Cycadea,  Anonacea,  Sapindacra;,  Mdanlnrnva, 
cti,  Slc.)  From  the  old  world,  too,  in  corrospondinjr  latiludoa,  it  ia  atill  tUrthor  diiitin- 
ffiiiahud  by  a  smaller  proportion  of  Labtata  and  Cnryophylleoi ;  and  byhavin(;  nioro  trooa  o( 
broad-ahiniag  foliage  and  iplendid  bloaaoina,  (tho  Mngnoliai,  tlio  Tulijtrtrer,  tho  Uorte- 
ckeilnut,  iLC.)  and  witlt  piiuintod  leaves  (the  llledittchicc,  Rnbinia,  Acacia;,  &c.) 

(7.)  Rfffion  »{/*  the  Cacti,  Pepper$,  and  Melailomai ;  a  very  extensive  region,  including 
the  lower  diatncta  of  Mexico,  Guatemala,  the  WcHt  Indies,  New  Grcnacln,  Vcuozuclit, 
Guiana,  and  Peru,  perhapi  also,  a  part  of  Brazil ;  in  aliort,  all  intertropical  Anicricn.  Tho 
three  families  here  mentioned  appear  peculiarly  to  characterise  those  countries ;  for  the  tirvt 
belonffs  exclusively  to  America,  and  of  tho  other  two  there  exist  comparatively  few  Hpcciea 
out  ot  these  districts.  Palms,  the  Rubiacca,  the  Solanea,  (in  which  are  classed  tho  Night- 
ihades  and  PvtaUte),  the  rough-leaved  olanta  (Borap inee),  tho  Paiiion-flowera  and  Compo- 
titec,  ore  here  very  common.  It  may  eamit  of  several  provinces,  as  that  of  tlio  Ferni  and 
Orchidea  (in  the  West  India  islands) ;  of  the  Palms  (the  continent  of  South  America.) 
Brazil  ought  certainly  to  constitute  a  peculiar  province,  if  indeed  it  bo  not  a  distinct  region; 
and  the  works  of  Spix  and  MartiuH,  St.  Hilairc,  the  Prince  de  Nouwied,  &c.,  will  soon  enable 
us  to  characterise  its  vegetable  forma.  The  Melastomo)  and  Palms  appear  to  belong  to  tho 
more  numerous  inmates  of  this  region. 

(8.)  Region  of  the  Cinchona  (or  Medicinal  Barks.) — It  appears  from  Humboldt's  works 
that  the  middle  districts  (such  at  least  in  respect  to  their  altitude)  of  South  America  should 
form  a  distinct  region  from  that  last  mentioned,  a^^  they  differ  considerably  from  the  low 
lands;  and  tho  name  now  proposed  seems  to  be  rharacteristic  of  their  vcjifetation,  at  least  of 
Peru  and  New  Grenada,  tliough  certainly  not  ol  ^xico,  where  the  species  of  OtncAona  are 
wanting. 

(9.)  Region  of  Escallonia,  Vaccinia  (Whortleberries),  and  Winterte  (Winter's  Barks). 
^These,  according  to  Humboldt,  occupy  the  highest  parts  of  South  America.  Besides  the 
plants  mentioned,  there  belong  to  this  region  many  species  of  Lobelia,  Gentian,  Slipper- 
wort  {Calceolaria),  Sage,  several  European  genera  of  Grasses,  Brome,  Festuca  and  Poa, 
the  CichoracetB,  as  Hupocharia  nnd  Apargia ;  as  well  as  the  more  strictly  speaking  alpine 
plants  (^Saxifraget,  Whitlowgrassis,  Sandworts,  and  Sedges.)  Perhaps  also  those  parta 
of  the  high  lands  where  tho  species  of  Oak  and  Fir  flourish  belong  to  the  same  region,  tliough 
in  all  probability  they  constitute  a  peculiar  province. 

(10.)  Chilian  region. — It  oppoars  that  Chili  should  form  a  distinct  region ;  for  amongst 
the  genera  which  appear  there,  not  one  half  are  fbund  in  tho  low  districts  of  South  Americi 
Its  character,  perhaps,  most  resembles  that  of  the  mountainous  country  in  its  SlipptrtDorti, 
Escallonia,  Weinmannia,  Baa,  Bellfiowers,  and  Buddlea;  but  yet  the  difference  is 
scarcely  sufficient  to  constitute  it  a  province.  The  Flora  of  this  country  appears  to  be  essen- 
tially distinct  from  that  of  New  Holland,  the  Ctipe,  and  New  Zealand ;  though  an  approach 
to  them  is  observable  in  Ooodenia,  Araucaria  (Chilian  pine,)  the  Proiea  family.  Gunners, 
and  Ancistrum. 

(11.)  Region  of  arborescent  Composita  (syngenesious  plants  with  tree-like  stems.)— 
This  takes  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  in  general  the  eastern  side  of  the  temperate  part  of  South 
America.  It  has  been  already  remarked,  that  the  Flora  of  this  district  of  the  world  agrees 
to  a  considerable  degree  with  that  of  Europe ;  amongst  109  genera,  70  are  likewise  European, 
and  85  in  the  north  temperate  zone.  On  the  other  hand,  it  differs  considerably  from  the 
Floras  of  the  Cape  and  of  New  Holland,  for  the  Proteas,  the  Myrtle  tribe,  and  the  Mimotat 
ere  either  wholly  wanting,  or  are  seen  but  sparingly ;  and  there  are  no  Epacrida,  Heath, 
Iridea,  Mesembryanthema,  or  Geraniums.  Nor  can  it  be  compared  with  the  Flora  of  the 
north-west  coast  of  America ;  for  amongst  189  genera  mentioned,  only  85  ore  found  in  Chili. 
The  characteristics  of  this  region  seem  to  lie  in  the  great  number  of  Arborescent  Syngenetie, 
(particularly  of  the  sub-family  Boopidea),  which,  however,  do  not  exclusively  appertain  to 
it,  but  are  also  seen  at  the  Cape. 

(12.)  Antarctic  region. — This  includes  the  countries  near  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  There 
is  a  considerable  affinity  between  the  vegetation  here  and  what  is  seen  in  the  north  temperate 
zone ;  for,  amongst  82  known  genera  from  thence,  there  are  59  of  them  which  have  species 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  arctic  polar  forms  also  appear,  such  as  Sedges  (Carices), 
Saxifrages,  Gentians,  Arbutus,  and  Primroses.  Some  resemblance  to  the  highlands  of 
South  America  and  to  Chili  is  also  shown  in  the  Slipperworts,  Ourisia,  Baa,  Bolax,  Win- 
tera,  Escallonia ;  to  the  Cape,  in  the  genera  Gladiolus,  Witsenia,  Gunnera,  Ancistrum, 
Oxalis ;  and  to  New  Holland,  in  Proteacea  and  Mniarum, 

(13.)  Region  of  New  Zealand. — This  well  deserves  to  be  characterised  as  a  separate 
legion,  although  its  vegetation  be  a  mixture  of  what  prevails  on  the  nearest  continents,  as 
South  America,  Southern  Africa,  and  New  Holland.  It  has,  in  common  with  South  Ame- 
rica, Ancistrum,  Weinmannia,  Wintera:  with  Southern  Africa,  the  Fig  Marigi'ih,  Gna- 
phaiium  Xeranthema  (Everlastmgs),  Tetragonia  (the  famous  New  Zealand  Spinach),  Wood- 
uorrel,  and  Patserinai  and  with  New  HoUand,  Uie  Epacris,  Melaleuca,  Myoporum;  with 


Book  II 


Part  fl. 

of  Iho  old  contincnl 
acpir,  Mrlimlnmia, 
Btill  Hirthor  diitin- 
iving  morn  iroos  of 
ip-lrer,  tho  Ilorte- 
icia,  &.C,) 
-e  rcffion,  including 
'onmfii,  Vcnczueh^ 
cal  America.  Tho 
mtries ;  for  tiio  flrst 
ativuly  few  spocieg 
classed  thn  A'ight- 
Howers  anil  C'ompo- 
:  of  tlio  Ferns  and 
f  South  America.) 
)t  a  distinct  region; 
^c,  will  soon  ontble 
3ar  to  belong  to  tho 

Humboldt's  works 
ith  America  should 
irably  from  tho  low 
ffctation,  at  least  of 
les  of  Cinchona  are 

(Winter's  Barks), 
orica.     Besides  tlie 

Gentian,  Slipper- 
Fettuca  and  Poa, 
tly  speaking  alpine 
p8  altto  those  parts 
ome  region,  tliough 

iglon ;  for  amongst 
of  South  America. 
1  its  SUppt  rworts, 
',  tho  difference  is 
il)pears  to  be  essen- 
liough  an  appronch 
family,  Gunnera, 

ree-like  stems.)— 
rate  part  of  South 
'  the  world  agrees 
ikcwise  European, 
iiderably  from  the 
,  and  the  Mimotat 
'i^pacridee,  Heaths, 
h  the  Flora  of  the 
are  found  in  Chili. 
scent  Syngenesia, 
3ively  appertain  to 

Magellan.  There 
le  north  temperate 
hich  have  species 
Sedges  (Carices), 
the  highlands  of 
t(Ea,  Bolax,  IVtn- 
mera,  Ancistrum, 

;ed  as  a  separate 
est  continents,  as 
with  South  Ame- 

B*" -•—      7   1.        /^ 

duurigi'Kis,  unu" 

Spinach),  Wood- 
Myopomm;  with 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


2S? 


Iiulh  Uio  latter,  tho  fkmiliot  of  PrnUacea  and  Reitiacua :  lome  spccioM  also  ar«  common 
both  to  Now  lluUund  and  Van  Dinmen'H  land,  for  initanco  Mniarum  bijinrum,  Samolui  lit- 
lorali*,  IJentiana  numtana ;  the  Hrst  also  a  native  of  Uin  Straitii  of  Magellan. 

(14.)  Region  qf  Epacridet  and  Eucalypti:  comprehending  the  temperate  parta  of  New 
Holland,  together  with  Van  Diomcn's  Land. — This  region  ii  very  marked.  The  fkmilies  of 
Ijtackhouiea:  and  'IVemandrea  Me  quite  peculiar  to  Now  Holland,  tho  Evacridna  nearly  n. 
Proteaceai,  Acacia,  Aphyllat,  and  the  greater  number  of  the  Afyr//e  family  (especially  of  the 
l^'cnora  Eucalyptus,  Lfptospertnum,  Melaleuca):  tho  Stylideir,  Rextiacia,  Catuarijiea, 
Diottnete,  separato  it  from  utiior  rogiona.  Tho  tropical  part  of  New  Holland,  according  to 
Brown,  can  hardly  bo  united  to  this,  but  must  be  either  a  particular  region,  whose  t\an 
rciembliis  that  of  India,  or  else  a  province  of  this  latter  regioi.. 

(15.)  Region  of  Fig-Marigolds  (Mesombryanthema)  and  Slapelias. — This  comprohendi 
tho  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  tho  Flora  of  which  is  distinguished  by  a  high  degree  of 
peculiarity.  Bv  tho  families  Proteacea,  Restiacea,  Polygalat  (Nlilkworts),  Diosmea,  it  may 
bo  recognised  trom  most  others,  except  New  Holland,  and  from  this  it  is  distinguished  by  the 
two  numerous  genera  Mesem/yryanthemum  and  Stapelia,  and  by  tho  familjr  Ericea,  which 
ii  here  more  abundant  than  anywhere  else.  Further  charactcristica  of  this  region  may  be 
found  in  tho  many  Iridea,  Gcrania,  Oxalidea,  and  the  extromoly  largo  proportion  of  Vom- 
pnsita:.  On  the  other  hand,  there  exist  in  this  district,  oa  in  New  Holland,  but  very  sparingly, 
those  peculior  forms  of  the  northern  temperate  zones,  tho  Cruc\fera,Ranuncu'acca;,  RoaO' 
ee<B,  VmbelUfercR,  Caryophyllete. 

(10.)  Region  of  Western  Africa. — We  are  only  acquainted  with  Guinea  a. id  Congo,  the 
vegetation  of  which,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  possesses  but  few  peculiarities,  and  ia  a 
mixture  of  tho  Floras  of  Asia  and  America,  though  most  resembling  tho  fon  r.  The  /  ,ie- 
rican  tropical  families  of  Cacti,  Peppers,  Palms,  Passion-flowers,  are  either  absent  ent  oly< 
or  thev  occur  in  small  numbers.  Leguminosa  are  more  numerous  than  in  America.  •'  oove 
two  thirds  of  tho  genera  and  some  of  the  apeciea  of  Guinea  are  found  also  in  >  e  £ast 
Indies.  On  the  ouier  hand,  this  region  approximates  to  America,  in  posseising  many  Ru- 
biacea,  oa  also  in  tho  genera  Schwenkia,  Elais  (a  palm),  Paullinia,  Malj  ,.f  ,  and  several 
more  which  are  wanting  in  Asia,  and  in  several  species  which  it  has  in  ■  >inmi  i  with  Ame- 
rica. A  considerable  proportion  of  Grasses  and  Sedges  (Cyperaceoj),  willi  Jie  peculiar  genus 
Adansonia  (the  Baobab,  which  is  the  largest  known  tree  in  the  world),  belong  to  tho  char- 
acteristics of  this  country.    The  interior  of  Africa  is  unknown  to  us. 

(17.)  Region  of  Eastern  Africa. — Of  the  coast  of  this  aide  of  Africa  and  the  adjacent 
islands  our  knowledge  is  imperfect.  We  are  tolerably  acquainted  with  the  islands  of  Bour- 
bon and  France ;  of  Madagascar  we  know  but  little ;  and  of  the  cast  coast  itaelf  scarcely 
anything.  The  Flora  of  the  two  first-named  islands  has  a  considerable  rt-semblanco  to  the* 
of  India.  Amongst  290  known  genera,  196  of  them  (equal  to  two  thirds)  are  found  also  in 
India ;  and  of  the  species,  not  a  few  are  likewise  Indian ;  many  of  these,  however,  may  have 
been  introduced  by  the  constant  intercourse  that  takes  place  between  these  two  parts  of  the 
globe.  The  genera  Uu^cnia,  Ficus  (fig),  Urtica  (nettle).  Euphorbia  (spurge),  Hedysarum, 
Panicum,  Andropogon,  Sida,  Pandanus  (screw-pine),  Dracana  (dragon-wood),  Conyza 
are  very  numerous  in  species,  as  are  the  same  genera  in  India.  In  ferns,  these  islands  are 
peculiarly  rich.  Again,  their  flora  differs  considerably  from  the  South  African ;  an  analogy 
existing,  however,  in  their  possessing  single  representati  "''  of  the  Cape  genera  Erica,  Ixia, 
Gladiolus,  Bleria,  Mesembryanthemum,  Seriphium,  ai!'  r<'  jral  arborescent  Syn^enesive. 
Still  less  is  the  affinity  to  the  extra-tropical  parts  ot  i\  ■  .v  Holland,  The  similarity  is 
stronger  to  the  tropical  portion  of  that  country,  of  which  the  flora  also  approaches  that  of 
India,  Single  genera  are  all  that  it  seems  to  possess  in  common  with  America ;  for  instance, 
AfeJicocca,  Ruixia,  Dodonaa,  Dichondra.  The  Allowing  are,  perhaps,  peculiar  to  this 
region,  Latania,  Hubertia,  Poupartia,  TVistemma,  FHssilia,  Cordylina,  Assonia,  Femalia, 
Lubinia,  and  others.  The  flora  of  Madagascar  seems  very  peculiar.  It  agrees  with  the 
islands  last  mentioned ;  and  several  genera  are  seen  nowhere  else  than  in  them  and  Mada- 
gascar ;  for  example,  Danais,  Ambora,  Dombeya,  Dufourea,  Didymotneles,  Senacea ;  several 
species  also  are  common  to  both;  aa  Didymomeles  Madagascariensis,  Danais  fragranS; 
Cinchona  Afro^inda.  Still,  among  thn  161  known  genera  from  Madagascar,  54  only  are 
found  in  the  Isles  of  France  and  Bourbon ;  so  that  there  might  be  good  grounds  for  fonning 
a  separate  region  of  the  first ;  unless,  perhaps,  the  east  coast  of  Afirica  should  come  under 
the  same.  With  New  Holland  and  the  Cape,  Madagascar  has  probably  still  less  in  common 
than  the  two  other  islands. 

(18.)  Scitaminean  region  (of  the  Turmeric,  ZeJoary,  Cardamom,  Indian-shot,  &c.),  or 
the  Indian  Flora. — To  this  appertain  India,  east  and  west  of  the  Ganges,  together  with  the 
islands  between  India  and  New  Holland ;  perhaps,  also,  that  division  of  New  Holland  which 
falls  within  the  tropics.  The  Scitaminete  are  here  in  fiir  greater  numbers  than  in  America; 
also,  though  to  a  less  degree,  the  Leguminosa,  Cucurbitacea,  Tiliacea.  The  previously 
mentioned  South  American  forms  are  rare,  or  else  wanting.  This  region  should  be  seoorated 

Vol.  L  22 


254 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  11. 


DooK 


into  Boveral  provinces;  but  ns  yet  we  know  too  little  to  undertake  such  a  division  witli  any 
deffrco  of  certainty. 

Jl9.)  The  hidian  highland!  ought  to  form  ono  or  perhaps  two  roffions,  their  vegotfttion 
beinff  very  dissimilar  to  that  of  the  lowlands :  in  tlio  middle  region,  Melastoma,  ()rchiik(c, 
ami  PiliccB,  appear  to  prevail ;  in  tlie  higher,  the  vegetation  is  more  liko  the  European  and 
North  Asiatic,  and  probably  the  Japanese :  tlioso  districts  periiaps  constituto  ono  region  with 
the  whole  of  Central  Asia ;  but  of  all  those  countries  wo  shall  know  much  mora  '.vhon  the 
Flora  of  India  by  Roxburgh  and  Wallich  is  completed. 

(20.)  The  Flora  qfthe  South  qf  China  and  of  Cochinchina  partly  resembles  that  of  India, 
especially  in  regard  to  families ;  but  still  Jx)urciro's  Flora  contains  a  great  many  ])eculiar 

S'ncra.  It  is  true  that  perhaps  the  number  of  tlicso  gonora  migiit  be  reduced ;  but  oven 
en,  tiio  vegetation  of  Uiis  tract  will  probably  prove  sufllcicntly  peculiar  to  constituto  a 
distinct  region. 

(21.)  The  region  of  the  Cassia  and  Mimosatf  which  prevail  particularly  in  Arabia  and 
Persia,  sc::ns  likowiso  to  iiavo  a  good  right  to  be  separated  from  India,  as  it  is  already 
sufficiently  distinct  from  tho  Mediten-anean  region  (No.  3.) ;  for,  of  281  genera  mentioned 
by  Forskttl,  11)9  only  are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  more  probable  that  the  Flora 
of  Nubia  and  part  of  Central  Africa  appertains  to  this  region.  Abyssinia  perhaps  forms  a 
distinct  region,  its  elevated  parts  possessing  sucli  a  ditforcnt  climate. 

(22.)  The  islands  in  the  South  Sea  which  lie  within  the  tropics  form  perhaps  a  separate 
region ;  though  witli  but  a  slender  degree  of  peculiarity.  Among  214  genera,  17!)  are 
found  in  India ;  most  of  tho  remainder  are  in  common  wUh  America ;  for  instance,  Chio- 
cocca,  Weintnannia.  Guajacum,  Of  tho  species  wliich  exist  equally  in  tliem  and  Asia,  are 
Zapania  nodijlora,  KylUtigia  monocephala,  Fimhristylis  dichotoma,  Toitrneforlia  argentea, 
Plumbago  zeylanica,  Morinda  umbellata,  Soiihora  tomcntosa.  In  common  with  America, 
Dodoncca  viscosa,  Sapindus  saponaria  (soap-berry) :  witit  liotti  Rhizophora  Mangle  (man- 
grove tree) :  it  has  also  some  in  common  with  New  Holland,  as  Daphne  indica  (a  species 
of  Spurge  Laurel).  Peculiar  families,  or  such  as  have  there  a  decided  maximum,  can 
scarcely  bo  cited ;  thougii,  on  tho  other  hand,  most  of  tho  species  are  peculiar.  Tho  Bread' 
fruit  is  among  tlie  characteristics  of  these  islands ;  tliough  this  tree  is  not  confined  to  tho 
South  Seas. 

The  lunit  of  the  present  jssay  does  not  allow  of  tho  intended  introduction  of  the  geo- 
graphical situation  of  many  of  the  more  useful  and  important  plants,  which  Professor  Scbouw 
has  so  ably  delineated  ;  such  as  that  of  tiie  Beech,  tho  Vine,  tho  Fir  tribes,  tho  Heaths, 
Corn,  and  such  fruits  or  vegetables  as  are  employed  as  bread :  the  Palms,  tho  Proteaca, 
which  form  so  remarkably  striking  a  feature  in  tho  Capo  of  Good  Hope  and  in  New  Holland; 
the  Composita:,  which  are  perhaps  more  universally  dilfuscd  than  any  ofiier  kind  of  plant; 
the  Crucifcra,  to  which  the  Cabbage,  7\triiip,  Mustard,  Scurvy-grass,  &c.  appertain; 
and  tho  leguminous  trU)es,  whoso  seeds  (as  tlie  Pea  and  Bean)  are  so  valuable  lor  man, 
and  whose  foliage,  as  tlie  tntpine  and  Trefoil,  &c.  affords  most  of  tlie  nourishment  to  cattle. 
We  must  endeavour  to  incorporate  these  witli  tlie  vegetation  of  the  various  regions  w  licre 
tliey  are  found  in  the  greatest  abundance. 


CHAPTER  n. 

GEOCnAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  DISTRIUUTION  OP  MAN  AND  ANIMALS. 

The  geographic  distribution  of  animated  beings  is  a  branch  of  natural  history  which  only 
of  late  years  has  engaged  the  attention  of  philosophers.  The  celebrated  Blumenbach  was 
the  first,  we  believe,  who  generalized  the  numerous  fects  connected  with  the  physiology  of 
man,  and  proved  that  all  the  varieties  may  bo  referred  to  certain  types  of  form,  equally 
distinct  in  tlieir  physical  structure  and  in  their  geoj^^raphic  distribution.  But  whether  from 
prejudice,  or  from  the  varied  and  comprehensive  sphere  of  zoology,  which  renders  the  subject 
too  vast  for  the  power  of  any  one  mind,  certain  it  is  that  animal  geography  has  been  uimost 
neglected.  Isolated  details,  relative  to  particular  countries,  classes,  or  families,  have  been  suc- 
cessfully investigated ;  but  no  one  has  yet  attempted  to  generalize  these  materials,  and  use  them 
towanls  tlie  discovery  of  tho  laws  of  creation.  An  attempt  to  ascertain  the  range  of  paN 
ticular  species  simply  within  a  certain  district  or  kingdom,  is  merely  an  inquiry  into  their 
local  distribution ;  but  if  our  views  are  extended  beyond  such  confines,  and  we  embrace  a 
large  portion  of  the  globe,  tracing  the  relations  of  its  animals,  with  those  of  the  remaining 
portions,  it  k  then  only  that  we  enter  upon  the  comprehensive  subject  of  geographic  dis- 
lributi(Hi. 

Tbo  inquiries  relative  to  physical  distribution,  when  directed  to  the  animal  world,  assume 
a  higher  importance  than  those,  however  interesting,  which  regard  plants :  for  not  only  do 
animals  appear  incalculably  more  numerous  than  vegetables,  but  their  natuniil  range,  depen- 
dent on  a  multiplicity  of  concurrent  causes,  appears  to  be  much  more  distinctly  marked. 


Part  II. 

livision  witli  any 

their  veputation 
tomiB,  ()rchiilc(n_ 
he  Europciin  and 
3  one  rcj^ion  with 
h  nioro  '.vhcn  the 

blcB  that  of  India, 
at  many  ])uculiar 
iducod;  but  oven 
ir  to  conatituto  a 

rly  in  Arabia  and 
I,  08  it  in  already 
;enera  mentioned 
0  that  the  Flora 
pcrlmpa  forms  a 

erhaps  a  ecparate 
genera,  17<)  are 
r  instance,  Chio- 
lem  and  Asia,  are 
i^ortia  argentea, 
on  witli  America, 
ra  Manffle  (man- 
indica  (a  species 
d  maximum,  can 
liar.  The  Bread' 
t  confined  to  the 

iction  of  the  goo- 
Professor  Scho\iw 
ibcs,  the  Heaths, 
i«,  the  Prvteaca, 
in  New  Holland; 
r  kind  of  plant; 
,  &.C.  appertain; 
aluablc  lor  man, 
ishment  to  cattle. 
.18  regions  whore 


\ND  ANIMALS. 

story  which  only 
Blumcnbach  was 
he  physiology  of 
of  form,  equally 
it  whether  from 
nders  tlie  subject 
has  been  almost 
s,  have  been  buc- 
als,  and  use  them 
^e  range  of  par- 
iquiry  into  their 
id  we  embrace  a 
if  tlie  remaining 
geographic  dis- 

.1  world,  assume 
;  for  not  only  do 
9I  range,  dcpen* 
Btinctly  marked. 


DooK  HI. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


ihH 


Plants,  indeed,  in  a  great  degree,  ore  stationary  beings;  but  nature  has  wisely  provided  for 
tlioir  removal  and  diBiJorsion  to  the  most  distant  regions,  by  the  diversified  structuro  or  tena- 
ciiiuH  vitality  with  wnich  tlio  seeds  of  numerous  families  are  endowed;  hence  they  become 
transjwrted  Irv  various  natural  causes  to  distant  shores,  and,  without  any  UBsislanco  from 
liinnan  aid,  taito  root,  flourish,  and  increase,  in  lands  fur  distant  flrom  tlioso  which  appear  to 
have  been  their  native  regions.  It  is  otherwise  with  animals :  they  may,  it  is  true,  be 
removed  from  their  birth-place,  and  even  become  domesticated  and  natura'  izcd  elsewhere ; 
but,  with  the  exception  01  those  which  seem  to  have  been  originally  dostin  3d  for  the  service 
uf  man,  such  naturalization  is  only  oflccted  by  artificial  means,  and  by  slov  degrees,  througli 
Bovoral  generations.  If  such  transjiortod  animals  bo  left  to  tliemselves,  or  rather  to  the 
natural  resources  for  supporting  lifo  peculiar  to  tlicir  new  abode,  tliey  almost  invuriabW  pino 
and  die.  Again,  plants,  ftom  being  mforior  to  animals  in  tlio  complexity  of  their  slructiiro, 
are,  perhaps,  necessarily  dependent  on  fewer  causes  for  retaining  the  vital  energy ;  their 
dispersion  is,  consoiiucntly,  upon  the  whole,  much  more  extensive.  It  may  bo  mentioned, 
in  support  of  this  remark,  that  out  of  600  plants  discovered  in  tropical  Africa  by  Professor 
Smith,  one-twolflh  have  been  ascertained,  by  Robert  Brown,  to  be  natives  also  of  India  and 
South  America.  Now,  if  cither  the  vertebrated  or  inv«rlcbratcd  animals,  not  ac^uatic,  of 
Western  Africa,  wero  compared  in  a  similar  way  with  those  of  the  parallel  latitudes  in 
America  and  India,  tho  proportion  collectively  would  hardly  amount  to  one  in  a  hundred : 
indeed,  with  regard  to  tho  vertebrated  orders,  it  is  very  questionable  whether  even  one  spe- 
cies is  truly  indigenous  to  tropical  AfVica  and  to  America ;  so  totally  difierent  arc  the  zoolo- 
gical features  of  these  continents,  even  at  their  nearest  approximation :  and  yet,  in  the 
obove  number  of  plants,  no  less  than  twenty-two  species  are  enumerated,  as  common  to  equi- 
noctial Africa,  India,  and  America.  These  facts,  while  they  strengthen  the  belief  that 
zoology  is  a  more  favourable  field  than  botany  for  discovering  tlie  laws  of  natural  distribu- 
tion, lead  ua  to  consider  tho  modes  by  which  such  inquiries  are  most  beneficially  prosecuted. 

Sect.  I, — Modes  of  invegtigating  the  Subject. 
Tho  powerful  effect  nroduced  on  animals  by  temperature,  food,  and  locality,  are  known  to 
all :  whether  as  regards  tho  range  of  any  particular  species,  or  the  numbers  of  which  it  may 
be  composed.  The  effect  of  these  agencies  is  indeed  so  great,  that  some  writers  have  looked 
upon  them  as  primary  causes,  and  have  imagined  that  by  such  laws  alone  has  nature  regu- 
lated tho  distribution  of  tho  whole  animal  creation.  Very  many  instances,  no  doubt,  from 
among  tho  diversities  of  animal  structure,  may  be  urged  in  supjwrt  of  this  theory ;  but  how 
far  it  can  be  reconciled  with  other  and  nore  general  facts,  which  will  be  apparent  on  a 
wider  view  of  tlio  subject,  wo  shall  hereafter  investigate.  It  is  clear  that,  by  whatever 
laws  Nature  may  have  been  guided,  numerous  exceptions  will  be  found,  proportionate  to  tho 
vast  and  almost  infinite  variety  she  has  displayed  in  her  productions.  There  is,  perhaps,  no 
theory  professing  to  explain  the  laws  of  Nature,  wliether  on  animal  distribution  or  natural 
affinities,  which  the  wit  of  man  could  possibly  devise,  that  might  not  be  supported  with  great 
plausibility,  by  certain  fJicts,  presented  by  those  radiating  tlireads  of  connexion,  and  those 
apparent  deviations  from  her  general  laws,  which  are  everywhere  apparent :  yet  these  will 
frequently  be  opposed  to  other  facts ;  and  thus  it  becomes  necessary,  before  determining  on 
which  side  tho  preponderance  of  evidence  lies,  that  we  take  as  wide  a  survey  of  the  general 
distribution  of  animals  as  the  existing  state  of  knowledge  will  admit  To  set  out  with  tho 
belief  that  the  laws  of  geographic  distribution  are  fully  ascertained,  and  that  nothing  remains 
but  to  make  ourselves  acquainted  with  the  range  of  individual  species,  is  a  doctrine  which 
can  only  bo  compared  to  those  principles  of  classification  insisted  upon  by  the  methodists  of 
the  last  ago  in  natural  history,  who  considered  that  all  the  generic  groups  had  been  discovered, 
and  that  future  naturalists  had  nothing  left  but  to  appropriate  to  them  the  newly  discovered 
species,  in  the  best  manner  they  could. 

Towards  the  discovery  of  the  natural  geography  of  animals  there  is,  however,  another 
mode  of  investigation,  analogous  to  what  wo  now  pursue,  in  searching  after  the  true  series 
of  their  affinities :  this  is,  to  lay  aside  all  preconceived  theories,  and  to  begin  with  considering 
tho  primary  causes  of  geographic  distribution  to  bo,  what  in  truth  they  really  are,  totally 
unknown.  We  are  thus  compelled  to  take  a  general  survey  of  all  the  existing  onimals  yet 
discovered,  ond  now  dispersed  over  the  globe ;  and,  fh)m  the  facts  so  elicited,  endeavour  to 
attain  such  general  inferences  as  are  supported  by  a  preponderance  of  evidence,  furnished 
by  nature  hetself.  By  the  first  method,  as  it  has  been  truly  said,  we  make  nature  bend  to 
our  own  arbitrary  theories;  while  by  the  second  we  humbly  endeavour  to  receive  her 
instrurtions ;  striving  to  obtain  a  glimpse  of  that  stupendous  plan  which  can  never  be  fully 
understood  by  fallible  and  imperfect  mortals. 

The  geographic  distribution  of  man  is  connected  in  our  survey  with  that  of  animals ;  not 
so  much  in  compliance  with  the  popular  notion,  by  which  the  noblest  work  of  God  is  classed 
AS  a  genus  next  to  the  brute,  but  because  we  may  iiiirly  presume,  from  tho  great  diversity 


250 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pari  TI. 


observed  among  the  human  species,  that  their  variation  and  dispersion  is  regulated  by  some 

feneral  plan ;  and  that  such  plan  may  be  analogous  to  that  which  is  apparent  in  the  distri- 
ution  of  animals.  It  may  be  urged,  indeed,  tliat  such  a  remarkable  coincidence,  if  proved, 
might  tend  to  sanction  the  modem  theory  of  classing  man  and  brutes  together ;  but  the  only 
legitimate  construction  which  we  think  could  be  mirly  drawn  ih>m  such  a  fact  <vould  be, 
that  tilicre  is  but  one  plan  of  geographic  distribution  and  of  creation  throughout  nature. 

Against  classing  man  with  quwirupeds  we  must  enter  our  decided  protest.  And  here  we 
cannot  refrain  from  expressing  regrot  that  a  naturalist  of  no  ordinary  talent  has  recently 
adopted  this  degrading  theory,  m  apparent  opposition  to  his  former  most  just  and  philosophic 
views  of  the  subject  He  admits  "  the  greatness  of  the  gulf  between  man  and  the  orang 
outang ;"  yet,  because  they  possess  certain  analogies  of  physical  structure,  is  it  a  necessary 
conclusion  that  they  form  one  group  ]  (^Linn.  Trans,  xvl  1.  p.  22.)  This,  at  least,  was  not 
the  opinion  (as  this  philosopher  candidly  admits)  of  either  Aristotle  or  Ray,  whom  he  justly 
considers  the  two  greatest  zoologists  that  have  ever  existed.  It  has  been  argued  that  the 
natural  pride  of  philosophy  withheld  such  men  from  classing  themselves  with  brutes ;  but 
we  are  more  disposed  to  thmk  they  were  influenced  by  higher  considerations.  However 
this  may  be,  there  is  an  innate  repugnance,  or  rather  a  disgust  and  abhorrence,  in  eveiy 
human  mind,  enlightened  or  illiterate,  against  the  admission  of  such  a  relationship.  Reve- 
lation everywhere  places  man,  even  in  his  fallen  state,  in  absolute  contrast  and  contradiction 
with  "  the  beasts  that  perish,"  It  is  not  merely  a  feeling  of  pride ;  it  is  an  innate  loathing, 
engrafted  in  our  nature,  apparently  for  the  very  purpose  of  teaching  us  how  immeasurably 
far  we  sre  removed  from  the  brutes  that  have  no  understanding.  Man  has  fallen,  miserably 
fallen,  but  this  is  from  the  corruption  of  that  pure  spurit  with  which  he  was  created :  his 
form  was  then,  as  it  is  now ;  nor  are  we  to  suppose  that  man,  as  he  came  fashioned  by  his 
Creator,  without  sin,  was  clothed  in  a  different  form  to  that  which  he  now,  in  a  sinful  state, 
exhibits.  Are  we  then  to  place  such  a  being  in  a  zoological  circle,  surrounded  with  apes 
and  baboons  1  or  are  material  and  immaterial  natures  so  closely  allied,  that  they  may  be 
classed  together  1 

There  is  another  argument  against  including  man  in  the  zoological  circle,  furnished  by 
the  very  theory  upon  which  that  hypothesis  is  built.  If  the  circular  system  is  part  of  the 
system  of  nature,  which  at  this  time  of  day  is  perfectly  demonstrable,  every  being  has  two 
affinities :  by  the  one,  it  is  connected  to  that  which  precedes  it ;  by  the  other,  to  that  by 
which  it  is  succeeded.  Now,  before  we  can  bring  man  within  the  circle  of  tlie  Quadriima- 
na,  on  the  strength  of  his  affinity  (whether  near  or  remote)  to  the  orang  outang,  we  must 
show  to  what  class  of  anunals  he  is  connected  on  the  other  uand.  What  then  are  our  dou- 
ble affinities  in  the  vertebrate  circle?  We  may  be  tlliod  distantly,  perliaps,  to  Simla.  But 
where  is  the  second  affinity  1  If  this  cannot  be  poiutu  J  out,  the  whole  theory,  in  our  esti- 
mation, falls  to  the  ground,  since  the  presumed  type  of  the  animal  kingdom  contradicts  the 
laws  by  which  creation  is  supposed  to  be  regulated;  man  exhibiting  a  single  affinity,  and 
the  rest  of  organised  matter  a  double  one.  Take  him  from  the  animal  circle, — place  him 
between  matter  and  spirit ; — and  his  double  affinities  become  at  once  apparent. 

A  general  sketch  of  the  physical  peculiarities  of  man  in  all  his  variations  will  first  claim 
our  attention ;  the  regions  inhabited  by  the  different  races,  and  the  affinities  by  which  thsy 
appear  connected,  will  also  be  briefly  noticed.  This  part  of  our  subject  will  be  conducted 
on  a  somewhat  different  plan  from  that  which  we  shall  pursue  in  the  sequol.  The  profound 
researches  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier,  and  the  acute  and  patient  investigations  of  Lawrence 
and  Pritchard,  have  all  conspired  to  produce  nearly  the  same  general  conclusions  on  those 
points  to  which  we  shall  particularly  draw  the  reader's  attention.  These  conclusions,  more- 
over, demnnd  our  fullest  confidence,  from  being  founded  on  as  rigid  analysis  as  the  nature 
of  the  subj  I't  will  admit.  Hence,  we  have  no  need,  in  this  place,  of  entering  into  details, 
or  of  pursuing  the  same  mode  of  investigation  to  which  we  shall  have  recourse  when  sub- 
sequently treating  of  animal  distribution. 

Sect.  H. — Varieties  of  the  Human  Race. 

The  varieties  of  the  human  race,  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  greatest  comparative 
anatomist,  may  all  bs  included  under  three  primary  divisions,  between  which,  in  their  typi- 
cal examples,  a  very  marked  difference  is  observed.  These  M.  Cuvier  has  termed,  1.  the 
fair  or  Caucasian  variety;  2.  the  yellow  or  Mongolian;  3.  the  black  or  Ethiopian. 

The  classification  proposed  by  the  celebrated  Blumenbach,  although  apparently  different, 
is  but  a  modification  of  that  promulgated  by  Baron  Cuvier.  The  former  considers  the  Ethio- 
pian type  as  divisible  into  three,  1.  the  American ;  2.  the  Ne^o;  and  3.  Uie  Malay.  The  latter 
indicates  these  additional  races,  but  considers  their  peculiarities  as  less  prominent  tlian  those 
of  the  two  former :  he  does  not  therefore  admit  them  among  the  primary  divisions  of  the 
human  race.  Without,  at  present,  offering  any  opinion  upon  this  question,  we  shall  first 
take  a  rapid  survey  of  tiie  peculiarities,  physical  and  moral,  of  all  these  gTou{». 


•jry.'.-'--'  -r^!:- 


¥,-.>,ij>w     ■,  .  -;  :'-r-"':.T/---;- ;-;-.T'^T-_-rii\7,'^-;.-T--,-,-7''   tc-i'.f-^'^'   Vl- ;-^>y  > 


Pari  Tl. 

egulated  by  some 
rent  in  the  distri- 
idence,  if  proved, 
bor ;  but  the  only 
1  a  fact  <vould  be, 
:hout  nature. 
)t.  And  here  we 
lent  has  recently 
9t  and  philosophic 
an  and  the  orang 
,  is  it  a  necessary 

at  least,  was  not 
,  whom  he  justly 
1  argued  that  the 
with  brutes;  but 
itions.  However 
orrence,  in  every 
itionship.  Reve- 
and  contradiction 
1  innate  loathing, 
3W  immeasurably 

fallen,  miserably 
was  created :  his 

fashioned  by  his 
,  in  a  sinful  state, 
ounded  with  apes 
hat  they  may  be 

rcle,  furnished  by 
!m  is  part  of  the 
!ry  being  has  two 
other,  to  that  by 
if  tlie  Quadruma- 
outang,  we  must 
then  are  our  dou- 
i,  to  Simia.  But 
leory,  in  our  esti- 
n  contradicts  the 
ngle  affinity,  and 
ircle, — place  him 
ent. 

IS  will  first  claim 
}3  by  which  thsy 
ill  be  conductod 
The  profound 
ions  of  Lawrence 
ilusions  on  those 
onclusions,  more- 
rsis  as  the  nature 
■ing  into  details, 
:ourse  when  sub- 


test comparative 
ch,  in  their  typi- 
termed,  1.  tne 
lopian. 
irently  different, 
aiders  the  Ethio- 
[alay.  The  latter 
linent  than  thme 
divisionfl  of  th6 
1,  we  shall  first 
mps. 


Buck  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


257 


(1)  The  Caucasian  race  (Jiff.  70.)  is  typically  charncteriacd  by  a  whito  skin,  red  checks, 

70 


copious,  soft,  flowing  hair,  g-enerally  curled  or  waving;  ample  beard;  small,  oval,  and 
straight  face,  with  the  features  very  distinct ;  expanded  forehead ;  large  and  elevated  crani* 
um ;  narrow  nose ;  and  small  mouth. 

The  moral  feelings  and  intellectual  powers  of  this  race  have  been  developed  in  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection  which  human  nature  has  ever  exhibited.  The  Caucasian  has  given 
birth  to  the  most  civilized  nations,  both  in  ancient  and  modem  times,  and  has  always  exer- 
cised dominion  over  the  rest  of  mankind,  when  not  opposed  by  a  vast  superiority  of  physical 
strength.  The  mighty  nations  of  antiquity,  and  the  no  less  resistless  powers  concentrated 
in  mMern  Europe,  evince  the  superiority  of  this  race  in  all  that  ennobles  the  immaterial 
part  of  man,  and  all  that  renders  him  formidable  to  his  fellow-creatures ;  while  every  age 
witnesses  a  progressive  but  a  surprising  advance  in  all  those  qualities  which  indicate  intel- 
lectual endowment 

The  original  seat  of  the  Caucasian  race  is  supposed,  as  the  name  implies,  to  have  been 
that  lofly  chain  of  mountains  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  This  supposition,  as 
Lawrence  observes,  is  in  unison  with  all  that  can  be  traced  of  the  original  abode  of  our  first 
parents ;  and  is  further  confirmed  by  the  natives  of  these  regions  being,  to  this  day,  the  most 
beautifully  formed  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  From  the  Caucasian  Alps  different 
branches  of  this  race  diverge  in  every  direction,  as  from  a  common  centre ;  the  peculiarities 
of  each  being  modified,  altered,  and  finally  lost,  in  proportion  as  they  recede  from  the  ori- 
ginal seat  of  their  tribe. 

Of  the  branches  of  the  Caucasian  race,  the  most  powerful  is  the  Pelasgic,  which  spreads 
over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia  at  its  most  northern  limits,  while  it  blends 
with  the  Mongolian  race  by  means  of  the  Fins  and  Laplanders.  From  this  branch  sprang 
the  powerful  nations  of  Greece  and  Rome,  which  have  been  succeeded  by  the  mighty  king- 
doms of  modern  Europe.  The  next  is  the  Syrian,  which  takes  a  southerly  direction ;  and 
includes  that  portion  of  Asia  formerly  inhabited  by  the  Assyrians,  Chaldeans,  and  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  Indian  branch,  by  some  thought  to  be  the  same  with  the  Pelasgic,  passes 
to  the  East,  and  loses  itself  among  the  inferior  easts  of  Hindostan.  A  fourth  branch  is  the 
Scythian  or  Tartaric,  which  spretd  over  the  more  northern  parts  of  Asia ;  and  gave  birth  to 
those  wandering  and  ruthless  hordes  who,  by  the  physical  power  of  numbers,  devastated  and 
finally  overthrew  the  polished  empires  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  wandering  and  pastoral 
habits  of  this  tribe  have  conspired  to  preserve  their  peculiarities  unmixed  with  those  of  the 
neighbouring  nations;  except^  indeed,  in  Lesser  Tartary,  where  this  branch  of  the  Caacasiaa 
race  loses  itself  in  the  Mongolian. 

(C.)  The  Mongolian  variety  (fg.  71.)  has  these  chancteristics: — ^The  skin,  instead  of 


white  or  fair,  is  olive  yellow ;  the  hair  thin,  coarse,  and  straight ;  little  or  no  beard ;  broad 
flattened  face,  with  the  features  runnmg  together ;  small  and  low  forehead ;  square-shaped 
cranium ;  wide  and  small  nose ;  7ery  co.ique  eyes ;  and  thick  lips.  Stature  inferior  to  the 
Caucasian.  In  this  race  the  mora"  and  intellectual  energies  have  been  developed  in  an  infcrioi 
degree.  Tradition,  indeed,  has  assigned  to  the  most  powerful  nation,  the  Chinese,  a  high 
degree  of  civilization,  at  a  period  when  Europe  was  in  a  state  of  barbarism.  Yet  there  are 
many  circumstances  which  throw  considerable  suspicion  on  this  fact :  and  even  if  it  be  allow^, 
II  stronger  proof  could  not  possibly  be  produced  to  show  the  limited  intellectual  powers  of  this 
Vol.  I.  22*  mH 


!l8t 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


PabtIL 


race ;  for  while  tlie  European  Caucasian  nations  have  advanced  from  rude  savages  to  become 
masters  of  the  world,  the  Chinese,  after  reaching  a  certain  state  of  civilization,  have  remain* 
ed  btationary,  in  every  respect,  through  a  long  series  of  ages.  Solitary  exceptions  cannot 
invalidate  the  luct ;  and  while  we  know  that,  not  only  in  our  own  times,  but  so  far  back  as 
history  informs  us,  neither  the  sciences,  the  inventions,  nor  the  improvements  of  the  last 
three  centuries  have  changed  the  Mongolian  nations  from  what  they  then  we/e,  we  can  come 
to  no  other  conclusion  than  that  they  are  nationally  incapacitated  from  further  improve- 
ment. Cuvier  supposes  that  the  origin  of  the  Mongolian  race  may  have  been  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Altai.  From  thence  it  has  spread  over  the  whole  of  central  and  northern  Asia, 
where  it  is  lost  among  the  Esquimaux  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Caucasian  Tartars  on  the 
otlier.  It  further  extends  to  the  Eastern  Ocean,  and  includes  the  Japanese,  the  Coreaus, 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  Siberians.  Its  limits  to  the  south  appear  to  extend  no 
&rther  than  to  that  part  of  Hindostan  north  of  tlio  Ganges,  while  the  Mongolian  fea- 
tures only  predominate  over  those  of  the  Indo-Caucasion  in  tlie  lower  casts  of  the  Eastern 
Peninsula. 

The  origin  of  the  Esquimaux  and  other  polaric  nations  found  on  the  most  northern  limits 
of  Europe  and  America,  has  given  rise  to  great  diversity  of  opinion.  Arguments  of  nearly 
equal  weight,  but  of  opposite  tendency,  have  been  employed  to  show,  on  the  one  hand,  that 
the  Esquunaux  belong  to  the  American  variety ;  and  on  the  other,  to  provu  tlieir  structure 
more  in  unison  with  Uiat  of  the  Mongolian.  The  latter  opinion  has  been  supported  by  Mr. 
Lawrence ;  and  although  we  consider  the  weight  of  argument  to  be  on  this  side,  it  appears 
not  at  all  improbable  that  both  these  suppositions  are  in  part  correct.  We  have  before 
observed,  that  tlie  characters  of  each  race  becoi.:e  less  and  less  apparent,  the  farther  they 
are  removed  from  their  particular  type.  The  proximity  of  the  northern  regions  of  Asia  to 
those  of  America,  renders  it  highly  probable  either  that  their  respective  inhabitants  mingled 
their  races  at  a  remote  period,  or  that  the  northern  Mongolianc,  whose  civilization  is  sup- 
posed  to  be  of  so  great  antiijuity,  were  the  first  to  emigrate,  and  ji'iople  the  northern  regions 
of  America.  At  all  events,  it  appears  certain  that  the  Esquimaux  nations  unite  in  themselves 
many  of  the  characters  of  two  distinct  races ;  and  the  only  theory  by  which  we  can  recon- 
-He  these  doubts  on  their  true  ori^m,  is  that  of  supposing  them  to  form  the  link  of  connex- 
ion between  the  Mongolian  and  that  race  which  spreads  over  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
new  world.  The  brief  notice  we  havf.  now  taken  of  the  two  most  powerful  races  or  varie- 
ties of  the  human  form  is  sufficient  to  show  their  marked  superiority  over  all  others,  whether 
as  regards  the  symmetry  or  beauty  of  their  physical  structure,  or  the  still  more  striking 
developement  of  their  moral  powers.  Hence  they  both  become  typical,  although  in  different 
deg^rees,  of  that  perfection  which  the  Creator  has  bestowed  upon  man,  in  this  his  probatory 
state  of  existence. 

The  third  primary  division  or  leading  variety  of  tha  human  race,  according  to  the  views 
of  the  illustrious  Cuvier,  is  the  negro  or  Ethiopian.  This,  again,  presents  tlree  variations, 
considered  by  Cuvier  as  secondary,  and  by  Blumenbach  as  primary.  Although  these  varia- 
tions are  not  so  great  as  those  between  either  the  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  or  tlie  African 
(the  latter  being  considered  the  type  of  the  Ethiopian  variety),  tjtill  they  ore  sufficiently  im- 
portant to  merit  a  particular  speciAcatiou  under  distmct  names ;  and  they  are  accordmgly 
termed  the  American,  the  Ethiopian,  and  the  Malay  varieties. 

In  the  Ameri(^.n  variety  (Jig.  72.)  the  skin  is  dork,  and  more  or  less  led  *  the  hair  black, 

72 


straight,  and  strong,  with  the  beard  small ;  face  and  skull  very  similar  to  the  Mongolian, 
but  me  former  not  so  flattened ;  eyes  sunk ;  forehead  low ;  the  nose  and  other  features  beinff 
somewhat  projecting.  The  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  this  race  is  in  unison  witxi 
the  great  difference  it  presents  in  outward  form  from  the  Caucasian.  Like  the  Mongciian, 
it  has  remained  stationary;  but  stopped  at  a  point  very  much  below  that  to  which  tha 
Asiatics  have  reached,  ihe  ancient  and  now  extinct  empires  of  Mexico  and  the  Incas 
may  be  considered  analogous  to  those  of  China  and  India,  exhibiting  the  highest  point  of 
civilization  to  which  the  two  races  have  ever  reached ;  but  farther  than  this  the  comparison 
cannot  be  carried.    Arts,  sciences,  and  all  those  intellectual  endowments  which  have  ful* 


PartIL 

Bivages  to  become 
ion,  haveremaitt" 
xceptions  cannot 
it  so  far  back  as 
lents  of  the  last 
e»'e,  we  can  come 
further  improve- 
een  in  the  moun- 
i  northern  Asia, 
1  Tartars  on  the 
sse,  the  Goreaus, 
ir  to  extend  no 
<  Mongolian  fea« 
ts  of  the  Eastern 

;  northern  limits 
iments  of  ni^arly 
le  one  hand,  that 
J  their  structure 
upported  by  Mr. 
J  side,  it  appears 
We  have  before 
the  farther  they 
gions  of  Asia  to 
abitants  mingled 
/ilization  is  sup- 
northern  regions 
ite  in  themselves 
(j  we  can  recon- 
link  of  connex- 
g  portion  of  the 
il  races  or  varie- 

I  others,  whether 

II  more  striking 
lOugh  in  diHerent 
this  his  probatory 

liiig  to  the  views 
tlree  variations, 
ugh  these  varia- 
n,  or  tlie  African 
E  sufficiently  im- 
are  accordmgly 

'  the  hair  black, 


the  Mongoliau, 
!r  features  beinff 
I  in  unison  mm 
the  Mongciiaa, 
a.t  to  which  tha 
>  and  the  Incas 
lighest  point  of 
3  the  comparison 
which  have  fol- 


Book  IIT. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


25i* 


lowed  the  progress  of  the  Caucasian  race,  and  to  a  certain  extent  beiong  also  to  the  Asiatics, 
appear  to  have  made  little  or  no  progress  among  the  Americans,  even  m  ^e  gorgeous  court 
of  Montezuma.  When  that  monarch  despatched  messengers  to  bring  him  an  account  of  the 
first  Spaniards  who  landed  on  his  territories,  so  ignorant  were  the  Mexicans  of  figures  or 
of  writing,  that  their  report  was  made  in  complicated  hieroglyphics,  mixed  with  rude  figures 
of  the  hordes  and  persons  of  these  unknown  invaders.  Theu:  idolatrous  worship  enjoined 
no  moral  duties,  like  those  of  the  superstition  of  Fo ;  and  its  rites  were  celebrated  by  human 
sacrifices  of  such  a  revolting  nature  as  to  be  worthy  only  of  demons.  It  deserves  attention, 
that  while  the  central  portion  of  America  presented  in  its  orig'nal  inhabitants  such  a  de- 
graded picture  of  the  human  mind,  the  northern  nations  of  tlie  new  world,  partakmg  more 
of  the  Mongolian  aspect,  evmced  a  higher  degree  of  intellect.  It  is  true  they  were  onlj 
wandering  tribes  of  hunters,  yet  they  appear  to  have  had  a  fiiU  belief  in  the  existence  of 
one  "  Gioat  Spirit,"  and  in  a  blissful  unmortality  for  themselves.  The  American  race, 
blending  with  the  Mongolian  to  the  north,  spreads  over  the  whole  of  the  new  world ;  but 
whether  any  traces  of  this  type  exist  beyond  these  limits,  is  a  question  which  has  not  hitherto 
been  investigated. 
In  the  Ethiopian  variety  {fig.  73.),  the  skin  is  black;  hair  short,  black,  and  woolly;  skull 


compressed  on  the  sides,  and  elongated  towards  the  front ;  forehead  low,  narrow,  ard  slant- 
ing ;  cheekbones  very  prominent ;  jaws  projecting,  so  as  to  render  the  upper  fi-ont  teeth 
oblique ;  eyes  prominent ;  nose  broad  and  flat ;  lips  (especially  the  upper  one)  particularly 
thick.  The  Afirican  or  Ethiopian  race  has  ever  remained  in  a  rude  and  comparatively  bu- 
barous  state.  Their  cities  are  but  congregations  of  huts ;  their  laws,  the  despotic  whim  of 
the  reigning  chief.  Incessantly  occupied  in  war  or  in  the  chase,  they  seek  not  to  perpetuate 
their  ideas.  They  have  no  written  language,  nor  even  a  code  of  hieroglyphics.  Abundantly 
supplied  by  nature  with  every  necessary  of  life,  they  have  retained  Iheir  character  un- 
changed, ailer  centuries  of  intercourse  with  the  most  enlightened  nations.  Different  branches 
of  this  tvpe  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  African  continent,  excepting  those  parts  bordering 
the  north  and  east  of  the  Great  Desert,  which  are  occupied  by  the  Caucasian  Syrians,  and 
where  all  traces  of  the  negro  formation  disappear. 
The  Malay  variety  (Jig.  74.)  varies  in  the  colour  of  the  skin  from  a  light  tawny  to  a  deep 

74 


brown,  approacliing  to  black;  hair  black,  mere  or  less  curled,  and  abundant;  head  r<!,ther 
narrow;  bones  of  the  fe.ce  large  and  prominent;  nose  full  and  broad  towards  the  tip.  Under 
tliis  variety,  observes  Mr.  LawTence,  are  included  races  of  men  very  difierent  in  organiza- 
tion and  qualities.  They  nevertheless  present  certain  general  points  of  resemblance,  which 
forbid  their  association  with  either  of  the  foregoing  varieties.  Under  this  head  are,  there- 
fore, included  the  inhabitants  of  Malacca,  of  Sumatra,  and  of  the  innumerable  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  and  the  great  Pacific  Ocean.  Most  of  these  tribes  are  stated  to  speak 
the  Malay  language,  which  may  be  traced,  in  the  various  ramifications  of  this  diversified 
tace,  fi'om  Madagascar  to  Easter  Island.    Their  moral  character  is  nn  less  various  than  their 


.ifiO 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Paht  II. 


'i-'it 


outward  form.  In  sui-'  i  as,  by  the  colour  of  Uieir  skin  and  thoir  woolly  hair,  show  a  general 
I'pproximation  to  the  y!.frican  type,  the  mental  powers  are  little  developed.  Their  language, 
V  0  A'ever,  i&  stated  to  i}(«  peculiar,  and  they  appear  tc  have  a  copious  bushy  beard.  {Law- 
« t'';ce,  489.)  Branches  of  this  division  of  the  Malay  race  spreaid  ove'-  *he  great  islands  of 
i>'<umatra,  Borneo,  and  Andaman ;  and  they  appear  also  to  occupv  the  Molucca  and  Philippine 
Islands.  They  are  described  rs  living  in  the  same  state  of  w'l  wi  tr^ajjc  barbarity  as  do 
Uio  Bi'shmen  of  Southern  Africa,  and  such  other  branches  of  the  Ethionian '  arioty  aa  appear 
•he  lowest  in  the  scalt!  of  form  and  intellect.  There  ''.,  however,  n  liglKur-coiouvod  and 
superior  race,  inhabit,  ojf  some  of  the  Indian  islands,  whore  kii  ov.'i  crimtennace,  Icrsgor  hair, 
and  finer  form,  evince  a  much  greater  afiinity  with  the  rndoCtucfjBian  tjpe  ort  i/;  (.  side, 
and  a  strong  analogy  to  the  New  Zealandera  and  Pacific  tribei;  or.  tj)i  othe'".  i'<.'.  a  'ling 
along  the  sauo  insulav  chain,  we  meet  with  ")aqfro-like  -.Liii"  ii'iviag  clyhhit,  ',  tJie 
immense  island  of  Ne^v  Guinea,  ac '  in  those  so  ithwestein  frroupa  denominated  Ku^v  Ire- 
land, New  Hebrides,  amt  New  Caledonia.  The  n;it^ves  of  >.i ..'  vast  continent  of  New  Hol- 
land show  strong  indicar' m,'?  of  the  riau  r;  origin,  nnd  of  the  oame  untameable  barbariKia; 
yet  their  features  are  desciibo.l  aa  not  m^]  rasant,  tJieir  BKin  ia  rather  copper-colouied  Ihan 
black,  and  tlieir  hair  either  furling  or  Straight.  The  nativca  of  the  mterior  have  ieen 
described  aa  somewhat  uiore  civilized,  ami  us  s.:caking'  a  language  diffrrcni  fir-n  tliat  used 
on  the  coast  In  the  neighbouring  island  of  New  V'ealfnd  a  considerable  chfln,T;e  fron  the 
black  Mulayan  tribes  takes  plcc  The  suj.'  rior  costoa  of  those  islanders  iii  liieix  ptrsons 
arp  tall,  active,  and  well  made;  their  skin  is  browM,  ar'i  thoir  long  i.  .  iiair  is  aomeiimes 
t'tniiglit,  aometiifies  curling.  A  degree  of  intell>;ct,  raporior  '/>  all  t>  *  tribe.')  we  have 
cnnwiM  ii*?.d,  ac  o.'npanies  those  personal  adviintagvjs.  lletainiii^'  many  of  the  barbarous 
cu  :,<.:,-,  J  of  :heii  sieighboura,  Uio  New  Zealanders  have,  nnvcrtheless,  mode  some  progress 
in  .':.r:  "bts  0.  :  %  fiincn  uicii  intercourse  with  Europeans:  they  believe  in  a  Supreme  Being, 
and  in  n  2)up^')'  Lmnortaliiy ;  and  evince,  in  various  ways,  a  desire  to  improve  their  condition 
Tlie  natlVi*  •  ov  tJio  I'Vtcndly  Islands  have  the  dork  complexion  of  the  New  Zealanders,  but  art 
r»  much  ■Wji'.'ior  race.  They  ore  of  the  ordinary  European  stature,  though  some  are  above 
!<ix  feat  ■>ignj  fheir  colour  is  a  daep  brown,  verging  in  the  better  classes  on  a  light  olive; 
their  features,  like  thos^e  of  the  New  Zealanders,  are  varicaifl,  approximating  in  some  respects 
to  them,  and  also  to  the  true  Europeans.  Their  progrcKi  in  civilization  and  in  intellectual 
developoment  is  considerable ;  as  a  proof  of  which,  it  in  mentioned  that  they  have  terms  to 
express  numbers  up  to  100,000.  The  Otaheitians  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their  per- 
sonal beauty :  the  lower  orders,  indeed,  are  of  the  same  brown  tint  so  generally  prevalent 
in  the  Friendly  Islands,  but  in  those  of  a  superior  caste  this  is  gradually  lost,  until  we  find 
in  the  higher  ranks  a  skin  nearly  white,  or  at  least  but  slin;htly  tinged  with  brown;  and 
dthough  the  usual  colour  of  their  hair  is  black,  yet  it  is  ot  a  fine  texture,  and  fi-equent 
instuicea  occur  in  which  it  is  brov/n,  flaxen,  and  even  red.  Their  persons  are  well  made, 
their  feature.?  sometimes  even  beautiful,  and  a  blush  may  bo  readily  observed  on  the  cheek 
of  the  women.  Tht^  harmony  of  their  language,  and  their  simple  though  refined  manners, 
have  been  imiversaJly  remarked.  These  national  characteristics  extend  to  the  Society 
Islands.  Laatbj,  The  natives  of  the  Marquesas  have  been  described  as  the  finest  race  in  the 
Southern  Ocean:  "in  form  they  are,  perhaps,  the  finest  in  the  world."  Their  skin  is 
naturally  "  very  fair,"  anci  the  colour  of  their  hair  exhibits  all  the  varied  shades,  (exceptmg 
red),  which  are  found  in  the  dififerent  tribes  of  Uie  Caucasian  race. 

Sect.  III. — On  the.  Causes  of  these  Varieties. 

The  following  questions  naturally  arise  from  consid.?ring  these  characteristics  of  tho  most 
prominent  varieties  of  the  human  race ;  founded  as  they  are  on  the  concurrent  te  'imony  of 
travellers,  and  generalised  by  the  most  eminent  physiologists: — 1.  Whether  these  racjs,  so 
dissimilar  in  their  typical  peculiarities,  have  originally  proceeded  firom  one,  or  fi-om  distinct 
stocks  1  2.  Are  they  so  strongly  marked  as  not  to  present  many  and  great  deviations'?  and, 
3.  To  what  causes  are  they  to  be  attributed  1 

In  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  human  race,  there  have  not  been  wanting  those,  who, 
disbelieving  the  evidences  of  the  Mosaic  history,  have  attempted  to  establish  the  hypotliesis 
that  these  races  have  each  sprung  fi-om  difierent  stocks ;  > ,  that  they  are,  in  &ct,  so  many 
species.  Now,  this,  at  the  best,  is  but  an  assumption  per 
every  record  fi"om  which  it  could  receive  any  support  is 
it  b  m  direct  violation  of  a  primary  and  universal  law  of  . 
being  of  the  '•-•iial  creation  shrinks  instinctive? '■  *^om  . 
anothe'..  It  1  .noreover,  been  fiiUy  ascertaineu  i  .■, 
human  form       y  be,  such  variations  among  difl?r:    xiv, 

are  even  grt^^tet.  Unless,  therefore,  it  can  be  p'  v  ^^  that  the  laws  of  nature  with  reap.  !t 
to  man  and  animals  are  contradictory,  we  shall,  by  at  ; .  '>ing  the  least  weight  to  the  above 
theory,  openly  violate  every  principle  of  philosophif:  i'  ..;;;  ir  ^  as  well  as  renounce  all  belief 
in  revealed  religion.  On  this  head  the  Mosaic  recoitts  n  ^ar  and  explicit ;  and  however 
the  bceotic  may  deny  their  inspiration,  he  cannot  \n'm^  'jt-  ird,  on  his  side,  any  teetimonf 


(.•ratuitous ;  not  only  because 

!y  opposed  to  it,  but  because 

:  a  law  by  which  the  lowest 

.iiixing  its  species  with  that  of 

/ever  great  the  variations  of  the 

'  f"?  of  the  same  species  of  irim"^! 


Paht  II. 

r,  show  a  general 
Their  language, 
ly  beard.  (Law* 
e  great  islands  of 
ca  and  Philippine 
c  barbarity  as  do 
'  iUiOty  rt8  appear 
iUur-cc'icuvod  and 
lace,  longer  hair, 
ppe  ors  (j!  (,  side, 

ler.     p-<:!:-A'{ing 

;-,i'y  hfcir,  '■■:.  tJie 
ninat^d  Now  Ire- 
ent  of  Npw  Hol- 
eable  barbariKjn; 
)er-colouied  than 
terior  have  ieen 
rj;,  frn  tiio;  used 
chanjTfe  frofv  the 

iii  their  persons 
imir  is  aomeiimes 

tribes  we  have 
of  the  barbarous 
de  some  progress 

Supreme  Being, 
e  their  condition 
ialonders,  but  arc 
li  some  are  above 

on  a  light  olive ; 
in  some  respects 
nd  in  intellectual 
ey  have  terms  to 
ed  for  their  per- 
nerally  prevalent 
ost,  until  we  find 
with  brown ;  and 
re,  and  frequent 
IS  are  well  made, 
ired  on  the  cheek 
refined  manners, 
I  to  the  Society 
finest  race  in  the 
Their  skin  is 
lades,  (excepting 


sties  of  tho  most 
ent  te  'imony  of 
sr  these  racss,  so 
,  or  from  distinct 
deviations?  and, 

iting  those,  who, 
h  the  hypotliesis 
in  &ct,  BO  many 
not  only  because 
o  it,  but  because 
A'hich  the  lowest 
tics  with  that  of 
\  ariations  of  the 
pecies  of  •oin^'l 
ure  with  resp  ct 
ht  to  the  above 
lounce  all  belief 
it ;  and  however 
e,  any  teetimony 


bookul 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


2(31 


I 


of  such  remote  antiquity,  or  of  such  generally  admitted  credibility.  As  to  the  second  quefr- 
tion,  it  must  not  be  understood  that,  in  arranging  the  varieties  of  man  under  a  certain  num- 
ber of  divisions,  and  assijqfning  to  each  a  peculiar  character,  there  does  not  occur  many  and 
very  remarkable  exceptluns  m  each.  So  much,  indeed,  is  this  the  case,  that  there  are  not 
wanting  instances  of  native  African  tribes  having  tho  light  skin  of  Europeans,  Caucasians 
combinmg  the  Mongolian  with  the  Malay  structure,  Americans  resembling  whites,  and  Afri- 
cans with  the  copper-coloured  skin  of  the  American ;  nay,  even  in  the  same  island  or  pro- 
vince, a  great  diversity  both  in  language  and  in  physical  structure,  is  sometimes  apparent,  and 
tliis  between  tribes  bordering  close  upon  each  other ;  so  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  com- 
paratively small  portion  of  each  principal  race,  we  find  so  much  diversity  in  the  remaining 
or  aberrant  branches — the  typical  peculiarities  become  so  modified,  altered,  or  evanescent, 
that  it  it  totally  impossible  to  draw  an  absolute  line  of  demarcation  between  them. 

This  point  has  frequently  been  adverted  to  by  a  well-known  physiologist,  who  says, "  there 
is  no  circumstance,  whether  of  corporeal  structure  or  of  mental  endowment,  which  does  not 
pass  by  imperceptible  gradations  into  the  opposite  character,  rendering  all  those  distinctions 
merely  relative,  and  reducing  them  to  differences  in  degree.  It  is  concluded,  therefore,  that 
every  arrangement  of  these  varieties  must  be  in  a  great  measure  arbitrary."  (^Lawrence's 
Led,  p.  472.)  Yet,  admitting  this  variation  to  the  fullest  extent,  it  cannot  alter  the  correct- 
ness of  the  principle  on  which  these  distinctions  are  founded.  Whatever  might  have  been 
formerly  thought  as  to  tho  nature  of  terms  employed  by  naturalists  to  designate  the  particu- 
lar groups  of  animals,  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that,  throughout  nature,  there  are  no 
isolating  distinctions,  save  such  as  separate  species.  The  characters  of  every  zoological 
group,  of  whatever  magnitude  or  denomination,  are  subject  to  exceptions  equally  numerouc. 
The  typical  peculiarities  may,  indeed,  be  prominent ;  but  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
objects  which  are  embraced  under  any  definition,  will  be  the  diversity  of  those  imperceptible 
gradations,  those  threads  of  connexion,  which  shoot  out  in  all  directions,  and  unite  not  only 
genera  and  orders,  but  the  primary  kingdoms  of  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  worlds.  J| 
IS,  therefore,  irrelevant  to  argue  that,  because  these  divisions  are  liable  to  numerous  excep 
tions,  and  are  not  always  uniform  and  constant,  they  are  either  artificial  or  objectionable 
fbr  as  we  find  that  all  natural  groups,  both  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  worlds,  are  subject 
to  the  same  variations,  they  are  therefore  liable  to  the  same  objections.  In  short,  if  such 
reasoning  is  valid,  the  distinction  between  plants  and  animals  can  no  longer  be  maintained ; 
for  it  is  to  this  day  unsettled  at  what  point  the  peculiarities  of  one  are  lost,  and  those  of  the 
other  assumed. 

The  causes  that  may  have  led  to  these  variations  in  the  human  species,  form  the  only 
question  of  a  general  nature  remaining  to  be  discussed.  It  has  been  argued  by  some  writers, 
Uiat  particular  climates,  food,  and  modes  of  life,  have  gradually  operated,  through  a  succes- 
sion of  ages,  to  produce  these  effects  on  the  colour,  stature,  and  intellect  of  difiBrent  nations. 
But,  however  greatly  these  causes  may  affect  individuals,  or  even  to  a  certain  extent  a  whole 
people,  they  entirely  fail  when  brought  to  solve  our  present  question ;  were  it  otherwise,  the 
same  causes  would  naturally  have  the  same  effect  on  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  particular 
region ;  but  such,  as  is  well  known,  is  far  from  being  the  case.  The  negro,  under  a  tropical 
sun,  is  black ;  while  an  Indian  of  Para,  in  the  same  degree  of  latitude,  is  reddish  brown.  No 
race  produces  men  more  athletic,  or  more  finely  formed,  than  are  witnessed  among  the  Gold 
Coast  negroes ;  yet  they  inhabit,  proverbially,  some  of  the  most  pestilential  districts  of  Africa. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  New  Hollanders,  and  the  South  African  Bushmen,  living  in  a  salu- 
brious climate,  are  described  as  lean,  squalid,  and  with  an  appearance  scarcely  human.  It 
is  therefore  obvious,  tliat  neither  the  physical  nor  the  moral  condition  of  man  can  be  so 
afiected  by  climate,  or  other  external  agencies,  as  to  produce  any  great  or  permanent  varia- 
tion in  his  form.  Indeed,  when  we  consider  that  such  agencies  have  not  produced  any 
physical  change  in  any  one  nation,  within  the  memory  or  the  records  of  man,  we  axe  tempted 
to  believe  that  in  a  general  point  of  view,  their  influence  has  been  very  slight ;  otherwise, 
thpro  is  in  reason  to  loubt  but  that  the  same  natural  causes  which  operated  at  one  period 
of  '  T  c,  ■...'.'ilu  still  continue  to  do  so  at  another;  and  that  we  should  find  the  descendants 
■"  Europeans  leg  since  settled  in  the  New  World,  and  in  Southern  Africa,  beginning  to 
assume  the  red  ting^  of  the  American,  or  the  black  skin  of  the  Etl.\iopian.  Still  less  can  it 
be  supposed  that  this  dtparture  from  one  common  standard  has  been  effected  by  civilization, 
a  consequent  i^cvelopementof  themi  tal  faculties,  or  even  by  diversified  modesof  life.  Man, 
in  remote  ages,  must  have  lived  j  :t>tty  nearly  the  same  life  in  every  region ;  whether  as 
shepherds,  hunters,  or  tillers  of  the  field,  their  food,  iiabits,  and  modesof  life,  must  have  been 
simple  and  regular.  Whence  comes  it,  then,  that  nations  which  still  retain  a  great  portion 
of  w'tat  may  be  conceived  their  primitive  simpncity,  do  not  exhibit  a  corresponding  resem- 
blance in  "hi'sical  structure  1  If  food,  rairrfnt-  and  moral  improvement  have  such  a"owerful 
efiect  in  modifying  the  human  frame,  it  would  naturally  follow  that  tribes  living  nearly  in  a 
state  of  nature  would  all  show  a  close  approximation  to  one  common  type;  that  they  would, 
ir;  iliort,  retain  more  of  the  lineaments  and  characters  which  must  have  belonged  to  our  first 
\.      :"j  than  if  they  had  deviated  from  their  primitive  simplicity ;  yet  the  very  reverse  of 


262 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II 


Booi 


Ik 


m^ 


'i 


this  is  the  fact  The  apparent  aborigines  of  every  nation  are  those  in  which  the  leadinjj 
characters  of  their  own  tribe  are  most  conspicuous ;  and  which  exhibit  the  strongest  contrast 
to  those  of  others.  It  is  only  when  they  have  mode  some  progress  in  the  arts  of  life,  when 
conquest  or  commerce  has  led  to  a  union  with  other  races,  that  the  national  characteristics, 
both  personal  and  mental,  give  way,  and  begin  either  to  blend  or  to  be  lost  in  other  modifica- 
tions. These  reasons,  did  they  more  immediately  concern  the  purposes  of  this  essay,  micht 
be  much  enlarged  upon,  more  particularly  as  they  have  been  offered  by  some  descrveKlly 
eminent  writers  as  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  question  we  are  now  discussing.  Yet,  allow* 
ing  to  all  these  causes  the  fiill  effect  they  are  known  to  have  produced,  we  must  yet  confess 
they  appear  to  us  totally  inadequate  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  races  of  man.  A  writer 
intimately  versed  on  this  subject  has  well  observed,  that  '•  external  agencies,  whether  phy. 
sical  or  moral,  will  not  account  for  the  bodily  and  mental  diifcrcnees  which  characterise  the 
«veral  tribes  of  mankind."  {^Latorence's  Lectures,  p.  431.)  We  have,  in  short,  now  brought 
the  inquiry  to  a  point  where  human  reason  is  baffled :  there  is  neither  history  nor  tradition  to 
guide  us  in  a  research  which  carries  us  back  to  tlie  obscurity  of  ages ;  to  that  remote  period 
when  the  earth,  for  a  second  time,  was  again  peopled,  if  not  by  a  single  pair,  yet  by  the  three 
eons  of  a  single  family. 

We  are  now  to  view  the  question  in  another  light.  It  has  been  generally  admitted,  even 
by  those  who  reject  the  Mosaic  testimony,  that  the  diversity  in  the  human  structure  can  in 
no  way  be  accounted  for  bv  any  known  combination  of  natural  causes :  are  we,  therefore, 
to  suppose,  in  a  question  which  concerns  the  most  perfect  earthly  being  made  by  Omnipo- 
tence, that  nothing  supernatural  is  to  enter  1  that  causes  which  effect  the  developement  not 
only  of  the  material  but  of  the  spiritual  essence  of  man,  have  been  left  to  chance  1  Is  it  not 
more  reasonable  to  conclude,  that,  for  purposes  unknown  to  us,  a  supernatural  agency  was 
employed  1  and  that  the  immediate  descendants  of  the  sons  of  Noah  were  as  distinctly  mark- 
ed in  their  outward  form  as  tliey  were  in  their  moral  character  1  The  sacred  writings,  it  is 
true,  are  not  written  to  answer  philosophic  inquiries.  Those  who,  in  the  present  age,  have 
been  the  most  profound  investigators  of  nature,  discover  in  every  part  of  creation  a  symbolic 
relationship;  a  mysterious  system  of  types  and  symbols,  which  extends  from  the  most  com- 
plex to  the  moat  simple  of  organized  beings:  and  when  we  know,  for  instance,  that  even  the 
colours  of  a  bird  or  an  insect  have  a  direct  reference  to  such  a  system,  and  are  employed  as 
typical  indications  of  its  station  in  nature,  can  it  be  supposed  that  such  a  sjrstem  does  not 
extend  to  man  1  That  this  will  not,  in  tiie  present  infancy  of  our  inquiries,  admit  of  such 
direct  and  unanswerable  proof  as  amounts  co  mathematical  demonstration,  we  do  not  attempt 
to  deny ;  but  that  such  a  supposition  is  in  harmony  with  that  perfection  which  belongs  to 
tlij  works  of  Omnipotence,  every  reasonable  person  must  admit  Nor  are  there  wanting 
circumstances  which  give  some  degree  of  sanction  to  this  belief.  The  curse  prciounced 
upon  Canaan  as  the  son  of  Ham  has  unquestionably  been  fulfilled.  Learned  commentators 
agree  in  considering  that  central  Afi'ica  was  peopled  by  his  descendants,  and  these  have  been 
for  ages,  and  still  continue  to  be,  "  a  servant  of  servants,"  to  their  more  favoured  breth,r»n. 
Even  their  own  despotic  governments  render  the  subjects  but  slaves.  In  them  the  human 
form  is  most  debased,  the  divinity  of  mind  least  developed.  Thry  still  exhibit  those  leading 
resemblances  which  rendered  Cain  a  type  of  Canaan :  with  few  v  ';icceptionB,  they  are,  to  this 
day,  but  "  wanderers  and  vagabonds"  on  the  earth.  Tho  blessings  pronounced  on  the  two 
remaining  sons  of  Noah,  it  has  been  well  observed,  are  of  a  very  different  nature :  Shem  was 
more  peculiarly  favoured  than  his  brother ;  from  his  race  not  only  the  great  patriarchs  who 
typified  Christ  but  even  Christ  himselfj  descended.  The  peculiarity  of  the  Jewish  polity, 
which  preserved  the  physical  peculiarities  of  their  race  pure  and  unmixed  through  successive 
generations,  leaves  us  in  no  doubt  that  they  belong  to  the  Caucasian  type,  in  which,  both 
m  structure  and  intellect,  a  marked  superiority  over  .all  the  nations  of  the  earth  has  been 
universally  admitted.  The  early  descendants  of  Japheth,  as  b  plainly  intimated  by  Moses, 
were  eminently  warlike.  All  writers  agree  in  considering  that  from  the  Mongolian  race 
descended  those  vast  and  overpowering  hordes  of  barbaric  warriors  who,  at  remote  periods 
of  time,  conquered  all  Asia,  and  devastated  Europe  under  Attila,  Zingis  Khan,  and  Tamer- 
lane. "  It  is  remarkable,"  says  Dr.  Scott  "  that  the  first  king  of  whom  we  read  in  authentic 
history,  is  Nimrod,  the  mighty  hunter."  The  same  learned  writer  mentions  that  there  is 
some  ground  for  believing  that  the  greatest  part  of  Asia  (now  peopled  by  the  Mongolian  race) 
descended  from  Japhetlu  The  population  of  Asia  has  been  frequently  mentioned  as  in  an 
equal  ratio  to  the  superiority  of  its  size  over  Europe,  or  rather  of  these  countries  over  which 
the  Caucasian  variety  has  spread.  Thus,  in  every  sense,  it  appears,  that  the  promise  to 
Noah's  first  son,  "  God  shall  enlarge  Japheth,  and  Canaan  shall  be  his  sei-vant,"  has  literally 
and  figuratively  been  fulfilled. 

That  the  three  sons  of  Noah  overspread  and  peopled  the  whole  earth,  is  so  expres  ly 
stated  in  Scripture,  that,  if  we  bad  not  to  argue  against  those  who  unfortunately  disbelieve 
such  evide.ico,  we  might  hero  stop:  let  us,  however,  inquire  how  iP-  the  truth  of  this  decla- 
ration is  substantiated  by  other  considerations.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  there  is  a 
curious,  if  not  a  remarkable,  analogy  between  the  predictions  of  Noah,  on  the  future  descend 


.a>vj|jA«1" 


:-_:.j^-:- 


'T'"-' 


■  ■  ■  »i--^  rr.  F^T-TTTf '  IW7?'" 


PaktH 

hich  tho  leading 
tronjfGst  contrast 
irtfl  of  life,  when 
1  charactcristicB, 
1  other  modifica- 
his  essay,  mieht 
!ome  deBorvedly 
ing.  Yet,  allow 
must  yet  confess 
man.  A  writer 
IS,  whether  phy- 
characterise  the 
art,  now  brouglit 
r  nor  tradition  to 
it  remote  period 
yet  by  the  three 

'  admitted,  even 
structure  can  in 
e  we,  therefore, 
ide  by  Omnipo- 
jvelopement  not 
lance  1  Is  it  not 
ral  agency  xoas 
distinctly  mark- 
d  writings,  it  is 
esent  age,  have 
ition  a  symbolic 
1  the  most  com- 
e,  that  even  the 
ire  employed  as 
ystem  does  not 

admit  of  such 
!  do  not  attempt 
hich  belongs  to 

there  wanting 
rse  prciounced 

commentators 
hese  have  been 
lured  brethren. 
3m  the  human 
t  those  leading 
ley  are,  to  this 
3d  on  the  two 
re :  Shem  was 
patriarchs  who 

Jewish  polity, 
ugh  successive 
n  which,  both 
earth  has  been 
ited  by  Moses, 
longolian  race 
emote  periods 
[J,  and  Tamer- 
A  in  authentic 
8  that  there  is 
ongolian  race) 
ioned  as  in  an 
es  over  which 
le  promise  to 
"  has  literally 

8  so  expressly 
e\y  disbelieve 
ot  this  decia- 
that  there  is  a 
iture  descend 


Book  III 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


ants  of  his  three  sons,  and  tho  actual  stato  of  those  races  which  are  generally  supposed  to 
have  sprung  iVom  them.  It  mar  here  bo  a^^ain  remarked,  that  aluiough,  to  render  the 
subject  more  clear,  we  have  adopted  the  quinary  arrangement  of  Blumenbach,  yet  that 
Cuvier  and  other  learned  physiologists  are  of  opinion  that  the  on'mory  varieties  of  the  human 
form  are  more  properly  but  three ;  namolv,  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  and  the  Ethiopian. 
This  number  corTcsponds  with  that  of  Noah's  sons :  assigning,  therefore,  the  Mongolian  race  to 
Japheth,  and  the  Ethiopian  to  Ham,  t^  >  Caucasian,  the  noblert  race,  will  belong  to  Shem 
the  third  son  of  Noah,  himself  descended  from  Seth  the  third  son  of  Adam.  That  the 
primary  distinctions  of  the  human  varieties  are  but  three,  has  been  further  maintained  by  thn 
erudite  Pritchard,  who,  while  he  rejects  the  nomenclature  both  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier, 
as  implying  absolute  divisions,  arranges  tho  leading  varieties  of  the  human  skull  under  throe 
sections,  diflering  from  those  of  Cuvier  only  by  name.  That  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  «,vho 
were  to  "  replenish  the  earth,"  and  on  whose  progeny  very  opposite  destinies  were  pro« 
nounced,  should  give  birth  to  different  races,  is  what  might  reasonably  be  conjectured.  But 
that  the  observations  of  those  who  do,  and  of  those  who  do  'wt  believe  the  Mosaic  history 
should  tend  to  confirm  its  truth,  by  pointing  out  in  what  respect  these  three  races  do  actually 
differ,  both  physically  and  morally,  is,  to  say  tho  least,  a  singular  coincidence.  It  amounts, 
in  short,  to  presumptive  evidence  that  a  mysterious,  but  a  very  beautiful  analogy  pervades 
throughout ;  and  teaches  us  to  look  beyond  natural  causes,  in  attempting  to  account  for 
effects  apparently  interwoven  in  the  plans  of  Omnipotence. 

To  reconcile  the  different  theories  regarding  the  number  of  primary  variations  in  tho 
human  form  is  our  next  object.  The  greatest  authorities  on  this  subject  are  Blumenbach 
and  Lawrence,  Cuvier  and  Pritchard.  The  first  two,  as  already  observed,  maintain  that  the 
primary  divisions  are  five ;  while  the  latter,  with  more  show  of  reason,  contend  that  there 
are  but  three,  although  they  readily  admit  the  distinctions  assigned  to  the  other  two.  In 
what  manner,  therefore,  can  these  opposite  theories  be  reconciled  1  To  do  this,  we  must 
revert  to  a  third  and  very  remarkoble  one,  which,  although  it  has  hitherto  been  solely  di- 
rected to  the  animal  kingdom,  will  yet  be  found  to  exercise  a  very  important  influence  on 
the  present  question :  we  allude  to  the  circular  theory  of  MacLeay.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
this  learned  naturalist  that  every  group  of  organised  beings  divides  itself,  as  it  were,  into 
two  branches  of  affinities,  which  finally  uniting  again  at  their  opposite  extremities,  form  a 
circle ;  and  that  this  disposition  of  affinities  holds  good,  not  only  in  every  group,  of  what- 
ever magnitude  or  denomination,  but  throughout  tho  animal  and  the  vegetable  world.  It 
has  been  further  shown  that  as  such  a  circular  arrangement  of  beings  canno',,  of  necessity, 
present  any  absolute  or  isolated  divisions,  (for  it  <"  uld  not  then  be  continuous  and  circular), 
yet,  that  there  may  be  traced,  in  each  circle,  five  deviations  or  varieties  of  structure  •  '• '  >h, 
however  conspicuous  in  their  typical  examples,  are  blended  and  lost  the  nearer  the)  ■  .<- 
imate  to  each  other.  Now,  so  far  as  regards  the  afllinities  of  aiii/nals,  this  circulai  iii  jr:y 
has  been  demonstrated ;  but  it  long  remained  a  matter  of  doubt  what  number  of  primary 
divisions  every  group  contained.  Mr.  MacLeay  considers  there  are  five ;  and  this  accords 
with  Blumenbach's  arrangement  of  the  human  species.  M.  Cuvier,  and  Dr.  Pritchard,  as 
we  have  before  stated,  limit  the  leading  varieties  of  man  to  three.  In  our  arrangement  of 
the  order  Insessores  (North.  Zoology,  vol.  ii.),  one  of  the  most  comprehensive  divisions  in 
ornithology,  we  have  shown  that  the  p^rimary  divisions  of  jvery  natural  group  are  only  ^'  .'ee ; 
one  of  which,  by  forming  a  circle  of  its  own,  includes  three  of  those  pointed  out  by  Mr. 
MacLeay, — thus  making  the  number  Jive.  Now,  this  theory,  on  the  natural  divisions  of 
birds,  rests  upon  no  speculative  assumption ;  it  is  founded  on  the  most  rigorous  and  minute 
analysis,  and  has  thus  been  capable  of  mathematic  demonstration.  The  question,  whether 
this  theory  is  applicable  to  one  part  only  of  the  animal  creation,  or  whether  there  is  pre- 
sumptive evidence  to  conclude  that  it  pervades  all  nature,  has  been  di'  t  some 
length  in  the  "  Introductory  Observations  on  the  Natural  System,"  prefix^  .;  o  same 
work.  In  some  respects  the  trinary  and  the  quinary  theory  of  divisions  may  be  thought 
vhtually  the  same ;  and  so  far  as  regards  our  present  subject,  considered  abstractly,  this 
observation  may  be  true.  We  can  analyze  a  group  of  insects,  of  birds,  or  of  other  animals, 
but  how  are  we  to  analyze  the  different  modifications  of  man  1  The  thing  is  utterly  impos- 
sible. Now,  as  every  true  theory  must  rest  upon  analysis,  our  present  views  on  this 
subject  would  be  purely  speculative,  did  they  not  so  strikingly  and  wonderfiilly  coincide 
\vith  those  in  other  departments  of  nature,  into  which  we  can  prosecute  minute  research, 
and  attr'T.  ^'gical  demonstration.  Besides,  by  supposmg  that  there  are^ue  principal  varia- 
tions ■  I,  each  equally  important  with  the  other,  we  entirely  destroy  the  beautifiil 
analtp,  '•;.  vveer.  these  variations  and  the  sacred  writings.  But  without  entering  farther 
upon  thi.i  question,  it  will  be  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose  to  repeat,  that,  in  regard  tc 
man,  the  views  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier  are  virtually  the  same ;  for  if,  with  the  former, 
we  reckon  five,  there  will  be  two  grouna  more  conspicuously  typical  of  perfection,  and  three 
others,  which,  however  distinct  in  many  respects,  possess  several  characters  in  common.  If, 
on  th'  other  hand,  we  follow  Cuvier  and  Pritchard,  and  restrict  the  number  to  three,  we  have 
»lie  Cr  .vrasian  and  the  Mongolian  as  the  two  principal  groups,  while  there  is  a  thurd,  typi- 


*y 


MA 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pabt  0 


caiiy  rpprcaented  indeed  by  the  Ethiopian,  but  still  so  diversifled  aa  to  admit  of  a  threefold 
diviaioii,  into  the  American,  tlic  Aft-ican,  iind  Jie  Malapr  varieties. 

That  the  variiition  of  man  has  been  rogul  ited  by  similar  laws  to  those  which  have  been 
traced  throughout  nature,  is  a  conclusion  supported  by  strong  and  presumptive  evidence; 
drawp  both  from  the  sacred  writings,  and  from  inferences  in  zoological  science,  which  no 
one  has  ventured  to  dispute.  In  establishing  this  point,  I  have  studiously  confined  myself 
to  such  facta,  coTinf<';t'Hl  with  the  physical  history  of  man,  ns  rest  on  high  aqd  indisputable 
authority.     O  .{<><■.  i     'ast  and  intricate,  illustrated  by  the  united  labours  of  the  most 

acute  philo'imei')  v;  vmg,  little  tltat  is  new  could  bo  said,  and  that  little  might  have 
been  su  ;<  -taU  of  V  nu  oroughi.  forward  to  favour  a  particular  theory.  In  the  preceding 
sketch  M'lhii  prmcipal  cJifTerences  in  man,  we  have,  therefore,  merely  condensod  the  obser- 
vation!:, li  >(1  facts  detailed  in  the  writings  o^  Blumenbach,  Cuvier,  Pritohard,  Lawn  nee,  and 
Sumivir ;  rather  wishing,  that,  whatever  inferences  are  drawn  from  such  sources,  the  facts 
themselves  should  reiii.  on  testimonies  of  so  much  weight 

The  order  in  which  these  races  are  here  placed  leans  us  to  other  considerations.  Blumen- 
bnch  is  of  opinion  that  the  American  form  ■'■>  intermediate  between  the  Caucasian  and  Mon- 
golian; but  we  have  foiled  t<>  '  ..j  .issign^d  reamn  for  such  a  disposition,  which 
also  seems  at  variance  with  Uie  profession  of  develupemoiit  The  geographical  situation 
of  the  two  continents,  as  we  have  before  observed,  renders  it  highly  probable  that  the 
American  variety  is  more  immediately  connected  with  the  Mongolian ;  and  the  simple  fact, 
that  the  Esquimaux  have  been  by  some  considered  as  of  Asiatic  origin,  while  by  others  ihey 
are  thought  to  exhibit  more  of  the  American  type,  is,  perhaps,  the  strongest  proof  of  their 
intimate  relationship  to  both.  Neither  does  the  American  race  exhibit  any  direct  affinity 
to  the  Caucasian;  while,  on  the  contrary,  both  their  physical  structure  and  mental  (Invelope- 
ment  seem  to  place  them  in  c '  -se  approximation  to  the  Africans.  For  these  and  subsequent 
reasons,  we  have  felt  no  hesitation  m  adopting  the  series  intimated  in  the  Rlgne  Animal. 
We  must  now  advert  to  another  peculiarity  in  this  arrangement,  which  renders  its  simili- 
tude to  the  zoological  series  still  more  remarkable.  This  is  the  progressive  series  of  affinities, 
resulting  from  placing  the  five  leading  varieties  in  the  order  in  \^ich  they  have  been  here 
notic'd.  The  Caucasian  and  the  Mongolian  races  present  the  highest  degree  of  civiliza- 
t'.on,  although  in  very  difibrent  degrees  when  compared  with  each  other :  the  regions  they 
respectively  inhabit,  in  like  mann  -r,  approximate  so  closely  as  not  to  be  divided  by  water. 

Yet  the  configuration  of  these  races  is  so  remarkable,  that  tliey  "     .^ot  be  mistaken       

founded.     In  the  third  race,  comprehending  the  American,  the  lualay,  and  thi   Etiiiopi 
very  marked  deviations  from  the  typical  endowments  of  the  two  former  are  manifest.    T' 
inteiiority  is  first  shown  in  the  American,  whose  outward  form  and  moral  capacity  i?  neve, 
thelesd  superior  to  the  African.    Yet,  as  nature  in  the  animal  Kingdom  is  ever  prone  to 
retrace  her  steps,  and  to  return  again  to  her  original  type ;  so  we  observe  that,  after  exhibit- 
ing, in  some  of  the  African  hordes,  the  lowest  debasement  of  the  human  form,  and  the  least 
capacity  for  mental  improvement,  she  begins,  as  Blumenbach  observes,  in  the  diversified 
races  of  the  Malay  variety,  to  show  a  progressive  but  a  very  marked  inclination  to  return 
through  them  to  the  Cb  rrasian  type.    So  strong,  indeed,  does  this  appear  in  many  tribes  of 
the  South  Sea  Islanders,  not  only  in  the  beauty  of  their  forms,  but  in  the  advance  they  are 
continually  making  towards  intelh  tual  improvement,  that  every  voyager,  who  has  visited 
their  shorei    i^cncurs  i"  dkening  t'     n  to  Europrans. 

The  infercLces  to  be  drawn  froi  this  circular  disposition  are  important,  if  merely  con- 
sidered in  relation  to  those  systems,  which,  by  presupposing  a  lineal  scale  in  creation,  would 
place  tlie  negro  in  immediate  contact  wilji  the  monkey.  Now,  without  laying  any  stress 
upon  that  princ-^  haracteristic  of  man,  a  reasoning,  thinking,  and  immaterial  soul,  of 
which  the  bod>  is  but  a  temporary  i  ^eptacle,  we  luust,  beforj  we  consent  to  this  hypothesis, 
get  over  difficultiej  which  appear  insurinountalle.  That  the  Ethiopiar  holds  the  lowest  station 
among  the  varieties  of  his  specii-^,  if?  fliliy  granted;  bu>.  that  th<s  admission  implies  an 
affinity  to  the  ape,  does  by  ">  mea-  ->llow  There  may  be  an  approximation:  but  it  is 
necessary,  before  we  decide  <  the  ws^ree  of  such  approximation,  ttiat  we  should  examine 
the  relative  affinity  which  t '  '*hiop'  m  bears  to  the  Caucasian,  For  if  it  should  appear 
that  Uie  difference  between  '  lost  >erfect  and  the  most  imperfect  of  the  human  races  is 
unquestionably  less  than  bt'i-von  i,  latter  and  the  brutes;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the 
similarities  between  the  negiu  and  tin  Caucasian  are  decidedly  greater  than  those  between 
the  negro  and  the  ape ;  we  must  admit  that  this  latter  approxunation  is  too  slight  to  be 
termed  an  affinity.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  consider  man  only  as  a  material  being,  he 
stands  so  far  removed  from  brutes — the  interval  between  him  and  them  is  so  great — tmit  it 
would  be  a  violation  of  natural  affinities,  and  certainly  an  insult  on  his  better  nature,  to  class 
him  in  the  same  system.  To  arrive  at  a  just  conclusion  on  this  subject,  we  must  not  look  so 
much  to  any  one  point  of  comparison,  or  to  mere  anatomical  analogies,  but  bring  the  dis- 
tiiiguiauiug  charactera  of  each  mto  dif  eel  ouiiipariBon.  Sues  the  negro,  it  may  then  be  asked, 
uvinco  a  deficiency  of  those  qualities  which  belong  to  the  Caucasians  1  we  allude  not  to  tiie 
natural  affections,  for  these  are,  in  some  degree,  common  to  brutes;  but  in  self-privatiou, 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS        T^TION  TO  MAN. 


compaarion,  and  heroic  love  of  their  itry.  Are  they  inc«p«ble  of  learning  European 
arts,  r  of  inventing  others  luitali' !  to  loir  wanta  or  habital  To  deny  Uicni  luch  qualities 
would  be  prepoateroua ;  they  poeecM  the  gernu  of  otltera  infinitely  higiier,  witich,  under 
bvourable  circumatancea,  have  produced  expert  artiaana,  akiliul  physioiana,  pioua  divinea, 
and  pleasing  poets.  "  I  protest  especially,"  observes  Mr.  Lawrence,  "  against  the  ofunion 
which  oither  denies  to  the  Africans  the  enjovment  of  reason,  or  ascribes  to  the  whole  race 
propensities  which  would  degrade  them  even  below  the  level  of  the  brate.  It  can  be  proved 
most  clearly,  that  there  is  no  circumstance  of  bodily  structure  so  peculiar  to  the  negro,  as 
not  to  be  found  also  in  other  far  distant  nations ;  no  character  which  does  not  run  into  those 
of  other  races,  by  as  insensible  gradations  as  those  which  connect  together  all  the  varieties 
of  mankind."  (p.  428.)  To  pursue  this  comparison  farther  is  needless ;  and  to  ask  wliether 
the  least  indication  of  such  powers  has  ever  been  manit'sBted  by  the  quadrumanuus  animals 
would  be  ridiculous.  The  learned  and  eloquent  Bishop  Sumner  forcibly  observes,  "  There 
is  nothing  philosophical  in  the  comparison  of  a  being  possessed  of  improvable  roa.ion  with 
one  that  is  governed  by  natural  instmct,  because  there  is  no  just  affinity  between  the  talents 
which  are  compared."  (Recordt  of  Creation,  vol.  i.  p.  23.)  We  consider  this  argument  as 
conclusive.  To  class  man,  therefore,  in  the  same  zoological  division  with  apes,  merely 
because  both  have  a  hyoid  bone,  is,  to  our  apprehension,  as  glaring  a  violation  of  natural 
affinities  cj9  to  arrange  l»ts  wiUi  birds,  because  both  fly  in  the  air,  and  possess  a  crest  to  their 
stemtuii.  So  far,  indeed,  from  considering  man  as  the  type  of  a  zoological  order  of  brutes, 
we  cannot  allow  that  he  even  belongs  to  the  same  system  in  which  they  are  arranged.  It 
may  be,  that  the  deviations  of  his  structure  are  regulated  by  those  laws  which  govern  the 
universe ;  yet,  nevertheless,  by  his  nobler  qualities  (whicii  in  fkct  are  his  true  distinctions) 
he  belongs  to  a  higher  order  beings :  that  he  is,  in  short,  a  link  between  matter  and 
spirit ;  that  he  carries  this  evid<  ice,  through  revelation,  within  himself;  and  will  hereailer 
be  most  assuredly  rewarded  or  punished,  according  as  he  suffers  his  spiritual  or  his  earthly 
naturn  to  preponderate. 

Sect.  IV. — On  the  Oeographic  DistrAution  of  Animals. 

The  geographic  distribution  of  animals  over  the  globe,  is  the  next  subject  of  inquiry.  In 
the  general  outline  of  the  variations  in  man  which  has  been  given  above,  we  have  deemed 
it  more  important  to  seek  after  general  results  than  to  enter  upon  minute  details.  Our  atten- 
tion ha.i  been  fixed,  not  so  much  on  those  ramifications  which  shoot  out  near  the  extremities 
of  I  "If  branch,  and  become  too  indistinct  for  clear  elucidation,  but  rather  to  the  leading 
br      ;iea  themselves,  on  the  nature  of  which  there  has  been  little  diversitv  of  opinion. 

Ill  the  inquiry  regarding  the  geographic  distribution  of  animals,  on  which  we  now  enter, 
Uie  aame  mode  will  be  adopted,  but  with  this  difference,  that  whereas  we  have  hitherto 
drawn  our  inferences  solely  from  the  facts  and  general  opinions  of  others,  we  shall  now  put 
aside  all  theories  heretofore  promulgated  on  the  distribution  of  animals,  and  merely  depend 
01,  imple  facts  for  the  support  of  those  inferences  which  they  may  appear  to  sanction.  We 
'  first  briefly  notice  those  principles  which  have  been  applied  to  elucidate  the  phenomena 
o        imal  distribution,  and  then  inquire  how  far  they  appear  conducive  to  that  end. 

<  iiat  climate,  temperature,  soil,  and  food,  exercise  a  paramount  influence  on  the  distribu- 
tion of  animals,  has  been  generally  believed;  and  on  this  assumption  naturalists  have  divided 
tiie  world  into  climates,  zones,  or  provinces  regulated  by  degrees  of  longitude  or  latitude. 
Such  has  been  the  favourite  theory  not  only  of  physiologists,  but  of  professed  naturalists, 
wliose  knowledge  of  details  might  have  furnished  them  with  insuperable  objections  against 
such  views.  Thus,  the  celebrated  entomologist  Fabricius  conceived  that  the  insect  world 
could  be  naturally  divided  into  eight  climates:  one  of  which  is  mriio  lo  comprehend  all  those 
mountains,  in  every  part  of  the  world,  whose  summits  are  covered  by  eternal  snow.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  surprising  that  M.  Latreille  should  consider  such  .>.  thciory  <is  altogether  vague 
in  some  respects,  and  arbitrary  in  others.  But  will  not  the  latter  ibjociion  be  equally  appli- 
cable to  the  distribution  which  this  eminent  naturalist  has  himself  proposed  for  this  part  of 
the  creation  1  At  least,  such  is  the  opinion  of  one  fully  competent  to  judge  the  question. 
"  A  chart  of  animal  geography,"  says  Mr.  Kirby,  "  which  is  divided  into  climates  of  24°  of 
longitude  and  12°  of  1»  tude,  wears  upon  its  face  the  stamp  of  an  artificial  and  arbitrary 
system,  rather  than  of  one  according  with  nature."  On  much  the  same  principles  another 
tfieory  has  been  built,  by  which  the  earth  is  divided  into  seven  zoological  provinces,  or  zones, 
mainly  dependent  on  the  respective  degrees  of  latitude  they  occupy.  Now,  so  far  as  regards 
one  of  these  provinces — that  comprehended  within  the  arctic  circle — this  view  of  the  subject, 
at  first  sight,  appears  perfectly  just :  for  there  is  not  only  a  strong  analogy  between  the  groups 
of  animals  inhabiting  such  parts  of  the  two  continents  as  enter  into  this  circle,  but  there  is  also 
an  absolute  affinity  between  them ;  inasmuch  as  the  arctic  regions  contain  not  only  genera, 
but  numerous  species,  r^  mmon  to  both  continents.  This  theory,  however,  loses  all  its  force 
when  applied  to  such  divisions  aa  are  maue  to  incluus  the  tropical  regions  of  Africa,  Ame- 
rica, and  Asia,  in  one  province,  and  the  southern  extremities  of  America  and  Afi'ica  m 
another.    The  rxtologist  immediately  perceives  that  the  only  relation  which  these  countries 

VjL.1  23  ?I 


aA6 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pa«t  n 


bear  to  oach  other  in  their  animal  pnxhictionii,  ia  purely  an&lb/  il;  and  wo  are  thus  com* 
pellod  to  relinquioh  a  theory  which  appears  correct  only  in  ono  point  of  view.  Theae  and 
other  loM  eminent  writeru  appear  to  have  errod  in  the  very  foundation  of  their  method*. 
They  aiwumo  aa  granted,  what  haa  never  yet  been  proved,  that  teniporatirn  cxorciaea  a  pri- 
:nary  influence  on  ammal  distribution.  Were  auch  the  caae,  it  would  naturally  follow  tnat 
the  animals  of  auch  parts  of  America,  Africa,  and  Asia,  aa  are  placed  in  corroapondinff 
degreea  of  latitude,  would  hn  nearly  of  aimilar  apecioa ;  or,  at  loaat,  of  the  Hamo  natural 
genera.  Yet  auch,  oa  wu  shall  hereafter  show,  ia  not  the  fact  Between  the  animals  of 
Uiese  regions  there  ia,  indeed,  in  very  many  inatoncca,  a  atrona'  analogy :  auch,  for  instance, 
as  ia  apparent  between  the  'l\rochUidat  of  the  New  World,  the  Cinnynia  of  Aaia  and  AlVico, 
and  the  Melliphagida  of  tho  Australian  ialandn.  Such,  again,  ia  that  between  the  Toucans 
of  America  (Jic^.  76.  o),  and  tho  hombills  of  Asia  (Jig.  75.  b).  Yet  not  one  apccios  of  these 
'  75  birda  occur  in  any  two  of  thcae  countries.    Nevertholesa  it 

l^i  ■iiiiMii      aai^      cannot  be  dcnic<l,  that  the  temperature  and  configuration  of 

a  country  exerciaefl  a  powerftil  influence  on  the  distribution 

*    ^^^""""^ -^t^    of  aniniala.     But  those  eflbcta  are  of  a  aecondary  nature,  and 

;i  il^^'^'*"**'*"*^^^    totally  fhil  when  employed  to  elucidate  those  general  princi- 
ples which  oppear  to  regulate  the  whole  system  of  animal 
ii|;-..r;  V  >««!'^^Hi^^^gs^jf|^^.    geography,     nuch  agencies,  however,  may  bo  safely  allowed 

to  possess  much  weight,  when  we  descend  to  details  and  in- 
V  stigato  tiie  local  Fauna  of  any  particular  coimtry  or  dis- 
trict. It  has  been  obser\cd  by  the  celebrated  Humboldt,  and 
confirmed  by  iin  authority  nf  no(irly  equal  weight,  that,  with 
regard  to  certain  t'ibes  of  insoctfl,  tholr  gcojjraphical  distribution  does  not  appear  to  depend 
solely  on  the  degree  of  heat  or  humidity  to  which  they  are  exposed,  or  on  the  particular 
situation  they  inhabit ;  "  but  rather  on  local  circumstances,  that  are  difficult  to  characterise." 
This  opinion  is  in  unison  with  tho  whole  tenor  of  the  facts  to  which  wo  shall  hereafter 
odvert.  We  must,  therefore,  agree  willi  Mr.  Kirby,  and  consider  that  the  distribution,  not 
only  of  insects,  but  of  animals  in  general,  is  "  fixed  by  tho  will  of  tho  Creator,  rather  than 
certiinly  regulated  by  any  isothcririnl  lines."  {Jntroduciion  to  Entomology,  vol.  iv.  p.  484.) 
1  he  distribution  of  animals,  in  connexion  with  that  of  the  human  race,  remains  to  be 
conaid'^red.  Prom  whot  has  been  already  stated,  there  appears  strong  reason  to  believe,  that 
the  vai  iations  in  the  structure  of  man  and  of  animals  are  regulated  by  similar  laws ;  and 
this  supposition  will  receive  considerable  weight,  should  it  appear,  upon  investigation, 
that  those  divisiorfa  of  our  gkbe  which  have  been  apportioned  to  tho  different  varieties  of 
man,  are  equally  characterised  by  certain  peculiarities  in  their  animal  tribes.  Now,  to 
establish  the  truth  of  such  a  theory,  it  is  necessary  to  waive  all  general  abstract  reasoning, 
and  to  draw  deductions  from  known  facts.  And  it  is  equally  obvious  that,  if  such  facta  are 
to  be  collected  flx)m  the  whole  animal  kingdom,  this  essay  must  be  extended  to  several 
volumes,  even  admitting  that  our  materials  were  sufHciently  extensive  for  such  a  purpose. 
But  the  truth  is,  that  the  data  for  such  a  comprehensive  investigation  are  so  few,  so  meagre, 
and  so  unsatisfactory  when  compared  with  the  diversity  and  vastness  of  the  subject,  that  wey 
sink  into  insignificance.  Nor  will  this  appear  surprising,  if  we  consider  the  astonishing  number 
of  animals  that  have  been  already  described  by  naturalists,  or  are  known  to  exist  in  cabinets; 
Betting  aside  the  hosts  of  species  yet  unknown,  which,  in  many  departments,  may  possibly 
amount  to  double  or  treble  the  number  we  are  acquainted  with.  Yet,  as  details  of  some 
sort  must  be  gone  into,  it  becomes  absolutely  necessary  to  select  for  such  a  purpose  some 
one  department  of  nature ;  and  the  result  which  might  follow,  we  may  fairly  presume, 
would  be  in  unison  with  those  that  would  attend  the  investigation  of  other  divisions  of  the 
animal  world,  could  they  be  investigated  upon  tlie  same  principles.  Nature,  in  all  her 
operations,  is  uniform :  and  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the  distribution  of  quadrupeds,  birds, 
insects,  or  reptiles,  would  each  be  regulated  by  different  laws. 

In  choosing,  therefore,  fi-om  the  animal  kingdom  some  ono  order  of  beings  for  particular 
investigation,  it  might  be  thought  that  the  distribution  of  quadrupeds  would  present  the  best 
field  of  inquiry.  It  possiUy  might,  did  not  their  investigation  involve  certain  points  of  con- 
troversy connected  with  geology,  which,  however  important,  are  not  so  intimately  connected 
with  our  present  object  as  to  render  their  discussion  necessary  in  this  place.  The  division 
of  reptiles  is  subject  to  the  same  objection,  and  is  not  sufficiently  extensive  for  our  purpose. 
The  onnulosc  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  so  numerous  that  they  appear  to  baffle  our 
inquiries ;  nor  can  we  hope,  while  yet  in  the  infancy  of  geographic  natural  history,  to  do 
more  than  has  been  already  done  by  the  genius  of  Latreille.  Birds  alone  remain.  It  has, 
indeed,  been  argued,  that  no  very  certain  results  can  attend  the  study  of  their  distribution; 
becanse,  fh)m  possessing  the  powers  of  locomotion,  nd  the  instinct  of  migration,  in  a  higii 
degree,  they  appear  more  widely  dispersed  than  any  other  class  of  animals.  How  iiir  tiiis 
may  be  true  has  never,  indeed,  bt-eu  made  apparent ,  yet,  allowing  the  assertion  its  full 
weight,  we  may  safely  conclude,  that  if,  undei  these  disadvantages,  any  definite  notions 
of  geographic  distribution  can  bo  gathered  fix>m  the  study  of  such  volatile  beings,  the 


i^A«T  ii 

w«  are  thui  corn- 
view.  ThoM  and 
of  their  method*. 
iro  exorciiiei  a  pri- 
tumlly  follow  that 
i  in  corroRpondinff 
the  same  natural 
ecn  the  animals  of 
such,  for  instance, 
)f  Asia  and  Africa, 
ween  the  Toucans 
no  species  of  these 
Nevertheless  it 
d  configuration  of 
on  the  uititribution 
ondury  nature,  and 
jse  general  princi- 

syHtcm  of  animni 
r  bo  safely  allowed 
I  to  details  and  in- 
lar  country  or  dig. 
ted  Humboldt,  and 
weight,  that,  with 
t  appear  to  depend 
'  on  the  particular 
It  to  characterise." 
we  shall  hereafler 
lie  distribution,  not 
reator,  rather  than 
gy,  vol.  iv.  p.  484.) 
ace,  remains  to  be 
9on  to  beliovc,  that 
similar  laws;  and 
son  investigation, 
lerent  varieties  of 

tribes.  Now,  to 
ibstroct  reasoning, 
,  if  such  facta  are 
[tended  to  seventi 
r  such  a  purpose. 
80  few,  80  meagre, 

subject,  that  uiey 
fitonishing  number 
I  exist  in  cabinets ; 
ents,  may  possibly 
IS  details  of  some 
1  a  purpose  some 
y  fairly  presume, 
sr  divisions  of  the 
Mature,  in  all  her 
quadrupeds,  birds, 

ngs  for  particular 
d  present  the  best 
ain  points  of  con- 
imately  connected 
CO.  The  division 
e  for  our  purpose, 
lear  to  baffle  our 
iral  history,  to  do 

remain.  It  has, 
their  distribution; 
juration,  in  a  high 
s.     How  far  this 

assertion  its  full 
definite  notions 

atile  beings,  the 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS. 


rcsultfl  would  be  materially  strengthened  if  found  to  harmonise  with  what  ii  already  known 
on  the  diatribution  of  other  orJera  of  animals,  which,  ttam  their  physical  construcibn,  are 
leas  capable  of  extending  their  geographic  range.  It  ia  here,  liowever,  neoeaaary  to  premise, 
that  in  this,  aa  in  all  other  branchea  of  natuni  hiatonr,  the  account*  and  relations  of  tra- 
vellers, not  in  themselvt'M  zoologists,  must  be  received  with  great  caution.  Unacquainted 
with  those  nice  diatinotions  upon  which  not  only  the  differencoa  of  species,  but  of  genen 
and  families,  are  now  known  to  depend,  they  perpetually  contradict,  by  a  hoaty  application 
of  well-known  nainea,  some  of  the  moat  acknowledged  trutha  in  animal  geography.  Nor 
can  tlio  facta  detailed  inthecompilationaof  more  scientifio  writer*  be  alway*  depended  upon. 
Tho  voluminou*  work*  of  a  moat  indu*triou*  andzealou*  omitliologistof  the  Linnean  aonool 
abound  with  mistakes  of  thii  nature ;  wherein  not  only  specie*  but  genera  are  aaid  to  in- 
habit countries  where  they  have  never  been  found  except  in  the  vague  and  erroneou* 
narrative  of  travellers.  It  i*  the  miafortune  of  those  who  complain  against  tho  mMltiplicity, 
and  regret  the  adoption,  of  modem  diviarans,  that  by  so  doing  they  debar  thomselvea  fhnn 
studying  the  variation*  of  phyaical  structure,  and  neglect  the  main  clue  to  enlarged  concep- 
tions of^zoological  science.  It  i*  necessary  to  make  these  allusion*,  that  tho  roMer  may  be 
apprised  of  our  adoption,  in  thi*  place,  of  the  principal  nKxlem  genera ;  and  our  rejection  ot 
many  of  tlie  localitie*  erroneoualy  given  to  certain  apeciea  in  the  general  hiatorie*  of  bird*. 

1.  The  Caucasian  or  European  Province. 
The  omitliologicol  features  of  the  Caucasian  range,  or  of  the  regions  over  which  the 
Caucasian  variety  of  the  human  species  ia  said  to  bo  distributed,  will  first  claim  our  atten- 
tion. It  has  been  already  shown  that  this  range  comprises  such  portion  of  Afirica  a*  lies 
north  of  the  Oreat  Desert,  nearly  tlte  whole  of  Europe,  and  a  considerable  extent  of  Western 
Asia.  The  ornithology  of  the  countrie*  bordering  upon  this  region  has  been  but  partially 
investigated ;  yet  sumciont  i*  known  to  show  that  it  preaenta  a  mixture  of  those  specie* 
which  have  their  chief  metropolis  in  other  countries.  It  ha*  been  thought  that  the  animal* 
of  the  arctic  circle  are  so  peculiar,  a*  to  justify  us  in  considering  that  region  in  the  light 
of  a  distinct  zoological  provmce.  The  objection*  against  this  idealiave  already  been  alluoed 
to ;  and  they  become  more  forcible  when  we  discover,  that  on  calculating  the  number  of 
birds,  both  teneatrial  and  aquatic,  which  occur  within  the  arctic  circle,  they  do  not  amount 
to  more  tl\an  twenty-two ;  and  that  moat  of  these,  durinj^  the  greatest  portion  of  the  year, 
are  found  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  Britain  and  America.  They  probably  occur  in  simi- 
lar latitudes  on  the  Asiatic  contment ;  but  on  this  point  our  information  is  defective. 

The  swimming  birds  are  known  to  poeaesa  a  very  wide  range ;  but  this  is  less  extensive, 
perhaps,  than  is  generallv  imagined.  The  number  of  species  found  on  the  ehores  of  Europe 
and  Northern  Africa,  independently  of  those  more  peculiar  to  the  arctic  circle,  is  sixty. 
Of  these,  two  alone  have  been  discovered  in  the  four  quarter*  of  the  globe ;  three  are  com- 
mon to  Europe,  Asia,  and  America ;  one  to  Europe,  Asia,  and  Southern  Aftica ;  and  twenty- 
seven  to  Europe  and  Northern  America :  thus  leaving  twenty-seven  (or  nearly  one-half  the 
number  of  European  natatorial  species)  a*  peculiar  to  this  zoological  division  of  the  world. 

Among  the  Grallatores,  or  waders,  some  particular  species  are  so  widely  dispersed  as  to 
suggest  the  idea  that  the  geographic  range  of  this  order  is  even  wider  than  that  of  the 
Natatores ;  and  this,  generally  speaking,  may  be  true.  Of  the  sixty-five  species  described 
as  natives  of  Europe,  thirteen  only  occur  in  America,  and  two  only  can  be  reckoned  arctic 
birds,  although  several  others  occasionally  frequent  tlioee  regions.  Of  the  remamder,  four 
76  occur  in  Asia;  two  in  Asia  and  Afirica;  four  in  Asia  and 

America ;  seven  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America ;  and  the  Whim- 
brel  (Jiff.  76.)  (Numeniua  Phajnu)  ia  said  to  be  the  same  in 
all  the  five  divisions  of  the  globe.  It  is  consequently  among 
Uie  wading  birds  that  we  find  those  whose  range  is  most  exten- 
sive ;  yet,  on  a  general  calculation,  the  number  of  specie*  pecu- 
liar to  Europe  is  considerably  greater  than  those  of  the  Nate- 
tores ;  the  rormer  being  as  aae  to  two,  the  latter  nearly  as  one 
to  four.  It  thus  appears,  that,  even  among  birds  of  the  most 
vagrant  habits,  the  ornithology  of  Europe  is  characterised  by  a 
Th»  Whimbrei.  decided  Superiority  in  the  number  of  its  own  peculiar  specie*. 

The  rapacious  birds,  next  to  the  aquatic  orders,  are  thought  to  be  the  most  widely  distri- 
buted ;  particularly  the  nocturnal  species.  It  is  very  remarkable,  that  out  of  thirteen  difc 
ferent  owls  inhabiting  Europe,  five  only  axe  peculiar  to  this  continsnt;  and  two  of  these 
more  particularly  frequent  the  arctic  region*.  Of  the  rest,  five  occur  in  America,  two  in 
Southern  Africa,  and  one  both  in  Asia  and  America.  The  FalconideB,  or  diurnal  birds  of 
prey,  in  regard  to  their  species,  have  a  more  restricted  distribution ;  yet,  of  these,  the  eagles 
enjoy  no  inconsiderable  range.  Out  of  eight  discovered  in  Europe,  one  is  more  properly 
arctic,  thrco  have  been  fbuud  in  gevernl  parts  of  Africa,  and  one  occurs  in  America ;  leaving 
three  only  to  Europe.  It  is  singular  that  those  rapacious  birds  which,  firom  the  peculiar 
structure  of  thei/  wings,  have  been  supposed  to  enjoy  the  greatest  powers  of  flight  amcng 


268 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  TT 


''h%^ 


their  con^feners,  are  those  moet  restricted  in  their  geographic  limits.  This  is  proved  by  the 
fact,  that  out  of  eight  genuine  falcons  occurring  in  Europe  and  Northern  Africa,  two  only 
have  been  discovered  in  America.  It  has,  however,  recently  been  stated  that  the  Falco 
peregrinus  of  Australia  is  identically  the  same  as  tiiat  of  Europe :  neither  does  Southern 
Africa,  we  believe,  possess  a  single  European  species,  or  not  one  of  those  inhabiting  the 
northern  extremity  of  that  peninsula ;  the  Montagnard  of  Le  Vaillant,  long  confounded 
with  the  European  Kestril,  being  a  decidedly  distinct  species.  Upon  the  whole,  the  distri- 
bution of  the  forty-four  species  of  European  Raptores  will  stand  thus :  three  are  Arctic, 
eleven  are  found  also  in  America,  two  m  Asia  and  Africa,  and  one  in  Asia  and  America; 
leaving  twenty-seven,  or  more  than  one-half,  peculiar  to  European  ornithology. 

M»  The  Gallinaceous  genera  are  few ;  and  their  wide  dispersion 

'*  ^^-      is  decidedly  against  lEe  theory,  that  all  birds  with  heavy  bodies 

and  short  wings  are  more  limited  in  their  geographic  range  than 
other  terrestrial  xribes.  This  argument  has  been  ingeniously 
used  to  account  fbr  the  venr  restricted  limits  within  which  many 
of  the  Indian  parrots  have  been  found ;  one  or  two  species  being 
frequently  confined  to  a  particular  island.  Ornithologists,  how- 
ever,  need  not  be  told  that  the  wings  of  the  PsittacidiB  are  pecu- 
liarly adapted  for  strong  and  vigorous  flight ;  and  those  who  have 
seen  these  birds  in  their  native  regions  cannot  fail  to  have  re- 
marked that  their  flight  is  peculiarly  rapid ;  many  genera,  in 
Uiis  respect,  passing  tlirough  the  air  witli  the  celerity  of  the 
.fta|<a.  hawk.  The  wide  dispersion  of  the  Gallinaceous  order  is  very 
evident  The  range  of  the  great  bustard  {fig.  77.)  extends  from 
one  extremity  of  temperate  Europe  to  the  confines  of  Asia ;  and 
the  quail,  remarkable  for  its  heavy  body  and  short  wings,  per- 
Th«  Great  Buitard.  forms  two  annual  migrations,  from  and  to  Northern  Africa,  over 

Europe  and  Western  Asia.  We  consider  very  few  of  the  European  Gallinaceous  birds  as 
truly  arctic ;  for  nearly  all  the  species  appear  to  occur  as  jilentifully  beyond  those  regions 
as  within  them.  Many  of  the  meridional  European  birds,  as  Upupa  Epops,  Oriolus  galbula, 
Coraceos  garrulus,  &c.,  might  with  equal  justice  be  classed  as  peculiarly  characteristic  of 
Central  or  Southern  Afirica.  It  nevertheless  appears  that,  even  among  the  GallinaceK, 
fourteen  out  of  twenty-seven  have  their  principal  seat  in  Europe.  The  remainder  are  thus 
apportioned :  five  extend  to  Western  Asia,  five  to  the  confines  of  the  great  African  desert, 
two  are  dispersed  in  Central  Asia  and  Africa,  while  two  only  occur  in  North  America. 

TO  ^       The  Fissirostral  birds,  typically  represented  by  the  swallow, 

are,  of  all  the  insectivorous  tribes,  most  conspicuous  for  their 
powers  of  flight  With  but  one  exception,  the  European  King- 
fisher {Alcedo  europaa,  fig.  78),  they  are  all  migratory :  hence 
we  find  that  most  of  the  species  occur  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
European  Fauna.  The  proportion  of  those  which  appear  confined 
to  Europe  and  Northern  Africa  is  as  one  to  three. 

The  small  Granivorous  birds  not  only  present  a  great  diversity 
in  their  species,  but  a  considerable  preponderance  in  tlieir  nu- 
merical amount  Forty-one  are  included  in  the  European  list; 
two  of  which,  at  certain  seasons,  frequent  the  polar  regions  in 
great  numbers,  but  are  nevertheless  abundant  in  all  the  northern 
European  Kingfisher.  fatitudes ;  seven  inhabit  North  America,  and  three  extend  botii 

to  Asia  and  Africa ;  so  that  Europe  may  be  considered  the  metropolis  of  nearly  thirty  pecu- 
liar species. 

The  Scansorial  birds  are  few ;  yet  eight  out  of  the  fifleen  recorded  as  European  are 
unknown  in  other  regions.  It  is  among  the  Insectivorf>us  and  soft-billed  birds  that  we  must 
look  for  the  principal  ornithological  features  of  any  particular  region.  The  immense  family 
of  Humming-birds  in  the  New  World,  and  of  Melliphagidae,  or  Honey-suckers,  in  the  Aus- 
tralian islands,  would  alone  be  sufficient  to  mark  these  regions  with  a  distinct  zoological 
character.  To  what  cause  we  are  to  attribute  the  fact  that  these  birds,  by  no  means  deficient 
in  the  power  of  flight  (which,  indeed,  in  many  of  t'cm  is  considerably  developed,)  sliould 
nevertheless  be  so  strictly  confined  within  certain  geographic  limits,  remains  unexplaiiwed. 
We  can  only  in  tins  place  illustrate  the  fact  Of  eighty-five  species  belonging  to  tlic  Lin- 
neean  genera  of  Turdus,  Sylvia,  Parus,  and  Muscicapa,  eighty-two  are  strictly  Europmn. 
In  this  number  we  of  course  include  those  which  migrate,  at  certain  seasons,  to  Nortlwjrn 
Africa  and  Western  Asia;  for  these  regions,  it  must  bo  always  remembered,  come  wi»Ain 
the  zoological  province  we  are  now  treating  of;  yet,  if  w  •  Ijdurt  the  number  of  those  wt«ich 
Save  actually  been  detected  in  parts  beyond  th-  '-'mres  d  th«  Mediterranean  on  one  »"de, 
and  Western  Asia  on  the  other,  they  will  am^'i.x. 
marked  peculiarity  in  tiie  ornithology  of  Europe, 
liiese  families,  it  may  be  remaikcd,  that  three  onlj'  ' 


rthcr  prccif  of  tiio  limited  rang*  of 
(./  eighty-five  \<xve  been  detected*  in 


Part  IT 

his  is  proved  by  the 
sm  Africa,  two  only 
ited  that  the  Falco 
ithor  does  Southern 
hose  inhabiting  the 
it,  long  confounded 
e  whole,  the  distri- 
i:  three  are  Arctic, 
Asia  and  America ; 
hology. 

heir  wide  dispersion 
Is  with  heavy  bodies 
jgraphic  range  than 
B  been  ingeniously 
within  which  many 
)r  two  species  being 
)mithologists,  how- 
"sittacidtB  are  pecu- 
and  those  who  have 
nnot  fail  to  have  re- 
I ;  many  genera,  in 
the  celerity  of  the 
iceous  order  is  very 
f.  77.)  extends  from 
)nfines  of  Asia ;  and 
d  short  wings,  per- 
rthem  Africa,  over 
ullinaceous  birds  as 
^ond  those  regions 
ps,  Oriolus  galbula, 
rly  characteristic  of 
ig  the  Gallinacese, 
remainder  are  thus 
reat  African  desert, 
orth  America, 
ted  by  the  swallow, 
nspicuous  for  their 
le  European  King- 
1  migratory :  hence 
tid  the  limits  of  the 
ich  appear  confined 
ree. 

nt  a  great  diversity 
lerance  in  their  nu- 
the  European  list; 
16  polar  regions  in 
in  all  the  northern 
three  extend  both 
nearly  thirty  pecu- 

3  as  European  are 
birds  that  \ve  must 
he  immense  family 
ckers,  in  the  Aus- 
distinct  zoological 
no  means  deficient 
developed,)  should 
nains  unexplained, 
onging  to  the  Lin- 
strictly  Europ<*»n. 
-asona,  to  NortJMirn 
lered,  come  wi«iiin 
iberof  those  wi'ich 
anean  on  one  »»de, 

tr vcili-jf-tnu   •"  ** 

10  limited  range  of 
been  detected  in 


DooK  III. 


JS  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS. 


260 


America ;  and  that  the  identity  of  one  of  these  (Parus  atricapillus  L.)  with  an  European 
species  (Parus  palustris  L.)  is  very  questionable. 

The  Omnivorous  birds,  as  the  Stumidee,  Corvidte,  &c.,  are  the  last  requiring  notice.  A 
few  of  these  appear  widely  dispersed ;  but  upon  the  whole,  several  species,  and  even  peculiar 
genera,  are  left  to  characterise  this  portion  of  the  world.  We  may  state  their  r  umber  at 
twenty-one :  thirteen  of  which,  or  more  than  one  half,  habitually  reside  in  Europe ;  four  occur 
in  Northern  and  Central  Africa;  one  (Pastor  roseus  T.)  inhabits  both  the  table-land  of  Asia 
and  the  deserts  of  Central  Africa ;  and  three  have  been  found  in  Amp*ica. 

These  details,  tedious  perhaps  to  the  general  reader,  but  interestir.^  to  the  man  of  science, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  dwell  upon,  before  any  valid  deductions  can  be  drawn  from  the 
facts  they  exhibit  In  this  difilicult  and  somewhat  laborious  investigation  we  have  been 
much  assisted  by  the  writings  of  Wilson,  Temminck,  and  Le  Vaillant ;  but  more  than  all  by 
the  liberality  which  throws  the  magnificent  collections  of  the  French  Museum  open  to  the 
use  of  all  scientific  inquirers,  whatever  their  object  or  their  nation  may  be.*  It  cannot, 
however,  be  supposed  that,  even  with  greater  sources  of  information,  some  inaccuracies 
may  not  have  occurred.  Such  calculations,  in  short,  from  their  very  nature,  can  never 
be  perfect;  because  they  are  founded  upon  present  knowledge,  and  that  is  perpetually 
extending.  The  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  make  as  near  an  approximation  to  the  truth  as 
circumstances  will  admit;  and  having  done  this,  the  result  may  be  entitled  to  some  degree  of 
confidence. 

As  a  general  recapitulation  of  the  European  birds,  we  may  state  the  total  number,  exclu- 
sive of  a  few  which  occatlonally  appear  at  remote  intervals  as  stragglers,  at  388.  Of  these, 
thirty-one  are  more  peculiar  to  the  arctic  regions  of  Europe,  America,  and  probably  of  Asia; 
the  proportion  being  as  one  to  thirteen.  Sixty-eight  (forty  being  aquatic)  occur  also  intem- 
perate America ;  nine  are  dispersed  over  four  divisions  of  the  globe,  to  neither  of  which  can 
they  be  particularly  appropriated ;  and  either  one  (Numenius  Phoepus)  or  two  extend  to 
Australia.  With  these  deductions,  the  number  will  thus  bt!  reduced  to  about  280.  If  from 
these  we  abstract  such  others  as  may  possibly  have  a  partial  range  beyond  the  limits  already 
defined,  the  number  may  be  fiirther  reduced  to  about  250 ;  so  that,  even  with  this  allowance, 
nearly  two  thirds  of  the  birds  of  Europe,  Northern  Africa,  and  Western  Asia  may  safely  be 
considered  as  zoologically  characteristic  of  those  countries. 

Another  character  in  European  ornithology  deserves  attention.  This  regards  the  superior 
number  of  generic  types  which  it  exhibits,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  species.  These 
genera  amount  to  108,  omitting  those  which  have  not  been  generally  adopted,  or  which,  from 
the  modifications  of  form  being  but  slight,  should  more  properly  be  termed  sections.  The 
proportion  which  these  genera  bear  to  the  number  of  species  (estimated  before  at  388) 
amounts  to  more  than  two  to  seven ;  or,  in  other  words,  does  not  give  seven  birds  to  two 
genera.  It  is  further  remarkable,  that  most  of  these  exhibit  in  their  structure  the  greatest 
perfection  of  those  orders  or  families  to  which  they  respectively  belong ;  and  which  groups 
are  denominated  by  nati  ralists  typical.  True  it  is  that  such  genera  are  widely  dispersed; 
but  in  no  division  of  the  world  do  they  appear  so  numerous,  in  proportion  to  the  species,  as 
in  Europe.  This  remark  not  only  applies  to  the  typical  genera,  but  is  frequently  applicable 
to  the  number  of  species  they  respectively  contain.  One  instance  may  suflSce.  The  noble 
falcons,  or  those  to  whom  the  generic  name  of  Falco  is  now  restricted,  are  generally  con- 
sidered the  most  typical  group  of  their  fiimily :  of  these,  the  Kestril  (Jig.  79.)  and  five  others 

have  their  metropolis  in  Europe  and  Northern  Africa.  The 
whole  of  North  America  has  hitherto  produced  but  four.  Le 
Vaillant  enumerates  the  same  number  from  Southern  and  Cen- 
tral Africa.  Those  of  Central  Asia  are  not  known ;  but  only 
two  have  been  recently  described  as  peculiar  to  the  vast  re- 
gions of  Australia.  Now,  if  we  merely  look  at  these  respective 
numbers,  the  difference  does  not  appear  very  remarkable ;  but 
when  the  great  inferiority  between  the  Caucasian  regions  and 
those  of  America,  Africa,  and  Australia,  in  point  of  extent,  is 
taken  into  the  account,  it  will  be  immediately  seen  that  the 
proportion  of  these  emmently  typical  species  in  the  European 
regions  is  particularly  great  Among  the  typical  (groups  of 
the  wading  and  swinunuig  birds  this  is  still  more  apparent;  so  that,  if  we  endeavour  to 
define  what  is  the  most  striking  feature  in  the  ornithology  of  this  zoological  province,  none 
is  so  remarkable  as  the  number  of  purely  typical  groups.  This  peculiarity  will  be  more 
apparent  on  looking  further  into  the  matter.  The  total  number  of  birds  Uiroughout  the 
world,  existing  in  museums  or  clearly  described  in  authentic  works,  may  be  estimated  at 
(iOOO,  These  have  been  arranged  under  about  380  genera ;  but  as  several  of  these  genera 
will  comprise  more  than  one  sub-genus,  we  will  put  down  400  as  a  nearer  approximation  to 

*  We  liave  been  offieially  informed  that,  by  tho  lawi  of  the  Zoological  B.iciety  of  London,  no  one  can  rccoiv* 
permiMion  to  oiake  um  of  their  Museum,  for  general  scientific  purpowB,  who  ii  not  a  member. 

23* 


270 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II. 


is    •   I     a  -■ 


^ ,), 


? 


.. '„f 'i!»i:  ^^ 


correctness :  this  would  leave  rather  more  than  fourteen  species  to  each  generic  group 
while,  if  the  ornithology  of  Europe  and  Northern  Africa  is  alone  considered,  the  proportion 
is  no  more  than  one  to  three ;  and  even  this  will  be  ftirther  diminished  when  those  geo- 
graphic groups  among  the  FringillidtB  and  Sylvaida,  which  are  decidedly  peculiar  to  this 
portion  of  the  globe,  are  investigated  and  defined.  Now,  it  is  very  singular  that,  in  speak- 
mg  of  the  loading  varieties  of  the  Caucasian  race,  a  writer,  whose  testimony  is  no  mean 
authority,  observes,  "  that  the  tribes  among  the  Caucasians  are  more  numerous  than  in  any 
other."  And  again — "  Whether  we  consider  the  several  nations  or  the  individuals  in  each, 
bodily  diflerences  arc  much  more  numerous  in  the  highly  civilized  Caucasian  variety  tlian  in 
either  of  the  other  divisions  of  mankind."  {Lawrence,  p.  442.  475.)  When  we  glance  over 
the  list  of  those  nations  generally  suj'posed  to  have  sprung  from  this  type,  wo  are  struck 
with  the  justice  of  these  observations.  It  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  the  regions  they  occupy 
are  dispropoitionably  small,  when  compred  with  those  peopled  by  the  Mongolian  and  Ethi- 
opian  races.  That  there  are  instances  wherein  typical  forms  of  higher  groups  than  genera 
do  not  occur  within  the  European  range,  is  a  circumstance  which  will  not  matericilly  affect 
the  question.  Thus  the  only  European  bird  belonging  to  the  Tenuirostres  of  M.  Cuvier 
is  the  European  Hoopoe  (IJpupa  Epops),  which  is  certainly  not  a  typical  example ;  V  -t  this, 
so  far  as  tribes  are  concerned,  is  the  only  exception  to  the  rule.  It  is  curious,  abo,  that  this 
exception  should  occur  in  that  division  which  comprises  the  smallest  and  weakest  of  birds. 
If  we  descend  to  families,  there  is  scarcely  one  pre-eminently  typical  of  its  own  perfection 
which  is  not  European.  A  further  objection  may  possibly  be  urged,  that,  although  such 
forms  are  indeed  abundant  in  this  Fauna,  they  are  nevertheless  found  in  nearly  every  other 
part  of  the  world ;  and  cannot,  therefore, '  "  looked  upon  as  characterising  Europe  more  than 
any  other  country :  but  this  will  not  be  a  just  conclusion,  unless  it  is  first  shown  that 
the  proportirn  of  such  types  to  the  total  number  of  European  species  is  not  decidedly 
greater  than  in  any  other  region.  Now  the  fiicts  we  have  already  stated  prove  tins 
beyond  doubt. 

These  results,  obtained  from  unquestionable  data,  are  so  important  to  our  present  inquiry, 
that  their  hasty  notice  would  not  have  been  suflScient.  The  materials  for  illdslratin^  the 
ornithology  of  j.'iirope  are  naturally  more  numerous  than  can  be  expected  .v.'  other  portions 
of  the  glol<e ;  and  it  became  very  desirable  to  ascertain  how  far  the  ornithology  of  those 
rp^ons,  occupied  by  the  Caucasian  race,  presented  a  peculiarity  of  character  sufficiently 
strong  to  show  a  mutual  relationship  with  the  geographic  distribution  of  this  v&roty  of  man. 
We  are,  I  think,  sufficiently  authorised  to  consider  that  both  are  in  unison.  At  least,  there 
are  so  many  singular  points  of  analogy,  as  to  render  it  highly  probable  that  the  o  jxists  an 
intimate  relationship  between  the  distribution  of  one  race  of  mankind  and  one  l  "  the  prin- 
cipal geographic  divisions  of  birds. 

How  far  this  view  of  European  ornithology  would  be  home  out  by  an  extended  investiga- 
tion of  other  orders  of  animals,  it  is  impo&siole  to  say.  Yet  even  if  our  present  limits  would 
permit  the  inquiry,  we  should  have  to  rely  more  upon  theory  thoii  facts.  Many  of  the 
quadrupeds  of  Europe  have  long  been  slowly  but  certainly  disappearing,  in  proportion  as 
culture  and  civilization  have  advanced ;  and  any  conclusions  drawn  from  thoje  whic'.i  still 
remain  iu  a  wild  state  would  be  open  to  great  objections,  particularly  as  the  question  must 
necessarily  embrace  the  nature  of  those  no  longer  existing,  but  whose  bones  occur  in  a  fossL 
state  throughout  Europe.  We  think  it  may  fairly  be  presumed  that,  in  all  those  convulsions 
which  have  agitated  our  globe,  birds  have  suffered  less  than  any  other  vertebrated  animals. 
Their  fossil  remains  are  few,  and  of  rare  occurrence ;  while  extensive  deposits  of  l)ones  and 
skeletons,  belonging  to  quadrupeds,  reptiles,  and  fish,  occur  m^re  or  less  abundantly  'n 
almost  every  region,  and  attest  the  wide  destruction  to  which  such  animals  were  exposed. 
It  naturally  follows  that,  in  tracing  the  distribution  of  the  feathered  creation,  we  arc  left 
unshackled  by  geological  controversy. 

The  few  observations  on  the  Ichthyology,  Entomology,  and  Conchology  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean we  shall  hereafter  make,  in  conjunction  with  those  of  Britain,  will  be  found  in  unison 
with  those  features  in  the  geographic  distribution  of  birds  we  have  already  traced ;  and  will 
equally  evince  the  propriety  of  including  the  whole  under  one  zoological  division.  This 
we  propose  to  name  the  European.  Such  a  designation  is,  indeed,  somewhat  objectionable, 
inasmuch  as  it  embraces  not  only  Europe,  but  Northern  Africa  and  Western  Asia ;  yet  it 
will,  perhaps,  convey  more  definite  ideas  than  ii  ♦he  name  were  adopted  from  the  particular 
race  of  men  belonging  to  these  regions. 

2.  The  Mongolian  or  Asiatic  Province, 
The  birds  of  the  Mongolian  range  will  be  now  adverted  to.  The  typical  nations  of  ihia 
variety  of  man  occupy  the  remaining  portion  of  the  vast  continent  of  Asia ;  w'lile  their 
characteristic  peculiarities  appear  blended  with  the  Malays  in  the  more  eastern  islands  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  ornithology  of  such  a  vast  proportion  of  Asia  is  as  varied  as 
It  is  remarkable ;  but  the  very  imperfect  nature  of  the  materials  hitherto  furnished  for  its 
elucidation,  renders  it  unpossible  for  us  to  give  those  satisfactory  data  which  have  beer 


Part  II. 

• 

h  generic  group 
id,  the  proportion 
when  those  geo- 
ly  peculiar  to  thin 
ar  that,  in  speak- 
naony  is  no  mean 
erous  than  in  any 
dividuals  in  each, 
an  variety  tlian  in 
n  we  glance  over 
pe,  wo  are  struck 
wions  they  occupy 
ngolis-n  and  Ethi- 
aups  than  geacrc 
materiilly  affect 
Ires  of  M.  Cuvier 
xample;  h-tthis, 
ous,  ahij,  that  this 
weakest  of  birds, 
ts  own  perfection 
it,  although  such 
early  every  other 
Europe  more  than 
first  shown  that 
is  not  decidedly 
stated  prove  tliis 

r  present  inquiry, 
r  illaslratin^  tlie 
»v..'  other  portions 
lithology  of  those 
•acter  sufficiently 
is  var'pty  of  man. 
A;  loiist,  there 
t  thee  3xists  an 
one  L  '  the  prin- 

tended  investiga- 
sent  limits  would 
ts.  Many  of  the 
in  proportion  as 
thoje  whic'.i  still 
le  question  must 
3  occur  in  a  fossL 
ihose  convulsions 
tebrated  animals, 
isits  of  bon3s  and 
ss  abundantly  in 
Is  were  exposed, 
tion,  we  are  lefl 

r  of  the  Med  iter- 
3  found  in  unison 
traced ;  and  will 
division.  This 
lat  objectionable, 
;em  Asia ;  j'et  it 
m  the  paiticular 


,1  nations  of  ihia 
sia;  while  their 
istern  islands  of 

„  ; :_.i  «- 

:a  ta  ua   vaiiuu  aa 

umishod  for  its 
hich  have  beer 


Book  III. 


iN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS. 


271 


furnished  by  writers  on  t^>o  birds  of  Europe.  Naturalists  look  forward  with  the  greatest, 
interest  to  the  speedy  termination  of  the  zoological  researches  of  General  Hordwicke,  as 
likely  to  supply  these  deficiencies.  The  vast  stores  of  knowledge  which  a  long  residence 
in  the  East,  and  an  ardent  passion  for  natural  history,  have  placed  at  the  command  of  thia 
naturalist,  render  him  peculiarly  ( jalified  tor  such  an  undertaking. 

For  our  present  purpose,  muiute  detail  is  not,  however,  essential.   Whatever  doubts  might 
at  first  have  arisen  on  the  propriety  of  considering  Europe  as  the  centre  of  an  ornithological 
province,  there  can  be  none  with  respecf  to  Asia.    It  is  in  these  regions  that  the  chief  sea 
of  the  typical  GallinaceaJ  is  placed;  tliey  abound  in  China,  Thibet,  the  Indian  Peninsula, 
and  even  extend  to  thrae  islands  which  are  considered  the  confines  of  the  Mongolian  race, 

The  larger  species,  arranged  in  the  genera 
Pavo  and  Polyplectron,  appear  to  charac- 
terise the  more  elevated  and  central  parts 
of  the  continent ;  while  those  of  the  genus 
Gallus  are  more  numerous  in  Sumatra, 
Java,  and  the  adjacent  islands.  The  phea< 
sants  of  China  and  Thibet  form  a  no  less 
^^^^^_^  striking  feature  in  Asiatic  ornithology ;  five 

^;=25-«*'^«»w.-L,^-:^3?t=iii3S^^^^     species  of  magnificent  plumage  are  pecu- 
Tho  Silver  Pheasant.  liar :  one  of  theso,  the  elegant  Silver  Phea- 

eant  {Nycthemerus  argentatus)  (Jig.  80.)  has  been  long  domesticated  in  our  aviaries.  Three 
oihsr  superb  species  represent  a  group  (Lophophorits  Tem.),  discovered  only  upon  the  con- 
tinent. The  whole  of  these  Gallinaceous  genera  are  totally  unknown  in  Africa,  Australia, 
or  in  the  New  World.  When  to  these  we  add  the  Hornbiila  (Bucerida),  the  Sun-birda 
(Cinnyridas),  the  short-legged  Thrushes  (G.  Brachyptis),  the  short-tailed  Thrushes  (Pittw), 
certain  groups  among  the  Psittacidai,  and  many  others  totally  unknown  in  Europe,  Northern 
Africa,  and  Western  Asia,  yet  abounding  in  the  Mongolian  nations,  no  further  details  appear 
necesscry  to  mark  the  ornithological  peculiarities  of  Asia,  as  distinct  from  those  of  Europe. 

From  the  Asiatic  islands  it  would,  perhaps,  be  more  natural  if  we  proceeded  at  once  to 
notice  the  Malay  or  Australiar.  range,  as  it  is  here  that  the  Faunas  of  these  divisions  of  the 
globe  evidently  meet.  But  af  this  would  interfere  with  the  order  observed  in  the  early 
portion  of  this  essay,  we  shall  pass  from  the  northern  regions  of  Asia  to  those  of  the  New 
World ;  particularly  as  both  present  a  mixed  race  of  men,  probably  originating  from  the 
Asiatic  continent 

3.  Tlie  American  Province. 
We  proceed  to  a  rapid  sketch  of  American  ornithology.  It  has  already  been  shown  that, 
excepting  the  Natatorial  birds,  there  are  fewer  species  common  alike  to  Northern  America 
and  to  Europe  than  might,  perhaps,  have  been  supposed ;  yet,  were  the  "proportion  much 
greater,  the  circumstance  would  only  prove  that  nature  knows  no  abrupt  distinction.  It  is 
not  to  the  remote  ramifications  which  she  employs  to  connect  her  chain  of  operations  that 
our  attention  is  to  be  fixed;  for  they  are  too  subt'le  to  be  unravelled  by  beings  mth  facul- 
ties so  limited.  But  as  soon  as  she  quits  these  iaexplicable  mazes,  and  again  displays  her- 
self in  a  new  but  decided  form,  we  may  hope  to  gain  some  acquaintance  with  her  laws. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  fi-om  either  extremity  of  the  New  World  that  we  must  form  our  opinion 
on  its  zoological  peculiarities.  The  ornitholofi;  of  the  Northern  latitudes  is  evidently 
blended  with  that  of  Europe,  and  in  ail  prooabilitv  many  of  these  species  exist  in  Northjrn 
Asia;  those  of  the  more  southern  parts  of  America,  beyond  the  Rio  do  la  Plata  and  Para- 
guay, are  nearly  unknown.  It  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  the  provinces,  elevated 
on  the  Mexican  Cordilleras,  and  now  constituting  a  great  republic,  have  been  opened  to  the 
naturalist ;  and  although,  as  yet,  but  superficially  explored,  there  is  perhaps  no  region  in  the 
New  World  which  promises  to  yield  more  intertsting  facts,  as  connected  with  the  animal 
geography  of  that  hemisphere.  Even  the  configuration  of  the  continent,  at  the  junction  of 
its  two  great  divisions,  is  typical  of  this  distribution.  It  appears  as  if  nature,  elevated  as 
on  a  throne  upon  this  vast  table-land,  7!J00  feet'  above  tlie  level  of  the  sea,  had  dispensed 
her  forms  to  the  right  hand  and  to  th"?  left,  retaining  immediately  around  her  a  typical 
representation  of  every  group.  Tc  the  north  sho  has  given  innumerable  Hocks  of  sleuder- 
billed  insectivorous  birds  (^Sylvicola,  &c.),  which  annually  depart  to  breed  in  those  more 
temperate  climes.  These  are  accompanied  by  particular  species;  of  Flycatchers,  Thrushes, 
Pigeons  and  Hangnests  (Icterina);  Uie  two  latter  in  such  countless  rumbers  as  to  darken 
the  air.  To  Southern  America  has  been  more  particularly  assigned  the  Macaws,  Toucans, 
Scansorial  Creepers  {Dendrocolaptes),  Ant  Thrushes  (Myotherina),  Ground  Doves  (Cka- 
mapelia),  Tanagers  (^Tanagra),  Trogons,  Fruit-eaters  (Ampelidai),  and  the  numerous  and 
splendid  race  of  Humming  birds.  Yet  of  all  these  groups,  save  one  {AmpelidtB),  typical 
examples  are  concentrated  on  the  table-land  of  Mexico.  Theso,  moreover,  are  acccinca- 
nied  by  some  peculiar  forms,  not  yet  discovered  in  either  portion  of  America,  ana  by 
?neci.es  among  the  natatorial  tribes  hitherto  found  only  in  the  more  northern  latitudes. 


Zfi 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,' 


Part  H. 


"I 


ft    'fi  r 


!??•!« 


■  li^f  ^ 


The  typical  Gallinaceous  birds  begin  to  show  themselves  adjoming  the  equator,  nearly 
in  the  same  parallel  of  latitude  as  they  occur  in  Asia :  they  belong,  however 
81  to  distinct  and  peculiar  types ;  as  the  genera  Meleagris,  Crax,  Penelope, 

Ourax,  Phosphea,  Ortalida,  and  Opisthocomus.  These  find  their  represent- 
atives, for  tlie  most  part,  in  the  ancient  continents,  but  not  one  species  haa 
been  detected  beyond  the  Now  World.  The  foregoing  remark  applies  to 
the  two  great  divisions  of  tlie  Simite,  or  Monkeys,  so  accurately  illustrated 
by  those  distinguished  naturalists,  MM.  Cuvier  and  Geofiroy  St.  Hilaire. 
The  Meliiphagous  groups  of  America,  at  the  head  of  which  shine  the 
i^^^H..  splendid  fiunily  of  Humming-birds  (Jig.  81.),  form  the  chie^  peculiarity  of 
^^H^l  its  ornithology ;  other  races,  scarcely  less  beautiful,  occur  in  Africa,  Asia, 
^.  ^1^  and  Australia :  yet  the  natural  genera  arc  totally  distinct.  The  number 
^X^  of  species,  and  the  variety  of  forms,  among  the  frugivorous  birds  is  another 
striking  feature  in  the  productions  of  the  New  World.  Under  this  term 
Humming  Bird.  ^^  ^^^^  include  the  richlv  coloured  Chatterers  {Ampelida  Sw.)  and 
Manakins  (Piprina  Sw.);  topether  with  the  whole  &mily  of  Tanagcrs  (Tanagrina\ 
Hangnes».s  {IcterincE),  and  Par  ota  (Psittacidai).  The  first  four  belong  solely  to  this  conti- 
nent, which  more  than  any  oti  er  abounds  in  vast  forests  of  lofty  trees,  affording  a  perpetual 
and  countless  variety  of  fruits  and  berries,  adapted  to  nourish  all  the  families  of  hard  and  sofl- 
billcd  frugivorous  birds.  If  v/e  turn  to  the  other  orders  of  vertebratcd  anunals,  tiie  Mollusca, 
AnnulostB,  or  Radiata,  each  and  all  conspire  to  stamp  certain  peculiar  features  on  the 
zoology  of  the  New  World,  ind  to  mark  it  as  a  distinct  zoological  empire. 

4.  The  Ethiopian  or  African  Province. 

The  chief  seat  of  the  Eth  opian  variety  of  our  species  is  central  Africa ;  while  most  writers 
agree  in  thinking  that  its  northern  limits  do  not  pass  the  Great  Desert.  The  pestilential 
atmosphere  of  tropical  Afrlaa.  has  been  an  insuperable  bar  to  the  researches  of  Europeans; 
and  nil  the  ideas  that  cr.a  be  formed  on  the  zoology  of  such  regions  must  be  rathcred  ftom 
the  partial  gleanings  made  by  travellers  on  the  shores  of  Senegal  and  of  Sierra  Leone.  The 
ornithological  productions  received  from  these  districts  evince  a  total  dissimilarity  from  those 
of  Northern  Africa,  but  intimately  accord,  both  in  species  and  genera,  with  the  ornithology 
of  the  south :  to  this,  however,  there  are  several  exceptions.  The  Plantain-eaters  (Mmso- 
phagida),  and  the  bristle-necked  Thrushes  (Trichophorus  Tem.),  are  among  the  groups 
hitherto  found  only  towards  Sierra  Leone.  The  Guinea  Fowl,  as  its  name  implies,  is  most 
abundant  in  the  mterior  of  that  country,  where  three  species  have  been  discovered.  The 
common  Bee-eater,  and  the  Golden  Oriole  are  the  only  species  among  the  land  birds  of 
Western  Africa  that  occur  in  the  European  range ;  and  these  extend  southward  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  The  whole  extent  of  Africa  south  of  the  desert  exhibits,  in  short,  a  marked 
difference  in  its  ornithological  groups  and  species  from  those  belonging  to  Europe,  Northern 
Africa,  and  Western  Asia.  The  comparatively  ♦f'w  exceptions  of  biwls  common  to  Europe 
and  the  Cape  cannot  diminish  the  general  force  this  remark,  but  merely  shows  that  a  few 
exceptions  must  never  be  taken  as  the  groundwork  of  any  particular  theory.  It  is  to  inn  of 
the  greatest  ornithologists  that  France,  or  indeed  any  other  nation,  has  produced,  mat  wo 
are  indebted  for  the  most  perfect  account  of  South  African  ornithology  yet  published ;  but  it 
must  ever  be  regretted  that  this  portion  of  M.  le  Vaillant's  labours  terminated  abruptly; 
leaving  the  Gallinaceous,  Wading,  and  Swimming  orders  lo  be  completed  by  some  other, 
who,  with  equal  enterprise  and  observation,  should  visit  the  same  regions,  and  record  their 
maimers  witii  the  same  veracity. 

Between  the  ornithology  of  Africa  and  of  America  there  ia,  wiihln  tlio  same  parallels  of 
latitude,  a  very  strong  analogy,  although  (in  the  sense  in  which  we  apply  the  term)  there  is 
none  of  affinity.  We  know  not,  in  short,  a  single  perching  bird  common  to  both  continents; 
although  in  the  rapacious  order,  which  among  terrestrial  biHs  are  well  known  to  have  nearly 
the  widest  raLj*3,  two  or  three  species  occur  which  likewise  inhabii.  both  extremities  of 
Afirica  no  less  than  North  America. 

The  other  vertebrated  animals,  and  the  insects  of  Soutliern  Africa,  furnish  similai-  results. 
On  examining  the  largo  collection  of  insects  formed  by  Mr.  Burchell,  in  the  territories  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  we  could  not  discover  one  out  of  many  hundreds  which  wea  *o  be  found 
in  a  much  more  considerable  collection  brought  by  us  from  Soutl>  America,  although  many 
generic  groups,  particularly  among  the  Lepiuoptera,  appeared  common  to  both  continents. 

Between  the  faunas  of  Africa  and  America  the  difference  is  unquestionably  striking ;  yet 
there  are  several  points  of  connexion  between  the  ornithology  of  Africa,  Asia,  and  Aus- 
tralia ;  and  these  apnear  not  merely  in  generic  groups,  out  even  in  species.  The  Drongo 
Shrikes  (G.  Edolius),  the  Larva-eaters  (G.  Cehlepyris),  the  typical  Fly-catchers  (G.  iJfiM- 
cipeta,  C),  the  Crab-eaters  (G.  Halcyon),  the  Grakles  {Lamprotonia),  the  Afi*ican  Saxicolte, 
the  two  groups  of  tropical  Finches  (Estrelda  Amadina  Sw.),  are  all  genera  common  to  these 
three  rcgton3,=to  neither  of  WiUCu,  jh  a  gcograpnic  uiViSion,  can  tiiey  oe  exclusively 
assigned.     But  we  need  not  dwell  further  on  such  resemblances,  v/hich,  after  ail,  are  but  si 


Part  H. 

equator,  nearly 

lelong,  however 

Crax,  Penelope, 

their  represent- 

one  species  haa 
mark  applies  to 
ately  illustrated 
>y  St.  Hilaire. 
Arhich  shine  the 
}*■  peculiarity  of 
'  in  Africa,  Asia, 
t.  The  number 
birds  is  another 
Under  this  term 
elid<B  Sw.)  and 

(^Tanagnna), 
sly  to  this  conti- 
ilintf  a  perpetual 
of  hard  and  soit- 
s,  tlie  Mollusca, 
features  on  the 


lile  most  writers 
rhe  pestilential 
8  of  Europeans ; 
e  gathered  from 
ra  Leone.  The 
arity  from  those 

the  ornithology 
i-eaters  (Aluso- 
long  the  groups 
implies,  is  most 
iscovered.  The 
he  land  birds  ot 
^ard  to  the  Cape 
short,  a  marked 
urope,  Northern 
nmon  to  Europe 
hows  that  a  few 

It  is  t<?  ^ne  of 
•duced,  mat  W6 
ublished ;  but  it 
inated  abruptly ; 
by  some  other, 
and  record  their 

mie  parallels  of 
e  term)  there  is 
)oth  continents; 
1  to  have  nearly 
I  extremities  of 

similar  results, 
erritoriesof  the 
was  lo  be  found 
although  many 
\i  continents. 
ly  striking ;  yet 
Asia,  and  Aus- 
The  Drongo 
ihers  (G.  Mus- 
i"ican  Saxicolffi, 
ommon  to  these 
oe  exciusiveiy 
:  ail,  are  but  at. 


Book  IV  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS.  878 

many  points  of  connexion  between  geographic  divisions,  sufficiently  distinct  in  their  more 
prominent  characters.  '  '  i 

5.  The  Malay  nr  Australian  Province. 

The  regions  peopled  by  the  Malay  tribes  is  the  last  zoological  division  requiring  elucida- 
tion. We  have  already  adverted  to  the  great  diversity  of  tribes  comprised  under  this  variety 
of  the  human  race,  and  tlie  little  authentic  information  yet  collected  concerning  their  origin 
or  history.    The  zoological  results,  however,  are  more  definite. 

On  looking  to  the  Indian  Archipelago,  as  to  that  region  where  physiologists  concur  in 
thinking  that  the  Malayan  form  is  first  apparent,  we  are  told  that  several  of  these  islands 
are  peopled  by  two  different  rates  of  men  {Lawrence,  p.  489.  and  Cuvier,  p.  187.) ;  the  one 
frequently  confined  to  the  inland  tracts,  while  the  other  people  the  maritime  districts :  their 
respective  origins,  however,  are  so  little  known,  that  it  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt  which  has 
usurped  the  territories  of  the  other.  (^Marsden^a  Sumatra,  328,  327.)  We  confine  these 
remarks  to  Sumatra  and  Java ;  for  with  regard  to  the  vast  islands  of  Borneo,  Celebes,  and 
those  smaller  groups  to  the  eastward,  we  know  little  or  nothing  of  their  productions  or  of 
their  people. 

That  the  isthmus  of  Malacca  and  the  adjacent  islands  exhibit  the  first  indications  of  a 

Eeculiar  race  of  people,  is  a  fact  upon  which  all  writers  appear  to  agree ;  and  that  we  here 
egin  to  discern  the  indications  of  a  new  zoological  region  is  equally  certain :  yet  it  would 
be  altogether  rash,  with  our  present  limited  infoimation,  to  hazard  any  theory  which  would 
respectively  assign  to  these  islands  a  definite  character  in  its  inhabitants  or  productions. 
But  the  zoology  of  Java  and  Sumatra  have  been  of  late  so  zealously  and  ably  mvestigated 
not  only  by  two  distinguished  British  naturalists,*  but  by  othersf  sent  from  France,  that  we 
shall  in  this  place  attempt  to  draw  some  results  from  their  labours.  The  ornithology  of  these 
islands,  with  some  few  peculiarities,  differs  in  no  very  decided  manner  from  that  of  southern 
India.  In  both,  the  Gallinaceous  genera,  when  they  occur,  are  the  same,  although  some  ot 
the  Javanese  species  differ.  Of  the  more  typical  Sturnida,  common  to  the  Old  World,  but 
IS  yet  unknown  to  the  Australian*  or  Oceanic  islands,  no  less  than  three  inhabit  Java.  To 
ihese  groups  must  be  added,  Parus,  Sitta,  Bucco,  Cursorius,  Clareola,  Buceros,  Oriolus, 
g2  Brachypus,  and  many  other  genera  characteristic  of  the  ancient 

continents.  The  number  of  typical  Scansorial  birds  within  the 
narrow  limits  of  these  two  islands  is  truly  remarkable.  Eight 
species  of  Picua  are  described  by  Dr.  Horsfield,  and  four  or  nve 
others ;  one,  the  Malacolophus  Concretus,  Sw.  {fig.  82.),  of  a 
remarkably  small  size,  have  been  sent  to  France  by  M.  Diard. 
The  total  absence  of  this  family  throughout  the  whole  Australian 
range,  is  a  circumstance  in  itself  sufficiently  strong  to  place  the 
ornithology  of  Java  and  Sumatra  beyond  such  limits ;  to  which, 
Malacolophui  Concretui  nevertheless,  it  approximates  very  closely. 
The  birds  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  which  indicate  an  approximation  to  the  Australian 

frovince  belong  to  certain  genera  common  to  both  regions;  but  i  nknown  in  Africa  or 
ndia:  those  are.  Pitta,  Centropus,  Ocypterua,  Prinea,  Pogardua,  Crateropus,  Dacelo, 
&.C.  In  the  Suctorial  birds  (the  Tenuirostres  of  M.  Cuvier,)  we  find  in  .Tava  an  evident 
departure  from  the  typical  form  of  Cinnyris  towards  the  Melliphagida  of  Australia, 
in  the  genus  Dicaum;  four  of  the  known  species  being  Javanese,  and  three  Austra- 
lian. What  little  is  yet  known  of  the  birds  of  New  Guinea,  and  its  surrounding  islands, 
exhibits  a  still  greater  deviation  from  the  ornithological  features  of  India.  These  enchant- 
ing regions,  long  the  fiiiry-land  of  naturalists,'  remained  nearly  unknovrn  until  visited  by 
learned  Frenchmen,  to  one  of  whom  has  been  assigned  the  distinguished  honour  of  giving 
to  the  world  the  fruits  of  their  scientific  and  important  discoverieB.|  It  is  in  these  islands 
that  the  Melliphagous  genera  begin  to  be  developed  in  the  most  novel  forms,  and  the  roost 
sumptuous  plumage.  The  grand  Promeropa  of  New  Guinea  can  only  be  likened  to  the 
Australian  Ptiloria.  Several  typical  Melliphagida  are  in  M.  Lesson's  collections.  To 
these  we  can  now  add  two  species  of  genuine  Philedona  (Cuvier),  and  two  of  the  genus 
Vanga.  The  group  of  which  the  Muscicnpa  carinata  (Sw.){  is  the  type,  displays  itself  in 
three  new  and  beautiful  birds,  accurately  described  and  figured  by  M.  Lesson.  The  stay  of 
the  French  naturalists  ot  th"  coast  of  New  Guinea  was  comparatively  short,  and  their 
gleanings  of  its  ornithology  could  not,  from  necessity,  be  otherwise  than  scanty ;  yet  it  is 
surprising  that,  among  the  birds  thus  procured,  so  large  a  proportion  should  belong  to  groups 
hitherto  supposed  peculiai-  to  New  Holland.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  in  a  natural  arrpjigement 
of  ornithological  geography,  that  the  islands  of  New  Guinea  may  be  safely  brought  into  that 
division  which  includes  New  Holland,  New  Zealand,  and  their  dependencies :  this  distribu- 


*  Sir  Stsmfbrd  Raffles  and  Dr.  Hcrsfield. 
t  K.  LcMon,  Voyaga  autour  du  %ionde. 

Vol  I. 


t  MM.  A.  Duraucel  and  Diard. 
$  Zoological  Utuatrationi,  vol.  iii.  pi.  147.   Zool.  Journ.  i.  p.  306. 

2K 


(»T4 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


PartH 


<&'< 


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if-': 


rtli  I 


f'kailSfei  :ii 


tion  has,  indeed,  been  generally  adopted  by  geographers,  merely  iVom  the  relative  positiuns 
of  these  islands. 

On  the  zoology  of  New  Holland  it  is  scarcely  neceosary,  in  this  place,  to  expatiate.  All 
naturalists  concur  in  viewing  this  insular  continent  as  the  chief  metropolis  of  a  peculiar  cre- 
ation of  animals ;  whose  limits  on  one  side  we  have  already  traced,  and  whose  range  on  the 
other  extendi  over  the  inaumerable  islands  scattered  in  the  great  Pacific  Ocean.   The  Menurt 

Superba  0^^.  83.)  is  the  most  remarkable  gal- 
linaceous bird  of  this  range.  The  Australian 
province  is  thus  in  full  accordance  with  the  dis- 
tribution assigned  to  the  Malay  variety  of  oui 
species :  its  connexion  with  Asiatic  zoology  is 
unquestionable;  but  we  hare  no  means  of  judg- 
ing into  which  of  the  three  remaining  divisions 
it  blends,  at  its  opposite  extremity.  Of  the  birds 
peculiar  to  those  renotc  clusters  of  islands  ad- 
joining the  north-west  coast  of  America  we  are 
completely  ignorant;  nor  are  our  materials 
Menura  Superba.  sufficient  to  ftimish  cvcn  a  plausible  conjecture 

on  the  subject.     Whether  the  Australian  province,  at  its  northern  limits,  unites  again  with 
the  Asiatic,  the  American,  or  the  European,  must  thi^rofore  be  left  to  future  discovery. 

We  have  now  completed  a  general  survey  of  the  distribution  of  birds  over  the  globe.  The 
fiicts  we  have  stated  show  the  propriety  of  arranging  the  whole  under  five  great  divisions  or 
provinces,  which  may  be  distinguished  as  the  European,  the  Asiatic,  the  American,  the 
African,  and  the  Australian:  each  of  these  corresponds,  with  little  variation,  to  the  geogra- 
phic distribution  assigned  by  authors  to  the  different  races  of  man.  We  must,  therefore,  now 
adopt  one  out  of  the  two  following  conclusions:  either  that  there  is  just  and  sufficient 
ground  for  believing  that  the  distribution  of  man  and  animals  in  general  has  been  regulated 
by  the  pamc  laws;  or,  that  man  and  birds  have  be ::n  distributed  alike,  and  all  other  animals 
differently.  To  us,  at  least,  the  latter  conclusion  appears  highly  improbable ;  not  only  as  being 
unsupported  by  the  least  shadow  of  evidence,  but  as  opposed  to  that  harmony  in  creation, 
which  is  more  apparent  the  more  it  is  viewed  in  all  its  relations. 

Sect.  V. — General  Summary  of  the  Stibject. 

In  offering  these  elucidations  of  a  subject  so  vast  in  itself,  and  so  important  in  all  its 
bearings,  it  will  be  readily  perceived  that  two  different  relations  between  animal  groups  are 
alluded  to ;  one  we  have  considered  as  of  affinity,  the  other  of  analogy ;  and  as  the  truth  or 
fallacy  of  these  views  will  mainly  depend  on  the  justness  of  these  distinctions,  a  few  obser- 
vations upon  them  appetu*  necessary.  Naturalists,  in  general,  have  considered  those  resem- 
blances which  exist  between  certain  groups  placed  in  different  regions,  but  in  the  same 
parallels  of  latitude,  as  indicating  affinities ;  and  on  this  supposition,  as  before  stated,  have 
framed  theories  by  which  animal  geography  has  been  divided  into  zones  or  provinces,  limited 
more  or  less  by  certain  degrees  of  latitude.  It  must  be  confessed  that,  upon  a  superficial 
view,  there  are  many  circumstances  which  appear  to  justify  such  a  theory.  Confining  our 
attention  to  tliat  department  of  nature  which  we  have  throughout  selected,  we  shall  partly 
recapitulate  our  former  observations. 

The  arctic  regions,  in  one  sense,  may  be  considered  an  ornithological  zone ;  for  not  only 
the  same  groups,  but  the  same  species  are  found  in  such  parts  of  Europe,  America,  and  pro- 
bably Asia,  as  enter  within  its  limits.  But  admitting  this  to  the  full  extent  let  us  ask  if 
these  regions — by  the  number,  variety,  and  peculiarity  of  their  animals,  are  entitled  to  hold 
a  primary  rank  with  the  great  geographic  groups  already  mentioned  1  Is  there  to  be  met 
with  among  the  arctic  birds  numerous  species  which  are  not  distributed  far  beyond  sucii 
limits  1  Are  there  any  generic  or  sub-generic  groups  which  do  not  occur  even  towards  the 
central  pans  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America?  These  questions  which  must  be  answered  in 
the  negative,  sufficiently  prove  that  the  arctic  regions  do  not  possess  the  characteristics  of  a 
primary  division ;  they  must  rather  be  looked  upon  as  p  point  of  junction,  where  the  orni- 
thology of  the  three  northern  continents  blends  and  hrnnonizes  Icgcther. 

The  tropical  regions  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds  have  likewise  been  united  in  one 
province.  How  widely  the  ornithology  of  these  countries  really  differs,  has  been  already 
explained.  True  it  is,  that  in  numerous  instances  one  group  typifies  another,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  American  Humming-birds  {TVochilidai)  bemg  represented  in  the  Old  World  by  the 
Sun-birds  (Cinnyridte) ;  and  such  relationship,  in  one  sense,  is  certainly  an  affinity,  inaS' 
much  as  in  the  natural  system  they  appear  to  follow  one  another ;  but  if  we  admit  such  a 
degree  of  affinity  to  be  a  sufficient  guide  to  a  distribution  of  birds,  we  must  also  do  the  same 
with  regard  to  the  varieties  of  man,  since  both  appear  dispersed  upon  the  same  plan.  The 
red  Indian  of  America  as  certainly  represents  the  black  negro  of  Africa  as  the  latter  does 
the  sooty  inhabitant  of  New  Guinea;  yet  no  one  would  think  of  classing  them  in  tlic  same 
race,  merely  because  they  inhabited  countries  under  similar  degrees  of  latitude.    The  dis- 


PartII. 
relative  positiuns 

o  expatiate.  All 
of  a  peculiar  cre- 
hose  range  on  the 
lan.  The  Mcnun 
It  remarkable  gal- 
The  Australian 
lance  with  the  dis- 
loy  variety  of  oui 
Asiatic  zoolog^y  ig 
no  means  of  judg- 
3maining  divisions 
tnity.  Of  the  birds 
ters  of  islands  ad< 
f  America  we  ore 
re  our  materials 
lusible  conjecture 
unites  agam  with 
e  discovery, 
ir  the  globe.  The 
great  divisions  or 
le  American,  the 
on,  to  the  geogro- 
st,  therefore,  now 
:ist  and  sufficient 
08  been  regulated 
oil  other  animals 
;  not  only  as  being 
nony  in  creation, 


portant  in  all  its 
animal  groups  ore 
nd  as  the  truth  or 
ions,  a  few  obser- 
Bred  those  resem- 
but  in  the  same 
efore  stated,  have 
provinces,  limited 
upon  a  superficial 
'.  Confining  our 
,  we  shall  partly 

)ne ;  for  not  only 
Lmerico,  and  pro- 
tent,  let  us  osk  if 
e  entitled  to  hold 
there  to  be  met 
I  far  beyond  sucli 
even  towards  the 
t  be  answ  ered  in 
laracteristicsofa 
,  where  the  omi- 

len  united  in  one 
has  been  already 
cr,  as  in  the  case 
»ld  World  bjr  the 
an  affinity,  inos* 
we  admit  such  a 
also  do  the  same 
same  plan.  The 
BIS  the  lotter  does 

rtnrvt    ■•%    4-1 1 A   oaiYia 

litude.    The  dis- 


DooK  ni. 


IN  irS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


275 


pcrsion  of  particular  groupe  ond  of  their  species,  ui)on  the  whole,  is  more  in  a  longitudinal 
than  in  a  latitudinal  direction.  This  is  exemplified  in  a  remarkable  manner  by  the  migra> 
tory  birds,  which  invariably  proceed  from  north  to  south,  or  from  south  to  north.  It  would, 
indeed,  appear,  that  if  animal  distribution  is  to  be  regulated  by  geographic  degrees,  a«  accu- 
rate notions  might  result  iVom  making  tJic  divisions  of  longitude  aa  of  latitude :  both,  how- 
ever, would  be  clearly  artificial. 

These  parallel  relations  of  analogy,  which  everywhere  present  themselves  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  nevertheless  deserve  our  greatest  attention,  as  fraught  with  peculiar  interest  to 
tlio  reflecting  mind.  There  are  throughout  nature  so  many  immediate  and  remote  relations, 
so  many  unexplained  ties  of  connexion,  that  the  most  careful  of  her  students  are  perpetually 
misled  in  attempting  to  trace  her  footstepe.  In  ordinary  cases,  the  admirable  distinction 
that  has  been  drawn  between  affinity  and  analogy  (_Hor.  Ent.)  is,  perhaps,  the  best  that  con 
be  given ;  yet  instances  might  be  named,  in  which  even  this  is  totally  inadequate  to  the  end 
proposed.  Natural  relations  are  so  complicated,  that  series  of  affinities  apparently  incon- 
testable, will  frequently,  upon  rigid  analysis,  turn  out  completely  erroneous;  proving  no 
more  than  that  nature,  howevftr  diversified,  presents  so  many  points  of  general  resemblance 
and  of  connexion,  that  partial  harmony  will  result  even  firom  a  false  combination  of  parts. 
Let  us  not  therefore  conclude,  as  is  now  too  generally  done,  that  by  synthesis  alone  vve  can 
exhibit  the  true  affinities  of  nature ;  that  we  may  her  ceforward,  without  hesitation,  assign 
to  each  of  her  productions  its  true  station  in  the  scale  of  being ;  that  we  hove  suddenly, 
and  as  if  by  magic,  got  full  possession  of  that  mighty  secret  which  ot  once  explains  her 
laws,  and  expounds  all  that  has  jDcrplexed  the  wise  and  confounded  the  learned,  since  science 
first  dawned  upon  man.  That  the  circular  system  is  the  nearest  approach  yet  made  to  the 
true  disposition  which  pervades  nature, — a  system  which,  from  the  perfections  of  its  Creator, 
must  be  replete  with  order  and  iKtauty  surpassing  our  utmost  comprehension, — is  indisputable, 
because  none  other  has  attempted  to  explain  the  relations  of  parts  and  the  unity  of  the 
whole ;  but  fiirther  than  this  its  pretensions  must  not  be  carried :  it  still  involves  questions 
of  ^eat  weight,  since  by  one  theory  the  number  of  its  primary  divisions  is  stated  to  be^ue, 
while  by  another,  founded  on  much  more  extensive  analysis,  it  is  maintained  to  be  three. 
The  searcher  afler  truth  will  give  to  these  his  patient  investigation,  his  cool  and  unpreju- 
diced judgment :  he  may  then  hope  to  make  one  step  nearer  to  truth ;  for  science,  in  all 
ages,  has  ever  remauied  most  stationary  when  the  advocates  of  any  system  have  been  most 
prejudiced. 

It  is  with  these  qualifications  that  the  views  here  taken  on  the  distribution  of  man  and 
animals  are  given  to  the  reader.  It  has  been  our  desire  to  trace  a  connexion,  and  a  unity 
of  plan,  in  both,  and  to  simplify  a  subject  hitherto  involved  in  much  intricacy.  How  far 
this  object  may  have  been  attained,  it  is  not  for  us  to  determine ;  but  he  who  draws  proofs 
of  a  Divine  Creator  from  the  harmony  and  design  apparent  in  his  works,  has  surely  not  writ- 
ten in  vain. 


CHAPTER  in. 

GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 

Man,  when  considered  not  as  a  mere  animal,  but  as  a  being  endowed  with  thought,  reason, 
and  contrivance,  capable  of  social  intercourse  and  union,  must  be  regarded  as  the  most  con- 
spicuous object  in  the  delineation  of  the  globe.  These  attributes  raise  him  to  the  first  rank 
in  this  lower  world ;  and  in  every  region  occupied  and  improved  by  him,  the  communities 
which  he  has  formed  become  t!ie  most  prominent  characteristic ;  all  other  beings  are  there 
subordinate  and  subservient  to  him.  The  description  therefore  which,  in  the  succeedmg  part 
of  the  work,  will  be  given  of  the  diffiirent  regions  of  the  globe,  must  be  chiefly  employed  in 
delineating  the  aspects  which  man,  as  an  active  and  social  being,  presents.  At  present, 
however,  it  would  be  premature  to  enter  into  tJie  numerous  details  which  this  subject 
embraces.  We  can  do  little  more  than  indicate  the  following  general  heads,  under  which 
it  will  be  treated : — 1.  Historical  Geography.  2.  Political  Constitution  of  the  different  coun- 
tries.   3.  Productive  Industry.    4.  Civil  and  Social  State  of  Man.    6.  lianguages. 

Sect.  I. — Historical  Geography. 

A  survey  of  the  history  of  man  is  necessary  for  enabling  us  accurately  to  understand, 
ond  duly  to  estimate  his  present  condition.  Not  only  inanimate  nature,  but  even  the  anima. 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  remain  constmitly  in  the  some  situation : 
the  changes  ond  modifications  undergone  by  them  have  been  produced  entirely  by  man's 
interposition.  That  improved  and  civilized  fonn  under  which  he  now  appears,  is  the  result 
of  a  continued  succession  of  changes,  which  have  been  taking  place  from  the  earliest  periods 
of  aiithentie  history.  All  the  revolutions,  both  of  ancient  and  modem  ti-Ties,  have  had  a 
greater  or  less  influence  in  producing  the  present  moral,  political,  and  social  condition  of  man 
in  the  more  improved  quarters  of  the  globe. 


ii. 


270 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


pARrlL 


■%'"UW< 


¥^ 


M^i 


t  II 


■  ."    "'      .       ■'         '    ■   Vii  BvBazcr.  1.— Ancient  History.  ,         "• 

Ancient  history  is  generally  considered  as  comprehending  the  period  which  elapsed  from 
the  earliest  authentic  records,  andparticularly  fh)m  che  rise  of  the  groat  monarchies,  to  the 
downMl  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  various  forms  which  government  and  society  assumed 
during  that  long  period,  though  they  were  instrumental  in  preparing  those  which  have  exist- 
ed in  the  modem  world,  did  not  bear  any  exact  rusemblance  to  them.  Through  the  conquest 
of  Rome  by  the  barbarous  nttions,  with  which  the  first  of  these  eras  clos^,  almost  every 
connexion  between  them  was  cut  off,  except  those  of  record  and  tradition. 

The  rise  of  the  great  monarchies,  Egypt,  Assyrio,  and  Babylon,  constitutes  the  first  grand 
epoch  in  ancient  history.  It  nearly  coincides  with  that  of  the  great  commercial  republics, 
Tyre  and  Carthage.  Human  society,  which  had  before  existed  in  a  very  rude  and  imperfect 
shape,  began  to  assume  a  regular,  orderly,  and  even  splendid  character.  All  the  arts  which 
contribute  to  man's  supiwrt  and  accommodation  were  carried  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
improvement ;  and  the  foundation  was  laid  of  those  intellectual  attainments,  which  were  to 
constitute  his  highest  honour.  Alphabetic  writing  was  invented  and  widely  diffused ;  the 
arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  made  a  considerable  progress ;  there  were  even 
formed  some  elen^ents  of  science  and  philosophy.  During  this  peri«l,  too,  while  the  world 
generally  was  buriod  in  the  darkest  superstition,  a  divine  revelation,  preparatory  for  another 
more  perfect,  having  been  first  communicated  to  tlie  patriarchs,  was  more  formally  disclosed 
to  the  legislator  of  the  Jewish  nation. 

The  Persian  emp're  embraced  a  wider  extent  of  the  globe  than  any  that  had  previously 
existed,  and  comprehended  those  countries  which  had  been  most  rcimarkable  as  the  seats  ot 
iinprovemenL  and  civilization.  Although,  however,  it  thus  became  instrumental  in  linking 
distant  nations  together,  it  bore  chiefly  Die  character  of  empty  and  barbarous  pomp,  and  does 
not  appear  to  have  produced  any  material  advance  in  knowledge  and  improvement 

The  rise  of  the  Grecian  States  fbrmed,  perhaps,  the  proudest  era  m  the  history  of  the 
human  race.  The  constitutions  then  formed  afforded  a  degree  of  political  liberty,  and  a 
dcvelopement  of  the  higher  ener^es  of  the  human  mind,  which  could  not  be  attained  in 
extensive  empires,  subjected  to  3ie  arbitrary  rule  of  a  flngle  individual.  The  military 
exploits  of  the  Grecian  people,  by  which  they  bafiled  the  force  of  almost  the  whole  known 
world  united  under  the  sway  of  Persia,  were  the  most  splendid  that  had  hitherto  illustrated 
the  anr.al8  of  mankind.  Genius  was  exerted  with  nearly  unrivalled  power  in  every  depart- 
ment ;  the  historic  page  unfolded  its  utmost  degree  of  enerOT  and  beauty ;  and  many  sub- 
lime lessons  of  morality  were  taught  by  the  Grecian  sages.  The  fine  arts,  poetry,  painting, 
and  architecture,  reached  an  eminence  which  they  have  scarcely  since  regained,  and  in  each 
the  purest  models  were  left  for  future  imitation.  After  Greece  had  long  maintained  a  glorious 
defensive  war  against  Persia,  her  arms  were  directed  to  conquest.  The  reigu  and  triumphs 
of  Alexander,  while  they  subverted  her  admired  forms  of  civil  polity,  diffused  her  language, 
her  arts,  her  knowledge,  over  a  wide  extent  of  the  eastern  world,  and  thus  spread  a  circle 
uf  civilization,  the  traces  of  which  have  never  been  .trholly  obliterated. 

The  dominion  of  Rome,  which  succeeded  and  overpowered  that  of  Greece,  extended  over 
a  still  greater  variety  of  countries  and  people,  than  had  been  comprehended  under  any  for- 
mer empire.  Her  character,  at  first  stem  and  austere,  was  gradually  softened ;  and  on 
arriving  at  her  highest  pinnacle  of  wealth  and  power,  she  made  at  the  same  time  an  unri- 
valled display  of  the  pomp  and  refinement  of  polished  life.  She  emulated,  without  fully 
equalling,  what  was  most  brilliant  in  the  arts  and  intellectual  attainments  of  Greece.  But 
the  most  signal  service  which  Rome  rendered  to  the  cause  of  civilization,  was  by  extending 
its  empire  over  wide  regions  in  northem  and  westem  Europe,  which  had  previously  been  the 
seat  of  almost  complete  barbarism ;  though  they  now  form  the  most  enlightened  and  im- 
proved portion  of  the  globe. 

ScBtiiiCT.  2. — Modem  History. 

The  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  which  marked  the  commencement  of  modem  his- 
tory, formed  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  disastrous  eras  in  tlie  destiny  of  the  world. 
Durin^r  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  a  succession  of  barbarous  hordes  from  Germany, 
Scandinavia,  Russia,  and  even  the  remotest  extremities  of  northern  Asia,  poured  in  upon 
civilized  Europe,  and  exterminated  or  reduced  to  bondage  the  greater  part  of  its  people. 
All  the  arts  and  sciences,  which  had  shed  such  a  lustre  on  the  Greek  and  Roman  name, 
disappeared,  leaving  only  some  imperfect  remnants,  which  were  preserved  in  the  depth  of 
monasteries.  The  empire  was  partitioned  into  a  number  of  disorderly  little  kingdoms,  gra- 
dually merged  into  a  few  great  monarchies,  which,  in  their  general  outline,  have  continued 
to  the  present  day.  This  era  was  aliao  distinguished,  in  the  East,  by  the  introduction  of  the 
religion  of  Moiiammed,  and  the  rise  of  the  Saracen  power,  which  undertook,  by  force  of 
arms,  to  diffuse  that  religion  over  the  world.  Its  armed  votaries  overran  a  great  part  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  even  of  J*Jurope,  and  continue  still  to  maintain  a  powerful  influence  over 
the  destinies  of  the  human  species.    For  some  time,  the  states  formed  under  this  system  pro 


PARrlL 


ch  elapoed  from 
onarchies,  to  the 
society  assumed 
vhich  have  exist- 
iigh  the  conquest 
led,  almost  every 

iB  the  first  ffrand 
lercial  republics, 
de  and  imperfect 
11  the  arts  which 
erable  degree  of 
9,  which  were  to 
ely  diffused ;  the 
there  were  even 
while  the  world 
atory  for  another 
)rmally  disclosed 

it  had  previously 
e  as  the  seats  ot 
nental  in  linking 
i  pomp,  and  does 
remenL 

lie  history  of  the 
il  liberty,  and  a 
}t  be  attained  b 
.  The  military 
he  whole  known 
herto  illustrated 
in  every  depart* 
;  and  many  sub- 
poetry,  paintmg, 
ined,  and  in  each 
ttained  a  glorious 
gu  and  triumphs 
3d  her  language, 
s  spread  a  circle 

e,  extended  over 
1  under  any  for- 
jftened;  and  on 
tie  time  an  unri> 
d,  without  fully 
)f  Greece.  But 
■as  by  extending 
viouuly  been  the 
'htoned  and  im* 


of  modern  his- 
ly  of  the  world, 
from  Germany, 
poured  in  upon 
t  of  its  people. 
1  Roman  name, 
in  the  depth  of 

kingdoms,  gra- 
have  continued 
'eduction  of  the 
(ok,  by  force  of 
a  great  part  of 

influence  ovei 
this  system  pro 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


277 


seiited  a  somewhat  enlightened  aspect,  and  even  revived  the  expiring  lamp  ot  science ;  but 
the  final  issue  of  Moslem  ascendency  has  been,  to  difiiiso  through  the  world,  ignorance,  des- 
/)ti8ni,  barbarism,  and  every  principle  hostilo  to  human  improvement. 

The  fcudiil  system  was  established  gradually  among  the  barbarous  states  formed  out  of 
the  dismembered  portions  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  kin^,  or  chief,  distributed  the  terri- 
tory among  iiis  nobles  or  followers,  subject  only  to  the  condition  of  military  service.  These 
nobles,  possessing  alm'^"^  uncontrolled  jurisdiction  within  their  own  limits,  holding  at  their 
disposal  tlie  services  umerous  vassals,  took  advantage  of  every  interval  of  weakness  in 
the  reign  of  the  severe.^  n,  and  rendered  his  power  little  more  than  nominal.  They  reduced 
the  bodv  of  the  people  to  a  stato  of  comparative  slavery,  waged  numerous  private  wars  witli 
each  other,  and  practised  various  robberies  and  extortions.  During  this  turbulent  era,  all 
refined  arts  and  pursuits  lan^ished,  while,  on  the  basis  of  ignorance,  superstition  erected  an 
absolute  and  tyrannical  dommion.  The  institutions  of  chivalry,  however,  which  were  then 
formed  and  gradually  improved,  introduced  a  sense  of  honour,  and  a  dignity  and  refinement 
of  manners,  which  have  beneficially  influenced  nrodern  society.  This  period  was  also 
marked  by  the  piratical  inroads  of  the  Scandinavians  or  Northmen,  who  ravaged  all  the 
coasts  of  Europe,  and  obtained  at  least  a  temporary  possession  of  considerable  districts  and 
even  kingdoms.  It  was  marked,  lastly,  by  those  memorable  expeditions  into  the  East, 
called  the  crusades,  which,  though  attended  with  great  extravagance,  and  occasioning  much 
disaster  and  bloodshed,  tended,  on  the  whole,  towards  the  improvement  of  European  policy 
and  social  life. 

The  subversion  of  the  feudal  power,  accompanied  by  the  revival  of  knowledge,  arts,  and 
industry,  formed  a  most  memorable  era  in  the  history  of  mankind.  This  change,  which 
had  been  for  several  ages  silently  preparing,  was  carried  into  complete  efiect  during  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  turbulent  rule  of  the  gretit  nobles  was  then  broken 
down,  and  was  succeeded  by  several  extensive  but  mildly  administered  monarchies,  along 
with  some  free  and  commercial  republics,  and  in  one  instance  a  limited  constitutional  mon- 
archy. The  reformation  of  religion  eminently  distinguished  thia  period ;  but  being  opposed 
by  the  violent  intolerance  of  the  Catholic  church,  it  gave  rise  to  a  series  of  dreadful  and 
sanguinary  struggles.  A  eneral  activity  prevailed  throughout  the  whole  sphere  of  human 
exertion.  The  revival  of  learning,  the  invention  of  printing,  the  extension  of  maritime 
enterprise,  leading  to  the  discovery  of  new  regions,  and  of  new  routes  to  those  formerly 
known,  rendered  the  age  peculiarly  eventful  and  interesting.  It  derived,  however,  a  some 
what  disastrous  character  from  the  establishment  of  the  Turkish  empire  in  the  East,  by 
which  the  throne  of  the  Greek  emperors  at  Constantinople  was  finally  subverted,  and  very 
serious  alarms  spread  through  the  whole  body  of  the  European  nations. 

Tiie  modern  system  of  polity  followed,  as  the  result  of  the  great  changes  which  had 
taken  place  in  the  preceding  period.  During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  when 
it  prevailed,  civilization  mode  very  remarkable  advances.  The  manners  of  social  life  became 
more  polished  and  refined.  The  arts  and  ,  v. '>nces  were  carried  nearer  to  perfection,  and 
more  widely  diffused  through  the  great  bod"  jf  mankind.  Amicable  relations,  before  un- 
known, were  established  between  the  different  tions  of  Europe ;  fixed  laws  were  agreed 
upon  for  regulating  their  intercourse ;  and  war,  when  it  did  occur,  was  carried  on  with 
greatly  diminished  ferocity.  The  system  Oi  colonization  in  the  other  quarters  of  the  globe 
was  also  can'ied  to  a  vast  extent,  particularly  in  America ;  and  though  its  first  establislunent 
was  attended  with  many  circumstances  of  injustice  and  tyranny,  it  had  the  efiect  of  bringing 
those  quarters  of  the  world  into  a  more  improved  and  onUized  condition. 

The  era  of  political  revolution,  which  commenced  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, being  that  which  is  still  in  progress,  c.tnnot  be  characterised  in  so  decided  a  manner. 
The  formation  of  the  great  monarchies  had  delivered  Europe  from  the  turbulent  sway  of  the 
feudal  chieftains ;  yet  the  almost  absolute  power  with  wliicn  the  sovereign  was  then  invested, 
was  found  productive  of  many  evils,  ''"lie  liereditary  nobles,  exchanging  their  rural  seats 
for  a  residence  in  thu  great  capitals,  and  indulging  in  east-  and  luxury,  lost  all  influence  over 
the  body  of  the  people.  The  diflllision  of  intelligence  and  w^ealth  through  the  middling  and, 
in  some  degree,  even  the  lower  ranks,  was  followed  by  o  demand,  ob  tJieir  part,  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  some  share  in  the  administration  p*'  public  nffains.  This  spirit,  after  fermenting 
for  some  time,  and  being  diffused  by  the  exer>,.^:\s  of  many  distinguished  writers,  produced 
the  French  revolution,  and  the  extraordinary  series  of  events  which  have  thence  arisen. 
That  great  crisis  did  not  merely  agitate  the  interior  of  France,  but  by  exposing  it  to  foreign 
interference,  and  tlien  impelling  its  own  rulers  to  schemes  of  conquest,  it  changed  for  some 
time,  in  an  extraordinary  manner,  the  aspect  of  all  Europe.  Then,  however,  by  a  grand 
re-action,  France  was  driven  back  within  her  origiral  boundaries,  and  the  political  relations 
of  the  Continent  were  re-established  nearly  on  their  former  footing.  Considerable  agita- 
tions, however,  still  prevail  in  the  -  ' '  f  different  kingdoms,  and  their  political  constitu- 
tions have  sufiTered,  and  aie  likely  i    .        .  material  alterations. 

Vol.  I.  24 


I 


«78 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


I'abtA 


Snrr.  IT. — Political  Cotittitution. 

The  political  constitution  under  which  onv  community  Bubsista,  furmB  a  meet  important 
element  in  ita  ncM  condition.  Doing  usually  established  witliin  certain  local  boundaries, 
and  accomp'U.  J  vjtn  a  similarity  '.n  manners,  religion,  and  other  charucturistic  circum- 
stances, it  lb  Uie  leading'  lu^ent  in  constituting  a  country  or  '  U*.  In  distributing,  therefore, 
the  Our  quarters  of  the  globe  into  their  Bmaller  portions,  ^ographer  uses  chiefly  politi- 

roi  divisions.  He  finds  states  which  have  made  any  pr  ^iob:i  in  civilization  arranged  into 
kingdoma,  empires,  and  republics.  The  elements  of  political  power  appear  to  cuiibist  of 
monarchy,  aristocracy,  and  democracy ;  wliile  the  public  functions,  to  be  exercised  within 
any  state,  are  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial. 

A  kingdom  is  a  state  of  considerable  though  not  vast  extent,  governed  by  a  single  person, 
as  Prance,  Spain,  Prussia.  The  subjects  are  usually  united  by  a  similarity  of  language  and 
manners,  and  pervadrd  by  a  national  spirit.  The  power  of  the  sovereign  is  commonlv  ex- 
tensive, though  controlled  in  some  instances  by  national  assemblies ;  and  there  is  aunoat 
always  a  body  of  nobles  possessed  of  high  privileges  luid  immunities. 

An  empire  generally  consists  of  a  number  of  detached  kingdoms,  which  have  been  united 
by  conquest  under  one  head,  as  the  Turkish,  Persian,  and  Chinese.  Being  thus  formed  of 
an  aggregation  of  different  states,  empires  are  usually  of  v  ery  great  extent ;  and  as  military 
force  has  been  the  instrument  of  their  combination,  the  sovb/eigns  exercise  almost  always  an 
unlimited  authority.  The  different  members  having  been  brought  into  union  by  force  only, 
rarely  feel  united  by  any  national  tie,  and  remain  very  dissimilar  in  manners,  religion,  and 
social  institutions. 

Republics  consist  of  states  which  own  the  supremacy  of  •  king  or  sovereign,  but  are 
governed  by  a  senate,  an  assembly  of  the  people,  or  by  both  conjoined.  Though  these  govern- 
ments have  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  the  world,  they  have  been  generally 
of  small  extent,  consisting,  in  many  instances,  of  not  more  than  a  single  city,  with  a 
limited  circle  of  tenitory.  Where  this  form  or  government  has  been  diflused  over  a  great 
sur&ce  of  country,  it  has  consisted  usually  of  a  number  of  slates,  joined  in  a  federal  union. 
This  is  remarkably  the  case  with  the  United  States  of  America,  where  such  a  government 
has  been  introduced  on  a  scale  of  greater  magnitude  than  in  any  other  quarter  of  the  git'  -. 

Monarchy,  among  the  elements  which  compose  the  political  system,  holds  the  roost  con- 
spicuous place,  and  is  the  most  generally  prevalent.  In  some  coses,  the  p'jwer  of  the 
monarc'.  u  vholly  or  very  nearly  absolute.  In  a  majority  of  instances,  howev<  r,  it  is  more 
or  leer,  coiurulled  by  the  mfluence  of  certain  powerful  and  privileged  bodies.  In  some  con- 
8tit«ta>'^  Ihi'  power  of  the  monarch  is  combined  with  that  of  aristocratic  and  popular  bodies, 
whi'jii  uhrt:  °  vith  the  sovereign  all  the  higher  functions  of  government.  These  are  called 
linii'-ed  tnor«  jchies,  and  are  well  adapted  for  the  preservation  of  a  great  people  in  a  state  of 

gjace  u-Ia!  prosperity.  This  form  of  government,  after  being  for  a  long  time  confined  to 
ritain,  is  now  spreading,  though  with  some  difilculty  and  confusion,  over  the  rest  of  Europe. 

Aristocracy,  or  the  power  vested  in  a  distinguished  and  privileged  class,  is  found  exi-sting 
much  less  frequently  as  a  distinct  and  decided  form  of  government,  than  as  an  element  com- 
bined with  monarchy  and  democracy.  Venice,  perhaps,  afforded  almost  the  only  example 
in  which  aristocracy  subsisted  for  a  series  of  ages  pure  and  unmixed.  In  monarchies,  the 
aristocracy  consists  of  a  body  of  nobility,  possessing  various  gradations  of  personal  and 
hereditary  titles  and  rights ;  while  in  a  republic  it  is  formed  into  a  deliberative  body,  or 
senate,  exercising  or  sharing  the  powers  of  the  state.  In  mixed  monarchies,  both  these 
privileges  are  usually  held  by  the  nobles. 

Democracy  is  the  name  given  to  the  government  in  which  the  sovereignty  resides  in  the 
great  body  of  the  citizens.  They  exercise  it,  either  in  a  general  assembly  of  the  whole 
nation,  or  by  means  of  persons  elected,  during  a  certain  period,  to  act  for  the  body  of  their 
constituents.  The  former  was  the  mode  usual  among  the  ancient  republics ;  the  latter  is 
more  prevalent  in  modem  times,  and  is  alone  compatible  with  the  great  extent  of  territory 
occupied  by  the  leading  republics  of  the  present  day.  Popular  government  has  been  very 
generally  combmed  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  aristocracy,  though  there  seldom  fails  to 
be  an  almost  incessant  opposition  between  the  two  parties. 

The  legislative,  among  the  different  functions  of  the  body  politic,  is  justly  considered 
supreme ;  it  establishes  the  laws  and  regulations,  according  to  which  all  public  af!iiirs  are  to 
be  administered,  and  to  which  the  persons  exercising  the  other  functions  are  bound  to  con- 
form. Countries  in  which  the  legislative  as  well  as  the  executive  power  is  exercised  by  one 
man,  form  absolute  monarchies,  where  every  thing  depends  upon  the  arbitrary  will  of  that 
single  individual.  A  purely  aristocratic  legislature  is  commonly  felt  to  be  severe  and  oppres- 
sive by  the  great  body  of  the  people.  A  government  cannot  be  considered  as  free,  unless 
the  various  classes  of  which  the  nation  is  composed  have  a  voice  in  legislative  arrangements. 
Those  political  systems,  however,  in  which  the  laws  ore  enacted  by  the  whole  body  of  the 
assembled  people,  are  fitted  only  for  a  single  city  with  a  territory  of  limited  extent  Of 
SUC.1  a  nature  and  scale  were  the  ancient  republics  of  Greece,  and  also  that  of  Rome,  during 


Pa«th 


a  niost  important 

Itx-al  boundaries, 
irt.ristic  circum- 

buting,  thoretbre, 
IS03  chiefly  politi- 
ion  arranged  into 
ear  to  consist  of 

exercised  within 

'  a  single  person, 

of  language  and 

is  commonly  ex- 

there  is  aunost 

have  been  united 
f  thus  formed  of 
t ;  and  as  military 
almost  always  an 
on  by  force  only, 
ers,  religion,  and 

vereign,  but  are 
gh  these  govem- 
I  been  generally 
gle  city,  with  a 
ised  over  a  great 
a  federal  union, 
ch  a  government 
ter  of  the  gle'".-. 
ds  the  most  con- 
e  prmei  of  the 
vevf  r,  it  b  more 
'•     In  some  con- 
d  popular  bodies, 
rhese  are  called 
pie  in  a  state  of 
imo  confined  to 
J  rest  of  Europe. 
8  found  existing 
m  element  com- 
e  only  example 
monarchies,  the 
)f  personal  and 
srative  body,  or 
hies,  both  these 

V  resides  in  the 
[y  of  the  whole 
e  body  of  their 
s ;  the  latter  is 
ent  of  territory 
has  been  very 
I  seldom  &ils  to 

itly  considered 
ic  afiiiirs  are  to 
!  bound  to  con- 
cercised  by  one 
ry  will  of  that 
Te  and  oppres- 
as  free,  unless 
arrangements, 
le  body  of  the 
I  extent  Of 
Rome,  during 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  REIATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


37'J 


the  earlier  periods  of  her  hiMtory.  But  wlion  the  whole  of  a  great  people  are  convened  into 
one  place,  they  form  a  mere  tumultuary  crowd,  incapable  of  any  regular  or  etfcctual  exer- 
cise of  legislative  functions.  This  diMadvaiitago  has,  among  modem  nations,  been  citudiously 
remedied  by  the  representative  system,  under  which  the  inhabitants  of  each  different  dis- 
trict elect  an  individual  understood  to  possess  their  confidence,  who  exercises  in  their  stead 
the  legislative  function.  lJ\x>n  this  basis  have  been  founded  those  constitutions  that  have 
been  considered  as  exhibiting  the  most  perfect  forms  of  civil  polity. 

The  judicial  power  provides  (or  tlio  security  of  pcr-^^on  nnd  property  nnif)n(y  all  ranks  of 
individiiiilH  composing  the  political  body,  and  forms  thus  '  uf  the  arrangoinonts  most  essen- 
tial to  general  prosperity  and  woll-bcniij.  Tin  instituU  la  for  this  purpose  vary  greatly  in 
different  nations  and  stages  of  society.  Amonij  vTy  rude  tribes,  the  individual  has  only  his 
own  strength  and  that  of  his  kin<1r'vi  to  aid  in  repi  ing  aggression.  As  society  advances, 
the  administration  of  justice  bclw^,  n  ruan  "ti'  man  Iwrnmes  a  leading  object  of  public  con- 
cern.    In  the  earlier  forms  of  polity,     ,(W(  he  ex      tive  and  legislative  functions  are 


'le  tribunal  of  judgment,  and  the  form.<j 

^lear,  and  plead  their  cause  vivdvoce ; 

,  fhe  '"nrther  progress  of  improvement, 

•.nn(      /c  duly  executed,  without  being 

'pai  iments,  and  made  independent  of 

>•«,  and  agents,  by  whom  the  different 

iiiiiious  codes  of  law  are  formed,  with 

1  et  the  expense  and  delay  consequent 


usually  blended;  the  monarch,  or  liiw  lepu  j, 

of  procedure'are  exceedingly  simple.     T'»e  p 

while  the  judge  decides  promptly  and  or    •''• 

it  is  discovered  that  this  branch  of  i)ubii 

entirely  separated  from  the  legislative  m      »»_ 

them.     Hence  arise  the  different  orders,  jim^i 

stages  of  procedure  are  conducted ;  written  « 

the  view  of  providing  for  every  particular  caa 

upon  these  complicated  arrangements  sometimes  <  luse  the  society  to  look  bacli  with  regret 

on  the  simple  and  expeditious  machinery  cmi>loyed  by  thoir  rude  ancestors. 

Other  important  particular-  are  comprehended  in  the  political  state  of  a  society : — the 
titles  of  nobility,  and  the  badges  of  honour  and  distinction  among  individuals ;  the  military 
and  naval  force  employed  in  the  defence  of  a  country ;  the  elements  which  compose  it;  and 
the  manner  in  which  these  are  arranged  and  directed.  The  same  subject  embraces  also  the 
revenue,  its  amount,  the  sources  whence  it  is  derived,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  levied 
and  t  xpended. 

Sect.  III. — Productive  Industry, 

The  industry  of  a  nation  is  employed  in  producing  the  necessaries,  the  conveniences,  the 
ornaments,  and  the  luxuries  of  life — oil  that  is  comprehended  under  the  name  of  wealth.  It 
forms  thus  one  of  the  most  important  constituents  of  their  prosperity  and  well-being. 

The  sources  of  national  wealth  are  usually  divided  into  three ;  agriculture,  manufactures, 
and  commerce :  each  of  these  is  divisible  into  several  distinct  branches,  nor  can  the  cata- 
logue be  completed  without  including  the  two  ocoupations  of  mining  and  fishing. 

Agriculture,  mcluding  the  means  of  procuring  every  part  of  the  produce  of  land,  or  what 
land  bears  on  its  surface,  is  unquestionably  the  grand  source  of  human  subsistence  and 
accommodation.  Hence  chiefly  are  derived  the  materials  used  in  manufacture ;  the  objects, 
in  the  exchange  of  which  commerce  consists.  The  modes  in  which  support  and  the  means 
of  enjoyment  are  obtained  from  land  may  be  divided  into  three ;  hunting,  pasturage,  and 
tillage,  which  last  being  the  only  form  in  which  labour  is  employed  upon  the  ground  itself, 
is  more  specially  considered  as  agriculture.  The  collection  of  the  spontaneous  fruits  of  the 
earth,  being  confined  to  a  few  tribes  in  the  lowest  stage  of  improvement,  scarcely  requires 
to  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Hunting,  or  the  chase  of  wild  animals,  to  obtain  their  flesh  as  food,  and  their  skins  as 
raiment,  is  the  earliest  and  rudest  mode  of  procuring  human  support.  This  employment 
requires  art  and  contrivance  as  well  as  bold  adventure ;  but  is  usually  accompanied  with  rude 
and  turbulent  habits,  and,  combined  with  them,  constitutes  what  is  called  the  savage  state. 
As  culture  advances,  and  the  greater  proportion  of  the  soil  is  devoted  to  the  plough,  or  to 
the  support  of  tame  animals,  its  range  is  greatly  limited,  and  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation 
becomes  little  more  than  the  amusement  of  the  opulent.  The  chase  of  the  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals, however,  still  affords  one  of  the  most  valuable  materials  of  commerce. 

Pasturage,  or  the  deriving  of  subsistence  from  herds  and  flocks,  tamed  and  trained  so  as 
to  be  subservient  to  the  use  of  man,  forms  a  more  improved  and  comfortable  occupation  than 
hunting.  Peculiar  habits  of  life  usually  distinguish  nations  subsisting  solely  by  pasturage. 
They  are  often  destitute  of  any  fixed  abodes,  moving  from  place  to  place  in  large  bands  or 
encampments,  living  within  their  tents  in  patriarchal  simplicity,  but  towards  other  nations 

Eractising  on  a  great  scale  war  and  robbery.    These  habits  constitute  what  is  called  the  bar 
arous  state,  still  prevalent  among  the  Arabs,  Tartars,  and  other  nations  occupying  an  exten 
sive  portion  of  the  earth's  surface. 

Tillage,  or  the  culture  of  the  soil  by  the  processes  of  ploughing  or  sowing,  is  employed, 
by  all  the  more  improved  nations,  as  the  most  efficacious  means  of  drawing  subsistence  from 
the  earth.  In  proportion  to  the  general  improvement  which  any  people  have  attained,  is 
usually  the  skill  and  diligence  with  which  this  most  important  art  is  practised.    The  com* 


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PRINaPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY,       5?I 


Paat  111. 


munity  which  derives  its  chief  subsistence  ih>m  the  culture  of  the  soil,  merits  generally,  to 
a  great  extent,  the  character  of  civilized.  Some  of  the  oriental  people,  as  the  Hindoo  and 
Cmneae,  practise  this  importui>t  art  with  an  inde&tigable  industry  applied  to  every  available 
portion  or  theur  soil,  which  is  scarcely  to  be  paralleled  elsewhere ;  but  in  Europe,  and  espe- 
cially in  Britain,  the  use  of  machinery,  the  skilful  rotation  of  crope,  and  various  improved 
processes,  render  the  same  measure  of  industry  much  more  productive.  The  objects  of 
culture  vary  exceedingly,  and  for  the  meet  part  according  to  the  varieties  of  soil  and  clt> 
mate.  Grain,  the  mam  sti^  of  human  subsistence,  forms  evervwhere  the  most  extensive 
and  important  cAiject  of  tillage.  Climate  chiefly  detenciifes  tne  grain  cultivated  in  any 
particular  region.  In  the  tropical  countries  it  is  rice ;  in  the  best  port  of  the  temperate 
aaono,  wheat  and  barley ;  in  the  colder  tracts,  oats  and  rye.  Of  luxuries,  wine  and  oil  are 
the  most  erateful,  and  in  the  most  general  demand;  they  have  their  almost  exclusive 
growth  in  uie  warmer  tracts  of  tihe  temperate  zone.  The  delicate  fruits,  from  which  they 
are  produced,  do  not  Sourish  in  the  excessively  luxuriant  soil  of  the  tropics.  There,  how- 
ever, the  fivgrant  aromatic  plants,  and  those  filled  with  rich  and  sacchanne  juices,  produce 
valuable  subrtances,  which  are  eagerly  »  uzh'.  after  by  the  natives  of  less  genial  climates. 

Fishery,  by  which  subsistence  and  wealUi  are  derived  from  the  waters,  forms  a  peculiar 
brooch  of  industry,  which  flourishes  in  bvery  stage  of  society.  Even  the  rudest  savages, 
wherever  their  situation  admits,  conjoin  it  with  hunting,  as  a  means  of  affi)rding  an  imme- 
diate supply  to  their  wants.  They  practise  it  often  with  a  great  degree  of  diligence  and 
c<Hitrivance ;  but  the  prosfress  of  industry  leads  to  various  processes^  for  extending  and 
improving  this  branch.  Jj  the  operations  of  salting  and  drying,  fish  is  rendered  fit  to  be 
conveyed  as  merchandise  to  the  most  distant  countries.  Some  of  the  great  maritime  nations 
send  loTffe  fleets  into  i^mote  seas,  where  they  find  situations  fiivourable  to  this  pursuit  The 
whole,  die  cod,  and  the  herring  fisheries  have,  in  this  monner,  been  raised  to  the  rank  of 
great  notionol  concerns. 

Mining,  or  the  extraction  of  valuoble  subetances  from  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
con  be  extensively  practised  only  in  a  somewhat  advanced  state  of  human  industry.  Yet 
noture  has  lodged  in  these  dark  repositories  objects  the  most  essentially  conducive  to  the  use 
and  comfort  of  man,  and  others  wliich  afford  his  most  brilliant  ornaments.  Here  ore  found 
the  bright  and  attractive  metals  of  gold  and  silver ;  there  the  solidly  useful  ores  of  iron  and 
copper;  here  glitter  the  diamond,  the  ruby,  and  the  amethyst;  there  extend  vast  beds  of 
cool,  lime,  and  freestone.  Gold,  the  most  precious  of  the  metals,  is  often  the  most  easily 
accessible ;  but  we  can  scarcely  give  the  name  of  mining  to  the  operation  by  which  the 
savage  merely  collects  its  grains  m  the  sands  of  the  rivers,  or  even  extracts  it  by  pounding, 
when  mechanically  combined  with  other  substances.  But  metals,  in  general,  when  lodgM 
in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  exist  in  the  form  of  ore,  intimately  and  even  chemically  umted 
with  other  materials,  from  which  they  can  be  separated  only  by  smelting,  refining,  and  other 
elaborate  and  even  scientific  processes.  From  the  toilsome  nature  of  uese  operations,  and 
from  the  gloomy  depths  in  which  they  we  conducted,  it  is  often  difficult  to  procure  a  supply 
of  workmen ;  hence  slaves  and  individuals  condemned  for  crimes  have  been  employed  to  a 
later  period  in  tiiis  than  in  most  other  species  of  labour.  Whatever  skill  may  be  employed 
in  mining,  it  is  necessarily  a  local  occupation,  nature  having  irregularly  and  almost  capri- 
ciously distributed  its  objects  over  the  different  regions  of  the  glolM.  Even  the  experiments 
made  to  discover  whether  metals  are  lodged  in  any  particular  spot,  ore  often  attended  with 
considerable  cost,  and  even  peril.  "' 

Manufactures  may  be  regarded  as  a  process  by  which  man  creates,  as  it  were,  a  value 
for  himself.  He  cannot,  indeed,  make  any  new  substance ;  he  can  seldom  even  alter 
essentially  the  quality  of  that  which  is  furnished  to  him ;  but  he  can  altogether  change  its 
character  and  quality,  can  convert  a  rude  and  shapeless  substance  into  one  eminently  con- 
ducive to  benefit,  convenience,  or  ornament  The  excrescence  shorn  firom  an  animal,  the 
pod  hanging  from  a  shrub,  objects  in  themselves  neither  useful  nor  beautiful,  are  converted 
mto  commodious  and  magnificat  robes,  adorned  with  the  most  brilliant  tints.  Almost 
every  natural  product  requires  to  undergo  some  change  before  it  is  fitted  for  the  use  of 
civilized  man.  Grain  must  undergo  the  process  of  grinding  and  baking ;  the  juice  of  the 
vine,  that  of  fermentation ;  even  onimal  food,  that  of  cooking.  But  the  norrte  of  manufac- 
ture is  not  given  to  these  processes,  nor  to  any  which  do  not,  to  a  material  extent  increose 
the  value  of  the  substances  on  which  they  ore  employed.  The  various  articles  of  clothmg 
form  the  principal  objects  of  manufhcture ;  next  to  which  rank  stu%  for  fuimiture,  metalKo 
implements,  and  utensils.  Manufkcturing  skill  and  industry,  carried  to  a  certain  extent, 
mark,  beyoipd  almost  any  other  circumstance,  the  advance  of  a  people  in  arts  and  civilizsr 
tion.  The  savage  usually  employs  unaltered  the  substances  with  which  nature  furnishes 
him.  He  feeds  on  the  flesh  of  the  animals  which  he  has  killed  i.:  the  chase ;  he  clothes 
himself  in  their  skins ;  he  consumes  in  tlieir  crude  state  tlie  rooto  and  herbs  which  the  earth 
spontaneously  aflbrds.  Even  the  nations  which  subsist  by  pasturage,  and  have  made,  per- 
haps, a  certain  progress  in  agriculture,  though  they  have  usually  acquired  a  desire  for  articles 
of  fine  manu&cture,  prefer  to  obtain  them  from  more  industrious  neighbours,  in  exchange  for 


BookIU. 

their  own : 
men,  prodw 
out  any  capi 
that  the  tw( 
of  the  most 
for  abundan 
and  have  fo 
Commerc 
new  article, 
veys  it  bova 
sometimes  ( 
where  judic 
which  it  CO] 
Thehom 
divided, 
and  aflbrdin 
less  notice, 
be  by  much 
basis  consis 
other  raw 
dnstry  of 
of  one  sect! 
where  praci 
distant  parti 
canals.    Fo 
lar  to  those 
as  the  most 
contiguous, 
it  has  been 
which  mak( 
commodity 
this  illibera 
distant  coloj 
The  extcnsi 
them  to  can 
tance,  and  e 
contments,  \ 
as  to  reseml 
The  instr 
diippmg,  ro 
of  a  countr] 
inJSmc]^,  pro 
countries  in 


Thepopi 
if  not  the  n 
and  one  on 
The  ancien 
important  0 
war.  Som 
that  popula 
a  level  wit! 
abundance  < 
for  checkin 

Theactv 
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North  Am( 
made.  Bu 
obeervaticrD 
be  peopled, 

A  nation 
often  exag 
viduals;  bi 
and  anothe 
aud  reiinei 
absence  of 

Vol  I 


BooeUL 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  AND  SOCIETY. 


26. 


their  own  rude  produce.  The  eutem  empires,  for  the  consumption  of  their  courts  and  great 
men,  produce  a  few  articles  of  exquisite  nneness  and  bcauW  dt  mere  manual  labour,  with* 
oat  any  capital  or  any  machine]^  at  all  costly  or  complicated.  It  is  among  European  nation^ 
that  the  two  principles,  the  division  of  laboiiur  and  la^e  capital  employed  in  the  constructiao 
of  the  most  ingenious  machines,  have  enabled  the  manufacturer  to  produce  &bric8  which, 
for  abundance,  elegance,  and  cheapness,  have  surpassed  those  of  every  other  age  or  nation, 
and  have  found  their  way  into  all  the  markets  of  tne  elobe. 

Commerce,  the  third  grand  source  of  national  wealm,  does  not  even  aim  at  producing  aiqr 
new  article,  or  altering  the  texture  or  quality  of  that  in  which  it  traffics.  It  merely  con- 
veys it  fix)m  a  place  in  which  it  is  superabundant,  to  another  in  which  it  is  wanted.  This 
sometimes  conrers  an  exchan^ble  value  on  that  which  previously  had  none ;  in  every  case, 
where  judiciously  exercised,  it  very  considerably  enhances  the  value  attacheid  to  the  article 
which  it  conveys  from  one  place  to  another. 

The  home  and  the  foreign  trade  form  the  two  great  branches  into  which  commerce  is 
divided.  The  former,  in  conse<)uence  of  each  of  its  transactions  being  on  a  smaller  scale, 
and  al6S}rding  little  scope  for  brilliant  adventure  and  splendid  speculation,  attracts,  in  general, 
less  notice,  and  is  considered  of  inferior  political  importance ;  yet  it  is  proved  by  Smith  to 
be  by  much  the  most  extensive,  as  well  as  the  most  conducive  to  national  prosperity.  Its 
basis  consists  in  the  exchange  between  the  country  and  the  town,  of  the  grain,  cattie,  and 
other  raw  produce  of  the  one,  for  the  varied  commodities  framed  by  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustry of  uie  other,  or,  in  countries  of  freat  extent,  of  the  raw  or  manufiictured  productions 
of  one  section  fo:r  those  of  another.  lK>me  trade  is  either  coasting  or  inland,  the  former, 
where  practicable,  being  preferred  for  bulky  commodities,  or  those  to  be  conveyed  between 
distant  parts  of  a  kincrdom ;  much  of  the  interior  commerce  also  passes  along  rivers  and 
canals.  Foreign  trade  has  no  limits  but  those  of  the  habitable  globe;  and,  for  reasons  suni- 
lar  to  those  just  hinted  at  in  another  case,  the  more  distant  branches  are  considered  generally 
as  the  most  brilliant  and  important;  while,  in  fact,  the  trade  with  the  countries  most  closely 
contiguous,  from  its  quicker  returns,  ranks  highest  in  real  amount  and  value.  Unfortunately, 
it  has  been  hitherto  much  fettered  by  the  jealousy  and  rivalry  between  neighbouring  nations^ 
which  make  each  imagine  the  prosperity  of  another  to  be  epained  at  its  expense,  and  everv 
commodity  received  from  them,  to  be  so  much  abstracted  from  its  own  wealth.  Altbrugr. 
this  illiberal  system  has  somewhat  abated,  yet  the  consequence  still  is,  that  intercourse  with 
distant  colonial  possessions  is  more  sure  and  steady  than  with  any  power  entirel^r  foreign. 
The  extensive  capitals  now  possessed  by  some  European  powers,  especially  Britain,  enable 
them  to  carry  on  the  most  extensive  commerce  with  countries  situated  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance, and  even  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  globe.  In  the  interior,  also,  of  the  great 
continents,  there  is  a  foreign  trade  by  land,  carried  on  by  caravans,  which  are  so  numerous 
as  to  resemble  armies,  and  proceed  to  an  immense  distance. 

The  instruments  employed  in  conducting  and  fiicUitating  commerce,  and  which  are  chiefly 
diipping,  roads,  and  canab,  form  the  most  important  part  of  what  is  called  the  fixed  capitu 
of  a  country.  Under  die  head  of  roads,  tlie  invention  of  railway,  though  ^et  only  in  its 
infimcy,  promises  to  &cilitate,  in  a  remarkable  manner,  the  interior  communications  of  the 
countries  in  which  it  is  employed. 

Sect.  IV. — CivU  and  Social  Condition  of  Man.  I;. 

The  population,  or  the  number  of  individuals,  of  whom  any  community  is  composed,  fbrmi, 
if  not  the  most  important,  at  least  the  most  prominent  circumstance  in  its  social  condition, 
and  one  on  which  its  magnitude,  and  its  place  in  the  scale  of  nations,  intimately  depend. 
The  ancient  statesmen  considered  the  increase  of  the  numbers  of  a  people  as  one  of  the  most 
important  of  national  objects,  with  a  view  both  to  its  prosperity  in  j^ace,  and  its  strength  in 
war.  Some  politicians  of  the  present  day  take  a  different  view  of  the  subject,  maintaining 
that  population  in  all  circumstances  of  tolerable  peace  and  prosperity^  easily  keeps  itself  on 
a  level  with  the  means  of  subsistence,  has  even  a  tendency  to  rise  higher,  and  by  its  super- 
abundance to  produce  a  distressing  degree  of  national  poverty:  they  have  suggested  schemes 
for  checking  the  progress  of  population. 

The  actual  amount  of  the  population  in  any  particular  period  or  country,  has  been  involved 
in  considerable  uncertainty.  It  is  onlv  in  modem  Europe,  and  in  Iho  United  States  of 
North  America,  and  there  very  recently,  that  general  or  careful  enumerations  have  been 
made.  But  in  all  the  other  quartera  of  the  globe,  tlie  estimates  are  formed  upon  very  vague 
observation,  founded  on  the  density  with  which,  on  a  superficial  view,  the  districts  appear  to 
be  peopled. 

A  national  character  is  found  to  pervade  every  community.  The  particulars  have  been 
often  exaggerated,  fancifully  delineated,  and  rashly  and  indiscriminately  applied  to  indi* 
viduals;  but  to  a  certain  e-t^nt  such  a  variation  may  be  always  traced  between  one  people 
and  another.  The  grand  distinction,  founded  upon  the  progress  of  arts,  letters,  knowledge, 
oiiid  refinement,  is  into  savage,  barbarous,  and  civilized :  the  firat  being  marked  by  the  total 
absence  of  these  improvements;  the  second,  by  the  possession  of  them  in  only  an  imperfect 

Vol  I  84*  2L 


282 


.  * '     PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY,    ' 


Part  11 


Book 


and  progressiTe  degree ;  the  third,  by  their  having  arrived  at  a  certain  maturity.  The  savage 
■tate  prevails  among  the  natives  of  America,  and  the  islanders  of  the  South  Sea;  the  former, 
however,  bein?  now  in  a  great  measure  supplanted  by  European  colonists.  The  barbuous 
state  is  generu  throughout  Africa,  and  extends  over  a  great  part  of  Asia.  The  civilized  state 
is  found  m  the  great  empires  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  in  a  higher  degree,  as  well  as  under  dif< 
ferent  characters,  among  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  their  widely-spread  colonies.  In  these 
last,  too,  civilization  appears  tu  continue  in  a  progressive  and  advancing  state,  while  over  the 
rest  of  the  world  it  is  nearly  stationair. 

The  religion  professed  by  any  people  is  a  remarkable  and  most  important  feature  in  their 
social  condition.  Religious  opinions  do  not  come  directly  under  the  cognizance  of  the 
geographer ;  but  he  is  called  upon  to  mark  this,  as  a  particular  in  which  nations  strikingly 
differ  from  each  other.  The  inhabitants  of  the  eaiih  may,  in  regard  to  religion,  be  divided 
into  three  great  classes, — Christian,  Mahomedan,  and  Pagan.  The  first,  as  to  numerical 
amount,  does  not  exceed  the  second,  and  still  fells  short  of  the  third  ;  but  the  nations  pro- 
fessing it,  have  acquired  such  an  ascendency  in  arts,  social  improvement,  and  political 
power,  while  their  colonies  have  filled,  and  are  multiplying  over  ail  the  lately  savage  and 
unoccupied  portions  of  the  globe,  that  in  all  probability  this  faith  will,  in  a  few  generations, 
be  more  widely  diffused  than  any  other.    The  Mahomedan  nations,  though  in  numbers  they 

girhaps  equal  the  last  mentioned,  and  though  they  occupy  a  large  proportion  of  the  most 
rtile  regions  of  the  globe,  arc  yet  sunk  into  such  a  state  of  slavery  and  degradation,  and 
so  decidedly  surpassed  by  the  Christian  people,  that  their  sway  is  not  likely  to  endure  above 
two  or  three  centuries.  Of  the  Pagan  religions,  much  the  most  numerous,  and  the  only 
civilized,  professors,  are  those  attached  to  the  kindred  creeds  of  Brahma  and  Boodh,  estab- 
lished, the  one  over  the  greater  part  of  Hindostan ;  the  other  in  China,  and  other  continental 
kingdoms,  and  insular  territories  of  Eastern  Asia.  From  their  peculiar  habits,  and  tiie 
immutable  nature  of  their  institutions,  they  are  likely  to  adhere  to  these  systems  with 
greater  pertinacity  than  tlie  votaries  of  superstition  in  Africa,  the  South  Sea,  and  other 

![uarterB,  where  the  train  of  belief  and  observance,  however  fantastic,  is  of  a  slighter  and 
ooser  tszture. 

The  progress  of  knowledge  forms  a  most  conspicuous  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  human 
species :  it  follows  generally  that  train  of  civilization  which  we  have  already  delineated.  In 
surveying  different  communities,  various  particulars  connected  with  this  subject  are  highly 
deserving  of  the  attention  of  the  geographer.  Among  these  we  may  mention  the  most 
eminent  philosophers,  men  of  science,  and  authors  who  have  flourished  in  any  nation, — the 
institutions  formed  for  the  promotion  and  advancement  of  science, — the  degree  in  which 
knowledge  is  diffused  throughout  the  community, — the  establishments  formecTfor  public  and 
private  education. 

The  fine  arts, — which  are  intimately  connected  with  th--  elevated  and  intellectual 

part  of  man*s  nature,  and  of  which  the  successful  cultivate  Ssts  glory  on  a  people,  and 

polishes  and  improves  thcjir  manners, — merit  to  be  considereu  ii.:nilarly,  and  under  the  same 
general  heads,  as  their  intellectual  attainments. 

There  are  various  points  of  minor  importance,  which  yet  are  distinctive  and  characteristic 
of  a  people,  and  excite  thus  a  just  and  natural  curiosity.  Such  are  the  amusements  in  which 
they  chiefly  delight,  the  peculiar  costume  in  which  they  are  attired,  the  species  of  food  on 
which  they  subsist,  and  the  liquor  by  which  they  are,  exhilarated,  as  well  as  the  mode  in 
which  these  articles  are  prepared  for  their  use. 

Skct.  V. — The  Languages  of  the  World. 

On  the  subjects  now  enumerated,  it  has  been  judged  sufiicient  to  indicate  their  nature, 
and  die  light  under  which  they  will  be  treated,  reserving  the  detaUs  for  the  succeeding  part 
of  the  work,  when  they  come  to  be  considered  Buccessively  in  reference  to  the  various  regions 
of  the  globe.  But  there  is  one  subject  into  which  it  will  be  expedient,  even  at  tlie  present 
staee,  to  enter  more  particularly. 

Longu&ge  is  one  of  the  strongest  characteristics  by  which  nations  ore  distmguished  firan 
each  other ;  at  the  same  time  the  dialects  spoken  by  different  communities,  even  when  most 
widely  dissimilar,  display  in  many  cases  relations  and  alliances  indicative  of  a  common  origin. 
There  exist  over  the  world  classes  of  languages,  each  of  which  comprehends  the  speech  of 
numerous  people,  and  forms  a  tie  between  them,  marking  early  relations  and  connexions. 
Language  thus  acquires  a  character  especially  geographical,  illustrating  the  origin  and  fami- 
lies of  nations,  and  the  connexions  between  different  countries.  It  will  Uien  be  advantageous 
to  consider,  in  a  large  and  comprehensive  view,  first,  the  languages  spoken  generally  over 
the  globe,  and  then  those  which  prevail  in  its  different  quarters. 

The  languages  by  which  the  nations  of  the  earth  are  distinguished,  and  fi-om  which  are 
derived  the  names,  not  only  of  its  principal  features,  natural  and  artificial,  Nut  of  its  different 
regions,  and  of  the  places  contained  in  them,  constitute  an  important  department  of  geo- 
graphy. When  v/c  contemplate  those  names  in  maps,  a  little  reflection  suffices  to  convino'i 
us  that  most  of  them  are  to  be  regarded,  not  as  mere  arbitrary  or  fortuitous  appellations,  but 


Part  11 

urity.  The  savage 
hi  Sea ;  the  fbnner, 
8.  The  barbarous 
The  civilized  state 
well  as  under  dif> 
olonies.  In  these 
Eite,  while  over  the 

nt  feature  in  their 
cognizance  of  the 
nations  strikinely 
eligion,  be  divided 
:,  as  to  numerical 
t  the  nations  pro- 
lent,  and  political 
lately  savage  and 
a  few  generations, 
h  in  numbers  they 
)rtion  of  the  most 
d  degradation,  and 
ly  to  endure  above 
irous,  and  the  only 
and  Boodh,  estab- 
i  other  continental 
ur  habits,  and  Uie 
lese  systems  with 
th  Sea,  and  other 
I  of  a  slighter  and 

itory  of  the  human 
idy  delineated.  In 
subject  are  highly 
mention  the  most 
n  any  nation, — tlie 
degree  in  which 
med  for  public  and 

and  intellectual 
^  on  a  people,  and 
id  under  the  same 

and  characteristic 
usements  in  which 
species  of  food  on 
ell  as  the  mode  in 


icate  their  nature, 
le  succeeding  part 
he  various  regions 
ven  at  the  present 

listinguished  from 
even  when  most 
a  common  origin, 
nds  the  speech  of 
IS  and  connexions, 
le  origin  and  fami- 
1  be  advantageous 
en  generally  over 

id  from  which  are 
Sut  of  its  different 
spartment  of  geo- 
iffices  to  convinof! 
9  appellations,  but 


Book  m. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


as  terms  ■  /  definite  meaning,  or  as  significant  memorials  of  the  people  by  whom  th(  y  were 
imposed ;  and,  in  tracing  those  of  ancient  origin  through  the  mutations  they  have  undergone, 
we  are  compelled  to  summon  history  to  the  aid  of  geqgrntphy,  for  the  purposes  of  explaminff 
them  with  reference  to  the  great  events  which  have,  from  time  to  time,  altered  the  poliiicaf, 
civil,  and  social  condition  of  the  nations  composing  the  great  fkmily  of  mankind.  Thus, 
without  adverting  to  the  rise,  growth,  and  extraction  of  kmgdoms  and  empu-es  in  Asia,  we 
may  observe,  that  the  series  of  revolutions  which  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  the  foundation  of  the  existing  system  of  Europe  on  its  ruins,  is  in  nothing  more 
Tomarloible  than  in  the  change  which  it  contributed  to  produce  in  the  peater  part  of  the 
world,  through  the  migration  of  nations ;  a  change  so  ai)solute,  that  it  has  served  to  mark 
the  distinction  between  ancient  and  modem  history,  ancient  and  modem  eeograi>hy,  and 
ancient  and  modem  languages.  Of  this  change  the  geographer,  equally  with  the  historian, 
is  at  every  step  of  his  investigations  reminded.  Ftance,  for  instance,  commemorates  in  her 
modern  name  that  branch  of  the  Germanic  family  of  nations  who  prevailed  in  Oaul ;  vet 
she  retains,  not  less  in  her  topographical  vocabulary  than  in  her  language  generally, 
unequivocal  traces  of  Roman  dommion ;  and  we  recognise,  though  strangely  curUiiled,  the 
imperial  appellations  Auguttodunum  and  Aureliana,  in  Autun  and  (hleant.  Italy  and 
Spam,  preserving  a  semblance  of  their  ancient  names,  exhibit  similar  instances  of  disfi^re- 
ment  in  those  of  particular  places :  Forum  Julii  and  Casar-Augusta  survive  in  Friuli  and 
Saragossa ;  but  the  Trosiniene  suggests  a  less  classic  reminiscence  as  the  lake  of  Perugia ; 
nor  can  the  Betis  and  the  Durias  be  recognised  under  the  more  sonorous  names,  the  Gua- 
dalquivir and  the  Guadalaviar  (the  great  river  and  the  white  river),  conferred' on  them  by 
the  Arab  conquerors  of  Spain.  Appullatives,  also  derived  from  languages  little  known, 
whether  ancient  or  modem,  are  liable  to  mutilation  from  the  varying  orthography  of  travel- 
lers ;  and  we  can  no  longer  wonder  at  the  coniusi^n  caused  by  voyagers  in  this  particular, 
when  we  call  to  mind  the  difierence  not  only  between  foreign  and  vernacular  names,  but 
between  their  written  and  oral  expression ;  as  when  a  Grerman  spells  his  native  country 
Deutschland,  and  pronounces  it  Tcytshland;  or  a  Persian  writes  for  Persia  Jrdn,  and  pro- 
nounces it  Eeraun.  But  the  diflerent  idioms  of  the  human  race  claun  our  attention  from 
fiir  higher  considerations  than  the  mere  naming  of  places  or  of  countries ;  for  geography, 
considered  as  an  auxiliary  to  what  has  been  emphatically  called  "  the  proper  study  of  man- 
kind," is  principally  valuable  as  combining,  with  a  description  of  the  earth,  a  view  of  the 
difibrent  branches  of  the  great  human  fiunily  by  whom  such  vast  portions  of  it  have  been 
"replenished  and  subdued." 

Ethnography  is  the  term  which  has  been  employed  to  designate  this  branch  of  geographi- 

1  science.  It  distinguishes  nations  by  their  languages,  and  professes  to  class  them  in  kmg- 
oms,  families,  genera,  species,  and  varieties ;  but  this  systematic  arrangement  is  as  yet  rar 
from  being  completed.  Of  the  numerous  languages  that  are  or  have  been  spoken  on  the  earth, 
many  are  so  imperfectly  known  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  to  what  family  they  belong. 
For  this  and  other  reasons  it  has  been  deemed  expedient  by  a  modem  writer,  who  appears  to 
have  collated  the  labours  of  his  predecessors  on  the  subject,*"  to  adopt  a  geographical  arrange- 
ment, and  consider  languages  in  their  relation  to  the  five  great  divisions  of  the  globe ;  me 
Asiatic,  the  European,  the  African,  the  Oceanic,  and  the  American.  It  is  obvious,  how- 
ever, that  the  ethnographical  and  geographical  limits  of  a  nation  and  its  language  may  be 
widely  different;  the  Spanish  and  the  British,  for  instance,  extend  ethnographically  to  the 
remotest  regions  of  both  the  Indies.  Adopting  this  arrangement,  not  only  as  most  convenient 
m  regard  to  a  brr^nch  of  knowledge  still  m  its  infancy,  but  as  most  suitable  to  a  geographi- 
cal treatise,  we  shall  proceed,  wimout  pausing  to  discuss  the  merits  of  any  particular  theory, 
to  offer,  in  this  and  subsequent  parts  of  the  present  work,  such  a  succinct  view  of  the  known 
languages  of  mankind  as  its  just  proportions  will  allow. 

The  distribution  of  languages  into  Shemitic,  Hamitic,  and  Japhetic,  according  to  the 
scriptural  account,  seems  however  entitled  to  some  notice,  ao  being  well  warrantea  in  rela- 
tion to  the  early  languages  of  the  world,  if  we  can  reconcile  our  thoughts  to  an  affinity  of 
languages  after  their  confiision,  and  the  consequent  dispersion  of  the  human  race.  It  has 
been  placed  in  a  striking  point  of  view  by  the  able  author  of  the  "History  of  Maritime 
and  Inland  Discovery,"  m  Dr.  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopadia ;  wnd  a  brief  sketch  of  his 
observations  may  be  useful  as  an  introduction  to  an  account  of  languuges  more  strictly 
geographical. 

On  reference  to  the  sacred  records,  we  find  that  in  the  order  in  which  the  generations  of 
the  sons  of  Nrah  are  given,  Japheth  takes  precedence  of  Ham  and  Shem,  and  is  called  the 
elder.  This  the  learned  writer  we  are  now  citing  has  not  noticed ;  he  has  taken  tiie  names 
in  the  order  which  long  and  universal  usage  has  sanctioned. 

"  The  fiimily  of  Shem,"  he  observes,  "  comprised  the  pastoral  nations  which  were  spread 
over  the  plains  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  fh>m  Ararat  to 
Arabia.    The  Hebrews  themselves  were  of  this  stock ;  and  the  resemblance  of  their  fon* 

*  Baibi,  Atlai  Ethnogrnphique  du  Globe.    Paris,  1836. 


284 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  IT. 


gua^t  with  the  Anunean,  or  ancient  Syrian,  and  with  Arabic,  suiScientlv  proves  tlie  iden> 
tity  in  race  of  what  are  called  the  Shetnitic  nations.  There  is  no  diflScultv  in  assiirning  to 
each  of  the  Jons  of  Shem  his  proper  situation.  Elam  founded  the  kingdom  of  Elymeis; 
Amur,  that  of  Assyria ;  and  Aram,  the  kingdom  of  Aramea  or  Syria,  a  name  still  clearly 
preserved  ip  that  of  Armenia.  From  Arphucad  were  descended  the  Hebrews  themselves, 
and  the  various  tribes  of  Arabia ;  and  this  close  affinity  of  origin  was  always  manifest  in  the 
language  and  in  the  intimate  correspondence  of  the  two  nations.  Some  of  the  names  given 
by  Moses  to  the  children  of  Shem  are  still  used  in  Arabia  as  local  designations :  thus  there 
is  still  in  that  country  a  district  called  Havilah ;  and  Uzal,  the  name  given  to  Sana  by  the 
sacred  historian,  is  not  quite  extinct 

"The  descendants  of  Ham,"  continues  this  learned  writer,  "constituted  the  most  civilized 
and  industrious  nations  of  the  Mosaic  age.  The  sons  of  that  patriarch  were  Gush,  Mizraim, 
Phut,  and  Canaan.  The  name  of  Ham  is  identical  with  Cham  or  Chamia,  by  which  Egypt 
has  in  all  ages  been  called  by  its  native  inhabitants ;  and  Mixer  or  Mizraim  is  the  name  by 
which  the  same  country,  or  more  probably  the  Delta,  is  still  known  by  the  Turks  and  An. 
bians."  [We  may  add,  that  it  is  the  name  by  which,  in  the  original  Hebrew,  Egypt  is  called 
in  the  admonition  that  precedes  the  decalogue.]  "  The  land  of  Phut  appears  to  signify  Libya 
in  general ;  and  the  name  Cush,  though  sometunes  used  vaguely,  is  obviously  applied  to  the 
southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Arabia.  The  names  of  Saba,  Sabtah,  Raamah,  and  Sheba, 
children  of  Cush,  have  long  survived  in  the  geography  of  Arabia.  The  posterity  of  Canaan 
rivalled  the  children  of  Mizraim  in  the  early  splendour  of  arts  and  cultivation.  Though  the 
Canaanites,  properly  speaking,  and  the  Phcenicians,  were  separated  from  each  other  by 
Mount  Carmel,  yet,  as  the  same  spirit  of  industry  animated  both,  they  may  in  a  general 
sense  be  considered  as  one  people.  The  Phoenicians  possessed  the  knowledge  of  the  Egyp. 
tians,  free  from  superstitious  reluctance  to  venture  upon  the  sea.  Their  local  position 
naturally  engaged  them  in  commercial  enterprise.  Their  chief  cities.  Tyre  and  Sidon,  had 
reached  the  nighest  pomt  of  commercial  opulence,  when  the  first  dawn  of  social  polity  was 
only  commencmg  in  Greece." 

To  Japheth,  "the  Japetus  of  the  Greeks,"  this  writer  concurs  with  others  in  ascribing 
the  superiority  over  the  sons  of  Nonh,  if  not  in  the  number  of  his  descendants,  in  the  extent 
of  their  possessions.  All  the  Indo-Teutonic  nations,  stretching  without  interruption  from 
the  extremity  of  Western  Europe,  through  the  peninsula  of  India,  to  the  isle  of  Ceylon,  he 
considers  as  belonging  to  this  common  ancestor.  The  Turkish  nation  also,  occupying  the 
elevated  countries  of  central  Asia,  boasts  the  same  descent  Their  own  traditions  accord 
with  the  Mosaic  history;  and  indeed  the  affinities  of  language,  which  are  still  evident  among 
all  the  nations  of  the  Japhethian  &mily,  fUUy  confirm  the  relation  of  the  sacred  writer ;  yet 
the  meaning  assigned  to  the  patriarch  s  name  in  the  Sanscrit  language,  Yapati,  "  lord  of 
the  earth,"  tolls  ror  nothing  unless  we  can  suppose  the  name  Japhem  to  be  thence  derived. 

To  Gomer,  the  eldest  of  Japheth's  sons,  is  ascribed,  on  the  authority  of  Josephus,  the 
distinction  of  being  ancestor  of  the  Celts.  Magog  may  have  been  the  founder  of  some 
Scythian  nation.  Madai  is  recognised  aa  the  ancestor  of  tiie  Medea.  The  posterity  of  Javan 
tm  Tubal,  and  Meshech  and  Tiros,  may  be  traced  from  Ararat,  always  called  Masis  by  its 
inhabitants,  through  Phrygia  into  Europe.  Tubal  and  Meshech  left  their  names  to  the 
Til»reni  and  Moechi,  Armenian  tribes,  whose  early  emigrations  appear  to  have  extended 
mto  Moesia.    In  like  manner  the  Thracians  may  have  owed  their  origin  to  Tiras. 

That  the  progeny  of  Japheth  peopled  Europe,  seems  apparent  on  another  ground,  which 
we  Gball  explain,  after  mentioning  the  remaining  branches  of  his  posterity.  Ashkenaz,  the 
son  of  Gomer,  is  thought  to  be  that  Ascanius  whose  name  so  frequently  occurs  in  the  ancient 
topography  of  Phr^ia,  and  Smm  whom,  probably,  the  Euxine,  at  first  the  Axine,  Sea  derived 
its  appellation.  "  u  Togarmah,"  observes  this  writer,  "  we  see  the  proper  ancestor  of  the 
Armenian  nation,  and  it  is  even  asserted  by  the  Turks." 

"  Javan  teas  the  Ion  qf  the  Oreeka,  the  father  of  the  lonians.  In  the  names  of  his  sons 
wo  find  fresh  proofs  of  the  consisteacy  of  the  Mosaic  history.  In  Elishah  we  see  the  origin 
of  Ellis  or  Hellas.  The  name  of  Tarshish  is  supposed,  with  little  foundation,  to  refer  to 
Tarsus  in  Cilicia.  Kittim  is  said  to  mean  Cyprus ;  and  Dodanim,  or  Rodanim,  is  understood 
to  apply  to  the  island  Rhodes."  Here  we  may  remark,  that  the  sacred  text  contains  a  most 
important  record  relative  to  the  descendants  of  Japheth :  "  By  these  were  the  isles  of  the 
(Gentiles  divided  in  their  lands,  every  one  after  his  tongue  after  their /amtKc»,  in  theii 
nations.'*  Now,  if  the  Oriental  latitude  of  expression  be  allowed  in  this  instance,  the  isles 
of  the  Gentiles  must  include  not  only  the  isles  of  the  Mediterranean  and  other  European 
seaa,  but  the  VEmstmhAB  of  Asia  Minor,  of  Oreece,  of  Italy,  and  of  Spain, 

To  the  Phcenicians  must  be  partly  ascribed  the  discovery  of  those  territories  collectively 
called  "  The  isles  of  the  Gentiles,"  and  the  earliest  intercourse  with  them.  Unfortunately 
those  early  navigators  have  left  no  records  of  their  discoveries;  and  the. little  we  know  of 
their  enterprises  is  derived  from  Scripture,  and  fVom  the  scattered  notices  of  the  Greek  and 
lAtin  autiiora  They  were,  as  elsewnere  observed,  the  pilots  of  Solomon's  fieet ;  and  as  often 
M  the  fleets  of  Egypt  are  mentioned  by  ancient  historians,  we  find  them  maimed  and  guided 


Part  H 

Jy  proves  tlie  iden- 
iilty  in  aseigning  to 
igaom  of  Elymeig ; 
I  name  still  clearly 
ibrews  themselves, 
ays  manifest  in  the 
of  the  names  given 
lations :  thus  there 
ven  to  Sana  by  the 

I  the  most  civilized 
re  Cush,  Mizraim, 
ia,  by  which  Egypt 
ijm  is  the  name  by 
he  Turks  and  Ara< 
ew,  Egypt  is  called 
in  to  signify  Libya 
msly  applied  to  the 
lamah,  and  Sheba, 
[wsterity  of  Canaan 
ition.  Though  the 
"om  each  other  by 
may  in  a  general 
ledge  of  the  E^jv 
heir  local  position 
fre  and  Sidon,  bad 
>f  social  polity  was 

others  in  ascribing 
lants,  in  the  extent 

interruption  from 
I  isle  of  Ceylon,  he 
lIso,  occupying  the 
n  traditions  accord 
still  evident  among 
sacred  writer ;  yet 
,  Yapati,  "lord  of 
e  thence  derived. 
r  of  Josephus,  the 
9  founder  of  some 

posterity  of  Javan 
illed  Masis  by  its 
ieii  names  to  the 

to  have  extended 
oTiras. 

ler  ground,  which 
Ashkenaz,  the 
iurs  in  the  ancient 
Ixine,  Sea  derived 
3r  ancestor  of  the 

names  of  his  sons 
we  see  the  origin 
ation,  to  refer  to 
lim,  is  understood 
A  contains  a  most 
the  isles  of  the 
families,  in  theit 
instance,  the  isles 
1  other  European 

lories  collectively 
Unfortunately 
ittle  we  know  of 
of  Uie  Greek  and 
leet;  and  as  often 
armed  and  guiden 


Boon  ni. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


265 


by  Phcenicians.  Their  commercial  enterprises  had  contributed  to  augment  the  wealth  of 
that  kingdom,  which  had  attained  a  hiffh  degree  of  social  order  and  economy  seven  hundred 
years  before  the  Greeka  became  acquainted  with  the  use  of  money.  The  numerous  colonies 
which  they  planted  alone  the  shores  of  the  Euxino,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Atlantic, 
beyond  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  attest  the  extent  of  their  early  voyages.  Those  of  Utica, 
Carthage,  and  Gades,  or  Cadiz,  were  founded  between  twelve  and  eight  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era ;  but  the  seas  of  the  west  were  probably  explored  ibr  ages  before 
settlements  were  formeid  at  such  a  distance  from  the  parent  state.  Their  geographical 
knowledge,  even  in  the  fiibulous  times  of  Greece,  probably  embraced  as  large  a  portion  of 
the  earth  as  that  of  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Augustus ;  but,  with  the  caution  characteristic 
of  a  mercantile  people,  they  forbore  to  communicate  that  knowledge  to  the  rest  of  mankind. 
The  silence  of  these  descendants  of  Ham  leaves  us  in  uncertainty  as  to  the  pnurress  of  thooe 
of  Japheth  in  peopling  the  continent,  the  peninsulas,  and  the  wZes  of  Europe.  In  still  deeper 
mystery  is  involved  the  descent  of  the  negro  tribes  of  Africa  from  the  &ther  of  Canaan. 
Having  thus  briefly  characterized  the  Shemitic,  Hamitic,  and  Japhetic  races,  we  leave  to 
the  consideration  of  the  curious  the  theories  that  have  been  framed  upon  them  in  respect  to 
the  different  idioms  of  mankind,  and  revert  to  the  geographical  arrangement  which  we  pix>' 
pose  to  adopt 

Separating  all  the  known  languages  of  the  globe  into  five  grand  divisions,  we  name  them 
the  Asiatic,  the  European,  the  African,  the  Oceanic,  and  tBe  American,  according  to  tlie 
part  of  the  world  in  which  they  are  spoken.  Then  tracing,  according  to  the  best  auUiori- 
ties,  the  several  lan^ages  by  their  affinities,  we  class  those  which  appear  to  be  sister  i^iomB 
in  one  group,  assignrng  to  it  a  distinctive  name ;  as  the  Mongolian  family,  the  Celtic  family 
or  the  Sanscrit  family,  conformably,  in  most  cases,  to  the  name  of  the  principal  people  of 
each  of  those  fiimilies.  But  here  a  difficulty  arises  from  the  variance  between  geographic 
and  ethnographic  limits.  Several  nations  included  in  one  of  these  groups  have  dwelt  from 
time  immemorial  at  once  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe ;  others  in  regions  partly  European, 
putly  Asiatic :  to  which  part  of  the  world  then  must  the  family  be  assigned  to  which  those 
nations  belong  1  Two  reasons  influence  the  decision;  the  historical  importance  of  the  people, 
and  its  mass,  or  relative  number,  as  may  be  better  understood  from  one  or  two  examples. 

That  the  Chaldeans,  the  Assyrians,  the  Arabs,  the  Hebrews,  and  other  nations  of  the 
great  Shemitic  family,  were  from  the  earliest  times  inhabitants  of  Western  Asia,  we  know 
from  the  writings  of  Moses,  with  which  the  results  of  the  most  eminent  philologers  and 
mathematicians  wonderfully  agree.  These  nations,  therefore,  belong  imquestionably  to 
Asia ;  and  the  comparison  of  the  Gheez  and  Amharic  vocabularies  havmg  demonstrated  an 
indisputable  affinity  between  them  and  the  people  of  Abyssinia,  who  speak  the  idioms  com- 
prehended in  the  branch  called  Abyssmian,  the  languages  of  the  latter  also  are  classed  in 
the  Asiatic  branch,  though  in  all  epochs,  even  anterior  to  historical  tradition,  those  nations 
have  dwelt  in  Africa. 

The  great  mass  of  the  Malay  people  occupies  almost  all  the  isles  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, those  of  Polynesia,  and  some  of  Australia.  Hence  we  regard  the  Malay  family 
8s  Oceanic,  and  class  sdl  the  people  characterized  by  this  idiom  as  t^longing  to  that  great 
ethnogpraphical  group.  Thus,  besides  the  Malays  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  whose  settle- 
ment in  the  extremity  of  Asia  is  of  no  remote  date,  this  division  includes  the  Si  Dela  or 
Formosans  of  Aisiv^  and  the  Madecasses  of  the  African  isle  Madagascar. 

The  Uralian  nations  belong  equally  to  Europe  and  Asia ;  because,  from  the  little  we 
know  of  Uiem,  they  have  inhabited,  time  out  of^  mind,  the  north-east  and  east  of  Europe, 
and  tlie  north-west  and  west  of  Asia.  Following  the  demarcation  prescribed  by  M.  Malte 
Bran,  we  find  that  the  great  mass  of  the  Uralian  or  Finnish  nations  belongs  to  Europe.  We 
therefore  regard  the  Finnish  fiunily  as  European,  and  class  amon^  them  ul  the  ancient  and 
HKidem  nations  who,  from  striking  analogies  in  their  respective  idioms,  seem  to  belong  to 
them. 

The  Esquimaux  have  from  time  immemorial  extended  over  all  the  north  of  the  New 
World ;  while  the  sedentary  Tchutchhis,  who  speak  a  language  evidently  related  to  the 
idioms  of  those  American  tribes,  occupy  only  the  extreme  north-east  of  Asia.  The  Tchutch- 
his we  therefbre  consider  as  American  colonies,  and,  following  the  precedent  of  Balbi, 
re-unite  them  as  such  to  the  other  nations  of  America  who  fiwm  the  family  of  the  Es- 
quimaux. 

Under  a  perfect  ethnographical  arrangement,  the  languages  of  the  Indo-Germanic  nations, 
extending  from  Ceylon  and  the  Ganges  to  the  extreme  west  of  Europe,  and  even  to  Ice- 
land, would  form,  not  a  single  family,  but  rather  an  ethnographic  kingdom  divided  into  six 
fiimilies. 

In  subsequent  parts  of  this  work,  the  languages  of  the  earth  will  be  considered  as  divided 
into  five  principal  branches ;  the  European,  the  Asiatic,  the  African,  the  American,  and 
the  Oceanic. 


286 


MAP  OP  EUROPE— WMT  fabt.    '  i  /.i 


Fsa.  84 


■»■«    Ci'.'     *>■!*>'      , 


» 


Fro.  84 


M  IS 


^ 


1    •  (P 


w  <: 


c<,. 


l>lt!l 


'St 


rkh 


Fio.  e& 


MAP  OF  EUROPE— SA«r  pabt. 


9Bfl 


23  IiOii(itiid>  EmI  N      from  Ontawkh 


■  '^'   ■:'■'  I 


DESCRIPTIVFi  GEOnRAPHy, 


PABTia 


PART  III. 


•*^ 


GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  VARIOUS  REGIONS 

OF  THE  GLOBE. 

Im  the  second  part  of  thia  work,  the  princidet  of  geography  hare  been  treated  of  as 
founded  upon  a  general  survey  of  the  globe.  The  moat  extensive  portion  of  our  task  still 
remains.  We  must  delineete  the  leadmg  objects  of  nature,  art,  and  human  life,  as  they 
appear  successively  in  each  different  region  into  which  the  earth  is  divided. 

Five  great  general  divisions  of  the  earth  are  now  usually  recognized : — 1.  Europe.  2. 
Asia.  3.  Africa.  4.  America.  6.  The  extensive  and  numerous  islands  of  the  Soutn  Sea, 
to  which  the  French  give  the  name  of  Oceania,  the  English  those  of  Australasia  and  Poly- 
nesia, to  which  We  may  add  the  islands  of  the  Polar  Sea.  Each  of  these  will  form  the  sub- 
ject of  a  separate  book. 


«^*;„,. 


'•'Vl 


BOOK    I. 
EUROPE. 


•v.  "-  4 


EtBOPB  ia  the  smallest  in  extent  of  the  four  great  continents,  and  yet  we  may  pnmounce 
it  the  most  important  of  all  the  divisions  of  me  globe;  Asia,  indeed,  was  the  cradle  of 
civilization  and  knowledge ;  but  her  empires  soon  became,  and  have  ever  since  continued 
stationary;  while  Europe  has  carried  tiie  sciences,  arts,  and  refinement,  with  almost  unin 


Reference*  to  the  Map  <f  Europe.— Weit  Part. 


8. 


RNOLAND. 
..  Darhim 

•  Kendal 

I.  York 

.  Huiehflitar 

Lincoln 

QhMMr 

__-  TorcMter 
13.  <  lloaeciier 
14. 1  'atetborauih 

15.  Norwieli 

16.  Ctmbridca 
lanteiburr 
toTar 


11.  UudLl 
13.   VorcMl 

13.<>l 
14. 1  >e 

15.  N< 

16.  Ci 

iZ-  l> 

18.  »L 

19.  ^ndon 
80.  laneheitat 
31.  IcMol 

n.   >oole 
33.  EzelR 

TLAND. 


IRELAND. 

LondoDoernr 
W(o 

[iimariek 

"eiroid 
blin 
Mheda 

NORWAY. 
1.  ialldalen 

fiSriVand 
J.  SoTuc  . 

5.  Drontneim 

6.  RniDida) 

Sforda 

9  Loerif 
10  Kmn 
l.l^al 
3.  Siaranger    . 
3.  Chrwtianiand 


4.  toMbsrf 

5.  Konsb 
«.0o«f 


iansberc 


S:fa 

3.  Lidan      . 

4.  OMtuMnd 

5.  Sundiwall 

6.  Heda 

7.  Tan 

§.'  HudikiTan 

10.  Bodarhaiaa 

11.  niubr 
13.  Bala 

13.  Orabro 

14.  Carhbad 

15.  Ovilla 
IS.  N/kophit 

17.  Linkopinc 

18.  Jonkopinc 

19.  Oottaoburt 
90.  folkanberc 
31.  Malmo 

33.  Ohriitianstad 
83.  Ktlmar 

34.  Emio 

DENMARK. 
1.  Aslbon 

SkVaile 

9.  BMlWIck 

e.KieI 

7.  CopanbataD 

..foS-^- 

S«  BwMMt6u 

3.SaadiUI 

PRUSSIA. 
1.  Colborg 
9.  J^iaritaid 

3.  Sletlin 

4.  Bariin 
9.  ^ukfort 

Foaan 


T.  Ohrnlirnia 


0.  Brealaa 
la  Olatx 
n.  Sfitan 

.gdeDOig 

AUSTRIA. 

1.  Qlmuts 
8.  Brunn 
3.  Tabor 


II: 


36.  Kara 

37.  Spalatro 

rrALjf. 

1.  Genoa 
3.  Turin 
3.  Aleaiaiidrla 

3!  Bologna 
fl.  Florence 
7.  Leghorn 

0.  Rome 

10.  Nettaoo 

11.  Najplaa 
19.  i'oueaitro 

13.  Taranto 

14.  Bitonto 

15.  Foagia 
16.Paaeara 
17.  Ancona 
l&Pai 


i 


i.SSSSlJ?'^- 

Hamburg 
Bremen 
Idenburg 
joaburg 
o.  Hanovet 
7.  Brunawiek 

h^ 
armatadt 
wnrma 
flallbrona 
Prerburf 
ulm  , 

-  .  Augaburg 

IS.  Munich 

17.  Nuramburg 

18.Ror 

19.  £aipiig 

xu.  uieaoco 


SWrrZERLAND. 
I.  ConMaooe 
3.  Heme 
3.  Oenera 

WEST  PRUSSIA. 
1.  Miiniter 
3.  Weaol 

3.  ClHToa 

4.  t^nlogne 
3.  Coblents 

6.  Frujm 

NETHERLANDS. 

\nialerdam 
_.  Jloliardam 
3.  Antwerp 
4.Rhent 

5.  Bfunela 
«ge  , 

xemburg 

FRANCE 
1.  Calaii 
3.  Amiena 

3.  Si.  Qaindn 

4.  Rouen 

5.  Evreux 
0.  Caon 

7.  Si.  I.O 

8.  SI.  Brienx 

9.  BrMt 

10.  auiropet 

11.  Vannet 
13.  Rennea 
13.  Aleneon 


43.  Anrillae 

44.  Privaa 

45.  Chnmberry 

46.  Grenoble 
47.Dlgiie, 

fagoinon 

'oulon 

vignon 


S.Ra 


9.  Biu 
e.Llei 
7.  Lu) 


14.  Charim 
1S.Parii 

16.  Solaona 

17.  Mela 

18.  Sirafbarg 

19.  Epinal 

30.  Chaumnnt 

31.  ChaliUoo 
@.  Trorea 
33.  Orlaana 
34.TourB 
35.  Angera 
96.  Nanlea 
87.  La  Roche 
98.  Poiiiera 

39.  fluent 

30.  Moollna 

31.  Lena 
33.  Lrona 
33.  Macon 

lernont 
irigaus 

^.  Jordaaux 

37.  Dax 

38.Pau 

30.  Tauionaa 

40.  Albr 

41.  Rodat 
&  Agen 


14.  Burgoa 
1.V  Pnleooia 

16.  Ziimnra 

17.  Salamuima 

18.  Ciudad  Rodrifo 
lU.  AvUa 

egovia 
aria 
Pudala 


.  .  Rareeloaa 


rruxm 

41.  Qordora 
43,  Andumr 
«.Ciii" 


iudad  Real 
enoera 


43.Ciud 
44.  TbrrL  -_^ 
4S.AIraoeia 
46.Villedar 

49.  Vitlencia 
90.  Atruenia 
51.  Mureia 
98.  Vera 

5.1.  II MM 

54.  Granwia 


55.  i 

t?:l 

58.  Carmoim 
90.  Huebia 

60.  Seville 

61.  Oibrallar 
OS.  Cadia 

,  PORIVOAL. 
1.  Molgaco 


3.  Almeida 


porto 

£  Guards 
7.  Coimbra 
8.Leria 
0.  Liabon 

10.  Obidoa 

11.  Abraniaa 
13.  ETora 

13.  Alvilo 

14.  Quriqua 
19.  Lagoa 
18.  Faro. 


o  Ouadianai  R.  _ 
p  Guadalau'n'i* 
q  Ebio.TE 
r  Rhone,  B.    , 
a  Qeoeva,  L.or 
t  gonatanee,  L.ft 
u  po.  R. 


CORSICA. 


3.'  F^rto  Veeehia 

SARDINIA. 
1.  Banarl 
3.  QrJaiagal 
3.  Cagliari 

SICILY. 
I.Mmi 


8.  Palermo 
3.Sciaoea 
4.  SnaeoBS 


Past  in. 


,   ,,v    »t%,    ,  .  .Jflu 


8  REGIONS 


len  treated  of  u 
I  of  our  task  still 
nan  life,  aa  they 

— 1.  Europe.  U. 
:  the  South  Sea, 
ralaaiaand  Poly- 
vill  form  the  mm- 


Hook  L 


EUROPE. 


280 


t 
,'ii' 


■'-# 

"^i 


e  may  pronounce 
ras  the  cradle  of 
'  since  contmued 
rith  almost  unin 


fiS.  pirmoM 
SO.  Huebia 
(10.  BsTllle 
61.  Oibralur 
68.  CadiB 

,  P0R1V0AU 
1.  Molfteo 

3.  Almsida 

4.  Oporto 

6.  Arejrro 
6.Gu(rdk 

7.  Coimbn 
aLerit 

0.  LiiboD 

10.  Obidot 

11.  AbrintM 
13.  Evoni 

13.  Alvilo 

14.  Ouriqua 
19.  Lainw 
18.  Faro. 


Jliotrt  an4  Into, 
a  pal.  R. 
b  MnitM,  L. 
e  Wenw,  L. 
d  Walter,  L. 
r  Oder,  J 

■  Weier, 
I  Wiine.  ] 

MeawJ 

Beioe,  f 

Loire,  1_ 

Oaniiiiia.B. 
mPoaro,  K. 
n  Tacne,  R.  „ 
o  Ouadianai  R.  _ 
p  nuadBlgalTiril 
q  Ebro,TE 
r  Rhone,  R.    , 
a  Qeneva,  L.  or 
t  Oomtanee,  L.A 
n  Pp.  R. 
V  Drs^i  R;. 
w  Danube,  R. 

CORSICA. 

S."  Porto  Vecchio 

SARDINIA. 
1.  BsMarf 
3.  Qriaiacnl 
3.  CaiUar) 

BIClLr. 

LMmina 
S.  Palermo 

3.  Seiaoea 

4.  B/racuM 


terrupted  projfrefls,  to  the  comparatively  elevated  state  at  which  thoy  have  now  aniv<Hl.  Al. 
the  branches  of  industry  are  conducted  with  a  skill  and  to  an  extent  unattained  in  anv  other 
part  of  tho  earth.  European  vcasels  carry  on  the  commerco  of  the  most  distant  regions. 
The  military  and  political  influence  of  Europe  is  now  of  a  magnitude  with  which  the  most 
powerful  and  populous  empires  of  the  other  continents  can  no  longer  be  compared.  European 
cok»ists  have  now  peopled,  and  are  more  and  more  peopling,  au  the  formerly  savage  and 
unoccupied  quarters  of  the  earth ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  some  strongholds  of  ancient 
and  imperfect  civilization,  the  whole  world  is,  through  their  influence,  rapidly  becoming 
dTUivM  and  European.. 


T.''  'ii-  tV.*    .•'■) 


.1,1. 


(3HAPTERI.      ' 

GENERAL  SURVEY  OP  ECROPE. 


ill    . 

.1'-" 

.;  i 

•  lllj 

•,.«. 

.."♦1 

1», 

''•I,' 

•  ■■-   V'Tv 


KiTROPi  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic. 
On  the  south,  the  grand  inlet  of  the  Mediterranean  divides  it  fh>m  Afirica ;  and  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  with  its  subordinate  branch,  connected  only  by  a  narrow  strait,  the  Euxine 
or  Black  »ea,  divides  it  from  a  great  part  of  Asia.  Between  the  north-east  extremity  of  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  Northern  Ocean  is  an  interval  of  1400  or  1500  miles  of  land,  forming 
the  eastern  boundary  of  Europe.  Had  this  been  known  to  tho  ancientr,  they  would  perhaps 
have  identified  Europe  with  Asia ;  but  the  separation  is  now  too  deeply  marked,  ana  is  de- 
fined by  too  many  characters,  moral  and  political,  ever  to  be  altered.  The  absence  of  sea, 
the  natural  and  most  obvious  boundarr  of  a  continent,  has  somewhat  embarrassed  modem 
freographers ;  for  even  a  river  limit  is  here  wanting.    The  chain  of  the  Urals,  running  from 


•■^- 

SWEDEN 

3.0«Kara 

i!  A^ioi 


Rtfennce$  to  the  Map  tf  Europe,— Eait  Part 


80.  Ovinnlka 
Hi.  Cielora 
93.  StohemaM 

SX  Borovikaf  a 
4.  M< 
"'  PJnefa 


MoiMleljiiiara 

Plneca 

VerkouikPl 


m 


St.  ShMtdnrakoi 
88.  ChaleheUia/a 
80.  Kanhakovaka 
60.  Makaoovaka 
~l.  Kramoboak 
[et*arakara 
-^.  ^arenik 
64.  OuatSiMhk 
65.Kai 
06.  Tehi 


lovjtorod 

MUbkai 

»Vol.. 
tohpki 
tagBteh 
'elroTBk 

(OTfOV  „ 

iSMIf  Nov- 


abort 

16.  Kraat  Novolok 

17.  Kpunte 
laYwo 

doiero 


jerdin 

67.  Bolikaniik 

68.  Vilrenikoe 
60.  Ortova 
mObva 

71.  OanhkoTa 
TS.  Mlabamnvak 
73. iTotorika 
74.  AkieMorakoa 
79.  Velikouitonfl 

76.  VIetak 

77.  Pudoc 
78.Vilefra  ^ 
70.  £Moicnk 

'olofda 
-'olma 
Tenuehtoma 
-..KolofhiT 

86.0ariievitM 
'"  "otelnitoh 
llobodikoT 


188.  Boointk 
liU.  Biabink 
i:«.  Biniiier 
131.  Blnaii 
m.  kanader 

133,  Ardotor 

134.  Pptohinki 

139.  Nomvlchat 
1.16.  TemnikuT 
i:<7.  Marum 
138.  Budofda 
130.  RaaraoT 

140.  Moaoow 

141.  Pniiuv 
141  Tv- 
14.3.iVrvW; 
144.  KuMeot 

}iS:|$L..ki 
}&» 

140.  Oilrov 
ISO.  Loltdn 
-  -^alk 
'enau 

Mia 


Uvnl 
(raplvna 
lolohoT 
Sirel 

KouotI 
Hoihitew 
-i^  iocalehe» 
iSO.  Bloiiuk 
100.  HoriMT 
loT.  Miniii 
109.  Wilna 

103.  Grodno 

104.  Noworad 
109.  Wai 


iS-.te'JiKoqf 

S49.  EkaterlnaebTl 


m-] 


M.  ftnKt 
3,1  Barf o 

37.  St\i?tenbar| 

w.  ntroiavodik 
40.  Povieoetz 
4l.yajet.kaTa 

49.  BlaroiibiMlia 

«:felo 

VOL.L 


lAinak 

laboon 

Iflo!  Kasane 
101.  Sriajak 

103.  Koiinadeaii- 

amk 
103  Taraaak 

104.  yetlaof  a 

109.  Varaavin 

106.  SemeiiOT 

107.  InreTelsPovol- 

•koe 
lOR.  Koctrom 
100.  Jaroalar 

110.  RiUnik 

111.  Poaeoboo 


106.  Rawa 
107.VUaTa 
108.  Lublin 
100.  Mienjiriela 
300.  Brat  Liter 
ini.  Riebk 
903.  kobrin 

In:  Viaotik 

SU9.  0*routch 

WA.  Moiir 
^holmitoh 
rebemiitoT 

^.  Bielelia 

310.  Rilak 

913.pakol    . 
914.  Volouikl 
819.  BobroT 
SI6.  Parlonk 

817.  ZaioTakaja 

818.  KamkXio 
810.  nolinaknra 
nOijVtarlliia 
93I.Tilkha 


jTeotsiani 
llelka 

-..  Jolotsk 

83.  Smolenak 
64.pDro(obaB 
at.  Kalouta 

66.  Kalomna 

67.  Toola 

68.  Kiasana 
ee.K(nlpv 


mShealil 


[ovokhopeok 


Coalin 

Jhealibaloteb- 
„      kajra 
834.  Teherkaak 
839.poneUk 
9M.  laiuna 
W.  CharkoT 
838.  Pohara 
XBI.  Novonoakovak 
830.  Krement 
fBl.  »ilolaoaaha 
^t.  Coielela 

838!  Jito^' 

VS-    tOTHO 

837.   Cameta 
S3a  Balta 
830.aai8in 
"40,  ToherK 
41.  NoTomirtoroa 
Olviopol 


340!Thraapol 

853.  Bander 
393.  Akarmann 
894.  tamaU 

PRUSSIA. 
1.  Boiuerrn 

J,  Marlenburc 
.  Dantiic 

6.  Qneaoa 

7.  Culm 

8.  Thorn 

0.  Plotik 

10.  Poien 

11.  Siaradi 
13.Ratibor 

AUSTRIA. 

1.  Trautaen 
3.Behemnici 
3.Eperiaa 
4.Huaa 

10.  Pela 

11.  St.  Maria 
18.BBeea 
ISiBeltrade 
14.  Temeawar 
15.Arad 

16.  Bihar 

17.  Clanaeobnrc 

18.  CailaburR 
10.  Hermanatadt 
80.Kua 

31.  Tamopi 
B9.Str7. 
S3.  Bember 
34.  Lemberc 

30.  Sendomirja 
37.  Craeow 

TURKEY 

B»r!at. 


!§: 


iilaa 

traieTO 

oetar 

'  Tibant 
ipia 

So^ra      ;*.,. 
|j.  Oreava, 
».Nieo|)aU  :mr^^, 
33.8hamla     ..  - 
34.  Buripa     i'- 

96.  ConaialiUDOple 

Sb!  Adriaaopla 
».  Caraila 

lf.&r"~" 


3.  Petolia 
33.  Baloniea 
34.8catair 


alButrl 
3.]ann 


JiitL. 
-.  Adirad 
4.GalBU 
9.  IbraUa 
(1.  Biliairia 

7.  Bukareat 

8.  SlatiDa 

9.  Omtova 


GREECE. 

JutriDto 
-.  lannina    11." 
4.  Aru 
9.  Lepanto 

.e!  KBitpua 


Rivtr*  andLaka 


r  Donets,  R. 
]  Dnieper,  R. 
kpniMiar,R. 
1  PrutH,  B._ 
m  Danube,  R. 
n  VMula,  R. 

0  Niemen.  R. 
p  Dwina,R.   , 
q  Tchudikoe,  L, 
r  IhneD,  L. 

a  Ladoia±L. 
t  Oneiia.L. 
u  PuraTwi,  U 
T  Be(o,  L. 

xTopj4 
J  imanarh  li 

1  Enaie.!* 

2M 


B»|S^ESSS5!* 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pari  QL 


north  to  louth,  fornii  k  important  a,  feature,  that  it  haa  beon  taken  At  the  ifn  im!  lino  of 
division ;  and  ii  protractoci  to  the  Black  Boa  by  meant  of  continuoua  portions  of  the  groat 
riven  Kama,  Volpfa,  and  Don. 

Tho  form  of  tliin  continent  ia  singularly  broken  and  varieil.  While  Alia,  AfVica,  and  the 
two  American  aru  each  formed  into  a  vant  inland  expanse,  Europe  is  split  into  many  distinct 
portions;  peninsulas,  largo  islands,  and  kingdoms,  with  extended  and  winding  coasts.  This 
Kum  arises  chiefly  out  of  its  inland  seas,  which  penetrate  farther,  and  arc  morn  deeply 
ombayed,  than  those  of  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  Numerous  gulfs,  scarcely  HRcondary 
',a  magnitude  and  importance,  branch  out  tVom  them.  Tho  Mouiterranean,  which  fbrms, 
as  it  were,  a  little  ocean,  separating  Europe,  Asia,  and  AfVica,  is  connected  witli  tlie  Atlantic 
only  by  the  celebrated  Btraita  of  Gibraltar,  twenty  miles  in  breadth.  Its  great  enclosed 
branches  of  the  Adriatic  and  the  Black  Sea  penetrate,  and  render  maritime,  some  of  the 
moat  inland  districU  of  the  continent  In  the  north,  the  Baltic,  with  its  great  gulfs  of 
Bothnia  and  Finland,  is  neither  inderd  so  extensive  nor  so  accessible ;  but  it  is  of  the  highest 
commercial  value,  as  afibrding  a  channel  by  which  the  rude  nocosaoiies,  tlie  metals  and 
woods  of  the  north,  may  bo  exchanged  for  Uio  winea,  the  silks,  and  other  luxuries  of  tho 
■outh.  The  British  isles,  by  their  varied  configuration,  enclose  bowccn  thomsclvcs  and  the 
opposite  continent  sovoral  important  seas  and  channels.  Wo  may  odd,  that  tiio  mountains 
and  tlie  plains  of  Europe  do  not  display  those  immense  unbroken  groups,  or  those  level  and 
almost  endlosa  expanses,  which  givo  so  vust  and  monotonous  a  clmractor  to  tho  interior 
regions  of  Asia  and  Africa.  In  general  they  aro  separated  into  smaller  portions,  and  are 
happily  and  commodiously  interchanged.  They  have  kout  Europo  divided  mto  a  number  of 
aeparate  nations,  holding  easy  intercourse.  Probably,  this  relative  position  has  been  one 
great  cause  of  Uiat  inteirectual  activity,  and  those  vigorous  exertions  in  all  liberal  and  ia> 
genious  arts,  which  have  raised  this  part  of  the  globe  to  so  high  a  pre-eminence.  The 
immense  inland  plains  of  Russia  and  Poland,  presenting  an  aspect  wholly  Asiatic,  remained, 
even  after  the  civilization  and  improvement  or  all  western  Europe,  sunk  in  tlie  deepest  bar* 
barism,  bom  which  they  are  but  slowly  and  with  difficulty  emerging.  ,, 

Sect,  I,— Natural  Featuret. 

The  surface  of  Europe,  as  wo  have  observed,  is  vcrv  diversifietl.  Its  mountains  do  not 
reach  that  stupendous  neight,  nor  stretch  in  such  unbroken  chains,  as  those  of  Asia  and 
America:  nevertlieleas,  wo  may  trace  pretty  distinctly  two  highlands,  tlio  northern  and 
Bouthem,  and  an  intermediate  lowland.  The  southern  highland  comprises  tho  most  elevated 
mountains  of  the  continent,  tho  Alps  and  tiie  I'yrcnees,  connected  together  by  the  low  chain 
of  tlie  Cevennes.  Inferior  branches  from  the  Pyrenees  extend  through  the  Spanish  penin- 
aula;  while  flrom  the  Alps  branch  forth  tho  Apeimines,  which  range  through  all  Italy, 
and  spread  their  lower  slopes  over  the  greater  part  of  southern  Germany.  The  extremity 
of  the  J\ilian  Al^,  and  the  mountains  of  Dalmatio,  connect  tho  range  with  the  great 
Turkish  chains  ot  Heemua  and  Rhodope ;  parallel  to  which,  though  with  a  large  group 
intervening,  stretches  tho  circuit  of  the  Cfarpathian  mountains.  North  of  this,  the  great 
European  lowland  comprises  the  largest  part  of  France,  the  south  of  England,  the 
Netherlands,  Northern  Germany,  all  Poland,  and  the  greater  part  of  Russia.  In  the 
extreme  north  of  Europe  the  mountainous  character  again  prevails.  The  Dofrines  reach 
through  Scandinavia ;  while  the  north  of  Ensland  and  nearly  all  Scotland  is  covered  with 
mountains  of  secondary  magnitude.  Of  all  Uie  European  mountains  the  Alps  are  by  much 
the  highest,  and  perhaps  may  rank  fourth  to  the  Himalaya,  the  Andes,  and  Caucasus,  among 
the  mountain  chains  of  the  globe.  Mont  Blanc  and  Monte  Rosa  exceed  16,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  numerous  other  summits  of  tliis  chain  exemplify  all  the  descending  grades  of 
elevation.  The  Apennines  vary  from  3000  to  6000  feet ;  but  JEtan,  at  their  utmost  extreini< 
ty,  is  nearly  11,000.  The  most  elevated  of  the  Pyrenees  rises  somewhat  above  that  height 
The  Spanish  summits  are  in  general  of  tho  level  of  the  Apennine,  except  the  Guadarrama, 
which  exceeds  8000  feet,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  equals  the  Pyrenees.  The  Thracian 
chains  have  not  yet  been  subjected  to  survey ;  but  they  doubtless  exceed  those  of  Greece, 
which  ascend  to  6000  or  7000  feet  Tlie  Dofrines,  notwithstandmg  their  snowy  and  terrible 
aspect,  are  not  of  first-rate  elevation.  The  great  Norwegian  chain  docs  not  quite  reach 
OCMK)  feet ;  Ben  Nevis  is  only  4300  feet ;  and  none  of  the  English  mountains  reach  that 
altitude. 

The  rivers  of  Europe  are  numerous,  but  none  of  them  of  the  very  first  magnitude. 
The  two  largest  flow  through  the  great  eastern  plain,  a  semi-Asiatic  region,  and  terminate 
in  distant  and  interior  seas,  where  they  contribute  little  to  commercial  intercourse.  The 
Volga,  which  alone  can  come  into  rivalrjr  with  the  great  rivers  of  Asia,  passes  the  Asiatic 
limit,  where  it  spreads  into  the  great  interior  expanse  of  the  Caspian.  The  Black  Sea  absorbs 
the  other  rivers  from  the  ereat  plain  of  Russia  and  Poland :  it  receives  also  the  noble  stream 
of  the  Danube,  which  belongs  indeed  to  the  central  region  of  Europe ;  but  directing  its 
lower  course  through  barbarous  and  uncultivated  regions,  and  terminating  in  this  distant 
receptacle,  it  conduces  only  in  a  secondary  degree  to  the  distribution  of  wealth  and  plenty 


I'amt  01. 

0  ifp  ind  lino  of 
)nii  oF  th«  groat 

,  AtVica,  and  the 
to  many  diitinet 
ng  cooiits.  Thia 
TO  ninrn  deeply 
irccly  Bocondarj 
in,  which  fbimi, 
viili  tlie  Atlantic 

1  great  oncloaed 
nic,  eome  of  the 
I  great  gulfs  of 
18  of  tlio  higheit 
Uie  iiiotala  and 
luxuries  of  the 

niHclvcs  and  the 
t  tlio  mountains 
thoBO  level  and 
to  the  interior 
portions,  and  are 
[nto  a  number  of 
in  has  been  one 
1  liberal  and  in* 
Dmincnce.  The 
siatic,  remained, 
tlie  deepest  bar* 


lountains  do  not 

ose  of  Asia  and 

10  nortiiern  and 

10  moat  elevated 

by  the  low  chain 

Spanish  penin- 

rough  all  Italy, 

The  extremity 

with  the  great 

a  large  group 

f  this,  the  great 

England,  the 

lufKsia.     In  the 

I  Dofrines  reach 

is  covered  with 

ps  are  by  much 

I^aucasus,  among 

i,(H)0  feet  above 

nding  grades  of 

utmost  extremi* 

x)vc  that  height 

:he  Guadarrama, 

The  Thracian 

hose  of  Greece, 

lowy  and  terrible 

not  quite  reach 

tains  reach  that 

first  magnitude, 
a,  and  termmate 
bercourse.  The 
ksses  the  Asiatic 
>Iack  Sea  absorbs 
Jie  noble  stream 
ut  directing  its 
in  this  distant 
ealth  and  plenty 


Book  1. 


viiH/i     EUROm     ««  iRiri 


9U1 


through  the  continent.  Western  Europe  is  too  much  broken  into  separate  portions,  and 
oroHs«<i  by  high  mountain  barriers,  to  allow  to  its  rivers  a  length  of  more  than  tirom  400  to 
900  miles;  and  thoy  have  usually  their  entire  courw  through  a  single  country, — ^tha  Rhine, 
the  Elbe,  and  the  ()(lor,  through  Germany ;  the  I/>ire,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Garonne,  throujj^h 
France  i  the  Po  through  Italy ;  the  Ebro,  the  Douro,  the  Tagus,  and  the  Guadalouivir, 
through  Seain.  The  northern  rivers  of  Britain  and  Scandinavia,  restricted  to  a  still  nar- 
rower field,  seldom  acoomplish  so  long  a  course  as  300  milea.  Yet,  though  Europe  does 
not  present  the  grand  rivers  which  distinguish  the  greater  continents,  it  is  on  the  whole 
happily  and  commodiously  watered.  Almost  every  part  of  it  enjoys  the  benefit  of  river 
communication ,'  it  is  neither  overspread  by  the  dreary  swamps  ot  America,  nor  the  sandy 
deserts  which  render  uninhabitable  so  great  a  part  of  Asia  and  AfVica. 

The  lakes  of  Europe  are  numerous,  chiefly  enclosed  within  its  mountain  regions;  but  few 
of  them  are  of  sufHcient  magnitude  to  rank  as  inland  seas.  Those  alone  entitled  to  this 
distinction  are  the  I^adoga  and  the  Onega,  which,  forming  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the  Gulf 
)f  Finland,  and  being  situated  in  bleak  and  fVozen  regions,  minister  very  littJe  to  internal 
intercourse.  Finland  is  covered  with  similar  lakes.  The  Wener  and  Wetter  of  Sweden 
rank  next  in  miignitudo,  and,  surrounded  by  immense  woods  and  iron  mines,  possess  consid- 
erable beauty  and  value.  Switeerland,  with  its  Italian  border,  is  the  chief  lake-region  of 
Europe:  its  waters,  particularly  those  of  Geneva  and  Lucerne,  enclosed  between  the  loftiest 
snowy  pinnacles  of  the  Alps,  present  scenes  of  grandeur  and  beauty  almost  unrivalled ;  but 
thoy  are  not  on  such  a  scale  or  so  situated  as  to  affbrd  any  important  inland  navigation. 
Those  of  England  and  Ireland  are  merely  small  picturesque  features.  Those  of  Scotland 
are  larger  and  more  numerous ;  and  a  chain  of  them,  having  been  connected  by  a  broad 
canal,  was  expected  to  form  a  great  naval  route  across  the  island. 

The  European  soil  is  distinguished  for  pnxluctions,  perhaps  surpassing  in  value  those 
of  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe.  It  does  not,  indeed,  possess  that  brilliant  luxuriar  <  of 
vegetation  which  adorns  the  equatorial  regions  of  Asia  and  America.  But  com  and  wine, 
the  most  substantial  and  most  agreeable  articles  of  human  diet,  are  nowhere  produced  on  so 
purest  a  scale  or  in  such  high  perfection.  Grain,  of  one  description  or  another,  is  raised  over 
Its  whole  surface,  excepting  in  the  extreme  north  ;  wines  throughout  nil  its  southern  king- 
donts.  In  hemp,  flax,  and  wool,  those  staple  materials  of  clothing,  Europe  is  equally  pre- 
eminent Silk,  another  valuable  commodity,  it  produces  copiously,  though  not  so  as  to  be 
independent  of  supplies  firom  India  and  China.  Cotton  is  the  only  great  material  which  the 
immense  manufactures  of  Europe  derive  almost  entirely  from  foreign  regions.  If  we  except 
the  horse  and  the  camel,  for  which  Asia  is  renowned,  Europe  contains  the  most  valuable  as 
well  as  the  most  numerous  breeds  of  domestic  animals.  Its  northern  forests  produce  the 
finest  timber  in  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  the  teak ;  and  its  iron,  the  most  useful  of 
metals,  surpasses  that  of  the  rest  of  the  world:  but  all  the  more  precious  substances,  gold, 
silver,  pearls,  jewels,  exist  in  an  extent  so  limited  as  scarroly  to  be  deserving  of  mention. 
The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  carried  on  with  much  greater  diligence  than  in  any  countries 
except  in  the  south-east  of  Asia,  while  in  science,  skill,  and  the  extent  of  capital  employed 
upon  it  European  agriculture  is  quite  unrivalled. 

In  manufacturing  industry,  this  quarter  of  the  world  has,  within  these  few  '.entiiries,  far 
surpassed  all  the  others  of  the  globe.  Asia,  indeed,  has  long  boasted  some  fabrics  of  extrar 
ordinary  beauty,— silks,  muslins,  carpets,  and  porcelain, — which  are  not  yet  altogether  equal- 
led :  but  the  looms  and  workshops  of  Europe  now  yield  a  variety  of  fine  and  beautifiil  fabrics, 
in  such  profiision,  and  at  so  cheap  a  rate,  as  to  place  them  within  the  reach  of  almost 
every  class  of  society.  This  continent  thuli  clothes  all  the  young  nations  which  have 
issueid  finm  her  own  bosom,  and  which  fill  nearly  two  entire  quarters  of  the  habitable  earth. 

Commerce,  on  so  great  a  scale  as  to  connect  together  the  distant  quarters  of  the  world, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  out  of  Europe.  European  vessels  are  found  in  the  utmost  bounds 
of  Asia  and  America,  in  the  snowy  regu>na  of  either  pole,  and  crowding  the  ports  of  the 
Austral  continent  There  is  not  now  a  place  on  earth,  however  remote,  affi>rding  any  scope 
for  the  employment  of  commercial  capital,  which  is  not  immediately  filled  with  the  same 
promptitude  as  if  it  had  been  situated  in  the  heart  of  Europe.  The  ships  of  that  continent 
exceed  thoco  of  all  the  others  in  number  and  dimensions:  they  are  also  the  most  skilfully 
constructed,  and  navigated  by  the  only  seamen  who  are  qualified  to  guide  a  vessel  across  the 
great  oceans.  All  these  observations  are  liable  to  one  exception :  uie  new  American  states 
are  beginning  to  form  a  commercial  and  maritime  qrstem,  modelled  on  that  of  Europe— • 
system  which  may  one  day  surpass  the  origmal. 

Snrr.  11. — Inhabitant$. 

The  population  of  Europe,  though  more  closely  calculated  than  that  of  any  other  quartet 
of  the  globe,  is  yet  far  from  being  ascertained  on  data  that  are  very  precise.  In  regard  to 
eome  districts,  and  in  particular  to  the  whole  of  the  Turkish  empire,  no  census  has  ever 
been  instituted ;  in  others,  the  computation  is  founded  only  on  the  number  of  houses :  and  is 
some,  ten,  twenty,  and  thirty  years  have  elapsed  since  any  was  attempted.* 

«  nee  ihe  Table  si  ihe  ciow  of  thii  book. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  in. 


The  people  of  Europe  are  divided  chiefly  into  three  great  races,  which  differ,  to  a  very 
marked  de^e,  in  langttage,  political  situation,  and  habits  of  life.  These  are  the  Sclavonic, 
the  Teutonic,  and  a  third  which  Hassel  calls  the  Romish,  as  occupying  the  chief  of  those 
countries  which  once  composed  the  Western  Empire. 

The  Sclavonic  races  cover  the  greater  extent  of  Europe,  since  they  occupy  the  whole  of 
the  eastern  plain  bordering  on  Asia.  The  people  have  a  resemblance  to  those  of  that 
continent;  and  were  omsidered  almost  as  beyond  the  social  and  political  pale  of  Europe,  till 
within  the  last  half  century.  They  have  now  forcibly  thrust  themselves  into  the  European 
Bvstem,  and  rank  among  its  most  influential  members.  The  Sclavonic  people  consist  of 
about  twenty-five  milUons  of  Russians,  ten  millions  of  Poles,  Lithuanians,  aM  Letts,  and 
about  ten  millions  of  other  races,  known  under  the  names  of  Windes,  Tcheches,  Slawakes, 
Croats,  Morlachians,  which  have  found  their  way  into  eastern  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Illy- 
ria.  Without  wishing  to  consider  intellectual  and  moral  qualities  as  necessarily  belonging 
to  any  particular  race  exclusively,  we  may  notice  it  as  a  met,  that  the  Sclavonians  are,  in 
both  ren)ects,  less  improved  than  otJier  Europeans.  They  have  only  some  infant  forms  of 
art  and  literature,  which  have  sprung  up  ih>m  the  imitation  of  those  of  the  eastern  nations. 
They  are  generally  subjected  to  abmlute  monarchy,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  are  cmly 
beginninff  to  emerge  from  the  degrading  condition  of  personal  slavery.  All  the  habitu  of 
life  whi(£  connect  them  with  polished  society  have  been  recently  and  studiously  imported 
from  the  west,  and  are  still  intermingled  with  deep  remnants  of  barbarism.  The  majority 
profess  that  superstitious  form  of  Christianity  acknowledged  by  the  Greek  church.  Yet  they 
are  a  brave,  enterprising,  and  persevering  race,  and  have  established  themselves  as  a  rulmg 
and  conquering  people,  m  reference  to  all  the  contiguous  nations  of  Europe  and  Aiiia. 

The  Teutonic  race  occupies  generally  the  centre  and  north  of  Europe ;  besides  Germany, 
their  origmal  seat,  they  have  nlled  the  greater  part  of  Scandinavia,  the  Netherlands,  and 
Great  witain,  and  may  be  reckoned  at  upwards  of  fifty  millions.  Under  the  limitations 
above  stated,  we  may  describe  the  Teutonic  people  generally  as  brave,  hardy,  intelligent, 
and  industrious,  though  somewhat  blunt  and  unpoliuied.  All  the  sciences,  and  even  the 
arts,  both  usefiil  and  ornamental,  have  been  carried  among  them  to  the  highest  perfection ; 
yet  they  are  accused  of  wanting  some  of  the  graces  and  agrimens  which  embellish  the 
courts  and  fashionable  circles  of  the  south,  by  whom  they  are  treated  as  semi-barbarians.  A 
great  majority  of  the  Teutonic  nations  are  Protestants ;  and  that  profession  is  in  a  great 
measure  confined  to  them,  and  to  the  nations  in  the  other  ports  of  the  world  who  have  sprung 
from  them. 

The  race  called  Romish,  which  comprehends  the  modem  inhabitants  of  France,  Italy,  and 
Spain,  has  only  a  very  imperfect  claim  to  that  title.  The  Teutonic  nations,  in  conquering 
these  countries,  poured  into  them  a  vast  mass  of  their  own  population :  but  Roman  manner 
and  the  Roman  language  had  taken  such  deep  root  in  countries  which  once  constituted  the 
main  body  of  the  western  empire,  that  the  latter  forms  still  the  chief  basis  of  the  dialects 
spoken  in  this  part  of  Europe.  The  Romish  were  the  most  early  civilized  of  the  modem 
nations.  They  have  carried  the  polish  of  manners  and  the  cultivation  of  the  elegant  arts 
to  a  higher  pitch  than  any  other  known  nation.  In  solid  energy  and  intelligence,  they 
scarcely  equal  the  Teutonic  nations.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  raling  religion  mD  all  these 
countries,  and  has  among  them  her  metropolitan  seat 

Certain  interesting  and  antique  races  inhabit  the  rude  and  mountainous  extremities  of 
Europe.  The  Celts  were  the  most  numerous  people,  and  at  a  period  of  high  antiquity,  the 
possessors  of  all  western  Europe.  Subdued  and  qisarmed  by  the  Romans,  they  rapidly  declined 
when  the  falling  empire  could  no  longer  protect  them,  and  became  the  helpless  victims  of 
tliat  mighty  torrent  of  barbarous  invasion  which  poured  in  firom  Uw  remotest  extremities 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  At  this  dreadful  period  they  sought  or  found  a  refuge,  partly  in  Ire- 
land and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  where  they  exist  under  the  name  of  Gael ;  parUy  in 
Wales  and  Britany,  Where  they  are  called  Cymri ;  and  partly  in  the  north  of  Spain,  where 
they  are  termed  Basques.  Having  retained  their  condition  unaltered  during  so  many  ages, 
they  cherish  a  fimd  attachment  to  antiquity,  and  trace  their  pedigree  higher  than  any  of  the 
Romish  or  Tentonic  nobles.  They  have  a  traditional  poetry  celebrating  the  exploits  of  their 
ancestors,  to  which  they  are  fondly  attached ;  but  in  general  they  have,  in  the  rapid  pro- 
gress made  by  the  more  modem  races,  been  left  somewhat  behind ;  though  individual  emi- 
grants have  raised  themselves  to  eminence  in  every  department  Ha«el  calculates  the 
Gael  at  8,720,000,  which,  fVom  the  last  census  of  Ireland,  must  be  much  too  low ;  the 
Cymri  at  1,610,000 ;  the  Basques  at  630,000.  The  Oreekt,  once  the  most  illustrious  of  all 
the  races,  no  longer  plant  their  colonies  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  still 
occupy  their  old  seats,  and  are  spread  through  different  parts  of  the  Turkish  empire.    De- 

IfacDeou  uj   »nru  mivukmuiu  jcaio  \ji  Biavcijr,  uaov   iiau  \>cictsou    hu  uiDuiav    uiUDC    ti^u   aiUlDui<«c> 

which  excited  the  admiration  of  manlund ;  but  the  prospects  of  independence  which  they 
have  now  opened  for  themselves,  a£S>rd  some  hope  that  theymay  regain  theur  place  in  the 
scale  of  nations.  Their  number  may  be  about  2,100,000.  The  Jews,  that  singularly  inte- 
rating  people,  are  spread  through  all  Europe,  but  especially  the  eastern  countries,  Poland. 


Part  in. 

Ter,  to  a  very 
io  Sclavonic, 
Jiief  of  those 

the  whole  of 
hone  of  that 
f  Europe,  till 
the  European 
le  consiat  of 
d  Letta,  and 
8,  Slawakea, 
uy,  and  Illy- 
Hy  belonging 
>nian8  are,  in 
bnt  forma  of 
Item  nationa. 
lem  are  only 
he  habitu  of 
laly  imported 
The  majority 
oh.  Yet  they 
«  as  a  ruling 
1  Abia. 
ea  Germany, 
lerlanda,  and 
e  limitations 
',  intelligent, 
md  even  the 
t  perfection; 
smbelliah  the 
irbariana.   A 
a  in  a  great 
t  have  sprung 

ce,  Italy,  and 
n  conquering 
nan  manner 
natituted  tiie 
'  the  dialects 
'  the  modem 
elegant  arta 
licence,  they 
1  Ji  all  those 

ctremitiea  of 
ntiquity,  the 
idly  declined 
>s  victims  of 
.  extremities 
lartly  in  Ire- 
il;  partly  in 
Ipain,  where 
many  ages, 
1  any  of  the 
loita  of  their 
e  rapid  pro* 
ividual  emi- 
Iculates  the 
o  low;  the 
trious  of  all 
an,  but  still 
npire.    De< 

II    attliuutoa 

which  they 
place  in  the 
ularly  inte- 
ies,  Poland. 


Book 


^""^^"'    EURbWS.  ■■!■>'!'! 


Wti 


Russia,  and  Turkey.  They  are  suppoeed  rather  to  exceed  2,000,000.  The  Qiptiet,  in  an 
humbler  sphere,  are  strangely  scattered  over  all  Euro]>e  to  tho  supposed  number  of  840,000; 
a  wild,  roaming,  deminsavage  race,  of  unknown  origin,  but  probably  Asiatic  rather  than 
E^ptian. 

Several  Asiatic  natiop"  have  penetrated  by  conquest  or  migration  into  the  east  of  Europe. 
These  are  chiefly  Tartars,  whom  Hassel  estimates  at  3,260,0(K)  heads.  The  most  pitmiinent 
branch  is  that  of  the  Turks,  the  mling  people  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  though  they  form  in 
a  few  districts  only  a  majority  of  the  population.  It  aeema  doubtful,  however,  if  all  the 
Tutara  who  wander  over  the  aouthem  steppea  of  Russia  can  be  considered  as  Asiatic  in  their 
origin.  The  Magyars,  who,  to  the  number  of  8,000,000,  prevail  in  Hungary  and  Tranayl- 
vania,  appear  to  to  also  Asiatic,  or  at  least  to  have  sprang  from  tliat  most  eastern  border  cf 
EuropeaJi  Russia,  which  can  scarcely  be  distinguiriied  ftom  Asia. 

The  religion  of  Europe  is  almost  entirely  monotheistic.  A  mere  handflil  of  pagans,  the 
Samoiedes,  are  found  in  its  north-eastern  extremity,  on  the  shores  of  the  Icy  Sea.  Europe 
is  almost  entirely  Christian ;  and  the  small  population  of  Mahomedans  who  have  found  Uieir 
way  into  it  consist  of  Asiatic  races,  Turks  and  Tartars.  The  Jews,  however  generally  dif- 
fused, have  nowhere  a  national  church,  nor  are  they  in  any  nation  fliUy  identified  with  the 
body  of  the  people.  The  Christians  of  Europe  are  divided  into  three  great  churches,  the 
Greek,  the  Latin  or  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  Protestant 

The  Greek  or  Eastem  church,  which  Mraa  that  of  the  Conatantinopolitan  empire,  was 
severed  from  the  Latia  by  the  great  schism  in  the  ninth  centurv,  cauaed  by  aome  abstruse 

Suestions  respecting  the  nature  and  person  of  Christ.  It  is  still  professed  by  the  modem 
freeks,  is  the  established  religion  of  Russia,  and  has  votaries  in  Hungary  and  all  its  append- 
ant territories.  Hassel  reckons  its  rumiters  at  32,000,000;  Malte^run  at  50,000,000— a 
strange  discrepancy.  We  should  thmK  the  former  much  nearer  the  trath,  though  perhaps 
somewhat  under  it.  This  religion  having  been  long  prevalent  among  unenlightened  and 
degraded  nations,  has  become  encumbered  with  empty  pomp  and  childish  ceremoniea ;  and 
manv  of  its  clergy  are  ill-informed  and  of  irregular  lives. 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion,  which  reigned  so  long  with  supreme  sway  over  Europe, 
embraces  still  a  numerical  majority  of  its  people.  In  Italy,  Spain,  France,  ana  the  dominions 
3f  the  house  of  Austria,  it  is  dominant  and  almost  exclusive.  It  still  holdu  attached  to  it 
a  large  portion  of  the  smaller  states  of  Germany,  and  of  the  Cantons'of  Switzerland.  The 
greater  part  of  Ireland  and  of  Russian  Poland  continue  attached  to  it,  without  regard  to  the 
opposite  systems  supported  by  the  state.  That  intolerance  which  gave  birth  to  so  many 
struggles  m  attempting  to  extirpate  the  Protestant  faith,  has  been  greatly  mitigated,  and, 
except  in  Italy  and  Spain,  all  professions  enjoy  an  almost  complete  toleration.  l%e  number 
of  Roman  Catholics  seems  to  be  fairly  estimated  at  between  90,000,000  and  100,000,000. 
The  absolute  authority  of  the  Pope  in  matters  of  faith  and  worship,  auricular  confbfision,  tiie 
prohibition  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  and  a  splendid  ritual  calculated  to  dazzle 
the  eyes  of  the  multitude,  form  the  peculiar  characters  of  the  Roman  Catholic  system.  The 
monstrous  pretensions  once  advanced  to  excommunicate  and  depose  kings,  and  to  grant  indul- 
gences to  commit  crime,  seem  now  to  be  generally  withdrawn. 

The  Protestant  or  Reformed  religion  raised  its  standard  early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
made  most  rapid  progress,  especial^  in  the  north  of  Europe.  It  sought  to  purge  Christianity 
from  the  superstitious  observances  which  had  enveloped  it  during  many  ages  of  darkness;  to 
introduce  a  more  spiritual  and  simple  form  of  worship ;  to  break  up  the  institutions  devoted 
to  celibacy ;  to  deny  human  authority  in  matters  of  doctrine,  and  rest  it  solely  on  the  found- 
ation of  Scripture.  It  had  to  maintain  a  dreadful  struggle  a^inst  the  Romish  see,  which 
amied  in  its  cause  all  the  great  monarchs  of  Europe ;  and  m  France  and  Bohemia,  after 
taking  deep  root,  it  was  nearly  extirpated.  It  has  been  finally  established,  however,  in  Great 
Britam,  in  the  Netherlands,  the  north  of  Germany,  and  the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  Not- 
withstanding its  numerical  inferiority,  it  now  ranks  among  its  votaries  the  most  powerful,  ^e 
most  opulent,  and  the  most  intelligent  nations  of  Europe  and  the  globe.  Its  rejection  of 
human  authority,  and  direct  appeal  to  the  Scriptures,  have  caused  it  to  be  split  into  numerous 
sects  and  divisions.  The  most  prominent  is  into  Lutherans  and  Calvinists ;  the  Lutherans 
retaining  still  many  of  the  Romish  rites  and  doctrines,  to  which,  in  every  pomt,  the  Calvinists 
place  themselves  in  the  most  decided  opposition.  The  English  church  may  be  considered  a 
sort  of  medium  between  the  two,  inclming  nearer  to  the  Lutheran.  In  the  Protestant 
countries,  numerous  smaller  sects  have  asserted  the  right  of  private  judgment,  on  which  the 
Reforaiation  was  founded.  Among  these  are  the  Anabaptists,  chiefly  in  Germany,  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  England,  whom  Hassel  perhaps  underrates  at  240,000 ;  Methodists  and  Quakers 
in  Britain,  estimated  at  190,000 ;  the  Moravian  brethren  in  Germany,  40,000.  The  Unita- 
rians have  an  established  church  in,  Transylvania,  comprising  40,000  souls,  and  are  diniiaed, 
openly  or  secretly,  through  the  other  European  countries,  especially  Britain. 

In  learning,  art,  science,  all  the  pursuits  which  develope  the  intellectual  nature  of  man, 
which  refine  and  enlarge  his  ideas,  Europe  has  fiir  surpassed  every  other  continent  The 
onmires  of  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia  alone  have  an  ancient  traditional  literature,  of  which 

25* 


IM 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


the  remains  are  yet  preserved.  But,  besides  beini;  now  in  a  reiy  decayed  state,  it  never 
included  any  authentic  history,  sound  philosophy,  or  accurate  knowled^  of  nature.  An 
extravagant  thouffh  sometimes  poetical  mythdioffy,  proverbial  maxims  of  wisdom,  and  a 
poetry  replete  wiui  bold  and  hyperbolical  images,  compose  almost  its  entire  circle.  The 
science  of  Europe  has  been  employed  with  equal  success  in  exploring  the  most  distant  regions 
of  the  universe,  and  in  improvinff  the  condition  of  man  in  society.  Astronomy,  which  else* 
where  is  a  mere  mass  of  superstition  and  wild  conjecture,  has  here  not  only  delineated  witfi 
perfect  precision  the  situation  ud  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  but  has  disclosed 
numberless  systems  of  worlds,  of  which  without  her  aid  the  existence  could  never  have 
been  suspected.  Chemistry,  which  was  formerly  a  mere  collection  of  empirical  receipts  and 
chimeras,  is  become  a  mighty  science,  which  analyses  the  most  secret  operations  of  nature, 
and  discovers  important,  and  before  unknown,  substances.  A  similarly  sound  and  compre< 
hensive  character  marks  her  attainments  in  physical  science,  and  in  every  branch  of  natural 
history.  In  regard  to  poetic  fimcy,  although  some  natural  flights  may  be  found  among  the 
rudest  tribes,  and  though  the  Orientals  possess  a  peculiar  vein  of  learned  and  studied  orna- 
ment, it  is  in  Europe,  during  either  ancient  or  modem  times,  that  the  polished  and  classic 
models  of  poetical  composition  have  been  exclusively  produced. 

The  invention  of  printing,  and  the  consequent  general  difiusion  of  information  among  all 
classes,  are  features  especially  European.  By  theur  means,  in  its  enlightened  countries,  the 
essential  branches  of  knowledge  are  now  placed  within  the  reach  or  the  humblest  classes, 
and  even  the  highest  branches  are  not  absolutely  beyond  their  attainpient.  The  endowments 
for  the  support  of  learning  are  very  extensive,  founded  in  a  great  measure  during  the  middle 
ages,  and  bearing  some  stamp  of  the  then  infant  state  of  literature ;  but  they  are  now  adapting 
themselves  to  modem  improvements.  The  extensive  and  extending  institutions  for  the 
instruction  of  the  lower  orders  have  produced  a  general  difiusion  of  mtelligence,  to  which 
in  the  other  parts  of  the  world,  if  we  except  America,  there  is  nothing  analogoua 

The  political  state  of  Europe  is  also  peculiarly  fortunate.  Elsewhere,  with  rare  exceptions, 
a  turbulent  anarchy  prevails,  or  vast  empires  are  subjected  to  the  absolute  sway  of  a  single 
despot.  It  is  in  this  continent  only  that  the  secret  has  been  found  of  establishing  a  regular 
and  constitutional  liberty,  in  which  the  extremes  of  tyranny  and  licentiousness  are  equally 
avoided.  Even  the  absolute  monarchies  are  generally  administered  with  mildness,  according 
to  legal  forms,  and  afford  to  the  bulk  of  the  people  a  tolerable  security  of  person  and  pro- 
perty. The  European  states  have  also  established  among  themselves  a  buance  of  power, 
which  sets  bounds  to  the  encroachments  of  any  particular  stale,  and  has  repeatedly  rescued 
the  whole  continent  from  the  imminent  danger  of  universal  subjugation.  The  military  and 
naval  power  has  been  raised  to  a  height,  to  which  none  of  the  other  continents  can  offer  any 
efibctual  resistance.  A  great  proportion  of  them  has  now  been  conquered,  occupied,  or 
colonised  by  Europe;  and  if  the  whole  is  not  reduced  under  this  condition,  it  is  only  through 
distance  and  extensive  deserts  that  many  great  countries  still  preserve  their  independence. 

The  geology  of  Europe  will  be  more  advantageously  treated  of  under  its  respective 
countries. 

Sect.  III. — Botany. 

The  botany  of  Europe  presents  come  general  characters,  which  it  may  be  important  to 
notice.  In  the  preliminary  observations,  we  have  given  a  very  general  and  rapid  sketch  of 
the  vegetable  geography  of  the  globe,  taken  in  its  more  enlarged  sense.  We  must  now 
survey  it  in  its  subordmate  divisions;  and  the  plan  which  we  have  prescribed  to  our- 
selves, is,  in  the  first  instance,  under  the  great  principal  divisions  of  the  earth,  to  mention 
the  more  striking  vegetable  features ;  and  then,  under  each  respective  country,  to  give  a 
more  particular  statement  of  the  plants  belonging  to  it  which  deserve  notice,  either  from 
their  e?:  -erne  abundance,  their  rarity,  their  peculiar  properties  and  qualities,  or  some  circum- 
stance of  general  interest 

The  nature  of  the  present  publication  only  allowing  us  to  consider,  in  a  very  general 
way,  the  vegetable  productions  as  connected  with  their  geographical  distribution,  we  can- 
not devote  much  space  to  what  concerns  the  primary  di  visions.  The  artificial  boundaries 
of  Europe,  especially  o  the  east  and  to  the  south,  are  of  that  nature  that  many  of  what 
might  otherwise  be  ranked  among  its  more  striking  botanical  features  are  gradually  blended 
into  those  of  Asia  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  north  of  Africa  on  the  other.  Local  circum 
stances,  as  we  have  already  seen,  affect  the  presence  or  absence  of  certain  plants,  to  an  extent 
more  than  eoual  to  that  of  any  artificial  geographical  arrangement.  Temperature,  which 
has  so  powerful  an  effect  upon  mera,  varies  in  a  regular  progression  upon  a  loily  mountain ; 
but  it  is  not  so  in  all  situations,  and  with  the  same  regularity,  especially  on  the  great  conti- 
nents, upon  the  plains  and  low  grounds.  "  Sometimes,"  says  the  eloquent  Mirbel,  "  a  chain 
of  mountains  forms  a  barrier  against  the  freezing  winds  of  the  north,*  and  receives  and 

*  In  one  «pot,  in  the  extreme  touth  of  Sweden,  thcing  the  sen,  and  backed  by  lofty  bills,  oHvu  have  succeeded 
r  the  open  air,  and  ripened  their  fVuit ;  while,  at  the  distance  of  six  Swedish  miles  northward,  the  inhabltanti 
tlothe  thamselvss  witb  Airs  in  tlie  winter,  to  protect  themselves  from  the  severity  of  the  cold. 


Part  HI. 

ed  state,  it  never 
>  of  nature.    An 
'  wisdom,  and  a 
tire  circle.    The 
9t  distant  regfions 
omy,  which  else- 
'  delineated  witli 
ut  has  disclosed 
ould  never  have 
ical  receipts  and 
itions  of  nature, 
und  and  comprc- 
Jranch  of  natural 
Tound  among  the 
nd  studied  oma- 
shed  and  classic 

lation  among  all 
id  countries,  the 
umblest  classes, 
i'he  endowments 
iring  the  middle 
te  now  adapting 
itutions  for  the 
Ifence,  to  which 

OgODB. 

rare  exceptions, 
iway  of  a  smgle 
ishing  a  regular 
esB  are  equally 
Iness,  according 
person  and  pro- 
lance  of  power, 
eatedly  rescued 
he  military  and 
its  can  offer  any 
id,  occupied,  or 
is  only  through 
independence. 
'  its  respective 


be  important  to 
rapid  sketch  of 
We  must  now 
icribed  to  our- 
rth,  to  mention 
intry,  to  give  a 
:e,  either  from 
r  some  circum- 

i  very  general 
iition,  we  can- 
iial  boundaries 
many  of  what 
dually  blended 
Local  circum 
B,  to  an  extent 
irature,  which 
fly  mountain ; 
le  great  conti- 
rbel,  "a  chain 
receives  and 

t  have  nioceedeif 
I  the  inhibluntf 


Book  IH. 


EUROPE. 


295 


refVacts  upon  the  p'i:;,r-  ^o  heat  which  it  derives  from  the  solar  raysj  sometimes  a  parching 
sirocco  from  the  soutiv  ai.e8  the  temperature ;  in  some  places,  the  wmters  are  tempered  by 
the  {>roximity  to  the  tiea^  whilst  at  other  times  all  these  causes  combined,  produce  a  climate 
BO  mild,  tliat,  to  judge  of  its  geographical  position  only  by  the  indication  of  Uie  thermometer, 
we  'should  suppose  its  latitude  to  be  much  nearer  the  tropics  than  it  actually  is.  Again, 
continued  plains  of  vast  extent,  exactly  on  a  level  with  the  sea,  are  of  rare  occurrence;  and 
if  there  be  but  an  elevation  of  1000  or  1100  feet,  it  suffices  to  produce  a  considerable  reduc- 
tion of  temperature.  This,  in  its  turn,  obtains  an  influence  over  the  vegetable  creation ;  it 
changes  the  line  of  the  progress  of  plants  in  their  migration ;  it  arrests  them,  and  limits  their 
boundaries.  Sometimes  the  northern  species  proceed  southward  towards  the  tropics ;  some- 
times those  of  the  south  migrate  northwards ;  and  sometimes  groups  belonging  to  both  of  these 

tribes  exchange  countries,  passing  one  an- 
other ;  each  about  to  establish  colonies  in  privi- 
leged stations,  in  the  midst  of  a  vegetable  popu- 
lation to  which  they  are  no  less  strangers  by 
their  physiognomy  than  by  their  temperament. 

We  shall  here  confine,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, our  observations  to  a  table,  by  M.  Mir- 
bel,  of  the  phaenogamous  (or  flowering)  plants 
of  Europe ;  to  which  have  been  added,  for 
reasons  already  alluded  to,  part  of  those  of 
Asia  and  of  Northern  Africa.  He  divides 
the  northern  hemisphere  into  imaginary  belts 
or  zones ;  the  equatorial,  the  transition  tem- 
perate, the  temperate,  the  transition  frozen, 
and  the  frozen  zones.  The  temperate  transi' 
tion,  where  European  vegetation  commences, 
is  limited,  to  the  north,  by  the  disappearance 
of  the  Olive ;  the  temperate  zone  by  the  ces- 
sation of  the  Oak;  and  theyrozen  transition 
by  that  of  the  Fir  (Pinus  sylvestria)  in  the 
west,  and  of  the  Spruce  (P.  Abies)  in  the 
east.  The  frozen  zone  is  divided  into  two 
bands ;  the  lower  or  southern,  and  the  ujtper 
or  northern.  Both  are  entirely  destitute  of 
trees ;  but  in  the  frst  band  are  many  shrubs 
and  suflruticose  plants  i*  whilst  in  the  second 
scarcely  any  thing  is  found  but  small  herba- 
ceous plants ;  and  these  cease  where  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow  commences.f  Here,  too, 
another  important  fact  must  be  considered, — 
that,  in  the  frozen  or  arctic  regions,  almost 
exactly  the  same  flora  is  exhibited  in  Europe, 

Boraaua.         Date  Tree.      Dwarf  Pa!m  Asia,  and  America. 

In  the  extent  of  country  to  which  the  following  table  is  more  peculiarly  applicable,  the 
Owarf  Palm  {Chamarops  humilis),  and  the  Date  Tree  {Phanix  dactylifera),  (fig.  86.),  are 
die  plants  that  hove  the  nearest  approximation  to  a  tropical  vegetation,  and  which  are,  of 

course,  the  most  southern.  The  plant  which  is  found  the 
nearest  to  the  pole,  and  which,  tiiere  is  every  reason  to 
believe,  ascends  to  it,  is  the  Palmella  nivalis  (Hooker), 
Red  Snow  (Jiff.  87.)  of  arctic  navigators,  belonging  to 
the  Cryptogamic  fiimily,  and  which  wfll  be  more  especially 
noticed  hereafter.  In  speaking  of  vegetation,  however, 
generally,  and  except  the  contrary  is  otherwise  expressed, 
the  Cryptogamic  plants  are  not  taken  into  account ;  partly 
because  we  are  at  present  but  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  their  extent  or  limits,  and  partly  because  they  are  not 
Red  Snow.  of  such  general  interest. 

*  The  ehrubby  or  ■uflVutieoie  planta  of  the  southern  hand  of  the  flrozen  zone,  are  fifteen  willowa :  the  Dwarf 
Birch  {Betula  nana),  the  Humble  Birch  (B.  pumita),  the  White  Birch  {B.  alia)— this  last  is  only  found  on  the 
louthern  coasts  of  Greenland;  the  Hoary  Birch  {B.ineana),  the  Juniper  (Juni><r»s  communio),  the  Trailing  Azale 
(Jl,  procumbent),  the  Blue  Menzleaia  {M,  camlea),  the  Ledum  palustre  and  L.  latifoUum,  the  Lapland  Diapensia, 
the  Downy  Whortleberry  (Foeciniitm  pubeecena),  the  Marsh  WhortlRberry  (y.  ulifinoium),  the  Red  Cowberry  (F 
yitii  Idaa),  the  Cranberry  (r".  Oxfcoctm),  the  Gmuc-fiis  ICain-.in,  eight  sjKjciss  of  Rhododnndron,  th»  Alpine  Arb!!- 
tus,  the  Crowberry,  the  Common  Heath,  the  Shrubby  Poteutilla,  and  the  Rowan  Fir  (Pyms  aucttparta),  on  ths 
louthern  shores  of  Qreenland. 

t  Almost  the  only  shrubby  planta  of  the  northern  band  of  the  fl-ozen  zone,  are  the  little  Arctic  Willow  (Balm 
p^rit),  the  reticulated  Willow  (&  retieulata),  and  the  Ibur-sided  Andromeda  (A  tetragona). 


■X*3U*^ 


QM 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  ITL 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE 

fif  tiM  pbanogamow  TagetMion  of  ■  part  of  tb*  TmptnU  7Vriiui«M  £mm  (Palattine,  Syria,  Aila  Minor,  uH 
llM  Oaueaaian  re|ioDf ;  a  portion  of  Uie  north  of  AlVica  and  tlM  loulh  of  Europe  being  eoDiprlied  in  thla  aone) 
of  the  Dmpirt*  Znt  (Central  Europe  lui  tn  ai  tlie  Ural  Mouniaint  and  the  Oaniian  Baa,  and  part*  of  Taitarr 
bordering  upon  that  tea);  of  the  TVaiuiMM  Fraun  Zm*  (Nortliern  Europe,  Siberia,  and  Kamtaehatlia)  i  and  aU 
the  Fnun  Zant  (Polar  Regione)  of  tbe  Old  and  New  World.    Extracted  ftom  M.  Mirberi  table,  in  tbe  Jlfni.  Ai 


t>iiiala 

Tllriim 

rrata 

rmaa 

M 

'•..41  ■-             >     *l-i       ^  ^ 

TnialtlaalMH. 

laM. 

lolfc 

Jl 

1  . 

>i 

J . 

sH 

1 . 

jfi 

jfi 

HwMriKilmlfuiUta. 

1 

I*' 

Ijil 

1 

** 

1 

'1 

ii 

!! 

.       ■.,•..■;  .      ..  >'      h     .,:VM"..f<i. 

r 

ill 

« 

jSil 

N 

f 

fill 

jl 

ti 

Mi 

o.m 

•.Ml 

10 
141 

•.m 

0.M1 

• 

o.m 

•.•N 

"« 

•.MB 

n 
in 

MmO)pf>nMM, 

IM 

•.on 

ri 

•.000 

M 

•.in 

M 

•.Ml 

M 

1 

I 

M 

o.oo« 

41 

•.•11 

IT 

•lOll 

II 

•■Ml 

M 

M 

O.10« 

M 

!S 

u 

•.•N 

1 

Mm 

s 

M 
11 

0.001 

O.CM 

11 

• 

•.001 

• 
< 

•.ON 
•.Ml 

t 

•.Ml 

•1 

10 

uKHkUuiem, '...."::'....:..".";,' 

in 

O.OtI 

n 

•••s 

_N 

•.•!• 

1 

•.ON 

Mr 

«USMPMi  nUVMMMi  •••■M**aei •••••••••••« 

M 

OIN 

11 

0.001 

41 

>'n  IfMnAt****  •■■  ••*■•••••••••••••••••■•••• 

*i 

0.0M 

n 

•.•M 

"  n 

•.ooi 

_    . 

_      _ 

Tl 

OicUftOraUiltM, 

Ml 

0.011 

M 

0.01* 

n 

•.OM 

• 

•■•11 

in 

AMdWM^    IVWMMk**a**a ■••(■•■••*•«*•■■  ((••  i 

U 

0.001 

1 

•.001 

1 

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-  - 

14 

1 

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H       _ 

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.    » 

^      . 

.    . 

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1 

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—     » 

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m          m 

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nMt,0Mlh|M, M....» 

M 

O.IOt 

11 

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1 

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n 

IM 

O.OII 

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0.011 

M 

0.011 

M 

•.•M 

m 

Wmt,  Phiiinii, 

a 

O.OOI 

1 

o.m 

• 

KaHlK,  VitiMM, 

M 

O.Oti 

• 

e.0N 

1 

O.ON 

_    « 

a      , 

II 

in 

0.011 

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0.0M 

n 

0.0M 

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>lti 

K^Sn.?-^ :::::::::::::::::::;} 

M 

i 

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0.001 

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1 
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o.ni 

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■      " 

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4 

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1 

1 

BMtoWil.  rulyifnim, .'..;; 

m 

o.oot 

4* 

0.011 

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•.010 

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104 

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o.ni 

4T 

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IT 

0.001 

• 

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o.m 

11 

s 

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0.00O 

M 

11 

O.OM 
O.OM 

11 

IT 

O.0M 
O.OM 

% 
1 

O.NT 

•.on 

?^ 

MunKRytutlMM 

> 

-      > 

m          - 

"      " 

1 

GloMitIa,  Olotalinw, 

10 

0.001 

• 

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.    K 

_      m 

. 

M 

u 

O.OOT 

M 

0.WI4 

n 

0  oil 

11 

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m 

10 

0.001 

a 

0.001 

1 

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0.041 
0  004 

1 

O.0M 

14 

Illfbtik«ta,lotaMM,... 

no 

70 

0(M 
0.010 

uo 

M 

O.OOT 
O.OM 

M 

M 

n 

O.0M 

Ml 
M 

OmUu,  OhUumm, 

<l 

O.OOI 

H 

0.011 

M 

0010 
O.NI 

4 

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n 

n 

0.001 

• 

I.OOI 

1 

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AnaikH,  AculkMw 

4 

4 

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I 

«      K 

1 

O.MI 
O.IH 
•.OH 

*.m 

1 

O.0M 

1 

UadsnA  CoMolinlmM 

u 

0.0M 

11 

•••M 

1 

M 

lOi 

0.N1 

60 

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« 

.    . 

•on 

•1 

Ml 

0.001 

IM 

O.OM 

n 

1 

•.OH 

411 

▼tmlM,  VMtnmM, 

« 

1 

1 

4 

JMllW,JMBlaiM, 

10 

o.oia 

1 

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.     , 

11 

SJS&SJSina;;-;;;:^;:::::::::::::::::} 

n 

0,004 

■ 

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N 

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n 

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11 

1 

1 

IN 

o.ou 

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0.014 

10 

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•■on 

IM 

iia 

0.141 

no 

0.111 

m 

•.IN 

».m 

i4n 

Vabrlu^^ValarluiM, 

MaUaiOtablMW. 

■0 

0.010 

M 

•.ON 

11 

O.OM 

M 

«o 

0.000 

n 

O.0M 

1 

•.ON 

_    ^ 

m         m 

41 

111 

0.014 

04 

0.011 

n 

0.010 

,    . 

m         ■> 

IM 

n 

O.OOI 

10 

0.000 

11 

0.001 

O.0N 

M 

M 

O.OtI 

in 

0  040 

T4 

0.000 

o.on 

4a 

euimiM,  laiirniaM, 

ra 

o.ooa 

40 

o.ou 

11 

0.014 

0.0M 

M 

ranlaa**,  PurUlaiMW 

11 

0.001 

a 

•.mi 

1 

•.ON 

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11 

II 

0.0*1 

14 

•.ON 

f 

O.MI 

.   . 

.     . 

n 

Hiwbata,  OiwahM, " 

10 

0.001 

M 

o.on 

u 

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O.SM 

•1 

0«mBt%  eiiiiiin. ,  „ 

* 
•1 

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1 

0.001 

f 

•.OH 

;  - 

11 

1 

rrlekir  Pon,  OpaHlKna, 

aonri%  OaoalMtMtM, 

s 

0.001 

1 

■      • 

I 

_        m 

m      m 

.          m 

• 

10 

O.OOI 

• 

o.m 

11 

WlUoW'htrba,  OHf  farlM,. 

M 

0.ON 

n 

0.1M 

" » 

O.ON 

0.014 

n 

Hjm^Hjrtmlmt. 

Lithium,  WlnrlM, 

• 

B 

- 

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1 

10 

•.001 

"  11 

O.IN 

T 

o.oo* 

_    _ 

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100 

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in 

0.0M 

in 

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e.osi 

Ml 

on 

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aa 

ono 

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o.on 

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iin 

■•DiKlH,  TutMnthaent, 

11 

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m          — 

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u 

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1 

.      _ 

_    . 

- 

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Oaitaria,  Corlaraaa. 

1 

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.      _ 

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01 

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a 

•.m 

1 

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^    , 

-          a. 

N 

WmiUamkOialMcai,...., 

* 

1 

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m      m 

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1 

_      . 

_    . 

_      _ 

1 

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10 

0.000 

M 

•.ON 

11 

•.WT 

_    . 

_      . 

M 

Vlaaa,  Ampalldaaa 

1 

1 

-  .. 

•     . 

1 

Aartaneb,  MallanM, 

1 

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m         — 

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a        . 

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t 

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1 

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11 

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m 

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0.M1 

1 

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t 

UaJaii.Tlliacaaa,....' 

t 

■• 

4 

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1 

_      _ 

_    _ 

m        . 

• 

Mallowi  MaliaiiM,  ..•■••mm.... ....m*. ■>•■ 

M 

0000 

11 

i.oa 

1 

O.ON 

_    _ 

. 

n 

Plal,UM*a, 

10 

0.001 

IT 

O.OM 

4 

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M 

naka,  Car;ovk;llcaa„ „      

"! 

0.040 

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•.OH 

•.OH 

in 

Vraakraia,  riaaktataeaaap 

( 

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1 

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iS 

4 

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▼labia,  TlolMa, 

Saa  olilla.  OlalhMW, „ 

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M 

O.0N 

n 

o.on 

•aOM 

H 

110 

O.OII 

II 

•.OM 

■     m 

IN 

Oapar.caiiiwldna. 

M 

0.004 

« 

o.m 

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»      . 

m      m 

.■      > 

H 

rmWT,  riinaffaa, _ „.. 

•M 

0.001 

m 

•  on 

IN 

O.OM 

cm 

Til 

s 

•.loe 

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11 
u 

•  ON 
•ON 

11 

• 

•*-s 

1 

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0.0M 

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1 

0.001 

1 

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1 

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T 

■ukarir,  lajtaAdfaa, 

1 

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•.001 

1 

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-    - 

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o.oa 

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•.Nl 

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1  im  1 

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Mjn 

•TMa  MllaiT  Oiaiia  la  UUMaaad  ftaa  AaMttn. 


pabt  in 


1 

!i 

il 

!i 

m 

ji 

M 

i.M 

•IT 

ktn 

M 

m        m 

1 

).m 

M 

k«* 

M 

II 

l.iM 

If 

I.OM 

MT 

« 

W 

>.ou 

ua 

■    - 

u 

.     . 

1 

■      . 

% 

I.OM 

n 

I.Mt 

in 

» 

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•I 

■         - 

■a 

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" 

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1 

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m 

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IM 

. 

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(11 

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m 

...     —1 

BooeIQ.  /1!<  EUROPE.  907 

In  the  temperate  tnnaition  cone,  out  of  8108  species,  1262  have  been  aoeertained  to  be 
woody,  and  6@96  herbaceous ;  and  of  these  latter  8861  are  known  to  have  perennial,  and 
2878  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  the  temperate  zone,  ont  of  8982  species,  there  are  867  woody,  and  8625  herbaceous; 
of  which  2610  are  understood  to  have  perennial,  and  044  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  the  frozen  transition  zone,  out  of  2129  species,  ore  108  woody  plants,  and  1086  herba- 
ceous; of  which  611  are  supposed  to  have  perennial,  and  86^  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  the  frozen  zone,  of  the  488  species,  ^  are  woody,  and  802  herbaceous ;  of  which  871 
are  estimated  to  have  perennial  roots,  and  only  16  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

We  have  already  stated  that  in  the  frozen  or  pplar  region  the  vegetation  is  very  similar 
throughout  the  north  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America ;  vrhich  mav  in  part  arise  from  its 
litnited  extent,  and  from  the  continents  approaching  comparativelv  so  near  to  each  other. 
There  must  necessarily,  too,  be  a  greater  equality  of  temperature  than  in  the  oUier  zones ; 
the  vegetation  everywhere  appearing  nearly  upon  a  level  with  the  sea.  In  Greenland, 
Schouw  estimates  that  there  is  hardly  one-sixth  of  the  plants  that  are  not  equally  found  in 
Lapland.  Of  the  genera  of  Greenland  only  two  are  not  found  in  Lapland  {Streptomu  and 
Ck^tia),  and  both  occur  in  North  America.  We  shall,  by-and-by,  notice  how  analogous  is 
the  vegetation  discovered  during  Captain  Parry's  arctic  voyages  to  that  both  of  the  European 
and  American  continents,  in  corresponding  latitudes.  Even  in  Kamtschatka,  one  half  of 
the  plants  found  by  Wormskiold  are  European ;  and  of  the  genera  only  eight  or  ten  are  not 
European ;  and  they  are  North  American.  But,  as  we  proceed  from  the  Arctic  Regions  to 
the  south,  we  find  the  vegetation  gradually  becoming  more  and  more  dissimilar  Mtween 
America  and  Europe ;  except,  indeed,  when  the  high  mountains  in  the  respective  countries 
are  examined,  and  then  the  resemblance  again  appears.  Pursh,  whose  flora  comprises,  to  a 
very  limited  extent,  the  plants  of  the  arctic  or  sub-arctic  regions,  or  of  the  lofW  mountains 
of  North  America,  but  is  principally  confined  to  Canada,  and  to  those  districts  of  the  United 
States  whose  latitude  corresponds  pretty  nearly  wiUi  tlutof  the  more  temperate  parts  of  the 
European  continent,  has  about  one-seventh  of  his  species  oidy  European ;  and  if  the  doubt* 
ful  natives,  those  probably  introduced  fit>m  the  Old  World,  be  taken  into  account,  only  one- 
tenth:  out  of  716  genera  of  North  American  plants,  480,  or  two-thirds,  also  occur  in 
Europe,  or  in  Northern  Africa. 

Schouw  estimates  the  most  striking  disparities  between  the  vegetation  of  the  western 
parts  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  eastern  parts  of  the  New,  to  be  as  rollows : — 

1.  The  Cruciform  (fig.  88.  a)  and  VMelltferotu  familiea  (b) :  those  of  the  Pinks  (c)  and 
Labiate  flowers  (d)  are  much  the  most  numerous  on  the  old  continent  The  first,  in  North 
America,  may  be  estimated  at  ^,  in  Europe  at  about  ^ ;  and  the  other  &milies  may  be 
classed  in  the  following  proportions : — 

Norlh  AbwIo.      riuce.      Deamuk. 

,       ■       Umbelliferous    ------    A  ^        A  ,-' 

Pink  Family jV  uj         »   <.    .  ,      *' 

Labiate  flowers      -----    jlr  -^^        ^^ 

2.  Of  the  family  with  Compound  flowers  (Compositas),  the  groups  of  the  Endives  («') 
C/«iiVa.  g8  (Cichoracea),  and  of  the  Aiti- 

"'"^  '^  f  chokes  and  Thistles  {CynarO' 

cephaUe),  are  more  abundant 
in  Europe;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand.  North  America 
possesses  such  a  number  of  spe- 
-^  cies  of  Michaelmas  Daisy  {As- 

^         ter),  and  Golden  Rod  {Solida- 
f  g     go),  that  they  constitute  one- 
\       third  of  the  compound  flowers 
'  '^iss  ^H^l^      °^  ^^   country,   forming  a 
striking  feature  in  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and 
g   carrying  the  preponderance  in 
^\^  ^^(^SSSMSUBESL'SSj^JI  llMSSBSH^Ppb    favour  of  North  America. 

i:::j.^^^BPI^^SSB!^USuJS^^w^&k    s*  l^^  ^>ly  of  Bellflow- 

ers(/)f  Catnpanwace<e  )abound 

■„,,,p^  ,.^eg»y.,i— ~-ijBi— ETgrei  TEMir^,    -swyw  ™'**  "*  ^®  ^'^  Worfd ;  that 

-^^'^Biaps^^aMW&MiaJfl""*r4:^^^^&*S     ^^    of  the  Cardinal  Flowers  (Lo- 

d  ^T  beliaeete),  in  the  New. 

4.  Not  a  single  species  of  Heath  (g)  is  found  in  the  new  continent ;  while,  in  the  old, 
immense  tracts  are  covered  with  them ;  but  their  places  are  taken  in  America  bv  the  WhoN 
tleberries  {Vaccinia). 
6.  Both  in  North  America  and  in  Europe,  the  forests  ara  constituted  by  the  families  of 
Vol.  2N 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Kmlfl 

the  Cone-beuinff  (Omt^a)  and  Amentaeeoua  (^Amentaeea)  trees;  but  in  America  they  far 
exceed  dioee  of  Eurojie  in  respect  to  the  number  of  species. 

6.  In  North  America  we  find  the  types  or  representatives  of  many  tropical  flunllies; 
as,  for  example,  of  the  (hehuea,  Seitaminemu  plantt,  the  Sago  iCycadea),  the  Custard 
Apples  (Annonoeea),  the  Sapbiiaeeotu,  and  the  Mekiatomaeemu  plants :  these  are  wholly 
wanting  in  similar  latitudes  in  the  Old  World ;  and  in  regard  to  many  others,  which  are 
common  to  both  countries,  such  as  the  Palms,  Laurels,  Swallowworts  (Asclepiade«e\ 
Sumachs,  Cassias,  and  Mimoea^  they  are  more  abundant,  and  generally  reach  a  higher 
northern  latitude,  in  North  America  than  in  the  Old  World.  In  Europe,  again,  there  are 
ftwcr  arborescent  plants;  for,  according  to  Humboldt,  while  North  America  has  137  trees 
whose  trunks  reach  the  height  of  30  feet  and  upwards,  Europe  possesses  only  45  of  that 
tiluuracter. 

Siberia,  bounded  as  it  is  on  the  side  of  Europe  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  differs  from  the 
latter  country  in  a  much  less  degree ;  and  it  is  mostly  in  North  American  genera  that  this 
difibrence  lies ;  as  in  the  presence  of  the  genus  Pfuox,  Mitella,  Claytonia,  &c.  ond  in  the 
predominance  of  the  tribes  of  Michaelmas  Daisy  (Aster),  Golden  Rod  (Solidago),  Meadow- 
sweet (Sptrcea),  and  especially  of  the  Milkvetches  {Aatraffaliu)  and  Wormwoods  {Arte- 
mina),  as  well  as  (on  account  of  the  numerous  saline  lakes)  the  Oootefoots  and  Salttoortt. 

In  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  vegetation  is  very  different  fh}m  that  of  Europe  in  the 
corresponding  degrees  of  latitude.  In  Southern  Africa,  Thunberg  enumerates  118  species 
which  are  analogous  to  those  of  Europe ;  which  would  probably  be  found  considerably  to 
exceed  the  truth,  if  the  species  were  accurately  examinea.  Mr.  Brown  assures  us  that  the 
Alpine  Catstail  Grass  {PUeum  Alpinum)  and  the  Moonwort  Fern  (Botrychium  lunaria) 
exist  in  the  Banksian  herbarium,  which  were  gathered  in  the  extreme  parts  of  South  Arue- 
rica :  and  the  same  accurate  writer  observed  45  European  pheenogamous  plants  in  Terra 
Australis,  of  which  23  are  dicotyledonous  and  21  monocotyledonous,  and  121  acotyledonous 
or  Cryptogamia;  namely,  2  of  the  Fern  famil^r,  25  Menses,  14  Hepaticie,  88  Lichens,  10 
Fungi,  12  Algte.*    Tlie  very  general  distribution  of  plants  of  this  class  over  the,  surface  of 

the  globe,  we  have  before,  indeed,  had  occasion  to  notice.  '" .V-  ,    '.      ■;»>     , 

Sect.  IV. — Zoology, 

;-;-  The  zoological  features  of  Europe,  although  sufficiently  important  to  render  this  continent 
a  primary  division  of  geographic  natural  history,  are  neither  so  extensive  nor  so  varied  aa 
those  of  more  genial  regions.  We  have  already  shown  the  propriety  of  including  within 
this  range  the  southern  parts  of  Afi'ica  bordering  the  Great  Desert ;  while  the  western 
provinces  of  Asia  appear  to  partake  both  of  the  European  and  the  Oriental  zoology.  It 
might  be  imagined  that  such  a  division,  including  countries  suffering  by  the  extremes  of 
cold  and  heat,  would  present  animals  of  the  most  diversified  nature :  but  such  is  by  no  means 
the  case,  at  least  to  any  great  extent  The  chief  seat  of  this  zoological  province  appears 
to  be  on  the  southern  side  of  Central  Europe,  towards  the  Alps,  or  those  countries  lying 
between  the  latitudes  of  40*^  and  50°  N. ;  as  within  these  parallels  the  greatest  proportionate 
number  of  species  appear  to  be  found.  It  may,  however,  be  more  natural  to  consider  this 
zoological  r^ion  as  presenting  three  minor  divisions :  1.  The  arctic ;  2.  The  central ;  and, 
8.  The  southern. 

The  arctic  division  will  include  Greenland,  the  islands  of  Spitsbergen  and  Iceland,  and  a 
considerable  part  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Northern  Russia.  The  central  division  may  be 
said  to  commence  towards  tiie  northern  limits  of  Scotland,  and  to  reach  the  shores  of  North- 
em  Italy ;  or,  more  properly,  to  about  the  45th  degree  of  north  latitude.  The  southern 
range  includes  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean  countries.  Northern  Afi'ica,  and  Asia  ]^Tinor. 

The  animals  more  particularly  belonging  to  the  arctic  circle  are  few  in  species.  Those 
dreary  and  inhospitable  regions  afford  but  Tittle  sustenance  to  ruminating  quadrupeds,  or  to 
insectivorous  land  birds;  while  the  intense  cold  is  as  inimical  to  vegetation  as  to  the  pro- 
duction of  insects.  Yet  these  undisturbed  solitudes  are  instinctively  chosen  by  multitudes 
of  marine  animals,  as  secure  retreats  fh>m  the  interruption  of  man,  for  breeding  and  pro- 
viding for  their  young.  The  polar  seas  abound  with  innumerable  water-fowl ;  they  congre- 
gate and  build  among  the  rocks,  whose  surface  they  almost  cover  by  their  numbers. 

Of  the  Herring,  0%.  89.)  Pennant  wa&  among  the  first  naturalists  who  believed  that 

the  countless  myriads  which  annually  visit  the  northern 

shores  of  Europe,  migrated  firom  me  Arctic  Ocean. 

i  ,i^SHSiS^i)3^l()('ki'OO0^l^^^  ^°  account  given  bv  this  eloquent  writer  is  so  inte- 

t  Willi  I  ~^3K^^  renting,  that  we  shall  repeat  it  nearly  in  his  own 

words : — **  The  great  winter  rendezvous  of  the  herrmg 

Britbh  Haninf.    .t^  is  within  the  arctic  circle.    There  they  continue  for 

inany  months,  in  order  to  recnsit  themselves  after  the  fatigue  of  spawning ;  tne  seas  within 


••*v ». 


BookL 

off  the  She 
Mon,  which 
numbers  of 
breadth  and 
into  distinct 
drive  the  wi 
minutes,  th( 
colours,  like 
The  zool< 
America; 
writers  who 
cius,  many 
ates  thirtv-t 
genera  of  T 


within  the  a 
tion  to  grow 
geoeraphy. 
The  zoolo 
northern  lat 
perceived;  ' 
depend  for  t 
increased,  a1 


that  space  swarming  with  insect  food  in  a  degree  far  greater  than  in  our  warmer  latitudes. 
Thus  renovated,  this  mighty  army  begins  to  put  itself  in  motion  in  the  spring.    They  appear 

*  or  the  131  aeotyledonoui  planti  it  may  be  observed,  that  all,  except  one,  the  Manilea  quadrlfolia,  are  found 
m  Gr«at  Britain. 


ThnrkMdWoa^ 

Most  of  t 
and  Shetlai 
Danica,  en 
Among  the 
87,  exclusi^ 
comparing  i 
a  considera 
terrestrial  1 
endure  exti 
dispersion  i 
ceeding  to 
mentation  ( 
animals  pec 
common  in 
northern  cc 

i  _1»  _4._ 

IIICUWUI  BUI 

of  Britain, 

birds  the  gi 

he  open  ai 

peacock  an 


BookL 


7H<>feH^«5>EUROFR«frX<Ka 


off  the  Shetland  Me*  in  April  and  May :  these  are  atAfHi*  ftreniimtot  oTfte  gfiand  divi- 
dion,  which  cornea  in  June ;  and  their  appearance  ia  marked  by  certain  signs,  and  by  the 
numbers  of  birds  which  follow  to  prey  upon  them :  but  when  the  main  body  approaches,  its 
breadth  and  its  depth  are  such  as  to  alter  the  appearance  of  the  very  ocean.  It  is  divided 
into  distinct  columns,  of  five  or  six  miles  in  length,  and  three  or  fbur  in  Irmdth ;  and  they 
drive  the  water  before  them  with  a  kind  of  rippling.  Sometimes  they  sink  ibr  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes,  then  rise  agab  to  the  surface,  and,  m  bright  weather,  reflect  a  variety  of  splendid 
colours,  like  a  field  of  the  most  precious  gems." 

The  zoology  of  arctic  Europe  has  received  much  less  attention  tbaa.  that  of  Northern 
America ;  we  must,  therefinv,  be  somewhat  conciM  on  this  head.  Among  the  few  original 
writers  who  have  treated  on  Uie  fauna  of  arctic  Europe,  the  leaned  and  acute  Otho  lubri- 
cius,  many  years  a  resident  in  those  dreary  regkms,  deservedly  ranks  foremost  He  enumer* 
ates  thirty-two  species  of  M€Hnnudia  as  natives  of  Ghreenland,  nine  of  which  b<dong  to  the 
genera  of  Walrus  aqd  Seal  (TWcAecui  and  PAoca),  add  fifteen  to  the  cetaceous  order;  thus 

leaving  but  eight  species  of  terrestrial  quadrupeds,  a  propor- 
tion at  once  explained  by  the  wild  and  desolate  nature  of  these 
regions.  The  number  of  birds,  comprehending  such  as  are 
occasional  visiters,  amounts  to  fifty-twa  Seven  of  these  are 
rapacious,  and  five  are  referable  to  the  families  of  Warblers 
and  Fiachea  {Sylviada  and  FringUlidai);  the  remainder,  with 
the  solitary  exception  of  the  Ptarmigan  (Jig.  90.),  or  Logo- 
puf  mu(u«,  belong  to  the  wading  and  swimming  ordeiM,  to 
whose  nourishment  and  increase  the  arctic  solitudes  are  par- 
ticularly congeniaL  Neverthelen,  by  fiir  the  greater  number 
of  these  birds  occur  abundantly  in  more  southern  latitudes; 
and  many  extend  their  flight  to  the  warm  shores  of  the  Me- 
diterranean. Those  species,  in  fact,  which  habitually  live 
within  the  arctic  circle,  as  if  by  preference,  are  remarkably  few,  and  offer  no  good  founda- 
tion to  ground  a  belief  that  these  regions  constitute  one  of  the  primary  groups  in  animal 
geoerra^y. 

The  zoology  of  Central  Europe  may  be  said  to  commence  towards  the  60th  degree  of 
northern  latitude,  where  a  sensible  change  in  the  number  and  species  of  animals  may  be 
perceived ;  vegetation  assumes  a  marked  and  decisive  character ;  and  those  animals  which 
depend  for  their  support  both  on  the  produce  of  the  earth  and  on  the  insect  wt>rld  are  greatly 
increased,  at  once  m  number  and  in  species.  Vegetables  furnish  nutrition  to  insects,  ana 
seeds  to  birds:  the  former,  again,  become  the  prey  of  the  latter;  and  thus 
the  supplies  of  nature  ore  nicely  and  accurately  balanced,  with  a  just 
regard  to  the  preservation  of  all  her  creatures.  The  dark  pme  forests  of 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Lapland  are  the  most  northern  boundaries  of  the 
Woodpeckers ;  one  of  which  (Apfemus  tridactylus  Sw.)  is  remarkable 
for  having  but  tiuee  toes  to  its  feet  {fig.  91.)«  and  is  more  peculiarlv  a 
native  of  these  high  latitudes.  The  msectivorous  and  omnivorous  tribes 
begin,  also,  to  be  common ;  while  the  wading  and  natatorial  birds  diminish 
in  numbers,  Uiough  not  in  species ;  for  as  they  congregate  at  certain  seasons 
in  the  polar  seas,  so  during  winter  they  disperse  themselves  on  the  shores 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent.  We  have  no  very  precise  informa- 
tion OS  to  tlie  extreme  northern  range  of  those  birds  whose  chief  metropo- 
lis is  in  Central  Europe ;  and  we  are  still  deficient  in  a  Fauna  Scotica. 
Most  of  the  Arctic  birds  occur  on  the  nortiiem  shores  of  Scotland,  the  islands  of  Orkney 
and  Shetland,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.  MIkller,  in  his  Zoologia 
Danica,  enumerates  57  species  of  Mammalia^  and  131  of  birds,  as  natives  of  that  kingdom. 
Among  the  former,  3  only  are  marine,  and  14  are  Cetacete:  while  the  land  birds  amount  to 
97,  exclusive  of  26  belongii^  to  the  rapacious  genera  of  Eagles,  Falcons,  and  Owls.  On 
comparing  these  numbers  with  those  of  the  Greenland  fkuna,  we  observe,  on  the  one  hand, 
a  considerable  diminution  of  marine  Mammalia,  and  a  very  large  addition  to  the  list  of 
terrestrial  birds ;  this  latter  circumstance  is  easily  accounted  for, — they  are  not  formed  to 
endure  extreme  cold;  and  being  dependent  upon  insects  and  seeds  for  their  support,  their 
dispersion  is  naturally  limited  bv  the  facilities  afforded  by  nature  for  supporting  life.  Pro- 
ceeding to  those  countries  which  lie  towards  the  centre  of  Europe,  there  is  a  gradual  aug 
mentation  of  animal  life :  we  may  even  trace  this  change  in  the  local  distrilmtion  of  the 
animals  peculiar  to  the  British  islands.  Many  species,  in  every  department  of  zoology,  are 
common  in  the  southern  and  western  counties  of  Englajsd,  which  ore  totally  unknown  m  the 
northern  counties  and  in  Scotland.  Even  among  the  domesticated  races,  a  greater  develope- 
iuentof  BtTiicture  under  a  more  genial  climate  is  apparent  in  the  horse,  the  sheep,  and  the  ox 
of  Britain,  when  compared  to  those  of  the  islands  aai  mountains  of  Scotland ;  while  among 
birds  the  gallinaceous  genera,  which,  in  the  former  climates,  breed  and  live  at  all  seasras  in 
he  open  air,  are  reared  and  preserved  with  difliculty  in  countries  fiurther  north ;  of  these  tho 
peacock  and  Guinea  fowl  mav  be  cited  as  examples 


Thiwiotd  W<»4pwkar. 


100 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  mi. 


Book  I. 


The  Bouthem  put  of  eontnl  Europe  b,  then,  the  field  beet  calculated  for  studying  tho 
peouliaritiea  of  Eurapewi  loologr.  Cofmneneiii^  with  the  existiuff  quadrupeds,  we  may 
remark,  that  while  two  apeeiea  akme  appear  to  inhabit  the  cold  reglone  of  Denmark,  there 
are  thirteen  deecribed  ae  nativee  of  Fnuwe  and  the  adjacent  kinffdome,  aeven  of  which  havo 
been  enumeratedl  among  Britiah  quadrupeda.  The  great  white  Bear,  which  ia  jperhaps  more 
iTuly  an  arctic  animal  than  any  other,  diaappeara  on  the  aoathem  ahores  of  the  Polar  Sea, 
and  ia  replaced  in  temperate  Europe  by  the  common  Inown  apeciee.  Of  thia  ffonus  there  are, 
flcording  to  Cuvier,  but  two  recent  species  belonghig  to  Euro|)e,  the  brown  (fig.  OS.)  and  the 
,,yjj2    .^^^h.^^fc^  hltxk  bear.    Othera  imagine,  with  aome  show  of  reason,  that 

;^^  w^^^^l^g^^      ^^^  ^g^  ,„Q,^ .  ^  ^g  yuieties  ftom  the  first  are  very  remark- 

I  able.  The  second  is  the  black  bear  of  Europe,  diflbring  firom 
that  of  America  in  many  important  points  of  structure :  only 
one  living  example  appears  to  have  been  seen  and  dissected ; 
and  this,  having  died  in  confinement,  «fibrded  no  clue  to  a 
Imowledge  of  its  haunts  or  manners.    ■ 

The  Wolf  and  the  Fox,  under  difibrent  varieties  or  speclef, 
appear  generally  distributed  over  Europe :  to  these  we  must  add 
the  Ljta  and  ttie  Wild  Cat,  as  the  onljr  true  rapacious  or  car- 
nivorous animals  that  have  been  appropriated  to  Uiia  division  of 
Biowa  EiiMiMu  B«M.  ^jje  e;lobe.  The  Ljrnx,  once  common  m  central  Europe,  is  now 
only  known  in  some  parta  of  Spam,  tho  Apennines,  and  in  the  northern  kingdoms.  The 
wild  cat  is  still  said  to  be  a  native  of  Britain,  and  is  spread  over  other  kingdoms  on  the  Con- 
tinent A  recent  author  includes  among  the  "  extinct  animals"  of  Britain  tho  hygena  and 
tiger  whose  bones  have  been  found  in  the  caves-of  Kirkdale,  as  forming  part  of  the  modem 
geographic  distribution  of  animals.  This  hypothesis  lies  open  to  many  and  great  objections. 
u  such  formidable  and  terrific  carnivorous  animals  have  existed  in  Europe  since  the  last 
revolution  of  our  globe,  what  others  constituted  their  prey  1  Their  food  being  flesh  alone, 
what  were  the  other  races  of  quadrupeds  destined  by  nature  to  furnish  them  with  subeistence ! 
These  questions  must  be  first  considered,  before  we  can  assent  to  an  opinion  so  confidently 
advanced.  Whatever  might  have  been  Uie  character  of  European  zoology  before  tho  deluge, 
certain  it  is,  that  in  its  present  state  it  exhibits  Uiat  harmony  and  consistency  which  peculi- 
arly marks  a  wise  provision  for  all  created  things.  As  the  number  of  European  Mammalia 
is  so  disproportionably  small,  when  compared  with  those  of  Asia,  Afldca,  and  America,  so  are 
the  species  which  are  to  keep  their  own  class  under  subjection  fbeble  and  few ;  and  this  law 
is  not  only  iq>parent  among  quadrupeds,  but  is  equally  observable  in  ever^  other  division  of 
animals.  Now,  as  birds  are  much  more  numerous,  we  find  that  in  addition  to  the  natural 
enemies  in  their  own  chiss,  there  is  a  group  of  quadrupeds  more  particularly  destructive  to 
the  feathered  tribes.  These  are  the  Muttelte,  or  Weasels;  few  perhaps  in  species,  but  im- 
portant in  their  numbers,  and  in  their  powers  of  destruction.  No  less  than  eight  species 
inhabit  different  parts  of  Europe.  Like  the  monkeys  of  the  tropics,  many  of  uiem  climb 
trees  and  suck  eggs ;  and  by  thus  destroying  birds  in  every  stage  of  life,  fixm  the  egg  to  the 
adult,  are  peculiany  adapted  to  prevent  an  undue  increase  of  numbers. 

On  the  granivorouB  quadrupeds  it  may  be  observed,  that  although  the  woods  of  Europe  are 
deficient  in  that  variety  of  pulpy  firuits  so  abundant  in  tropical  countries,  and  upon  which  the 
muneraus  monkeys,  bills,  and  ouier  animals  of  those  regions  principally  live,  yet  there  is  a 
-mf«j>* i *  gg  'M  tv . !;  peat  diversity  of  nuts  and  grain.  Hence  we  find  a  propor- 
tionate number  of  small  quadrupeds,  whose  subsistence  en- 
tirely depends  upon  tiiese  bmmtiftil  siipplies  of  nature: 
under  this  head  may  be  enumerated  the  Hedgehog,  Squirrel, 
and  the  various  Mice,  of  which  seven  species  belong  to 
Eurroe.  The  Beaver  (Jtr.  93.)  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Rhone,  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  other  of  the  larger 
!  i'-^^'^^ymii^     ';^Zz:iSiK^^   European  rivers.    If  naturalists  are  correct  in  considenng 

this  to  be  identical  with  the  American  beaver,  it  is  one  of 

j«fa,j^       '-—^-^.^^f       "       the  very  few  instances  of  the  same  species  of  animal  inhab- 

'  '  BMW.  iting  the  temperate  parts  of  the  ola  and  new  continents. 

The  black  bear  of  Europe  was  long  confocnded  with  that  of  America ;  and  a  simUar  difier- 

ence  may  possibly  exist  between  the  beavers  of  the  two  continents. 

The  diflffirent  species  of  Mice,  &e.,  now  trranged  under  many  genera,  form  an  important 
part  of  European  zoology;  as  will  amear  fnm  ue  following  list,  flimished  by  Mr.  Griffith 
Iran  Uie  valuable  Mammalogy*  of  M.  D<««raarest: — 


Arvieola  amphibiui •  •  ■  .Water  Ru. 

■nralis FitMlloaw. 

ftiWui Fulvoui  ditto. 

- —  SsHsntorstviiiw .oiruouif  ditto. 

Oeoryehttt  Nonraginui TIm  iMiuniiif. 

tamatris Land  ditto. 

Mui  aylvatieua Field  Monia. 

•->«  easipaaitia Plaia  ditto. 


Musmnaeuloa House  Mouid 

~—  maaarina Rarveet  ditto. 

— ^  ninutua Srb!!  ditls. 

—  acrariua Setnie  ditto. 

aorieinne Blirew-lllce  ditto. 

— —  dielirunia PaKyeoioand  Bat. 

—  iriandicus ....Iceland  ditto. 


94 


PABTfil.      I     BOOM  1. 


EUROPE. 


r  atttdying  tho 
ipeds,  we  moy 
)ejiinarki  there 
of  which  have 
B  perhaps  more 
the  Polar  Sea, 
ronuB  there  are, 
r^.  92.)  and  the 
of  reawn,  that 
re  very  remark. 
,  differing  ftmn 
itructure:  only 
and  dissected ; 
no  clue  to  a 

:ie8  or  species, 
le  we  must  add 
pacious  or  car- 
this  division  of 
Europe,  is  now 
ngdoms.  Tie 
ma  on  the  Con- 
tho  hyena  and 
of  the  modem 
"eat  objections, 
since  tho  lost 
ng  flesh  alone, 
li  subsistence ! 
so  confidently 
)re  tho  deluge, 
which  peculi- 
!an  Mammalia 
onerica,  so  are 
;  and  this  law 
ler  division  of 
to  the  natural 
destructive  to 
)eciee,  but  im- 
eiffht  species 
>f  uem  climb 
be  egdf  to  the 

of  Europe  are 
)on  which  the 
yet  there  is  a 
And  a  propo^ 
ibsistence  en- 
s  of  nature: 
hog,  Squirrel, 
es  belong  to 
le  vicinity  of 
of  the  larger 
Q  considenng 
r,  it  is  one  of 
ininuil  inhab* 
V  continent& 
similar  difier- 

an  important 
'  Mr.  Cfriffitli 

itto.  .,^..<r    .„ 

keditio. 

onradBaL 
Utta 


The  Hamatera,  remarkable  fer  their  cheek  pouches,  and  belonging  to  the  same  natural  ' 
family  aa  the  mice,  have  their  chief  metropolia  in  Siberia ;  yet  one  species  (Orieehu  nil*  - 
garii)  extends  to  central  and  northern  Europe.    The  Marmots  (Areton^s  Marmottm,  Bo* '; 
bao)  are  likewise  nucivorous,  and  occur  on  the  mountains  of  central  and  northern  Europe^ , 
together  with  the  SpertnophUus  citiUu$,  or  ^ulisk  of  the  Germans.    Of  the  Hare,  nov  , 
species  are  European,  the  snowy,  the  common,  tbo  calling,  and  the  rabbit;  and  these  com- 
plete the  list  of  European  QUre$.  ' 
Among  ruminating  quadrupeds,  the  Elk  and  Reindeer  are  well-known  inhabitants  of  th«  ' 
northern  countries;  uie  latter  giving  place  to  the  FalloW'-deer,  the  Stag,  and  the  Roebuol^  ' 
in  the  midland  parts  of  Europe.    In  the  lofty  mountains  and  inacceaibTe  precipices  of  di«  * 
Alps  and  Pyrenees,  the  Chunois,  Yzard,  and  Ibex  still  live  in  partial  security,  notwith*  ' 
standing  the  daring  intrepidit;^  of  their  hunters.    The  Musmon  is  another  European  quad* 
raped  deserving  particular  notice,  as  being  generally  considered  the  origin  Of  all  our  dunei •  1 
tic  breeds  of  sheep,    ^t  appears  still  to  exist  in  a  slate  of  nature  among  the  high  mo>mtalns 
of  Corsica  and  Sardinu ;  and  although  now  extirpated  upon  the  continent,  is  well  aseer* 
tained  to  have  formerly  been  common  in  the  mountains  of  Asturia  in  Spain.    Lastly,  it 
appears  incontestable  tbtat  the  ox,  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  nature's  ffifts  to  man,  originally 
existed  in  a  wild  state  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  but  whether  as  a  mstinct  speciet  or  mere 
variety  is  still  uncertain.    The  white  ox  of  Scotland  is  a  peculiar  breed,  still  preserved  in 
some  few  parks  of  the  nobility,  and  will  be  noticed  hereafter.    But  a  much  larger  race,  dia- 
tinguished  by  Hamilton  Smith  under  the  name  of  the  Fossil  Urus  {Chrfff',  Cuv,  iv.  414.), 
idthough,  probablv,  in  existence  long  after  the  invasion  of  Ceesar,  is  now  only  known,  like 
the  elk  of  Ireland,  by  its  gi^ntic  bones. 

From  this  brief  enumeration  of  the  European  quadrupeds  it  will  be  perceived  that  their 
numbers  are  too  few,  and  their  original  dispersion  too  obscure,  to  allow  or  any  correct  notions 
being  formed  as  to  their  natural  distribution.  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  our  domestic 
animals,  and  the  several  races,  breeds,  or  varieties  that  have  appurontly  sprung  ftom  them, 
the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  writings  of  F.  Cuvier,  and  the  extensive  researches  of 
Hamilton  Smith,  whose  acquaintance  with  the  order  of  ruminating  animals,  more  partico* 
larly,  is,  perhaps,  superior  to  that  of  any  other  living  zoologist 

The  ornithological  features  of  the  zoological  province  to  which  Europe  belongs,  have 
already  claimed  our  attention.  We  shall,  therefore,  now  merely  notice  a  iew  circumstances 
connected  with  the  ornithology  of  central  Europe  On  the  highest 
summits  of  the  Alps,  and  in  the  vajst  forests  which  clothe  their  sides 
in  Hungary,  Switzerland,  and  the  Tyrol,  are  found  all  the  four  spe- 
cies of  European  Vultures:  only  one  of  these,  VuUur  fulvut  (Jig. 
94.),  appears  to  have  a  range  in  countries  fajther  north ;  yet  all  are 
distributed  over  the  southern  kingdoms,  and  two  are  again  met  with 
on  the  northern  limits  of  Africa  and  western  Asia.  'Hie  Iceland  or 
gyr  Falcon,  long  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  high  northern  lati- 
tudes, is  now  considered  the  same  with  the  Falco  eandicatu  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Germany.  The  wide  geographic  range  of  the 
rapacious  order  has  already  been  advert^  to;  nor  do  we  find  any- 
species  besides  the  Vultures  which  serve  to  mark  the  ornithology 
of  central  Europe.  The  forests  of  Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland, 
uid  France  appear  to  contain  all  the  European  Woodpeckers,  which, 
notwithstanding  their  wide  dispersion,  are  but  thinly  and  partially 
scattered  in  the  northern  and  southern  kingdoms. 

The  range  of  the  small  insectivorous  biros,  or  warblers,  requires  much  investigation ;  nor 
are  we  at  Uiis  moment  aware  of  any  species  in  Germany  which  does  not  occur  in  France  or 
towards  northern  Italy.  The  few  gallinaceous  birds  of  Europe  are  nearly  all  found  towards 
its  centre,  although  the  difibrent  species  of  erouse  seem  to  affect  the  more  ntnthem  lati- 
tudes. The  warm  covering  of  foathers  whicn  protects  their  feet,  is  peculiarly  adapted  as 
a  defence  from  the  intense  cold  of  the  polar  regions;  The  Bustards,  on  the  contrarv,  occupy 
the  middle  regions  of  Europe,  and  extend  latitudinally  ftom  the  confines  of  Asia  to  the  tdiores 
of  the  Atlantic.  The  Reenter  {Merop$  ajAatter),  the  Roller,  the  Hoopoe,  and  the  Golden 
Oriole,  in  their  annual  migrations  finm  Africa,  visit  all  the  central  parts  of  the  Continent, 
but  become  progressively  scarce  as  we  advance  northward). 

In  the  third  portitm  of  the  European  range,  we  comprehend  the  south  of  France,  thei  whole 
of  Spain,  Italy,  and  Turkey,  together  with  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
bordering  Ama  Minor,  and  Northern  Africa. 

On  the  geographic  range  of  the  quadrupeds  more  peculiar  to  thts^e  countries,  little  can  be 
said ;  as  the  materials  to  be  gathered  ftom  the  relations  of  travellers  unacquamted  with  zoology 
are  generally  mcwt  imperfect  Ther^  is  no  evidence  of  the  great  northern  ruminating  animals^ 
soch  as  tho  Elk  and  the  Reindeer,  being  found  wild  in  any  of  the  coontries  which  bnder 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  idthough  a  snuul  species,  probably  die  fallow  deer  or  the  roebuck^ 
Vol.  I.  36 


FdUous  Vulture. 


DESCRIPnVB  GEOGRAPHY. 


PmtITL 


b  reprewntcd  m  ttill  to  be  m«t  with  in  the  eztoiuive  fbmitt  of  Calabria.  The  Porcupine, 
Qow  wild  in  thoae  countrici,  is  luppoaed,  (but  with  a  ili^ht  show  of  reann,)  to  have  been 
introduced  flxiin  Africa ;  but  fiur  wnat  purpom  we  are  uninformed.  The  Buffldo  ia  domesti- 
eated  in  Greece  and  Turkey,  and  wme  parts  of  southern  Italy ;  where  it  is  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  used  for  draught 

The  ornithology  of  the  countries  bordiring  upon  the  Mediterranean  presents  many 
interesting  peculiarities.  The  vultures,  which  are  seldom  found  northward  of  the  Alps, 
occur  more  Drequentl]|r  as  the  climate  becomes  warmer.  This  tribe  appears  to  follow  Uio 
courso  of  the  Apennines  in  Italy,  and  of  the  higher  mountains  of  Spam  and  Greece,  from 
whence  they  extend  their  range  to  Asia  Minor  and  northern  Aftica.  The  Imperial  Eagle 
(Falco  imperialU  Tem.)  is  chiefly  found  in  southern  Europe,  while  the  Golden  Eagle  ii 
much  more  numerous  in  the  cokler  latitudes.  The  gigantic  Owls  of  the  polar  regions  are 
hero  unknown ;  but  two  or  three  homed  species,  of  diminutivo  size,  follow  the  migratory 
troops  of  smaller  birds  in  their  annual  journeys  across  the  Mediterranean.  Two  of  thera 
■mall  owls  have  not  yet  been  described.  In  the  extensive  fiimily  of  the  warblers,  many 
appear  peculiar  to  Ituy,  Spain,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia ;  and  in  the  latter  island  thore  has  recently 

been  discovered  a  second  species  of  European  Starling  (5(umu« 
«ntco2or  Tem.)  (Jig.  96.)  The  grouse  of  northern  Europe  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  seen.  But  two  species  of  bustard  (_Otia  Tetrao 
and  Houbara)  seldom  met  with  ikrther  north,  are  common  in 
Spain,  Italy,  and  Turkey.  Here  also  we  first  meet  with  the 
Afiriuan  and  Asiatic  genera  CfurtorUu  and  Hetnipodiut ;  birds 
which  delight  in  the  dry  and  arid  plains  of  these  continentfl, 
where  they  run  w;th  amazinffswiftness.  The  rocky  and  un- 
cultivated wastes  of  Spain,  Turkey,  and  Asia  Minor,  fumiih 
two  species  of  rock  grouse  (Pterocle$)  long  confounded  with 
;   .  gioniui  Unieoior.  that  northern  genus,  of  which  it  is  the  representative  in  warm 

climates.    The  beautiful  Wall-creeper,  with  its  bright  rosy  wings,  although  rare  in  other 

Cof  Europe,  is  not  uncommon  in  Italy ;  while  the  Golden  Oriole,  the  Bee-eater,  the 
.loe,  and  the  Roller,  four  of  the^  most  beautiful  European  birds,  are  so  abundant  in  the  two 
Sicilies  during  the  spring  and  autumnal  migrations,  that  they  may  occasionally  be  seen  hang- 
ing in  the  poulterers'  shops  of  Naples  and  Palermo.  The  unicm  of  the  African,  European, 
and  Asiatic  ornithology  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  is  further  apparent  among  the 
water-birda.  The  Pelican,  the  Spoon-bill,  and  the  Flamingo,  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  these 
countries;  although,  from  their  large  size  attracting  the  sportsmen,  they  are  never  seen  is 
any  considerable  numbers. 

The  European  reptiles  are  too  few  to  afford  any  material  illustration  of  animal  diatiibutioD. 
The  most  remarkable  forms  and  the  greatest  numerical  proportion  occur  in  southern  Europe, 
particularly  in  Italy  and  Greece,  and  the  islands  of  Sicily  and  Maltti:  some  of  these,  as  the 
Gecko,  or  house  lizards  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  belong  to  genera  not  met  with  iiurther  north, 
but  common  on  the  opposite  snores  of  Africa  and  Asia  Minor. 

The  fish  and  oUier  marine  animals  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  coasts  bordering  on  the 
Atlantic  have  not  been  well  investigated,  and  our  slight  acquaintance  with  them  is  insuflicient 
to  give  us  any  correct  idea  of  their  nature;  but  on  entering  the  Mediterranean,  we  find,  at 
Gibraltar,  many  of  those  peculiar  to  much  more  southern  latitudes.  Spain  and  Portugal 
cannot  be  said,  like  England,  France,  or  Holland,  to  have  national  fisheries ;  but  no  sooner 
do  we  pass  Gibraltar,  than  these  natural  sources  of  prosperity  and  plenty  are  again  opened 
to  the  industry  and  support  of  man.  The  enormous  shoals  of  Anchovies,  (Jig.  96.)  annually 
gg  employ,  in  their  capture  and  preparation,  a  great  number 

of  persons:  and  the  exportation  of  this  highly  flavoured 
little  fish,  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  creates  an  important 
branch  cf  permanent  commerce.  The  Herring  and,  we 
believe,  the  Pilchard,  are  not  unknown  in  the  fish-mar- 
AnehoTT.  knis  of  Sicily  and  Malta;  but,  notwithstanding  their 

abundance  in  northern  Europe,  they  are  scarce  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  never  seen  in  any 
considerable  numbers.  The  tunny  fishery  is  peculiar  to  Sicily,  although  there  is  very  little 
doubt  that  the  same  fish  firequents  the  shores  and  islands  of  the  Peloponnesus ;  yet  the  tota' 
disregard  of  the  Turks  to  all  sources  of  national  wealth  blinds  them  to  this,  and  to  every 
other  advantage  which  Nature  has  placed  within  their  grasp.  The  Ichthyology  of  southern 
Europe  is  certainly  of  a  more  marked  and  peculiar  chuacter  than  any  ouer  department  of 
European  zoology.  Of  nearly  150  species  observed  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  not  more 
iha.n  one-third  milonged  to  the  Ichthyology  of  Great  Britain  and  northern  Europe. 

The  Turtle  of  the  Mediterranean  is  tmit  described  by  authors  under  the  name  of  Teitudo 
carella :  writers  have  uniformly  copied  each  other  in  asserting  that  this  ia  the  same  as  the 
iioggeruead  Turtle  of  the  Wert  Indies;  and  that  its  flesh  is  coarse,  rank,  oily,  and  uoi 


J  .4>(*"  VV^  ■>       i^iitt       •!# 


'iV 


.HsV 


PajitIIL 

le  Porcupine, 
to  have  been 
lo  ii  domesti- 
titnea,  though 

esenta  many 
of  the  AltM^ 
to  follow  ^0 
Ghreece,  fVom 
iperial  Eagle 
[Icn  Eagle  ii 
I  regions  are 
he  roigratoty 
Pwo  of  these 
rblere,  many 
3  has  recently 
ingiSturnut 
u  Europe  are 
[Otia  Tetrao 
J  common  in 
leot  with  the 
joditu ;  birds 
e  continents, 
>cky  and  un- 
[inor,  fumidi 
bunded  with 
live  in  warm 
are  in  other 
ee-eater,  the 
uit  in  the  two 
)e  seen  hang- 
n,  European, 
t  among  the 
with  in  these 
lever  seen  in 

distribution. 
Iiern  Europe, 
these,  08  the 
irthcr  north, 

ering  on  the 
s  insufficient 
we  find,  at 
nd  Portugal 
at  no  sooner 
gain  opened 
6.)  annually 
reat  number 
ily  flavoured 
tn  important 
ing  and,  we 
lie  fish-mar- 
nding  their 
seen  in  any 
s  very  little 
^et  the  tota' 
nd  to  every 
of  southern 
lartment  of 
la,  not  more 

3. 

of  TeBtudo 
ame  as  the 
ly,  and  ini 

■'-  J   ,f«sV  - 


Boot  L 


"f 


EUROPE. 


309 


Losswbttd  Taitls. 


edible.    Th«  aco  iracy  of  both  these  itatementa  may  bo  questioned.    Whatever  may  be  the 

qualities  of  the  West  Indian  Loggerhead,  we  know,  ftom 
personal  experience,  that  the  fleaa  of  the  Mediterraneen 
species  is  delicious.  We  were  once  becalmed  off  the  Isla 
of  Elba,  and  in  one  morning  captured  a  sufficient  number  ot 
small  turtle  to  supply  tho  cabin  table  for  a  week.  Thejr 
'  made  exquisite  soup ;  and  although  one  of  the  company  wae 
ill,  it  arose  fi:om  repletion.  We  omitted  to  draw  and  describe 
the  animal,  firom  a  oolief  that  it  was  the  HawkVbill  TurUe^ 
the  only  species  described  as  inhabitinff  the  Mediterranean; 
the  figure  given  by  Gottwold  (fig.  07.j  has  been  considered, 
by  Dr.  Shaw,  as  representing  the  TVstudo  caretta. 
Of  European  insects,  a  bare  enumeration  of  the  genera  would  alone  fill  a  volume;  and  in 
the  half-artificial,  half-natural,  arrangement  in  which  our  entomological  systems  at  this 
moment  remain,  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  precise  idea  even  on  the  natural  distribution  of 
the  fiunilies.  As  we  approach  the  provinces  of  southern  Italy  and  tlie  Peloponnesus,  we 
find  many  genera  which  more  properly  characterise  Western  Asia  and  Africa ;  while,  in 
OS  Sicily  and  Malta,  the  seodephagous  groups,  particularly  the 

Linniean  Carabii,  are  diminished;  apparently  in  species,  but 
certainly  in  numbers.  It  is  in  these  countries  that  the  Ants, 
those  universal  scavengers  of  nature  in  tropical  countries,  begin 
to  appear  in  almost  every  situation,  and  to  perform  those  (^ces 
which  in  more  temperate  regions  have  been  assigned  to  the 
Oeodephaga,  Brachelytra,  and  Necrophaga  among  coleopter- 
ous insects.  Most  of  the  northern  Butterflies  (^Papilionea  ow.) 
ci«op«tra'»  Butierflr.  are  common  even  in  Sicily,  where,  notwithstanding  a  dissimilar 

vegetation  and  a  more  heated  atmosphere,  we  find  only  three  or  four  species  unknown  to 
the  British  fauna :  among  these,  the  Gonepteryx  Cleopatra  {fig.  98.)  or  CleofMitra's  Butter- 
fly, much  resembles  a  British  species,  but  haa  the  middle  of  the  anterior  wings  of  a  rich 
orange. 
The  Radiated  animals  of  the  Mediterranean  are  particularly  numerous ;  the  many  har- 
99  bourn,  coves,  and  sub-immersed  rocks,  sheltered  from  those  violent 

commotions  which  agitate  the  mighty  Atlantic,  afford  them  secure 
protection,  and  contribute  to  their  rapid  increase.  Their  investiga- 
tion, hitherto  much  neglected,  offers  a  wide  field  for  the  discovonea 
of  naturalists  who  can  study  them  in  their  native  seas.  Numerous 
;  species  of  Sea  Anemone,  or  animal  flowers,  unfold  themselves  in 
the  crevices  of  the  rocks;  one  of  Uiese  {,fig.  99.),  ornamented  with 
rich  purple,  is  particularly  common  on  all  the  ahorea  of  Sicily. 

The  tubular  and  cellular  polypes,  whose  habitations  are  termed 
corals  and  corallines,  are  generally  abund-  IQQ 

ant  in  warm  latitudes.    Among  these  a 
vast  number  of  species  occurs  on  the ' 
shores  of  Sicily,  Italy,  and  the  Greek 
Animal  Fiowen.  laltinds,  which  do  uot  inhabit  the  British 

coasts.  Sicily,  for  many  ages,  has  been  celebrated  for  its  fisheries 
of  the  true  red  coral  {fig.  100.);  and  it  still  affords  employment  at 
certain  seasons  to  many  fishermen :  but  the  produce  of  the  old 
grounds  of  late  years  has  materially  diminished,  through  wont  of 
care  and  due  preservation.  The  Bay  of  Naples  likewise  produces 
this  beautifbl  substance,  but  the  pieces  usually  found  are  small,  and 
in  no  great  abundance. 
The  Molluscous  animals  or  shell-fish  of  southern  Europe  are  in 
101  great  variety ;  and  are  much  prized  by 

all  classes,  as  general  articles  of  food. 

to  see  from  twelve  to  fifteen  different  sorts  of  shell-fish,  none  of 

a  small  size,  exposed  in  the  principal  market  at  Naples;  and  we 

have  been  assured  that  double  this  number  are  not  unfrequently 

served  at  the  tables  of  the  higher  ecclesiastics  and  nobility  of 

Tarentum  during  Lent,  that  city  beui?  highly  celebrated  for  its 

shell-fish.     The  Solen  strigilatm  (fig.  101.)  is  abundant  at 

Sokn  striciittu.  Naples,  and  considered  most  delicate  food. 

On  comparing  the  conchology  of  the  Mediterranean  with  that  of  Britain,  there  does  not 

annniyr  act  miich  diflerence  as  tit  first  ini'^ht  have  been  imo^ined  -  nor  are  we  dwarn  of  more 

than  three  or  four  genera  in  those  southern  latitudes  of  which  examples  have  not  been  found 

m  the  British  seas.    Yet,  on  descending  to  species,  the  difference  is  much  greater.  Perhapii 


Bed  Coial. 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtUI. 


f  j»>thirdi  or  thtm-Mhii  ofthe  Maditomnmn  ■halla  hav*  bmn  Iband  in  Um  Chuuwl,  and  on 
'ht  "'n  or  othM  ccmrta  of  BriUin.  The  remaininff  portion  indicatit  a  itroDjf  affinity  with 
ui«  o(<  Iff  of  India  and  t  lo  l{r>«l  Son  on  one  hano,  and  that  of  Africa,  towarda  Sena^ 

on  tha  «  Tho  fluviatllo  speciei  nrn  nxMt  numeroua  in  central  Europe,  whore  the  heti 

of  ■ummci  ^  icM  calculated  to  dry  up  tlinm  nnall  poola  and  ahallow  etreama,  in  which  niott 
of  thcBo  univalve  uiiiUuKa  deliKlit  to  ij  -II.  Tna  fluviatile  bivalvea  are  few ;  but  a *«  of 
apeoiea  which  Mem  pocoliar  to  tiie  European  ninffe.  Independently  of  thoee  -cmmon  ahlce 
to  Britain  and  the  Continent,  there  are  othera  in  France  and  the  iouth  of  Euro<M  (J!g,  lf)8). 
Unio  littonUg  («}  ui, '  the  true  U.  batava  (6)  are  comoKn  in  the  Seine ;  and  wo  liavo  received 
anothnr  ehell  from  near  Gibraltar,  which  we  auapect  to  be  a  new  •peciee,  intermediate  be- 
"^    i^f^      ^^9h^^  h  .^^^     tween  the  latter  and  ovatui ;  wo  name  it 

proviaionally  Unio  intemudiut  (c,  c). 

The  Cepnalopoda,  or  outtle-nah  of  the 
Mediterranean,  though  not  of  many  ipeciei, 
are  nmetimea  found  in  prodigioui  numbera, 
and  fVefluently  grow  to  an  enormoua  lize. 
The  sooloffy  of  the  Black  and  Caapian  Seu 
ia  vory  litUe  known. 

The  phosphoreacence  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean ia  at  times  so  brilliant,  tliat  it  exri'.* 
the  admiration  of  all  voyagera;  it  thereti<<.> 
detervea  to  be  particularly  mentioned.    '  h 
Rim  Birtu*  Biwii).  phenomenon,  ia  entirely  product  >i  bv  votk  <m 

marine  animals.  Spix,  the  Bavarian  naturalist  and  traveller,  in  his  panage  do  .>  a  the  Medi- 
terranean, cauaed  aeveml  buckets  to  be  filled  with  this  luminous  water ;  and  tho  following 
results  attended  his  experiments : — 

These  luminous  animalcula  adhered  to  whatever  was  wetted  with  the  water,  and  continued 
to  shine  thereon ;  the  buckets,  when  shaken,  appearing  flill  of  luminous  particles.  The 
water,  examined  by  a  microscope,  was  filled  with  little  todies,  some  roundisn,  some  oMonir, 
and  generally  about  the  size  of  a  poppy-seed;  each  of  those  had,  at  one  end,  a  small  navel- 
like  o{)ening,  encircled  by  from  six  to  nine  delicate  filaments  which  float  within  tho  bladder, 
and  with  which  the  animal  seems  to  attach  itself  to  other  bodies,  and  to  seize  its  nourish- 
ment In  the  inside  of  these  bladders  there  were  many  other  small  darker  points,  crowded 
together  on  one  side,  or  here  and  there  some  larger  ones,  which  might  be  either  the  remains 
ofsmaller  animals  which  they  had  swii^jwed,  or  their  own  spawn.  These  globular  animal- 
cula (which  Spiz  considers  to  be  of  \'\e  nature  of  Medusie)  have  been  named  by  Fitaa  and 
Lechenault  Arethu$a  oelagiea,  and  by  Savignv  NoctUuca  tnUiarit.  They  swim  in  greater 
or  leas  numbers  at  nignt,  Imt  in  ue  sunslime  they  appear  to  the  naked  eye  like  little  drops 
of  grease.  When  put  into  a  vessel  they  soon  die  and  fall  to  the  bottom ;  when  they  come 
near  together,  they  appear  involuntarily  to  attach  each  other,  so  that  they  ferm  whole  groups. 
The  same  phenomenon  is  sometimes  observed  in  the  day-time,  when  the  sky  is  dark,  which 
rarely  happens :  as  these  animals  are  seldom  found  in  water  taken  up  in  the  dav-time,  it  is 
probable  they  then  sink  to  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  and  only  return  near  the  surmce  towuds 
night    (Spur,  Trav.)  „ 

Other  luminous  bodies  resemble  balls  as  large  as  a  nut ;  and  every  wave  striking  a  ship, 
when  filled  wiUi  these  animals,  lights  up  all  surrounding  object&  Besides  these,  Uiere  are 
sometimes  insulated  lummous  blacUers,  like  fiery  balls,  a  foot  in  diameter,  which  rise  singly 
above  the  water ;  and  the  striking  (rf*  two  waves  together  produces  a  shallow  bluish  streak 
of  light,  resembling  the  reflection  of  lightning  on  Uie  water.    ( "f'ix,  "^av.  i.  44.  47.) 

The  quadrupeds  of  Europe,  accordini?  to  the  most  recent  disUJt.'lc    m'^Vm  species  {Orif. 
Cuv."),  under  toe  modem  oivisions,  a    prise  about  ninety  specici,  >  i  m    -t '  under  th<- 
lowing  genera  and  sub-genero.    To  thes^  must  be  added  th'^  K'l--  tv>  Irii^'.as,  or  Cetaccte, 
chiefly  mhabiting  the  high  northern  latitudes : — 


Blnl|ilm 


I.  «<ii<lo 


2rirt' 


Snta t 

iasf: : : : :? 

Unm 1 

.  IS     Aiilia I 

^    .  _.        Gala I 

»inftur*b.    iFotDrha    ...   .4 
.1    }tu«a ( 


far 


Anrleoh 


.   .   .    .S 

Mm I 

CricMi     .   .   .    .1 
OmWUm   ....  I 

iifxln I 

Ardoap  •   .    .    . » 

Bciuna 8 

Fknmjt  ....  I 


Ctmt  .  . 

JMlSf*    . 
Ita|>riM|n 


TUim  ■ 


Otiria   .    . 
MImiWk. 


•i%d  ,  i«..(i  «.f  ^^^opean  br'xds,  in  reference  to  our  former  remarks  on  the  geographic  dis* 
trif  :iiIo:-< .  'oRv.ri\ts,  deserves  p.urticular  attention.  Those  marked*  are  typical  of  fbmUies  or 
su'^oiiii'i  /;  thijae  f  includ*;  ub-genera,  or  subordinate  variations  of  structure  to  which  wo 
shr:  U  nut  a'-:  Ach  a  distinct  p:-  >  .onymic  name ;  either  because  the  higher  gronps  have  not  been 
sufficiently  aaialysed,  or  because  these  subordinate  forms  have  been  mista&en  Ibr  genera. 
Decided  atracnrlers  are  excluded ;  other  genera,  of  uncertain  T*nk»  are  net  tnarksd.  T&9 
typical  genera'of  ths  wading  birds  hAve  not  yet  been  ascertained^ 


EUROPE. 


•(Wralw 
rnfUwCu. 


DMtatoimdK 
TMairaM 


Ml. 
•  (Vifnnlx  IW 

ftafm'in"  Tim. 


Hg.'llMIIMM 

ruu  «^Si. 

MaamtM  SKi. 


tCkMlitaC*!. 


Shot.  V. — Langvagtt. 

'■'Xti  d,  conndcrad  in  regard  to  ita  languagea,  comprehend!  the  whole  (jflobe,  through  thoea 
u..    r.    colonies  which  have  been  fiMinded  by  the  nation*  of  thia  continent  in  every  other 
.quarter  <tX  the  world. 

The  European  languagee,  ancient  and  modem,  form  eix  ikmilics: — 1.  The  fiunily  of  the 
.tterim  lanfuagea;  3.  That  of  the  Celtic  language! ;  3.  That  of  tho  Thraco-Pelaigie  or 
OrtBco-Latm  languagea ;  4.  The  family  of  tho  Oermanio  language! ;  5.  That  of  tho  Sela- 
vmiie  languages ;  6.  The  family  of  the  Uralian  language*,  commonly  called  the  Finnith  or 
Chudio. 

Suwnrr.  1.  » 

The  Iberian  or  Basque  ftmilyhas  been  divided  into  the  two  fbllowing  bnuichea: — 1. 
Ancient  languages  long  extinct,  under  which  are  classed  the  idioms  spoken  i  the  Iberians 
in  the  greater  part  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  in  aouthem  Gaul,  and  m  eomi  part!  of  Italy 
and  ita  tnree  great  ialanda.  2.  Ancient  language!  !till  living;  of  which  the  on);  one  remain* 
ing  is  the  Eicuora  or  Baique,  formerly  spoken  in  a  large  portion  of  Spain  and  of  southern 
Gaul,  and  now  spoken  only  by  the  Yaicongado$  or  Ba$<nte»  in  the  Spanish  i  rovinces  of 
Biscay  and  Navarre,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  south  m  France.  The  Basci  les  are  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Vascones.  Their  language,  which  resembles  no  othi'  European 
ii^iom,  though  it  has  adopted  several  Latin  and  some  uerman  words,  appears  to  havi  a  certain 
affinity  to  ue  Shemitic  languages,  and,  in  its  conjugations,  some  analogy  to  the  languges  of 
America. 

Sdbsiot.  2. 

The  Celtic  ikmily  exhibits,  like  the  Basque,  two  branches : — 1.  Ancient  lanffua^res  lonff 
extinct,  among,  which  are  classed  the  idioms  spoken  by  the  numerous  Celtic  nations  m  Gaul, 
in  Belgium,  in  the  British  Isles,  in  parts  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  also  Galatia  in  Asia  Minor. 
2.  Ancient  languages  still  living,  of  which  there  are  two :  1.  The  Oallic,  Oaelie  or  C«/(tc 
Pnper,  spoken  in  different  dialects  by  the  descendants  of  the  true  Celts,  in  a  large  portion 
of  Irelana,  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  in  the  Hebrides,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  ~  The 
Cambrian  or  Celto-Bdgic,  ibrmerly  spoken  by  the  Cymri  or  Beige  in  Belgium  and  Britain, 
and  now  ccnfined  to  a  part  of  Enfflsnd  and  France.  In  this  language  are  distinguished 
three  principal  dialects:  the  Wehh,  spoken  and  written  by  the  people  m  that  name  dew-end- 
ed ftom  the  ancient  Britons;  the  Comiek,  formerly  spoken  throughout  Cornwall,  but  ex'inct 
since  about  the  nuJdle  of  the  last  century ;  and  the  BoM-Breton,  called  also  br  French  wr  ten 
the  Celto-Breton,  spoken  in  the  part  of  France  formerly  called  Lower  Bretagne,  by  'Jie 
descendants  of  those  Britidi  fugitives  who,  in  the  fifth  century,  sought  refbge  and  settle  in 
Armorica.    The  Baa-Breton  has  many  sub-dialects  and  varieties. 

SUBSXOT.  8. 

The  numerous  fhmily  of  the  Gneco-Latin  languages  may  be  divided  into  four  branchess : 
L  The  Btyrian ;  U.  The  Etrutean ;  III.  The  HeUentc ;  IV.  The  Italic,  including  the  Latin, 
the  Romaic  or  Romano-Rustic,  the  modem  Italian,  the  French,  tiie  Spanish  or  Castilian,  the 
i*ortuffuese,  and  the  Valaque  or  Wallachian. 

L  Tne  Thraco-Illyrian  branch  includes  all  those  Thracian  and  Illyrian  nations  once  seated 
in  Asia  Minor  wf^  of  the  river  Kalys,  and  in  Europe  all  over  its  eastern  porticm,  from  Nori- 
cum,  occu^hmI  bv  Celtic  tribes,  to  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  the  Dnieper,  and  even 
beycmd.  Of  those  nations,  long  extinct,  or  confounded  wiUi  others,  the  principal  were  the 
Pturygians,  die  Trojans,  the  Bithynians,  the  Lydians,  the  Carians,  the  Lycians,  the  Cimmerii, 
the  Tauri,  the  Tluracians  properly  so  called,  the  Massi,  the  Gets,  tne  Macedcmians,  the 
ancient  Illyriaas.  among  whom  were  the  Dalmati  and  the  Istri,  the  Pannonians  or  Peanea. 
the  Venetii  and  tiie  Sici&L  In  Uiut  branch,  according  to  M.  Malte-Brun,  may  be  not  imprih 
perir  placed— 

The  Albanian,  spoken  in  Albania  and  other  countries  by  the  Skipatar,  named  Amauti  by 

VouL  26*  20 


1 

i 


306 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  lil. 


the  Turks,  and  generally  known  under  tho  name  of  Albanians.  They  form  the  principal 
population  of  Albania,  and  are  scattered  throughout  European  Turkey,  especially  in  Rou- 
melia,  Bulgaria,  and  Macedonia ;  otliers  on  the  Slavonic  military  confines  of  tho  Austrian 
empire,  anu  others  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  This  Scyp,  or 
Albanian  language,  according  to  M.  Malto-Brun,  appears  to  bo  formed  of  one-third  of  ancient 
Greek,  especially  the  iEolic  d-'alect,  one-third  Latin,  and  one-third  of  an  idiom  not  yet  ascer- 
tained, probably  tlie  Illyrian.  The  Albanians  have  tliree  different  alphabets :  one  sacred  or 
hieratic,  now  iiillen  into  disuse ;  another,  the  Greek  alphabet ;  a  third,  the  modem  Italian  or 
Latin. 

II.  The  Etruscan,  (we  are  here  reminded  of  the  Osci  and  Heterosd,  quasi  Elrusci  f) 
spoken  by  the  Etrurians,  called  also  Tyrrhenians  by  tho  Greeks.  This  nation,  according  to 
some,  appears  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  Rhietian  Celts  with  the  Aborigines  of  Italy.  The 
Etruscan  alphabet  was  the  same  with  tho  primitive  alphabet  of  the  Greeks ;  it  had  sixteen 
letters,  nnd  was  written  from  right  to  left. 

III.  Tho  PelaiJ?o-Hellenic,  including  the  idioms  in  ancient  times  spoken  by  the  famous 
Pelaagi  and  Hellenes,  long  since  incorporated  with  other  nations.  The  people  of  early 
origin  who  may  with  probability  be  classed  under  this  branch  are,  the  Pelasgi,  the  Leleges, 
ana  other  tribes  enumcratod  by  ancient  geographers  among  the  population  oi  Greece  and  its 
isles,  esptecially  the  Gra)ci,  originally  a  small  community  of  Thessaly,  but  remarkable  for 
having  given  name  to  the  whole  of  that  celebrated  nation,  whose  language  was — 

The  Hellenic,  or  ancient  Greek,  formerly  spoken  in  Greece  and  its  dependencies,  and 
at  a  later  period  in  a  great  part  of  Sicily,  Lower  Italy,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  and  its  dependen- 
cies, in  part  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  and  in  other  districts  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

During  the  Macedonian  empire  the  Hellenic  was  spoken  at  all  the  courts  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Alexander,  and  by  persons  of  distinction  in  all  tlie  countries  subject  to  the  Macedo> 
nians.  In  a  subsequent  age,  it  was  studied  by  all  the  most  distinguished  subjects  of  the 
Roman  empire,  and  was  the  prevailing  idiom  in  the  East  until  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  at 
which  period  it  was  studied  with  renewed  ardour  in  the  West.  In  this  language,  270  yean 
belbre  Christ,  was  written  the  famous  version  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  called  the  SeptuD^ 
gint ;  in  this  language  also  was  the  Gospel  promulgated  by  the  Apostles ;  and  it  thus  became 
for  ever  sacred.  It  appears  not  the  least  wonderful  among  tho  dispensations  of  Providence, 
that  the  light  of  Christianity  should  have  been  originally  diffused  under  the  most  powerful 
empire  and  in  the  most  cultivated  language  of  the  ancient  world,  and  that  it  should  prevail 
notwithstanding  the  power  of  tho  one,  and  the  learning  and  philosophy  for  which  the  other 
was  so  proudly  distinguished.  The  literature  of  the  Greeks,  comprehending  some  of  the 
finest  productions  of  the  human  mind,  is,  perhaps,  the  richest  in  the  world,  and  presents  an 
unparalleled  series  of  eminent  writers,  extending  from  the  age  of  Homer  to  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  The  language  is  one  of  the  most  flexible,  harmonious,  and  copious 
that  have  ever  existed;  its  grammatical  forms  are  almost  identical  with  those  of  the  Latin, 
to  the  formation  of  which  it  has  greatly  contributed,  but  in  many  essential  points  it  ia 
superior,  and  especially  in  the  unlimited  faculty  of  making  as  many  compounds  as  can  bo 
required.  M.  Molte-Brun  distinguishes  in  the  ancient  Greek  two  difilerent  idioms : — 1.  The 
primitive  Hellenic,  which  he  subdivides  into  three  principal  dialects — the  Arcadian,  the 
Thessalian,  with  the  ancient  Macedonian,  and  the  (Enotrian,  transported  into  Italy  and  min- 
gled with  the  Latin ;  2.  The  Hellenic  of  the  historical  times,  divided  into  four  principal 
dialects  and  several  varieties. 

The  Romaic,  or  the  modem  Greek,  spoken  by  the  Greeks  of  our  own  times,  especially 
in  the  Morea,  in  Livadia,  Thessaly,  the  isle  of  Candia,  the  Archipelago,  part  of  Albania, 
Macedonia,  Roumelia,  Thrace,  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus,  and  by  the  Greeks  established  in  Wal- 
lachia,  Moldavia,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  The  Romaic  is  also  spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Ionian  Isles,  by  considerable  numbers  of  Greeks  in  the  Austrian  and  Russian  empires,  and 
some  hundred  of  Mainotes  in  Corsica,  near  Ajaccio.  It  is  divided  into  two  principal  dialects, 
the  Romanic  and  the  ^olo-Dorian,  each  including  various  sub-dialects. 

IV.  The  Italic  branch,  so  called,  as  including  the  languages  of  the  aborigines  of  Italy, 
which  form  the  stem  of^  the  modern  idioms  comprised  in  tlus  branch.  Those  aborigines 
were,  the  Euganei,  the  Ausones,  the  Lucani,  the  Bratti,  the  Piceni,  the  Marsi,  the  Latini, 
the  Sabines,  and  the  Samnites.  From  a  mixture  of  the  three  last  idioms,  primarily  witb 
the  original  Hellenic,  afterwards  with  the  old  iEolian  and  ancient  Doric,  was  formed,  as  M. 
Malte  Bran  inclines  to  think,  the  language  spoken  by  the  Romans,  and  called  the  Latin 
language.    The  languages  included  in  that  branch  are, — 

The  Latin,  which  was  the  written  and  current  language  of  the  higher  classes  in  Italy 
and  throughout  the  Roman  empire.    It  was  very  different  from  the  lingua  plebeia  or  rustica, 


>  the  other  provinces.  Its  grammatical  forms  are  similar  to  the  Greek,  though  less  perfect 
Ijatin  literature,  formed  on  that  of  Greece,  is  very  rich  in  all  branches  of  knowledge,  and, 
together  with  the  Greek,  is  the  source  from  which  flows  the  literature  of  the  modem  nations 
jf  Europe.    Its  most  brilliant  epoch  was  the  Augustan  age.    In  this  language  St.  Jerome 


Part  ill. 

brm  the  principal 
specially  in  Rou- 
18  of  Uio  Austrian 
h  This  Scyp,  oi' 
le-third  of  ancient 
cm  not  yet  oscer- 
a:  one  sacred  or 
modem  Italian  or 

,  quasi  Etrusci  f) 
tion,  according  to 
es  of  Italy.  The 
9;  it  had  sixteen 

ccn  by  the  famous 
)  pcoplo  of  early 
isgi,  the  Lelcges, 
of  Greece  and  its 
tit  remarkable  for 
B  was — 

lependencies,  and 
and  its  dependen- 
Mediterranean. 
\s  of  the  descend- 
ct  to  the  Macedo- 
id  subjects  of  the 
Constantinople,  at 
iguage,  270  years 
jailed  the  Septua^ 
nd  it  thus  became 
ns  of  Providence, 
he  most  powerful 
t  it  should  prevail 
r  which  the  other 
ling  some  of  the 
[,  and  presents  an 

to  the  middle  of 
lious,  and  copious 
lose  of  the  Latin, 
ntial  points  it  is 
)ounds  as  can  bo 

idioms : — 1.  The 
le  Arcadian,  the 
ito  Italy  and  min- 
ito  four  principal 

times,  especially 
,  part  of  Albania, 
tablished  in  Wal> 
nhabitants  of  the 
iian  empires,  and 
irincipal  dialects, 

torigines  of  Italy, 
rhose  aborigines 
Mlarui,  tlie  ^tini, 
6,  primarily  witb 
ras  formed,  as  M. 
called  the  Latin 

classes  in  Italy 
flebeia  or  nutica, 

Snain    ^niil     nnn 

)ugh  less  perfect 
knowledge,  and, 
e  mod3m  nations 
fuage  St.  Jerome 


Book  I. 


.  'r^'f/jt..:*'  EUROPE,''^  (.Si;  .^fiK'i!^ 


no7 


wrote  the  Vulgate,  or  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible  which  is  used  in  the  Roraiah  church. 
The  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  fifth  century  save  birth  to  a  ccrnipt  Latin, 
mingled  with  a  great  number  of  barbarous  words,  and  named  low  Latin,  which,  until  the. 
fourteenth,  was,  almost  exclusively,  the  written  language  throughout  the  West.  In  the  two 
succeeding  centuries,  Latin  literature  again  flourisEed,  esi>eciuly  in  Italy ;  but  it  was  only 
to  contribute  to  the  improvement  of  modem  languages,  which  being  diligently  and  success- 
fully cultivated,  the  Latin  was  restricted  to  works  of  emdition  alone.  Its  phraseology  haa 
had  a  marked  influence  on  that  of  the  most  polite  nations  of  Europe.  It  is  now  a  dead  lan- 
guage, except  in  Poland  and  Hungary,  where  some  educated  persons  speak  it  in  ordinary 
ife  with  considerable  puritv,  and  with  the  continental  pronunciation,  of  course  almost  unin- 
telligible to  English  travellers,  who  cannot  or  will  not  relinquish  the  Saxon  diphthongal 
sounds  of  the  vowelu  A,  I,  and  U,  the  chief  causes  of  their  embarrassment  Latin  is  no 
'ongcr  empluved  except  in  the  Catholic  liturgy,  in  medicine,  in  the  diplomacy  of  the  court 
of  Rome,  and  partially  in  the  literature  of  all  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  The  alpha- 
oet,  of  twenty-throe  letters,  having  been  improved  in  its  characters  by  the  Italians  and 
French,  is  used  by  all  the  people  of  Europe,  except  the  Greeks,  the  Russians,  and  some 
other  nations  who  have  particular  alphabets.  This  same  Latin  alphabet,  with  the  Gothic 
forms  it  assumed  under  the  pen  of  the  writers  of  the  middle  ages,  is  used  by  the  Germans 
and  Danes,  and  by  the  Bohemians,  and  other  Slavonic  nations ;  and,  according  to  some 
authors,  its  capital  letters,  truncated  and  squared  to  facilitate  the  inscription  of  them  in  wood 
or  stone,  constitute  the  Runic  alphabet,  formerly  used  in  the  north  of  Europe. 

The  Romana,  or  Romana  Rustica,  spoken  m  the  brightest  ages  of  Rome  by  the  lower 
classes  in  the  south  of  the  empire,  excepting  Greece,  and  some  other  counties.  After  various 
modifications  more  or  less  considerable,  it  appears  still  to  subsist  among  the  vulgar  dialects 
spoken  throughout  a  great  part  of  Spain,  France,  Switzerland,  and  some  districts  of  Italy. 
The  chief  of  those  dialects,  according  to  M.  Champollion  Figeac,  are  the  following,  classed 
with  reference  to  those  four  regions : — In  Spain,  Sardinia,  and  the  Balearic  Isles,  the  Catalan, 
the  Valencion,  the  Majorcon.  In  France,  the  Languedocian,  the  Provencal,  the  Dauphmois, 
the  Lvonnais,  the  Auvergnat,  the  Limousin,  and  the  Gascon.  In  Switzerlaiid,  the  Romanic, 
or  Celto-Romanic,  (frequently  called  Romance,  Khurwelsh,  and  Rhtetish,)  the  Valaisan  in 
the  Valais.  In  the  states  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  are  spoken  the  Savoisian ;  and  the  Vaudois 
in  the  vales  of  Lucerne,  Pcrosa,  and  part  of  Piedmont  To  these  might  be  added  the 
jargon  called  lingua  Franca,  in  which  Catalan,  Lunousin,  Sicilian,  and  Arabic  are  the  princi- 
nal  ingredients.  The  Romance  literature  is  also  called  that  of  the  Troubadours.  From  the 
nixture  of  this  langua^fre  with  the  different  Germanic,  Slavonic,  and  other  idioms,  were 
formed,  m  the  tenth  century,  the  following  languages : — 

The  Italian,  spoken  by  the  Italians  in  almost  oil  Italy,  in  the  isles  geographically  connected 
with  that  peninsula,  and  in  various  Alpine  territories;  also  frequent  in  Dahnatia  and  the  isle 
of  Tino ;  very  common  at  Constantinople,  and  in  several  mercantile  towns  of  the  Ottoman 
empire.  The  written  language,  which  is  nowhere  generally  spoken,  is  common  with  all 
well-educated  Italians,  and  differs  considerably  from  the  vulgar  tongue,  which  is  subdivided 
into  a  great  number  of  dialects.  The  principal  of  these  are,  the  Piedmontese  and  Genoese ; 
the  Milanese,  or  Lombard  proper ;  the  Low  Lombard ;  the  Bolognese,  the  Bergamaso ;  the 
Venetian,  the  Friulian,  the  Tyrolean,  the  vulgar  Tuscan;  the  Roman;  the  Sabine  and 
Abruzzan;  the  Calabrian  and  Apulian;  the  Taientine;  the  Neapolitan;  the  Sicilian,  and 
the  Sardinian. 

The  French  language,  spoken  by  the  French  almost  throughout  the  north  of  France;  by 
the  Walloons  and  Flemings  in  various  Netherlandish  provinces ;  by  the  Swiss,  in  several  of 
their  cantons ;  by  the  people  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey ;  also  in  some  parts  of  the  Austrian 
and  Russian  empires,  and  of  the  Prussian  monarchy ;  by  the  French  colonists  in  Asia,  Ainca, 
and  America.  The  following  are  the  principal  dialects : — the  Picard,  the  Flemish,  the  Nor- 
man, the  Walloon  or  Rounchi,  the  vulgar  French,  the  Breton  French,  the  Champenois,  the 
Lorraine,  the  Burgundian,  the  Franche-Comte,  the  Nev^fchdlelain,  the  Orleannois,  the 
Angevin,  and  the  Manceau.  To  these  might,  perhaps,  be  added  the  jargon  spoken  by  the 
negroes  and  Creoles  in  the  French  West  Indies. 

The  Spanish  or  Castilian  langTiage,  spoken  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  greater  part  of  Spain, 
and,  with  some  variation  and  admixture,  by  their  descendants  in  Oceania,  Africa,  and  America ; 
also  by  Uie  numerous  Spanish  Jews  established  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  in  other  states 
of  Europe,  and  of  North  Africa;  in  the  isle  of  Trinidad  belonging  to  the  crown  of  Great 
Britain ;  in  some  parts  of  Florida  and  Louisiana ;  and  in  the  eastem  part  of  Hispaniola  oi' 
St  Domingo.  This  language  is  also  common  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  of  Spain 
whore  tiie  Basque  and  Romance  languages  are  spoken.    The  written  and  polished  language 

dififers  little  from  tlie  Italian ;  it  is  very  rich  and  harmonious,  notwithstanding  some  guttural 
and  aspirate  sounds  taken  firom  the  Arabic,  from  which  it  has  borrowed  many  words.  It  is 
singular  to  remark,  that  the  Oerman  is  characterised  by  similar  gutturals  or  aspirates.  The 
reigns  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  of  his  son  Philip  II.  were  the  golden  age  of  Spanish 


96 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  in. 


literature ;  after  which  it  fell  into  decay,  but  partially  revived  under  the  Bourbon  kings 
Philip  V.  and  Chanes  III.  Of  the  dialects,  which  differ  little  from  each  other,  the  following 
are  the  principal : — the  dialect  of  Toledo ;  that  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias ;  the  Andaluaian ; 
the  Murcian ;  the  Galician,  or  Qallego ;  and  the  Transatlantic,  spoken  in  America ;  where, 
next  to  the  English,  the  Spanish  language  is  spoken  by  the  greatest  number  of  inhabitants. 

The  Portuguese  languaffe,  spoken  by  the  Portuguese  in  Portugal  and  the  Azores,  and, 
with  some  differences,  hy  Uie  Portuguese  Jews  settled  in  Hamburg,  Amsterdam,  the  Tyrol, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa;  also  by  the  descendants  of  the  Portuguese  in 
their  Asiatic,  African,  Oceanic,  and  American  colonies.  The  Portuguese  is  as  rich  and 
concise  as  its  sister  languages;  it  has  borrowed  some  words  from  the  Arabic  and  the  French; 
to  the  French  it  seems  indebted  for  the  soil  sound  of  g,  and  for  the  nasal  syllables ;  it  is 
sonorous,  soft,  and  unimpeded  by  the  aspirates  and  gutturals  of  the  Spanish ;  but  the  fre- 
quency of  hiatus,  and  of  the  modem  nasal  ao,  equisonant  with  the  French  am  or  an,  injure 
the  harmony  of  Uie  language.  Its  origin,  like  that  of  the  Spanish,  is  dated  in  the  eleventh 
century ;  and  it  had  attained  its  maturity  in  the  sixteenth.  The  Portuguese  literature, 
which  Comoens  illustrated  with  one  of  the  finest  epics  in  existence,  is  as  varied  and  rich  as 
the  Spanish,  though  less  known.  It  revived  in  the  memorable  reign  of  Joseph.  The 
language  may  be  said  to  exhibit  no  differences  of  dialect ;  there  are  only  varieties :  those 
which  differ  most  from  the  written  language  arc,  the  Minho,  Algarve,  and  Azores  varieties 
in  Europe;  the  Brazilian  in  America;  Uiose  of  Congo  and  Mozambique  in  Africa;  and  of 
Goa  and  Macao  in  Asia.  Some,  however,  regard  as  a  dialect  of  the  Portuguese,  the  jargon 
called  lingtM  geral,  spoken  along  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa,  also  along  the  coasts  of 
Ceylon  and  the  Indian  peninsula.  In  Africa,  as  well  as  in  Asia,  it  presents  the  phenomenon 
offered  by  the  lingua  Franca  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  attests  the  power  formerly  held 
by  the  Portuguese  in  those  regions. 

The  Valac  or  Wallachian,  spoken  by  the  Rumanje  or  Roumouni,  better  known  os  Valacs, 
a  people  apparently  descended  from  the  ancient  Roman  colonists  settled  in  Dacia  and  Thrace, 
and  the  Slavonic  and  other  nations  dwelling  there.  Its  literature  is  very  meagre.  Among 
its  numerous  dialects  the  more  remarkable  are  the  Roumounic  or  Valac  proper,  spoken  in 
Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  Bessarabia ;  the  Hungarian  Valac,  the  Macedo>Yalac,  and  the 
Kutzo-Valac,  spoken  in  various  sub-dialects,  in  several  parts  of  European  Turkey,  south  of 
the  Danube. 

r^~'.?.--Y    ■.^,.'.^j,  SiiBSBCT.  4.  ■  .      '   ',_ 

The  ikmily  of  the  Germanic  languages  next  claims  our  notice.  Without  entering  into 
the  history  of  the  Germanic  nations,  which  rivals  in  importance  that  of  the  Grteco-Latin,  we 
may  clu»  these  different  idioms,  according  to  M.  Malte-Brun's  theory,  in  four  branches ; 
the  Teutonic,  the  Saxon  or  Cin^tric,  the  Scandinavian  or  Normanno-Qothic,  and  tlie  Anglo- 
Britannic. 

The  Teutonic  branch,  which  comprises  the  idioms  of  the  various  ancient  nations  and 
tribes  recognised  as  German  by  the  Roman  historians  and  writers ;  as  the  Bastame,  the 
Suevi,  the  Marcomanni,  the  Hermonduri,  and  the  Franci,  presents  the  following  idioms : — 

The  ancient  high  German  (alt  hoch  DeutscK),  formerly  spoken  in  different  dialects 
throughout  South  Germany,  Switzerland,  Alsace,  Hesse,  Thuringia,  Wetteravia,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  countries  once  subjected  to  the  Franks.  It  has  been  extinct  for  several 
centuries :  its  three  principal  dialects  were,  the  Francic,  and  the  Alemannic,  which  are  of 
contemporary  origin,  and  contain  the  most  ancient  productions  of  that  language,  and  the 
Middle  High  German,  which  succeeded  tliem.  The  Francic  or  Tudesc  was  the  language 
of  the  Franks :  it  was  spoken  at  the  court  of  the  Merovingian  and  Carlovingian  sovereigns, 
until  Charles  the  Bold ;  after  whose  reign  it  gave  way  to  the  old  French  m  France,  but 
continued  to  be  the  court  language  in  Germany  until  the  times  of  the  Hohenstaufen.  The 
Middle  High  German  is  the  language  in  which  were  composed  the  numerous  works  of  the 
Suabian,  Bavarian,  Austrian,  and  Swiss  writers,  and  several  other  authors  in  Middle  and  Lower 
Germany,  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth  centuries.  Its  finest  productions  are  dated  in 
the  period  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  from  1136  to  1254,  called  also  the  MinnesUnger,  the 
trouveurs  and  troubadours  of  Germany.  The  Nibelungen-lied,  the  finest  epic  in  this  lan- 
guage, is  supposed  by  Winter  to  have  been  composed  in  1290,  hy  Conrad  of  Wvkrtzburg. 

The  German,  called  also  neu  hoch  Deutsch,  in  which  distinction  must  be  made  between 
the  written  and  the  spoken  language.  The  latter  is  divided  into  a  great  number  of  very 
difibrent  dialects,  subdivided  into  several  sub^ialects  and  varieties.  The  written  language 
is  nowhere  spoken  by  the  people ;  it  was  formed  at  the  period  when  Luther,  rejecting  the 
Middle  High  and  the  Miadle  Low  Oerman,  adopted  in  preference  the  dialect  of  Misnia  or 
Mei»en,  which  had  begun  to  be  written  much  later.  Tiiis  Misnion  dialect,  ably  employed 
by  that  great  man  and  his  numerous  followers,  soon  became,  as  the  language  of  books  and 
of  good  society,  common  to  an  ./ell-educated  Germans,  and  also  ranked  as  the  learned  lan- 
guage of  the  north  and  ^reat  part  of  the  east  of  Europe.  The  literature  of  €lermany,  in 
rogard  to  the  quality  of  its  productions,  rivals  those  of  France  and  England,  and  suroaMet 


PARTin. 

3  Bourbon  kings 
ler,  the  following 
the  Andalusian ; 
Vmerica;  where, 
r  of  inhabitants, 
the  Azores,  and, 
rdam,  the  Tyrol, 
le  Portuguese  in 
3  ia  as  rich  and 
and  theFVench; 
l1  syllables ;  it  is 
sh;  but  the  fre- 
am  or  an,  injure 
I  in  the  eleventh 
guese  literature, 
ried  and  rich  as 
if  Joseph.  The 
{T  varieties :  those 
Azores  varieties 
I  Africa;  and  of 
fuese,  the  jargon 
ong  the  coasts  of 
the  phenomenon 
sr  formerly  held 

nown  08  Valacs, 
acia  and  Thrace, 
leagre.  Among 
roper,  spoken  in 
-Valac,  and  the 
Purkey,  south  of 


lut  entering  into 

jrsco-Latin,  we 

four  branches; 

;,andtlieA7t^/0' 

ent  nations  and 
le  Bastams,  the 
ving  idioms : — 
ifferent  dialects 
itteravia,  and  a 
inct  for  several 
c,  which  are  of 
iguage,  and  the 
£  the  language 
fian  sovereigns, 
in  France,  but 
nstaufen.    The 
IS  works  of  the 
iddle  and  Lower 
IS  are  dated  in 
nnesanger,  the 
pic  in  this  lan- 
WOrtzburg. 
made  between 
lumber  of  very 
ritten  language 
',  rejecting  the 
:t  of  Misnia  or 
ably  employed 
e  of  books  and 
he  learned  Ian- 
9f  Germany,  in 
,  and  sunwean 


Book  L 


^i*      EUROPE.     *'i''' 


v'v,*  I ; 


906 


them  in  abundance.  The  German  is  the  richest  in  words  of  any  language  in  Europe ;  and 
this  distinction  it  owes  to  the  great  number  of  its  monosrllabic  roots,  with  which  it  creates 
new  terms  ad  tri^nttum,  by  derivation  and  composition.  Its  principal  dialects  are,  the  Swiss; 
the  Rhenish ;  the  Danubian,  with  its  four  sub^ialects,  the  Bavarian,  the  TVrolean,  Austrian, 
and  Bohemc-Hungaro-Silesian ;  and  the  Franconian,  or  Mittel-Deutsch.  To  these,  on  the 
authorihr  of  Adelung,  we  may  add  two  others,  remarkable  for  the  Strang*  admixture  of  words 
totally  foreign ;  these  are,  the  Oerman  Jewish ;  and  the  Rothwelsh,  spoken  by  the  Jenisb 
or  Jauner,  who  are  generally  reported  to  be  thieves  and  vagabonds.  It  contains  a  multitude 
of  terms  and  expressions  quite  difierent  fh)m  German. 

The  Saxon,  or  Cimbric,  which  compises  the  idioms  anciently  spoken  by  the  Cimbri ;  also 
b^  the  Angli,  who,  with  the  Jutes  and  Saxons,  afterwards  made  so  great  a  figure  in  northern 
history ;  the  Bructeri  and  Chauci,  the  Menapi,  the  Tungri,  the  Kitavi,  the  Frisones,  and 
other  nations  of  less  note,  the  ancient  Saxons,  and  probu)ly  the  Longobardi.  This  biunch 
includes  the  four  following  idioms : — 

The  ancient  low  German  (alt  nieder  Deutsch),  called  also  the  ancient  Saxon,  after  the 
people  who  spoke  it  This  language,  now  extinct,  was  current  thtroughout  Lower  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands,  except  in  the  countries  occupied  by  the  Frisones  and  the  Angli.  About 
the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  wholly  ceased  to  be  written.  Its  principal 
dialects  are,  the  Saxon  prober,  or  idiom  of  liower  Saxony;  the  Eastern  Saxon,  spoken  in 
various  sub-dialects  in  Prussia,  and  the  Westphalian,  or  Western  Saxon. 

The  Frisic,  formerly  spoken  along  the  coast,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Elbe,  by  the  Frisones, 
and  their  allies  the  Chauci,  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Frisians,  who  are  now  ft.r  from 
numerous,  and  speak  a  language  very  different  from  the  ancient  Frisic,  being  mixed  with 
other  idioms.  Its  three  principal  dialects  are,  the  Batavian  Frisic,  the  Westjpialian  Frisic, 
and  the  North  Frisic,  or  Cimbric. 

The  Netherlandish,  or  modem  Batavian,  has  two  prmcipal  dialects,  the  Flemish,  and  the 
Hollandish,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called  in  this  country,  the  Dutch.  The  Flemish  is  spoken 
in  the  southern  provmces  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  excepting  those  where  Ger- 
man and  French  are  spoken.  It  was  the  written  and  oral  language  of  the  seventeen  pro- 
vinces once  subject  to  the  Counts  of  Burgundy.  After  their  e^rtinction,  and  under  the 
Spanish  rule,  the  Flemish  idiom  gradually  gave  way  in  the  north  to  the  Dutch,  in  the  south 
to  the  French  language.  The  Dutch  is  spoken  in  different  varieties  in  the  seven  provinces 
of  the  North,  and  in  some  bordering  districts  of  the  South :  with  certain  changes  and 
iidmixtures  it  is  also  spoken,  or  at  least  understood,  in  the  various  settlements  founded  by 
the  Dutch  in  Africa,  Oceania,  and  America,  and  in  several  places  in  Ceylon,  India,  and  the 
peninsula  of  Malacca ;  in  South  Africa ;  at  the  Cape  of  Hope ;  and  on  the  American  con- 
tinent in  Guiana.  Some  descendants  of  Dutch  settlers  also  in  the  United  States  retain  their 
native  language.  It  was  only  in  the  sixteenth  century  that  this  vulgar  idiom  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Holland,  in  some  degree  polished  and  improved,  became  the  national  language  of 
the  Dutch.    It  is  a  mixture  of  ancient  Francic,  Frisic,  and  low  German. 

The  Scandinavian,  or  Normanno-Gothic,  comprises  the  idioms  formerly  spoken  ^  the 
Jutes,  the  Goths  or  Guts,  and  other  less  considerable  nations  of  pure  Gothic  race.  There 
are  five  different  idioms  in  this  branch : — 

The  Mceso-Gothic,  formerly  spoken  by  the  Goths  established  in  Moesia.  According  to 
Grimm,  this  is  the  richest  of  the  Germanic  languages  in  grammatical  forms :  it  has  not  less 
than  fifteen  declensions,  with  120  cases,  and  sixteen  conjugations.  The  Moeso-Gfothic  has 
been  dead  many  centuries.  Its  most  ancient  productions  are,  the  famous  Codex  Argenteus 
of  Upsal ;  and  other  fragments  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  made  between  the  years  360 
and  380,  by  Bishop  Ulphilas.  The  Moeso-Goths  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  embrace 
Christianity  of  all  those  nations  who  overthrew  the  Koman  empire. 

The  Normannic,  called  by  Grimm  the  Alt-Nordisch.  It  is  the  language  of  the  Edda,  of 
the  Voluspa,  and  other  poems  of  uncertain  date,  and  was  generally  spoken  throughout  Scan- 
dinavia in  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  centuries. 

The  Norwegian,  ancient  Norwegian,  Norroena  tunga,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
modem  Norwegian  or  Norsk,  which  is  only  a  dialect  of  the  Danish.  Its  principal  dialects 
are,  the  Icelandic,  the  Norwegian  proper,  the  Dalska,  or  Western  Dalecarlian,  the  Jftmt- 
landish,  and  the  Norse,  spoken  in  the  Shetland  Isles. 

The  Swedish  (Svenskt),  spoken  by  the  Swedes  throughout  the  greater  part  of  tlie  Swed- 
ish monarchy ;  also  in  the  principal  towns  of  Finland  and  the  isle  of  Runoe,  in  the  Russian 
empire.  It  has  two  principal  dialects,  the  Swedish,  and  the  modem  Gothic,  subdivided  into 
several  sub-dialects  and  varieties. 

The  Danish,  spoken  by  the  Danes  in  Denmark,  and  in  their  Asiatic,  African,  and  Ame- 
rican settlements;  also  by  the  higher  classes  in  the  Ferfie  Isles,  and  in  Iceland.  It  has  two 
principal  dialects,  each  having  several  sub-dialects  and  varieties :  the  Danish  proper,  which 
mcludes  the  insular  Danish,  Uie  ancient  sub-dialect  cf  Bomholm,  the  modem  Norwegian, 
and  the  idiom  of  Scania.  The  Jutlandish,  or  modem  Jutic,  including  the  Normanno-Jutic, 
the  Dano-Jutic,  and  the  Anglo-Jutic, 


310 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  it 


The  Anfflo>Britannio  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  BrUith,  which  is  WeUh),  comprisef 
onlv  two  idioms. 

The  Anglo-Saxon,  formed  by  a  mixture  of  the  idioms  spoken  by  the  Angli,  the  Saxons 
vid  the  Jutes,  who,  invited  by  the  Britons  against  the  Picta,  finally  took  possession  of  th« 
3ountry,  where  their  language  was  successively  preserved  in  three  dialects,  until  the  oi^htli 
sentury.  During  the  invasions  and  temporary  ascendency  of  the  Danes,  it  was  so  modified 
as  to  become  Dano-Saxon,  or  rather  this  may  be  called  a  dialect  of  the  Anglo-Saxon.  For 
•evoral  centuries  this  language  has  been  totuly  dead. 

The  English,  spoken  in  England,  in  the  east  and  south-east  of  Scotland,  in  part  of  Ireland 
and  of  Wales ;  in  the  Shetland  Isles,  in  the  bles  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  in  the  British 
colonies  of  Asia,  Oceania,  Afirica,  and  America.  It  is  the  national  language  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  It  is  also  cultivated  and  spoken  by  a  great  number  of  persons  of  differ- 
ent nations  in  all  parts  of  the  world  on  account  of  its  literary,  pditical,  and  ccnnmercial 
importance :  the  two  latter  considerations  render  it  very  current  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover, 
in  the  Ionian  Isles  and  Malta,  in  Portugal  and  Brazil,  and  in  the  republic  of  Hayti.  The 
English  language  is  a  mixture  of  the  /uiglo-Soxon  and  the  Neustrian  French  or  Franco- 
Norman,  with  some  Celtic  words,  and  a  few  of  ancient  British  origin.  It  has  imported 
largely  fWum  the  Greek  and  Latin,  as  knowledge  and  culture  advanced  in  the  nation.  If  the 
number  of  words  in  the  language  bo  taken  at  uiirty-eight  tliousand,  those  of  Saxon  or  north- 
ern origin  will  be  found  limited  to  about  eight  thou«md,  the  rest  beini;  principally  Greek 
and  Latin  derivatives.  Copious  and  energetic,  the  English  language  is  the  simplest  and 
most  monosyllabic  of  all  European  idioms;  and  it  is  that  also  of  \raich  the  pnsiunciation 
differs  most  from  the  orthography.  It  did  not  become  the  language  of  the  state  until  the 
reign  of  Edward  UL,  smce  which  time  it  has  rapidly  improved.  Towards  the  commence- 
ment of  the  seventeenth  century  may  be  dated  its  regular  developement,  and  in  the  begm- 
ning  of  the  eighteenth  it  took  its  fixed  and  invariable  form.  The  English  language  occupies 
one  of  the  most  eminent  places  in  European  literature ;  it  is  comparable  wiUi  any  of  them 
in  elegance,  and  perhaps,  surpasses  them  all  in  energy.  It  is  no  less  gracefiil  than  concise ; 
its  poetry  is  at  once  manly  and  harmonious ;  and,  like  that  of  the  cognate  languages  of  the 
north,  is  admirably  adapted  to  depict  the  sublimities  of  nature  and  pourtray  the  stronger  ]»«• 
sions :  as  the  language  of  political  and  parliamentary  eloquence,  it  is  without  a  rival.  Of 
the  number  of  its  ditdects  it  might  be  mfficult  to  speak  with  precision :  foreign  philologers 
distinguish  four  as  the  principal: — the  English  mo^t;  the  Northumbrian  English,  culed 
also  Dano-English  from  'the  great  number  of  Danish  words  retained  in  it,  and  spoken  in 
various  sub-dialects  in  Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  Cumberland,  and  Westmoreland :  the  Scottish 
or  Anglo-Scandinavian,  including  the  Lowland  Scottish,  with  the  Border  language ;  and 
lastly  the  Vltra-European  English,  prevalent  in  the  English  colonies  and  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  been  observed  Uiat  the  English  language  is  spoken  by  the  greatest  number 
3f  the  inhabitants  of  the  New  World. 

SuBSKCT.  6, 

Hie  fimiilv  of  the  Slavonic  languages  is  widely  difRised.  From  the  neighbourhood  of 
Udina  in  Italy,  from  Sillian  in  the  Tyrol,  and  fi-om  the  centre  of  Germany  to  the  remotest 
extremities  of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  and  even  to  the  north-west  coast  of  America,  are  nations 
of  Slavonic  origin  to  be  found ;  the  tract  of  country  over  which  they  hold  sway  amounting 
to  about  a  sixth  part  of  the  habitable  surface  of  the  globe.  These  nations  exhibit  almost  aU 
the  varieties  of  the  human  race,  both  physical  and  moral,  if  not  ftom  the  most  exalted,  at 
least  to  the  most  degraded. 

The  Slavonic  languages,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known,  may  be  regarded  as  forming 
three  branches:—!.  The  Russo-Illyrian.  2.  The  Bohemo-Polish.  3.  The  Wendo-Lithu- 
anian. 

(1.)  The  Russo-Iu,TBiAM  is  so  called  from  its  chief  people,  the  Russians,  and  from  the 
general  appellation  Illyrian  given  to  most  of  the  nations  who  speak  Servian  or  Croate.  The 
languages  comprised  in  this  branch  are : — 

The  Slavonic,  Servian,  Serbe,  or  Illyrian,  called  also  by  some  authors  Rutena,  spoken  in 
different  dialects  by  the  more  southern  Slavi,  generally  denominated  Illyrians.  They  dwell 
in  the  Austrian  and  Ottoman  empires,  excepting  a  small  number,  settled  as  colonists  in  south 
Russia.  The  dialects  differing  most  from  each  other,  and  from  the  ancient  Slavonic,  are 
the  Servian  or  Serblin,  with  various  sub-dialecta ;  the  Italiano-Slavonic,  spoken  on  the 
coast  of  Dalmatia ;  the  Uskoke,  spoken  by  the  wandering  tribes  in  Servia,  Bosnia,  Dalmatia, 
Croatia,  Maritime  Hungry,  and  Camiola.  It  is  mixed  wiUi  many  Turkish  words.  lastly, 
the  Bulgarian,  spoken  in  Bulgaria,  in  the  Ottoman  empire. 

The  Russian,  Ruski,  or  modern  Russian,  spoken  throughout  the  Russian  empire  bv  tiie 
R;»3i&ns,  who  are  the  ruling  nation ;  also  spoken  in  a  great  partof  Gallicia  and  part  of  Hun- 
gary in  the  Austrian  empire.  Since  the  reign  of  the  Czar  Peter,  when  the  Slavvenski  was 
abandoned  for  the  Ruski,  it  became  the  language  of  literature  and  of  business  throughout 
Russia.    It  has  the  following  dialects,  which  di&r  little  from  each  other,  tilie  Valiki-Ruski 


Book 

or  Ri 

the 
Th 
Th 


Pakt  it 
fh),  comprisci 

« the  Saxons 
leasion  of  th« 
til  the  oiffhtk 
u  80  modified 
"Sftxon.    For 

Nut  of  Ireland 
n  the  British 
of  the  United 
sons  of  difier- 
i  commercial 
n  of  Hanover, 
Hayti.    The 
ch  or  Franco- 
has  imported 
lation.   If  the 
ixon  or  north- 
iipally  Greek 
simplest  and 
pronunciation 
ate  until  the 
e  commence- 
in  the  begin- 
lage  occupies 
any  of  them 
than  concise; 
[uagesof  the 
stranger  ps» 
a  rival.    Of 
n  philologers 
tgliah,  cedled 
nd  spoken  in 
the  Scottith 
nguage;  and 
n  the  United 
iteat  number 


ibourhood  of 
he  remotest 
L«  are  nations 
y  amounting 
lit  almost  afl 
t  exalted,  at 

as  forming 
endo'Lithu- 

nd  from  the 
Jroate.  The 

I,  spoken  in 
They  dwell 
ists  in  south 
avonic,  are 
len  on  the 
,  Dalmatia, 
is.    Lastly, 

pire  bv  the 
artofkun- 
renski  wajs 
throughout 
Hki-Riuki 


Book!. 


EUROPE. 


811 


or  Russian  of  Great  Russia ;  the  Malo-Rutki,  or  Russian  of  Littio  Russia ;  the  Suzdalian , 
the  Olonetxian,  and  the  Rusniac. 

The  Create,  spoken  by  the  Croates  or  Khorbates,  who  delight  to  call  it  the  lllyrian. 

The  Wende  or  Winde,  spoken  by  several  Slavonic  nations  subject  to  the  Austrian 
empire,  and  known  by  different  names  in  the  countries  thev  inhabit.  In  the  Wende 
appear  to  be  distinguished  three  principal  dialects,  the  Comiolan,  the  Carinthian,  and  the 
Styrian. 

(2.)  The  BoHBHO-FOLisH,  named  from  its  two  principal  nations,  the  Bohemians  and  the 
Poles.  The  languages  belonging  to  this  branch  are  the  Bohemian  or  Chehhe,  including  the 
Bohemian  proper,  and  certain  idioms,  bearing  the  character  of  principal  dialects,  and  spoken 
in  the  Austrian  empire. 

The  Bohemian  proper,  or  Chekhe,  is  spoken  in  several  very  different  sub-dialects  by  the 
Chekhes  or  Czecks,  better  known  by  the  appellation  of  Bohemians.  The  dialect  of  Prague 
is  the  most  elegant  and  pure.  The  others  aro  the  Slowac,  the  Hannac,  the  Straniac,  the 
Pasaekafsk,  the  Sallashac,  and  the  Szotac. 

The  Polish  is  spoken  by  the  Polos,  called  in  the  middle  ages,  Lechen  or  Liacliy.  They 
form  more  than  three-fburths  of  the  population  of  the  present  Russian  kingdom  of  Poland, 
almost  the  wliole  population  of  the  province  of  Cracow,  and  of  the  western  part  of  Gallicia, 
in  the  empire  of  Austria.  They  also  form  three-fourths  of  the  population  of  the  grand 
duchy  of  Posen,  two-thirds  of  that  of  West-Prussia,  and  part  of  that  of  Silesia.  The  Polish 
is  also  the  national  language  of  the  nobility  and  part  of  the  commonalty  in  all  the  countries 
formerly  belon^in^  to  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  and  is  spoken  by  thousands  of  colonists  in 
Russia.  Its  prmcipal  dialects  are  those  of  Great  Poland,  of  Little  Poland,  of  West  Prussia, 
of  Mazovia,  of  Polish  Silesia,  of  the  Geralys  or  highlanders,  belonging  to  part  of  the  Carpa- 
thians in  Gallicia.  The  preference  given  in  Poland  to  the  Latin,  long  retarded  the  progress 
of  this  national  language. 

The  Serbe  or  Sorabe,  spoken  until  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  Serbes,  or  Sserske.  It 
has  two  dialects ;  the  Upper  Lusatian,  and  the  Lower  Lusatian. 

(3.)  The  Wendo-Lithuanian,  called  also  the  Oermano-Slavonic.  This  branch  comprises 
the  following  idioms : — 

The  Wend,  spoken  until  the  fourteenth  century  in  different  dialects  throughout  the 
north  of  Germany,  from  Holstein  to  Pomerania,  by  various  nations,  as  the  Wagrians,  the 
Polabea,  the  Wihians,  the  Obotrites,  the  Ruffians,  and  the  Pomeranians.  Since  the 
fourteenth  centu»7  it  has  been  extinct,  with  the  exception  of  the  Linonish,  improperly 
called  the  Polabish  dialect,  which  subsisted  in  some  districts,  until  the  latter  half  of  the 
eishteemu. 

The  Pnicze  or  ancient  Prussian,  formerly  spoken  in  eleven  very  different  dialects,  by  tho 
tribes  forming  the  powerful  nation  of  the  Pruczi,  dwelling  between  the  Vistula  and  the  Pre- 
gel.    It  is  almost  entirely  extinct. 

The  Lithuanian  or  Littauish,  formerly  spoken  by  those  powerful  nations  the  Lithuanians 
and  Kriwitschi,  and  now  current  only  among  the  common  people ;  as  the  higher  classes 
speak  Polish,  with  Russian  or  German,  according  to  their  different  countries.  Its  principal 
dialects  have  been  thus  classed : — The  Lithuanian  proper,  the  Samogitian,  the  Kriwitsh, 
and  the  Prusso-Lithuanian. 

The  Lette,  Lettwa,  Lettonian,  or  Lettish,  spoken  by  the  Letts  or  Lettons,  forming  the 
bulk  of  the  population  in  the  government  of  Mitta,  a  large  part  of  that  of  Riga,  a  small  por- 
tion of  that  of  Witcpsk  in  Russia,  and  of  the  province  of  East  Prussia.  It  has  five  principal 
dialects,  subdivided  into  a  multitude  of  very  different  sub-dialects.  The  former,  according 
to  Mr.  WatBon,  are,  the  Lette  proper ;  the  Semgallian  or  Sengallish ;  the  Letto-Livonian 
or  Liejlandish ;  the  Seelian,  spoken  by  the  Seeles  in  Courland :  the  Wende  by  the  Wendes, 
in  the  north-east  of  that  duchy,  particularly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Windau.  This  language 
abounds  with  German  phrases  and  expressions. 

The  Slavonic  nations  employ  five  different  alphabets : — 1.  The  Cyrilian,  invented  by  St 
Cyril  in  86.5,  called  also  the  Servian  or  Ruthenian.  2.  The  Glagolitic,  Slavonic,  Kruko- 
vntza,  or  Divinica,  called  also  that  of  St.  Jerome.  3.  The  Russian  alphabet  of  the  Czar 
Peter,  which  is  the  Cyrilian  modified  by  that  emperor :  it  has  thirty-five  letters,  and  is  in 
use  throughout  the  Russian  empire.  4.  The  Sorabes,  Bohemians,  and  Slavo-Silesians  use 
the  German  alphabet  or  character.  5.  The  other  Slavonic  nations,  as  the  Poles,  Lithua^ 
nians,  Lettes  and  Wendes,  use  the  Latin  or  Roman  letters.  To  these  five  alphabets  may 
be  added  the  Runic  Wend,  the  Greek  alphabet,  adopted,  according  to  Karamsin,  by  those 
Blavi  who,  in  the  eighth  century,  settled  m  Peloponnesus ;  and  lastly,  the  Bulgarian,  imi 
fated  from  the  Glagolitic,  and  used  by  the  Bulgarians. 

SVBSEOT.  6. 

The  fkmily  of  the  Uralian  languages,  also  called  the  Finnish  or  Chudic,  completes  the 
ethnographic  division  of  Europe. 
From  the  north-west  coast  of  Norway  to  the  long  chain  of  the  Urals,  and  beyond  tnose 


m 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  ID. 


mountainB  to  near  the  YeniscY  in  the  centre  of  Siberia,  in  another  direction  from  the  Leitha 
to  the  Seret,  and  from  the  Carpathians  to  the  Danube,  nations  of  Uralian  race  live  among 
other  nations,  and  retain  the  manners,  habits,  and  language  of  their  fore&thers.  In  marking 
the  ffradations  amonff  the  people  composing  this  family,  wo  may  consider  the  Hungarians 
and  ue  Ostiaks  as  euiibitinj;  the  two  extremes  in  a  moral  as  well  as  physical  respect,  not> 
withstanding  the  great  affinity  of  their  respective  languages. 

"Die  Uralian  family  includes  four  brancties,  according  to  Klaproth ;  but  some  language* 
not  included  in  them  may  be  separately  considered  as  a  fifth. 

The  Finnish,  or  Germanised  Finnish  branch,  includes  the  four  followbe  languages : — 

(1.)  The  Finnish  proper,  or  Sumenkieli,  spoken  by  the  Suomi,  better  known  as  the  Fina 
or  Finlanders.  Its  principal  dialects  are,  the  Finlondish,  the  Tawostian,  the  Corelian  or 
Kyriala,  tho  Olonetzian,  and  the  Watailaiset 

The  Esthonian  spoken  by  the  Esthonions  or  Esthen,  whose  ancestors  were  formidable 
pirates,  and  who  now  form  the  most  numerous  part  of  the  population  of  the  government  ot 
Reval,  and  of  the  circles  of  Pemau  and  Dorpat  in  that  of  Riga.  Its  two  principal  dialects 
arc  that  of  Reval  and  that  of  Dorpat 

The  Lapponian,  spoken  bjr  the  Sames,  better  known  as  the  Lappons  or  Laplanders,  inha« 
biting  the  northern  extremity  of  Europe,  partly  under  the  monarchy  of  the  Swedes,  and 
parUy  under  tho  Russian  empire.  This  language,  which  is  said  to  have  more  affinity  with 
the  Hungaiian  than  with  the  Finnish,  has  a  great  number  of  very  different  dialects,  which 
nave  been  classed  under  the  Lappo- Nonce ff tan,  the  Lapp'J-Swedish  (western  and  eastern), 
the  Lappo-Russ,  spoken  in  the  circle  of  Kola,  in  the  government  of  Archangel.  Through 
the  beneficent  care  of  the  Swedish  government,  at  the  cloee  of  the  last  and  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  the  Laplanders  have  been  reclaimed  from  idolatry,  and  have  begun 
to  enjoy  the  blessings  of  Christianity  and  civilization. 

The  Livonian,  spoken  formerly  by  the  Lives  or  Liven,  who  gradually  abandoned  this 
idiom  for  the  Lettish,  in  consequence  of  which  it  is  become  nearly  exiinct. 

(2.)  The  Wolgaic  branch  includes  the  languages  spoken  along  the  Wolga  and  its  tributa- 
ries. They  have  a  strong  admixture  of  Turkish,  and  may  rank  under  two  classes,  the  Che- 
remisse  and  the  Morduine,  including  as  dialects  the  Mokshau  and  the  Ersan. 

(3.)  The  Permian  branch  includes  two  languages,  the  Permian  proper,  spoken  by  the 
Komi  or  Permians,  and  the  Syrenes  or  Syranes ;  and  the  Wotie^te,  spoken  by  the  Udi  or 
Wotiaks  scattered  among  the  governments  of  Wiatka,  Oremburg,  and  Kasan.  They  are  all 
Christians,  and  the  most  industrious  people  of  Uralian  race  in  the  Russian  empire,  except 
the  Fins  and  per  ^ps  tlie  Esthonians. 

(4.)  The  Hungarian  branch  includes  tho  following  languages : — 

The  Hungarian  or  Magyar,  spoken  by  the  Magyars  or  Hungarians.  They  form  about  a 
third  of  the  nopulation  of  Hungary,  and  almost  a  fourth  of  that  of  Transylvania ;  several 
thousands  also  of  this  people  are  settled  in  tlie  Bukowine  in  Gollicia,  and  about  forty  thou- 
sand in  Moldavia,  under  the  Turkish  sway.  The  Hunirarian,  according  to  Czaplovicz,  has 
four  principal  dialects : — 1.  The  Paloczen.  2.  The  dialect  of  the  Alagyars  beyond  the 
Danube.  3.  That  of  the  Magyars  of  the  Theiss ;  and  4.  That  of  the  Szekler,  living  in 
Transylvania,  in  the  Bukowine,  and  in  Moldavia.  The  Hungarian  language  is  very  harmo- 
nious ;  and  is  mixed  with  many  foreign  words,  especially  Slavonic,  German,  and  Latin. 

The  Wogoule,  spoken  by  the  Mansi  or  Monskum,  more  known  as  the  Woguls,  and  called 
Wogoulitshe  by  the  Russians.  They  are  almost  all  Christians,  and  live  principally  as 
hunters  and  fishermen,  scattered  over  the  government  of  Saratow,  in  the  high  valleys  of  the 
Ural,  in  that  of  Perm,  and  in  that  of  Tobolsk,  between  Kourjan  and  Beresow.  Klaproth 
distinguishes  in  it  four  dialects,  that  of  Chiasow,  those  of  Werchoturia,  and  Cherdin,  and 
that  of  Beresow  in  the  government  of  Tobolsk. 

The  Ostiak,  or  Obi-Ostiak,  which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Yenisei  family.  The 
As-jachs  or  Ostiaks  of  the  Obi,  who  speak  this  language,  are  mostly  Christians ;  some  are 
still  idolaters.  The  principal  dialects  are  those  of  Beresow,  Lumpokol,  Wass-i-gun,  and 
Narym.  Under  the  branch  still  uncertain  are  ranked  the  Hunniac,  the  Awar,  tlie  BtLlga- 
•ian,  and  the  Chazar. 


Fia.  10 


r 


SI- 


CHAPTER  a 

ENGLAND. 

The  British  islands,  placed  nearly  in  the  north-western  angle  of  Europe,  command  pecu- 
liar advantages,  no  less  for  natiral  strength  in  war,  than  as  an  emporium  of  commerce  in 
peace :  on  the  southern  side,  th  iy  are  almost  in  contact  with  France,  Holland,  and  Germany, 
for  ages  the  most  enlightened  xnd  flourishmg  countries  of  the  civilized  world :  on  the  east, 
a  wiue  expanse  of  sea  separatts  them  from  the  bleak  region  of  Scandinavia;  on  the  west, 
Uiey  overlook  the  Atlantic  Oct  on,  whose  limit  in  another  hemisphere  is  the  coast  of  Ameri- 
ca: while,  in  the  extreme  nortli  they  may  be  almost  said  to  face  the  unexplored  expanse  of 
the  Polar  Sea.    Exclusive  of  the  northern  insular  appendages,  they  may  be  considered  sM 


Part  ID. 

n  the  Leitha 

live  among 

In  nuurking 

Hungarians 

respect,  not* 

e  language! 

uagos  :— 
1  as  the  Fios 
Carelian  or 

3  formidable 
vemment  ot 
ipal  dialects 

aiders,  inha* 
Swedes,  and 
affinity  with 
lects,  which 
nd  eastern), 
1.  Through 
e  beginning 
have  begun 

Lndoned  this 

1  its  tributa- 
es,  the  Che- 

)ken  by  the 

tlie  Udi  or 

rhey  are  til 

pire,  except 


brm  about  a 
lia;  several 

forty  thou- 
plovicz,  has 
beyond  the 
r,  living  in 
i^ery  hanno- 

Latin. 
,  and  called 
ncipally  as 
lleys  of  the 
Klaproth 
herdin,  and 

mily.  The 
some  are 
-i'gun,  and 
tlie  Bulgih 


fiand  pecu- 

nmerce  in 

Germany, 

1  the  east, 

the  west, 

of  Ameri- 

wpanse  of 

sidered  as 


Fio.  108. 


MAP  OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 


813 


M 

Vol.  L 


T     iM^ttoteWMt  4  bomOnnwlch    a 

27 


dp 


314 


DESCMPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAmTlH. 


situated  between  the  fiftieth  and  fifty-ninth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  between  the 
■econd  donee  of  east  and  the  tenth  of  west  longitude.  They  are  geographically  divided 
into  two  islands  of  unequal  magnitude,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland :  Britain,  again,  is  divided 
into  two  unequal  parts:  England,  which,  including  Wales,  contains  57,060  square  miles; 
and  Scotland,  whicn  contains  80,600.  The  three,  though  united  into  one  kingdom,  respec- 
tively exhibit  peculiarities  which  characterise  them  as  distinct  countries  It  will,  tlierefore, 
be  requisite  to  describe  each  separately,  commencing  with  England,  the  seat  of  empire  and 
legislation.  The  chapter  whicn  treats  of  England  will  aflbrd  the  proper  place  for  many 
details,  particularly  of  a  political  nature,  which  are  alike  applicable  to  tlie  two  sister 
countries. 


Reference*  to  the  Map  qf  the  BritiA  Idande. 


,  ENGLAND 
U  Alnwick 
a.  kotiiburr 

3.  Morpeth 

4.  jlrthe 
a.  Newcaitw 

6.  Huhain 

7.  Billinfhnm 
a  CarliiTa 
9.  Cookermoutb 

10.  FiKrcmont 

11.  Kavenf  Ian 
13.  fJlveratua 

13.  Kendal 

14.  Keawlck 

15.  Penrith 

16.  Applaby 

17.  AUilona 

18.  Darlington 

19.  Durham 
iiO.  Sundarland 
SI.  Stockton 
S3.  Siukeilef 
93.  fluiiborouib 
SI.  Whitby 
S5.  Pickering 

88.  Thirak 
97.  North  AllettoD 
«.Hawea 
K.  Ripon 

30.  Kendal 

31.  Lancailer 
33.  Gantang 

33.  Puulton 

34.  Brndford 

35.  Bklpton 
3S.  Knaroabo:vugb 
37.  Leeda 
39.  York  „  , 

39.  New  Mallon 

40.  Billington 

41.  Scarborouth 
43.  Great  Driffield 

43.  Hornaaa 

44.  Hedon 

45.  Kingston  on  Hull 

46.  Barton 

47.  Grimabgr 

48.  Ravendale 

49.  Baltfleet 

50.  Thedletborpe 

51.  Boston 
S3.  Alford 

S3.  Huriicattle 
34.  Lincoln 

55.  Gainsborough 

56.  Athby 

57.  Diincaster 

58.  Sheffield 

59.  Pnntarraet 

60.  Mancheator 
31,  Preston 

63.  Liverpool 
63.  Cheater 
(M.  Newcastle 

65.  Newport 

66.  Stafford 

67.  Burton 

68.  Derby 

69.  Ashbonm 
TO.  Chesierflald 
71.  Mansfield 
73.  Alfreton 

73.  Nottingham 

74.  Helton  Mowtiny 

?5,  Grantham 
B.  Newark 

77.  Sleaford 

78.  Spalding  , 

79.  Lrnn  Regb 
A.  Wells 

81.  Cromer 
ffi.  Yarmoatta 

89,  Beeclee 


07,  Rnat  Dereham 

m.biu 

89.  f  hetford 
OaEly   ^ 
91.  March 
Oi.  Peterborough 

93.  Oundia 

94.  Stamrord 

95.  Harborough 
06.  Leicester 
97.  Coventry 
Ua  Tamworlb 
09.  Lichfield 

100.  Birminiham 

101.  Bridgunorth 
103,  Shrewsbury 
103.  Plynlimmua 
lot,  Ludlow 
10.5.  Tenbury 

106.  Lnominster 

107.  Bromford 

108.  Tewkesbury 
100.  Worcester 

110.  Alcesler 

111.  Warwick 
1 13.  Kvasham 

113.  Tuwcostor 

114.  Northampton 

1 15.  Wollingburough 

116.  Thrapaton 

117.  Hununidon 
lia  Bedford 
119.  Cambridita 

130.  MiManhall 

131.  Bury  St.  Ed 

mund'a 
193. 1'rapilingham 

133.  AiuU.r^ugh 

134.  Inawich 

135.  Sudburir 
196.  Harwich 

137.  Colcheater 

138.  Coggeihall 
199.  Boyston 
130.  Bishop's  Btort- 


ford 
131.  Hertford 
1.13.  St.  Albani 

133.  Aylesbury 

134.  Winslow 

135.  Buckingham 


orwich 


5.  But 

136,  Woodstock 
]:n,  Burford 
i:i8.  Gloucester 
139.  Hereford 
140.aosa 
141.  Colford 
148.  Bristol 

143.  Melksham 

144.  Malmesbury 

145.  Cirencester 

146.  Swindon 

147.  Hungerford 

148.  Kennel 

149.  Abingdon 
ISaOxrord 
151.  Wallingford 
158,  Thuna 

153.  Windsor 

154.  Uxbridge 

155.  Kingston 

156.  Croydon 

157.  Greenwich 

158.  London 

159.  Chelmsfbrd 

160.  Maldon 

161.  Maidstone 

163.  Canterbury 
ltt3.  Margate  ' 

164.  Ranugala 

165.  Dover 

166.  Rye 

167.  Haatinta 

i&a~.<!»s 

jw.  paiue 

17a  Eut  Griivtead 

171,  ESgalA 


173.  Horsham 
17a  Oriahton 

174.  Arundel 

175.  Pulborough 

176.  Uuildfurd 

177.  Oodalming 

178.  Petworth 
170.  Chicheatnr 

180,  Poriamoulh 

181,  Biiulhnmpton 
183,  Wliltehuroh 

183.  Anduver 

184.  Salisbury 

185.  Lyminglon 

186.  Poole 

187.  Bhaneabury 

188.  Biiih 
IHO.  Uxbridge 
lUO.  Wella 
191.  Glastonbury 
193.  Ikshaater 
193.  Taunton 
1114.  Porlock 

195,  South  Barn- 
staple 

196.  Bideford 
107,  Tqrrington 
196.  Launceston 
109.  Bodmin 
900.  St.  Agnea 
SOI.  Penaanca 
90i.  Fuliiiouth 
90.3.  Trsnony 
904.  'Itivtsleck 
805.  Piynieuth 
9116.  Mmlbury 
90'*.  Dartmouth 
90t.  Ashbnrton 
SOD,  Chumlaigh 

910.  Tiverton 

911.  Exeter 
813.  Sidmouth 
813.  Honiton 
314.  Lyme  Regis 
91.5,  Dnreheater 
910,  Weymouth 

_  Ritert. 

b  Tees 

0  Derwent 
d  Swale 

e  Wharfo 
r  Aire 
g  Don 
{i  Trent 

1  Ousa 

iThamoi 
Avon 
I  Severn 
mDee 

WALES. 

1,  Flint 

S.  St.  Asaph 

3.  Denbigh 

4.  Aberconway 

5.  Bangor 

6.  Beaumaris 

7.  Holyhead 

8.  Caernarvon 

9.  Llan  Haiarn 

10,  St.  Mary's 

11.  Harlech 
18.  Bala 

13.  Corwon 

14.  Montgomery 

15.  Dinasmowd 

18.  Towyn 

17.  Aherystwith 
la  Rhainder 

19.  Bault 

80.  TregarroD 
91.  LianVear 
xt,  Cardigan 
S3,  Newport 
S4,FiB0ard 


93.  St.  David's 
86.  Pemb(()ka 
97.  Caermarthen 
IH.  Cwyrgryg 

39.  Brecon 
:I0,  Miinmouth 
31.  Uske 

:<9.  Chepstow 
3:1.  Newp<irt 

34,  CnrdlflT 

35.  Lnndair 
30.  Llantrlsscnt 

37.  Swansea 

Kivert. 
■    H  Towey 
b  Tiovy 
0  Dee 

SCOTLAND 
1.  Dumeaa 
9,  Tongue 

3,  Reay 

4,  Thurao 

5,  Wick 

6,  Dunbeath 

7,  Helmsdara 
(*,  Dornoch 
9.  Tain 

10.  Porlinleik 

11.  Ullapool 
13,  Ppolew 

13.  Torridon 

14.  Loch  Carron 

15.  Dingwall 

16.  Beauty 

17.  Invnmaaa 

18.  Grantown 
10,  Nairn 
50.  Elgin 

91.  Inveraven 

93.  Cullen 
33.  Banff 

94.  Huntley 

95.  Turreff 

86,  Frasersburgh 

97.  Peterhead 

98.  Newburgh 

99.  Aberdeen 

30.  Stonehaven 

31.  Bervki 

33,  Tullooh 
:<3,  Brnemar 

34,  Fort  Augustus 

35,  Gleneig 

38.  Araaaig 

37.  Appin_ 

38.  Fmt  William 
.39.  Perth 

40.  Dunkeld 

41.  Blair  Alhol 

43.  Brechin 
4a  Montrose 

44.  Forfar 

45.  Arbroath 

46.  Dunden 

47.  8u  Andrews 

48.  AnMruther 

49.  Kinrosi 

50.  Inverkeilhing 

51.  CJaokmannan 
53.  Mulhill 

53.  Stirling 

54.  Inverary 

55.  Oban 

5H.  Dumbarton 
57.  Greenock 
sa  Paisley 

59.  Irvine 

60.  Hamilton 

61.  Glasgow 
63.  Falkirk 
63,  Linlithgaw 
§4.  Wh.itbura 

Se!  ^nSirgh 
67.  Uaddiniiton 


68.  North  Berwick 
60.  Dunbar 

70.  Berwick 

71.  Keltoe 
73.  Jedburgh 

73.  Hawick 

74.  Aahkitk 
7.5,  Biggnr 

76.  Moffkt 

77.  Sanquhar 

78.  Lanark 

70.  Kilmarnock 

80.  Ayr 

81.  Oirvan 

83.  HHllinlrae 
8:1.  Stranraer 

84.  Purl  Patrick 
H5.  Wigton 

80.  Kircuclbriifht 

87.  Now  Golloway 

88.  Monlhivu 
811.  Dumfries 

00.  Laniiholm 

01,  Annan 

Hhuri. 

b  Qon 
o  Use 
dTay 
e  Clyde 
f  Ken 
g  Nith 
n  Annan 
i  Tweed 

IRELAND. 
1.  Belfast 
9.  Antrim 

3.  Lame 

4.  Glenarm 

5.  Ballycastle 
a  Ballyrooney 
7,  Coleraine 

a  Tubbermore 
9,  Strabane 

10,  Londonderry 

11.  White  Castia 


13.1 

lai 


laphoe 
lifford 


14.  Letterkenny 

i.  Donega 
17.  Ballybol> 


15.  Killybegs 

16.  Donegal 


IB.  Omag h 
10.  Pomeroy 

90.  Clogher 

91.  DungannoD 
93.  Armagh 
93.  Lurgan 

34.  Donaghadea 

35.  Portaferry 
96.  Downpalriok 
S7.  Strevoy 

98.  Newry 
ao.  Dundalk 

30.  Monagban 

31,  Cavan 
33.  Callahill 

33.  Rnniskillen 

34.  Churchill 
SI.  Sligo 

36.  Drumeirn 

37.  Ballymore 

38.  Colooney 
30.  Ballina 

40.  Killala 

41,  Ballyglasa 
43,  Cloggon 

43,  Newport 

44,  Weatport 

45,  Kumor 

46,  Ballhimbe 

47,  C«stl«  Barr 

48,  Klleolman 

49,  Tuam 
SafUpbin 


51.  Roscommon 
S3.  Leitrim        • 
53.  Longford 
M,  Moynalty 
an,  Cnrrickmacresi 

56.  Dunleer 

57.  Drogheda 
SH.  Ualbtiggon 
50.  Dublin 

60.  Screen 

61.  Trim      , 

03.  Muynoota 
Ki.  Naas 

04.  'i'ullamore 
6.'i.  Mullingar 
Ii6.  AthloDO 
(i7.  Kyrecourt 
6*  tlHllyfornn 

li!l.  Newton  Bellaw 
7U.  I.iiiiiihrea 
71.  Orninore 
7a.  Ouuntora 
7;i.  Uahvay 

74.  Gort 

75,  Inniitymon 
70.  Kilrush 
77. Clare 

7H.  Ennis 
79.  LImerkk 
80. 1'ortunin 
81.  Nenagh 
f>.  Killiilue 
f'i.  TIjuiles 
N't.  Koscrea 
85.  Durrow 
8».  Ath 

87.  Kildare 

88.  Carlnw 
811.  Tullow 

90.  Baltingloaa 

91.  Blessington 

92.  Tnghor 

93.  Wicklew 

94.  Gorey 

95.  Rallyeanoa 

96.  Enniseortby 
07.  Wexfoid 

98.  Pethard 

99.  Waterford 
100.  Thomaa  Town 
lUl.  Kilkenny 
lO'.'.CarrickonSuin 
10:1.  Clonmi  I 

1114.  Bnllyporeen 
10.5.  Tipperary 

106.  Killmallock 

107.  Askoyton 

no.  CnstleFord 
Ill.Killatney 
113.  Konmare 

113.  Castletown 

114.  Bantry 
II.'),  Castletown 

116.  Kinsala 

117.  Cork 
lia  Killady 
119.  Tuchgeall 
130.  Mallow 
1*21.  Ralhcormueg 
ISi!.  Kildorery 
12:<.  Lismore 

134.  Youghall 

135.  Dungarvan 

136.  Tramore 

Rivtr$. 
a  Ban 

b  Carlingford 
c  Boyne 
d  Barrow 
e  Nore 
f  Suire 
Y  BlackWBKl 
h  Shannon 
i  EiKk, 


PabtIII. 

id  between  the 
phicall^  divided 
igain,  la  divided 
)  square  miles; 
ingdom,  rcspec- 
will,  therefore, 
t  of  empire  and 
place  for  many 
tlie  two  sister 


SI.  Roieommoa 
&i.  Leilrim        • 

53,  Longford 

54.  Moynalljr 

;'■}■  Cnrrickmacroit 

56.  Dunleer 

57.  Drogheda 
5H.  Unlbriggan 
50.  Dublin 

fiO.  Screen 
01.  Trim      . 
(U.  Muynootk 
Ki.  Naai 
R4.  Tullamore 
fi.').  Mullingar 
tie.  AthloDO 
07.  Kyrocourt 
(M.  Halljrornn 
Ui).  Newton  B«llew 
7(J.  l.<)U|jlirea 
71,  Orninore 
79.  Ougntora 
T,l.  Oarway 

74.  Gorl 

75,  Inniilymoo 
7ti.  Kilruili 
77.  Clare 

7H.  Ennit 
79.  Limerick 
80. 1'ortunm 
81.  Ncnogli 
t«2.  Killulue 
f3.  Thurlei 
M.  KoBcrea 
HS.  nurrow 

ea.  Ath 

B~.  Kildare 
88.  Carlnw 
8!l.  Tullow 
!)0.  nHllinglan 
Ul.  UleMinftoD 

92.  'Pogher 

93.  VVicktow 

94.  Gorey 

9.^.  Ballycanca 

9n.  Knniacortli/ 

97.  Wexfoid 

96.  Frlhard 

09.  Waterlbrd 
lOU.  ThomaaTowo 
lUl.  Kilkenny 
IIN.CarriokonSuin 
103.  Clonmi  I 
194.  Ballypiireen 
105.  'I'ipperary 
100.  Killmallock 

107.  Aikoylon 

108.  Bnllylongronl 

109.  Tralee 
no.  CnatleFord 
III.  Killafner 
113.  Kenmare 

113.  Caatlelowa 

114.  Bnnlry 
11.%  (.'nitlelowB 

110.  Kinaals 

117.  Crk 

118.  Killady 

119.  Tuchgeel* 
SO.  Mallnw 

■21.  Raihcormueg 
Vi.  Kildorery 
21.  Liamore 

24.  Yuughall 

25.  Dungarraa 
S6.  Tramora 

Rivtn. 
a  Ban 

b  Cariingfoiu 
c  Royne 
d  Barrow 
e  Nore 

f  guire  i.i 

f  BlnekwaMI 
h  Shannoa 
i  Buck. 


Book 


.i#t.'ii«. 


ENGLAND. 


«b 


SioT.  J.—Oeneral  Outline  and  A$peet. 

England  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  English  Channel,  interposed  betwcun  Ji  coa< 
and  that  of  France ;  on  the  east  by  the  German  Sea,  on  the  north  by  Scotland,  iVom  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  Tweed,  the  Cheviot  hills,  and  the  Frithof  Solway ;  on  the  west  by  the 
Irish  Sea  and  St.  George's  Channel :  the  promontory  of  the  Land's-End,  forming  its  south- 
western extremity,  faces  the  vast  expanse  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  greatest  dimension  of  England  is  from  south  to  north,  between  the  Lizard  Point, 
490  58' N.,  and  Berwick  on  Tweed,  55°  45'  N. ;  four  hundred  miles  in  length.  The  points 
of  extreme  breadth  are  the  Land's-End  (Jg.  104.),  in  6°  41'  W.,  and  LowestofTe,  in  1°  44'  E., 

forming  a  space  of  about  280  miles.  There 
is  no  point,  however,  where  a  line  ot*  this 
extent  can  be  carried  across  the  island,  and 
the  northern  part  does  not  on  an  average 
exceed  one  hundred  miles  in  breadth. 

The  surface  of  England  is  of  a  diversifi- 
ed character ;  the  eastern  districts  are  in 
general  level,  and  there  are  several  direc- 
tions in  which  hundreds  of  miles  may  be 
travelled  without  seeing  a  hill.  Along  the 
western  side  of  the  island  are  large  tracts, 
not  only  hilly,  but  sometimes  rising  even  to 
mountain  grandeur.  Such  are  the  counties 
of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  the  bleak  ridge  of  Ingleborough,  extending  like  a  spine 
through  the  north  of  England:  of  the  same  character  are  Derbyshire,  the  whme  principality 
of  Wales,  and  a  great  part  of  Devon  and  Cornwall.  These  tracts  exhibit  all  the  varieties  of 
mountain  scenery :  in  Cumberland,  encircling  little  plains  filled  with  beautiful  lakes ;  in 
Wales,  enclosmg  narrow  valleys  through  which  the  rapid  mountain  stream  dashes ;  in  Der- 


Uod'i-Eiid. 


Erference$  to  the  Map  t(f  England. — North  Part 


NORTH  SERIES. 
I.  Rntwick 
3.  Meldrum 

3.  Ddfurd 

4.  N.  Churllon 

5.  Alnwick 

?.  Whiltingham 
.  IJawayfuid 

8.  F.lidiin 

9.  Rnthbury 

10.  Warkwonh 

11.  Morpeth 

12.  BIytha 

13.  Chfton 

14.  Stanirnrdhain 
1.;.  Kirii  Harlo 

16.  Harlington 

17.  Bollingham 

18.  ButtHrdiaugh 

10.  Shillburn 
2U.  Kennel 
21.  Bewcaitia 

32.  Longtown 

fi.  Brampton 
4.  Hakwhialla 
35.  Siroonburo 
SO.  Hexham 
37.  Hiokley 
88.  Newcantle 
39.  North  Bhieldi 

30,  Tynemnuth 

31,  South  Bhieldi 

33,  Sunderland 

33.  Shotton 

34.  Durham 

35.  Cheiter-le-Slreet 

36.  Lancheater 

37.  Woliingham 

38.  Slanhupa 

39.  Acton 

40.  Afdilnno 

41.  Crnaisill 

43.  Kirk  Oawald 

43.  Laionby 

44.  Hunon 
4S,Carliala 

46.  Orton 

47.  Wigton 

48.  Abbeyholme 

49.  Maryport 

50.  Workington 

51.  Cockermouth 
S3,  Ireby 

53.  Keawiek 

54.  Malterdale 

55.  Penrith 

56.  canon 

57.  Appleby 

58.  Milburn 

59.  Broagh 
M,  Sfackholm 


61,Middl«(on         131,  Aldborough    , 
flS,  EggloBton  133.  Knareaborouih 

6:1,  Barnard  Ciitl*  133.  Ripon 

64,  Siaindrop  184.  Maiham 

65.  WpBt  Auekland  !«$,  Wf 


ee.  Biahop  Auck- 
land 

67.  Sadgefield 

68.  Hartlepool 
09.  Saaton  Carair 

n.  StokeaieT 

73,  Rauntoa 

74.  Yarm 

75.  DarlinttoD 

76.  Croft 

77,  Rokeby 

78,  Bowea 
70.  Reelh 


_  ^     rhemaide 

136,  Graaainaton 

137,  ArneliSa 

138,  Bettia 
13V.  Ingleloil 

130.  Kirkby  LoDi- 

131,  Hornby 
1:13,  Laneaater 

133.  Oantang 

134.  Slaidbum 

135.  Clitheroe 
138.  Colna 
137.  Paythoma 
i;«,  Skiplon 
130,  Thurcroaa 


I.  Kirkby  Stephen  140,  Otiey 


|l.  Orton 
13.  Mardale 

83.  Ambleaide 

84.  Seathwaite 

85.  Whitehaven 

86.  Egremont 

87.  Rarenglaaa 

88.  Whitbeck 

89.  Ulveralon 

90.  Hawkahead 

91.  Kendal 

03.  Faweott 
9:1.  Milllhorp* 

04.  Bedbergb 

05.  Hawea 
go.  Aakrigc 
07.  Middlenam 
96.  Richmond 
09.  Catterick 

100.  Bedale 

101.  Bumeaton 
103.  Thiiak 

103.  North  Allerton    _ 

104.  Helmaler  6.  Blackburn 

105.  Kirby  Moonide  7.  Burnley 

106.  Bnainton  8.  Halifax 

107.  Cloughton  0.  Keiahler 

108.  Scarborough      10.  Bradford 

109.  Filey 


141.  Harewood 
143.  Ripley 

143.  Wetherby 

144.  Tadcaater 

145.  Cawood 

146.  York 

147.  Pocklingtoo 

148.  Middleton 

149.  Market  Weigh- 
ton 

150.  Beverley 

151.  Brandiburton 
153.  Horniea 

153.  ■■■ 

154.  Hedon 

155.  Pattrington 

SOUTH   SERIES. 
1.  Poulton 
3.  Blackpool 

3.  Kirkham 

4.  Praaton 
9.  Chorley 


ilO,  Hunmanby 
111,  Bridlington 

113.  Kilham 
1IX  Driffield 

114.  Sledmere 

115.  Wintringham 

116.  New  Malton 

117.  Garraby 
11&  Stillenham 
110.  Coxwold 
190,  Eaaingwold 


11,  Dowibury 
18.  Wakefield 

13.  Leeda 

14.  Pontefr&et 

15.  Bnaith 
1&  Selby 

17.  Howden 

18.  Burton 

19.  South  Cove 
80.  Hull 

St.  Barton 


93.  Orimabr 

33.  Ravendale 

34.  Caiator 

SS.  Qlaoford  Bridge 
36.  Klitb.1 
87.  Brumby 
wie  . 
-    ^  ime 

30.  Dooeaater 

31.  Budaworth 
33.Bamealey 

33.  Peniitone 

34.  HudderafieM 

35.  Meltham 

36.  Aahton-uoder- 
..Una 

37.  Mancheater 

38.  Rochdale 

39.  Bury 

40.  Bolton 

41.  Leigh 
43.  Wigan 

43.  Ormikirk 

44.  Formby 

45.  Liverpool 

46.  Praacot 

47.  Newton 

48.  Warrington 

49.  Knutaford 

50.  Altringham 

51.  Stack -wrt 
S3.  Diiley 

53.  Chapel  in  the 

-Fnth 
54.TideaweU 

55.  Caatleton 

56.  Sheffield 

57.  Dronfield 

58.  Rntherham 

59.  Workaop 

60.  Rlyth 

61.  Retford 

03.  Gainaborough 
63.  Willoughton 

65.  Market  Raaeo 

66.  Louth 

67.  Saltfleet 

68.  Sutton 

69.  Alford 

70.  Burgh 

71.  Wainfleet 
73,  Spilaby 

73.  Horneaatla 

74.  Tatterahall 

75.  Dunaton 

76.  Navenbjr 

77.  Lincoln 

78.  Thomey 

79.  Tuzford 


86.  Newark 
81.  Manafleld 
83.  Bolaover 

83.  Oheaterfiald 

84.  Alfreton 

85.  Matlock 

86.  W^rkaworth 
67.  Winater 

88.  Buxton 

89.  Iiognor 

00.  Leeke 

01.  Horton 

03.  MaceletfleM 
93.  Congleton 

04.  Talk 

95.  Nantwieh 

06.  Middlewioh 

07.  Northwioh 
98.  Tarporley 
09.  Cheater 

100.  Holt 
lUl.  Wrexham 
103.  Mold 

103.  Flint 

104.  Ruthin 

105.  Denbigh 

106.  St.  Aaaph 

107.  Abergeler 

108.  Abereonway 
100.  Llanrwit 
llO.PenueVoelai 
III.  Tremadoc 
113.  Bangor 

113.  Beaumarii 

114.  Amlwch 

Its.  Llanercbrmedd 

116.  Holyhead 

117.  Caernarvon 
11&  Bwioh  Mawi 
119.  Pwllheli 

130.  Criokieth 

131.  Harledi 
133.  Arrennig 

133.  Llannweh- 

Uwyn 

134.  Bala 

135.  Cotven 

136.  Llangollen 

137.  Elleamcra 

138.  Wem 

130.  Whitohnich 

130.  Malpaa 

131.  Drayton 
133.  FxcleahaU 

133.  Stone 

134.  Newcaatle-un- 

det^Line 

135.  Buralem 

136.  Cheadle 

137.  Uuozater 


}%.  Aahbona 
139.  Derby 
""  Belper 

Notlicfham 

143.  Bolteaftird 


140. 
141. 


143.  Grantha— 

144.  SleafoiT^ 

145.  Folkingham 

146.  Donninflon 

147.  Boaton 

148.  Bumhan 

Market 

149.  Caatle  Biaint 

150.  Fakenham 
ISl.NewWalaing 

ham 
153.  Holt 

153.  Cromer 

154.  N.  WaUi«m 

ISLE  OF  MAN 
I,  Ramaey 
9,  PeeP 

3.  Douglaa 

4.  Caatletown 


a/"""- 


Coquet 

Wenabeek 


aTUL 
b  AIn 

0 

?P 
c  Wear 
b  Teea 
i  Eak 

k  Derweot 
I  Ouae 
m  Swale 
n  Ure 

0  Wharf 
p  Air 

q  Calder 

a  Rotber 
t  Derwent 
u  Dove 
v  Trent 
w  Ankholm 
X  Witham 
J  Conway 

1  Clwyd 
a*  Dee 

b»  Weaver 
e*  Meraey 
d*  Ribble 
e*  Luno 
r»  Derwent 
(*EdeB 


i 


116 


MAP  OF  ENGLAND— ifOBTH. 


Fio.  im 


Pio.  im 


Fio.  106. 


MAP  OF  ENOLAND-MOTH. 


811 


A 

a 

w 

} 

A^^%£* 

jsSl 

f!  ^Hp 

'« 

Jjfl\ 

c^r»r~ 

{ 

ifct^ 

I 

i*'^^^ 

- 

L'VV, 

1 

-^'AlA 

i: 

^ 

1 

•9 

5^^ 

^ 

^ 

w 

ms 

"^y  ftB 

\y  W'S 

^tv 

*« 

rJP 

i^A, 

^ 

« 

87* 


318 


DESCRIiTIVB  OEOORAPIIY. 


Pabt  III 


bvBhiro,  proaontindf  rocky  ncnnnry  in  ovory  pictiircMnuo  and  fkntaitio  ahapo ;  wliilo  in  Devon 
•hire  low  broad  stecpit  ovenliadow  wide  ana  l)<>autiml  vaici. 

With  onu  oxceptioii,  the  mcmt  important  rivont  of  Kngland  trnverfle  thn  breadth  of  the 
kingdom :  riaing  among  the  woatcru  hilla,  aiul  tlowing  ti-ward  tlie  (.icnnan  Ocean,  lltoy  da 
not  attain  that  length  of  courmj  which  tho  cxtont  of  ita  territory  in  nnolhtir  direction  would 
have  admitted.  Though  deficient,  however,  in  magnitude,  thoy  are  numeroua,  commodious, 
and  valuable ;  flowing  through  broad  valea  and  widu-Hpreading  plains. 

The  Thames,  though  not  tho  longoMt,  deserves  to  1)0  ranked  as  tho  flrst  of  British  rivers. 
It  originates  iVom  a  number  of  rivulets  on  the  bordcn  of  Wilts  and  Oloucestonhire,  which, 


■1*1'' 


Rrfennctt  to  the  Map  <jf  England — Soutii  Part. 


NORTH  BKRIEfl, 
I.  T*llrb.iui 
8.  P<il|i>llr 


si  L.l*n(»l»n 

..  .iluifair 
p.  Bhnwiburr 
0.  OawMtrir 
10.  WtllinitoD 

i.  Nawp<>rl 
.Bumir 


W.  Ab«nralwlih 
87.  Alwflliiwirn 
tM.  Huuitr  Vmwith 
nt.    .UnidkH't 
flO.   thtriidsiKW/ 
01,   Jiinilgiler 

Kl.  Knifhliin 
m.  «;iunn 
Vi.  Ludluw 
W.  Cloubutr  Mor- 

liiiwr 
07.  nnwrilcir 
OH.  Itlitdr      ' 


Euuch 
-- dgworih 
10.  Uiiuihbiirnufh 
20.  Mouiil  Biirrttl 
81.  M«ltiin  Muwbrar 

S:i.  Curly 
84.  Iliiutn 
8.').  Hiamronl 

80.  Maiki'l  Deeping 

87.  rruwiand 
8''.  Hwalilini 
«».  il.illwarh 
»).  WiilK'nch 
!ll.  Iilintli>n 
',fl.  I.ynii  Riiitia 
3.1.  NarljiiriiUKh 
:t4.  Iiitchnm 
Xt.  Hvvnrt'linrn 
.ta.  KmI  [)i'i<ihum 
37.  Koiililiuin 
!tH.  Ajriiihaiii 
3!l.  Norwirh 

40.  Wroihiim 

41.  Yaniiiiiiih 
4'i.  LnwcftiiU 
4X  itiierlea 
44.  I.ikUoii 
4.').  Bunitiiir 
411.  Harlninn 

47.  Nhw  liuckinc- 

ham 
4H.  Wjrnmndhini 
4)1.  Hiprhiiin 
00.  VVsitiin 
.11.  Kaal  llnrlinK 
M.  Their.iid 
.VL  Braiid<in 
54.  Melhwuld 
.1.5. 1)(iwnliani 
M.  Kly 
S7.  March 
.V.  Ramier 
5!l.  Tiiiiriiey 
BO.  I'eleiboroiif  h 
fil.  Nnrinnn  Cruai 
(18.  Oundio 
6').  Ilnckiniham 
M.  UiipinxRam 
6.1.  Iiflicntar 
M.  Market  Harbo- 

riiuth 
A7. 1.ullerworUi 
6«.  Hinckley 
fiO.  Nuncnlim 

70.  A(ht>riitone 

71.  Tamwiiilh 
78.  (7<il«Hliill 

^X  B'Mua  ColdfleU 
74.  VtTalaall 
7.V  Rirminiihani 

76.  Wolverhampton 

77.  Bridfonutlh 

78.  Broaeley 

TO.  Much  Wenloek 
m.  Riahop'i  Caille 

81.  MonKnmorr 

88.  Npwinwn 
8:1.  I.lanfair 
84.  Muchrnllalh 
BS.  Tuwy'n 


_   . Ixrminiler 

110.  BiDurbridKu 

Iromley  100.  Ilarlumwon 

101.  BromKruve 

108.  proilwich 


10.1.  Ilenlcy  in  Arden  I 
im.  Warwick 

105.  Covnnlry 

106.  Leiniinf  ton       1 
1U7.  Dtventry 

ioHiwell  j 

orlhamplon  1 

etteiliig  1 

-hrapilim  I 

KimlM)liiin  I 

114.  Si.  N>>ofa  1 

11.1.  Iluntinfdon  1 

116.  Bi.  Ivea  '■ 

117.  VVillin«ham  '. 
lia  Newmarket  ! 
110.  LittioBailnn  '. 
180.  Bury  St.  Ed- 
mund *i 

131.  Blow  Market 
182.  Uwurth 


108. 

iia  1 


i;n. 

!«. 
13B. 
140. 
141. 


133.  Diti 
184.  Kyo 
las.  Pelwnham 
m  WiniiAeM 
187.  Finmlinthani 
138.  Soulhwiild 
180.  Dunwieh 
i:i0.  Baxmundhtm 
131.  Aldbnrouf  h 
i:iS.  Wofldbr  J|« 

133.  Ipewlch 

134.  Hadleiih 

135.  WhalAeld 

136.  pildealun 
leedham 
lavenham 
udbury 
laverhill 

Jnton 

148.  Cambridca 
14.3.  Caxton 

144.  Royaton 

145.  Potion 

146.  Bedford 

147.  OIney 

148.  Newport  Pag- 

nel 
140.  Fenny  Slratfurd 
190.  Toweatler 
151.  Buckinaham 
198.  Braekley 

153.  Bandbury 

154.  Kinelon 

155.  BhipitoD  upon 

Stnur 
l.W.  Tampden 

157.  Biralfurd  on 

Avon 

158.  Aleeaier 
ISO.  Eveaham 
lliO.  Wurceiter 
161.  Penhoro 
163.  Uplon 

163.  Ledbury 

164.  Bromyard 

165.  Leomintler 

166.  Wenbly 

167.  Hereford 

1AR.  Thriivtnn 

l«>.Hair    ■" 


801. 

8U1. 
806. 
807. 
8118. 

m 

911. 

i^ 

314. 
315. 
816. 
317. 
818. 
319. 

880. 
881. 
888. 


^: 

880. 
830. 
831. 
833. 

3:a. 

8'M. 
2B. 
836. 
837. 
338. 
8:i9. 
840. 
841. 
8(8. 
843. 
844. 
845. 
846. 
847. 
848. 
840. 
810. 
331. 


.  Tflf i»<h 
.  Iilyawan 
.  Builllh 
.  Iiandulaa 
.  Triinarun 
.  Iilamiinlur 
.  Naw  Caallo 

Emlyn 
.  Cardican 
.  Nawpurt 
.  8t.  David'f 
.  HanirfbrdVVaat 
.  Miirurd 
.  rambruk* 
.  Tanby 
.  Narberth 
.  BI.  C'lear'a 
.  (.anvernach 
.  Caermarlhan 
.  Landabio 
.  Lanaadua 
.  Lannovory 
.  Trncaiila 
.  Brecon 
.  Crickhowell 
.  Aberiavennr 
.  Hi.  Weuuard'i 
.  H(« 

.  Miicheldean 
.  Nuwont 
.  (ilouceiiier 
.  "'iiwkeibury 
.  1,'lielii'nhum 
.  Northleach 
.  Iliow  in  Ihe 
Wnid 

AInrelon  In  tlis 
.Vlanh 

C'larbury 

V\'uod<lock 

Dtdlnitoo 

Bireiinr 

Wniluw 

VViindovcr 
Ivipahoa 
'j«l|huin  Bus- 
sard 
Lulon 
Slennaie 
Halduck 
MiilAeld  Biihop 
Herlfurd 
Biahup'i  Blorl- 

nunmnw 

Thai  ted 

Brainirea 

Coggcahall 

Halalead 

Colcheatoi 

Harwich 

Bl.Oiylh 

Brndwell 

Rochford 

Maldon 

Chelmiford 

Inaaleatona 

Horndon 

Romfurd 

Chipping  Ongar 

Eppini 

Eniinld 

Si.  AJbnn'a 

Walford 

Berkhnmpatoad 

Amenham 

Marlnw 

Wallingford 

Oxford 

Ahinidon 

Wantage 

Whiincy 

Burfurd 

Lechlade 

Cirenceiler 

Malmeabury 

Wnlinn  iin.Itt* 

Edia"    " 


8S3.  Mlnchinliiimp- 
ton 

814.  Biruud 

VA.  IJarkalair 
lacknvy 
Innmuulh 


Tydvil 
•ont 

'[■ 
„...  (Niwbildga 

Mi.  I'ylo 

JiW,  Nealh 
807,  Abernant  , 
868.  PunUrdylala 
860,  kidwully 
970.  Penrica 

B01JTH  BKRIEB. 
I,  'rhiirnbuiy 
9.  Chipping  Bod- 
bury 

3.  |lri>to1 

4.  VVriiigtnn 

5.  Penalbrd 

6.  Marahfleld 

7.  Bradf  ird 

8.  Chippvnhani 
0.  Calna 

10.  Wullon  Bnuot 

11.  Mnrlburouah 
18.  Ilungerfoia 

13.  IiumDuurnc 

14.  K.  llilny 

iiiVTli^ham 

17.  Maidiinnuad 

18.  Windior 
10.  Uxbridga 

80.  Kingatu 

81.  F.wSlj 

88.  Croydon 
83.  Iinndon 
81.  Woolwich 

89.  Gravoaend 

86.  Roehetier 

87.  Chatham 
8H. Sheeineaa 
80.  Faveraham 
:I0.  Canterbury 
31.  Margate 
38,  Bandwiob 
3:1,  Deal 

"lover 
tha 


67.  Wella 

68.  Axbriilga 
•10,  Blarkliird 

0,  Brldgewalai 
'.  WhalohM 
I,  Minehaad 
.  Piiilluek 
,  Combe  Martin 
I.  Ilfracomba 
L  Barnitaple 
.  Appleduia 
I.  niaefoid 
.  lla'lland 
L  Torrlii|ton 
noulh  Multon 


N.  llulvarion 
to.  WlYabaeomlM 
84^  Welllngloa 
CS.  7'aunlnn 
tM,  Lungport 
K7.  Bomortun 
8H.  Ilchealor 
8U.  Miiburn  Port 
UO.  C'atilu  Cary 
01,  Wlncnunlim 
08.  ShnllMbury 
0:l.  M'lra 
04.  VVaiininatur 
01.  Ilindon 

06.  Wdlon 

07.  Sallibury 
118.  Dciwnlon 
00.  Hoiiiaey 

100.  Hiockbildge 
ibi.  Winchetler 
108.  Bramdaan 
10.3.  PetaraAold 
104.  Midhuhit 
10.1,  'elAoilh 

106.  lailemcra 

107.  Horiham 

108.  CuckAeM 
100.  UokAeir 


34.  Dov 

35.  Hvtj 
:«.  Wye 

37.  Aihford 

38.  Bmnrden 
30.  Lenham 

40.  Mnidaiona 

41.  Wrotham 
43.  Tunbridge 

43.  Sevennaka 

44.  Wnaterham 
4,1,  R.Giinali  ' 
46,  Rniiale 


4,1,  R.Giinalead 

I  Rnigi 
47.  D'.>'l'in« 


U. 


Ripley 
40.  Guildford 

50.  Gndalming 

51.  Alton 
58.  aiiham 

53.  Rniingitoka 
,14.  Newbury 

55.  Whilchuioli 

56.  Andover 

57.  Ludgerahall 
.18.  Ameabury 
SO.  Btonohenga 

60.  Devizea 

61.  Trowbridge 
68.  Wettbury 

63.  Bath 

64.  Bruton 

65.  Bhoplon  Mallat 


1.18.  Axmlnatar 
IM.  Chard 
1.14.  Hiiiiiiun 
l.M.  <:olyion 
ISll.  Sidriioulh 
137.  KimoulL 
1.18,  Milvarloa 
I.Vi,  Cullumpton 
IttU.  Cradiion 
tjT.  Chumlaigh 

!n8.  Cruckernwell 
6:1.  Oakhainplan 
64.  Halhatlaigh 
6,1.  Bheapwain 
m.  lloUwurtby 
167.  Birattun 
1(8.  Jacobatow 
int.  Cainairoid 

!7U.  Launcvilan 
71.  Calllngion 
173.  Tavialook 

173.  Hiaiifoid 

Bpiiiay 

174.  Moralun  Hamp' 

den 

175.  F.xBier 
170.  Chudloigh 
l'/7.  Newiiin  Buihii 
178.  Aahbuiton 
170  Tuiiieaa 

JHO.  Darlmoulh 
IHI.  K  iiif  abridge 
IH3.  Modbury 
m.  PlympKin  Ead 
1H4.  Plyuioulfa 
18.1.  Sallnah 
m.  Hi.  Gerinana 


187. 


1UU. 
101. 


111. 
14. 


liikeard 


188.  Looe 
1H0,  Fowoy 


<natwiihiel 
ludmin 


ilO.  'I'unbridge 

Wadhurat 

noudhural 

Crnnbrnoka 

.     Applrdoro 

15,  New  Romney 

III.  I.ydd 

la  wrnchelaea 

10.  Ilailinga 
:  80.  Hatila 
181.  Hailaham 
}K.  R.  Bouina 

183.  Btmford 

184.  Lt'woa 
181.  Brighton 
180.  N.  Shnreham 

187.  Stoyning 

188.  Worthing 
180.  Arundel 
i:w,  Chiciieiiler 
l.3I.Havant 
1.39,  Farchom 
1.'I3.  Soulhanptpq 
134.  Nowtown 
13.1.  Newport 
1:16.  Yarmouth 

137.  Iiymington 

138,  Chriatchurch 
130,  Kingwaod 

140,  Pnola 

141.  WimbornMin- 

atar 
143.  Blandfnrd 

143.  Beer  Regit 

144.  Wareham 

145.  Cnrle  Caitin 

146.  Melcorobe  Ra- 

147.  Weymouth 

148.  Dorcheiter 
140.  Ccrna  Abbaa 

159-  Pridpoif^ 

Jim.  **rwn  jwaa 


108.  Si.  Minver 

103.  Padalow 

104.  St.  Michael 
lUS,  Orampfluad 
1116  Treguny 
107. Tturo 

IDH.  Ri'drulh 
100,  Penryn 
8IX>.  Ilelainn 
aill.  Mnraxion 
808,  81,  Ivia 
80J.  Penxanca 


...fliaerf. 

a  Welland 
b  Nen 

0  Old  Bedford 
d  OldOoar 

e  Onae 
f  Wenaoa 

CColn 
Iiea 
i  'rhninea 
J  (7harweH 
k  Kennei 

1  Wey 
m  Molo 

n  Medwa 
o  Biour 
p  Rulher 
q  Arun 
r  Avon 
a  Exe 
t  Tamer 
uTaw 
»  Perrol 
w  Axe 
X  Avon 
J  Beveru 
*  Temo 
a'Wye 
b*  Taaf 
c*  Towey 
d»  tolA 
••  Xalwitb 
f*i»»«jr 


Pabt  in 

o;  while  in  Devon 

the  breadth  of  the 
nan  Ocean,  Uioy  do 
i(!r  direction  would 
eroiii,  zomrnodiouR, 

t  of  British  river*. 
ice»ton»hiro,  which, 


Book  L 


ENGLAND. 


in 

W. 
.M. 

^l 

in. 

•Ml. 
«U, 


Kt. 

A 


fl'. 

t 
Ttt. 
71. 
79. 
173. 

174. 


17.V 

1711. 

vn. 

17H. 

m 

JW). 
IHl, 
1H3 


IKI. 
IHI. 
li». 
IW). 
1H7. 
IflH. 
IHII. 
1UU. 
lUI. 
](N 
J0». 

lus! 

IIIH 
Kff. 

IIW. 
1U9. 

aw. 

SIM. 
9U9. 
!MU. 


Aimliwitr 

Ijh.rd 

MiiMiiun 

•  '"lylcin 

Hldinnilth 

Kimoutt 

Hilvtrtiiq 

<<ullump(i)ii 

Crmliion 

Chuinliilih 

Cruclirriiwell 

Hakhamptoa 
•ihorWfh 
llhmpwuh 

Sllubwurthr 
Irattun 
uoImiow 
ktiwirard 
Launcutton 
Cillindoo 
U  ivlmook 
tlianroii) 
Hpiinr  „ 
Moraiun  Hamp' 
Mfin 

rhuUloifh 
Niiwiiin  Buihd 
AahliurtoD 
Tuiiini 
Dailmiiulh 
>iiitahrid|« 
iilbi 


^ 


.  JiiiTbury 
I'lympum  Eari 
flyniiiulh 
Hallnih 
Hi.  (ierinini 
{•iikeird 

Fi)Woy 

Lnuwllhtel 

llodmia 

Ht.  Min*er 

PudaioMr 

Bt.  Michtnl 

OrainiMiuBd 

Tfwruny 

Jrurn 

Ri'dtulh 

Penryn 

tlisluon 

Mnrniion 

Ri.  Ivi« 

Peniuiic* 


...ftijierf. 

a  Wetland 
b  Neil 

0  Old  Redrurd 
d  Old  Oair 

e  OiiM 
r  VVunioa 

RCuIn 

i  'J^hnme* 
J  OharweH 
k  nnnne: 

1  Wey 
m  Molo 

n  Mrdwa 
o  Siour 
p  Rulher 
q  A  run 
r  Avon 
a  Exe 
t  Tamer 
uTaw 
r  Perrol 
w  Axe 
X  Avon 
r  Bevcru 
X  'IVrno 
a»Wyo 
b*  Taaf 
c»  Tower 
d'TeiH 

f*l«VBJ 


unitins  at  CricklHile,  '°>nn  a  itreain  which  in  about  nine  feet  broul  in  miinmcr,  and  u  called 
the  Thamo.  Noar  (),xford  it  rcceivoH  the  ('barwidl  and  the  Iniii,  asiumiiiK  on  iti  junction 
witli  the  latter  nvui  the  compound  naine  of  Tuinoiia,  which  hoii  boon  abbreviated  into  TharoeH. 
Atlcr  a  courso  a]ino«t  aoutliward  to  Heading,  it  wind^  northward  through  the  wooded  vale  of 
Henley  and  Maulunhead,  and  thence  by  the  caatoUatod  hoighti  of  Windoor.  Ita  counto  to 
London  ii  by  ('hertoey,  Hampton,  Twickenham,  and  Richmond,  among  tlio  maffnilicont 
wooda  and  niibcoa  of  thia  parodiae  of  England.  Near  Teddington  ita  current  is  alightly 
acted  upon  by  thf  xtremo  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide,  which  rises  higher  in  thia  than  in  any 
other  river  of  Fliu.jpe.  It  divides  the  capital  into  two  unenual  parts,  having  on  its  northern 
bank  the  citiun  of  London  and  WeMtminster,  and  on  its  southern  the  borough  of  Sotithwark. 
Below  lA)ndun  Bridge  it  is  navipblo  for  vnssels  of  large  burthen  ;  ita  ample  channel,  and  tho 
spacious  docks  connected  with  it,  aro  there  conHtantly  flUod  with  forosta  of  masts,  and  seem 
to  contain,  as  it  were,  tho  wealth  of  the  world.  It  winds  its  way  to  tho  ocean  through  a 
country  presenting  few  objects  of  interest,  except  the  vast  naval  establishmonta  situated  on 
the  soul  I  uank  of  the  river.  Woolwich  claims  particular  attention,  not  only  on  account  of 
Uie  royiil  doo.kyard,  and  tlie  national  dep6t  of  artillery,  but  for  its  military  academy,  which 
ranks  as  the  first  in  tho  empire.  Tho  estuary  of  tho  Medway,  opening  into  the  river  lVon< 
Kent,  ailbrds  commodious  sites  for  tho  naval  stations  of  Chatham  and  Sheemosa.  The  entire 
course  of  tlio  Thames  is  about  Urii)  miles. 

Tho  Trent,  with  ita  tributary,  the  northern  Ouse,  traverses  tho  whole  midland  territory  of 
England,  and  several  of  its  principal  manufacturing  districts,  to  which  it  affords  a  communi- 
cation  with  the  eastern,  and  by  canals  with  tho  western,  ocean.  It  rises  nriiong  tho  low 
Staffordshire  hills,  and  at  Burton,  it  becomes  navigable  for  vessels  of  moderate  sizo.  Re- 
ceiving tho  Dove  and  Derwont,  which,  aller  dashing  through  the  rocky  reccHscs  of  Derby- 
shire, Imvo  already  subsided  into  peaceful  streamH,  it  ixisscs  Nottingham,  and  at  Gainsborough 
becomes  navigable  for  steam-boats,  and  other  vessels  of  larger  burthen.  Afler  a  farther 
course  of  a'uout  thirty  miles,  it  flows  into  the  Huinber,  already  rendered  a  broad  eotuary  by 
tho  Ousc,  which  has  collected  tho  principal  streams  of  Yorkshire.  The  Ouse,  formed  by 
tlie  confluence  of  the  Aire  and  the  Swale  fS-om  tlie  uplands  of  the  North  Riding,  is  subse- 
quently augmented  by  tho  Wharfe,  The  Aire,  with  its  tributaries  the  Calder  and  Don,  ena- 
ble it  to  communicate  with  all  the  great  manufacturing  towns  of  the  West  Riding,  and  the 
confluonco  of  the  Derwent  from  tlie  East  Riding  renders  it  equal  in  magnitude  to  tho  I'h  imes. 
Tho  OuBO,  with  its  branches,  forms  ono  of  the  most  useful  and  least  beautiful  of  En/lish 
rivers.  It  winds  a  sluggish  course  through  manufacturing  districts  and  rich  arable  f)jlda 
witliout  any  diversity  of  scenery.  The  Humbor,  formed  by  tho  junction  of  tho  Trent  and 
Ouso,  resembles  an  arm  of  tho  sea ;  and  ita  trade  contributes  mainly  to  tho  commercial 
prosperity  of  Hull. 

Tlie  Severn  is  the  only  great  stream  which  runs  from  north  to  south  for  a  considerable  part 
of  it.s  course.  Rising  in  Wales,  near  the  foot  of  Plinlimmon,  it  flows  through  the  vales  of 
Montgomery ;  and,  afler  winding  round  Shrewsbury,  directs  its  course  to  the  southward, 
through  Bomo  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  plains  of  England,  passing  by  the  cities  of 
WorceutRr,  Tewkesbury,  and  Gloucester.  In  commercial  importance  it  also  ranks  high, 
since  it  flows  through  Colebrook  Dale,  and  otiier  principal  seats  of  the  iron  trade ;  while  Uie 
tracts  on  its  lower  course  have  for  ages  been  distinguished  for  tho  manufacture  of  fine  wool- 
lens. Ita  navigation  is  not  free  from  obstructions,  but  much  has  been  done  to  obviate  these 
disadvantages,  and  to  connect  tlie  Severn  by  canals  with  the  other  great  rivers.  In  approach- 
ing Bristol,  it  receives  tlie  Wyo,  which,  rising  in  Wales,  flows  through  scenery  that  renders 
it  the  most  picturesque  of  English  rivers.  Tho  Severn  then  expands  into  the  estuary  of  the 
Bristol  Channel,  tho  seat  of  a  commerce  once  second  only  to  that  of  the  metropolis,  but  now 
surpassed  by  that  of  Liverpool. 

The  other  rivors  of  England  are  small ;  the  Eden,  the  beautiful  river  of  Cumberland, 
forms  the  Sohvay ;  the  Mersey  of  Lancashire,  with  its  tributary  the  Irwell,  is  important,  for 
the  mass  of  commodities  which  it  conveys  from  the  great  manufacturing  districts  to  Liver- 
pool ;  the  southern  Ouse,  combines  with  the  Witham  of  Lincolnshire  in  forming  that  broad, 
shallow,  marshy  estuary  called  the  Wash,  through  which  ia  exported  a  considerable  quantity 
of  grain  from  the  agricultural  districts ;  the  Tyne  and  the  Tees  in  the  north  of  England  ore 
the  channels  of  extensive  trade ;  the  Tyne,  m  particular,  which  carries  down  tiio  product 
of  the  vast  coal  mines  of  Newcastle. 

The  lakes  of  England  occur  principally  in  the  counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland, 
which  are  denominated  the  country  of  the  lakes.  These,  of  which  Windermere,  the  largest, 
is  only  twelve  miles  long  and  one  bmad,  have  been  raisoil  to  distinction  by  the  taste  of  the 
ago  for  picturesque  beauty,  rather  dian  as  geographical  features  of  the  country.  Their 
number,  which  is  considerable,  entitles  them  to  notice;  and  a  description  of  them  will  accom- 
pany that  of  the  districts  to  which  they  belong. 

Sect.  n. — Natural  Oeography. 
This  subject  will  be  treated  under  the  heads  of  Geology,  Botany,  and  Zoology. 


asM) 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  in. 


SuBtowT.  l.—Oeology  of  England. 

While  in  Scotland  the  prevailing^  formations  belong  to  the  primitive  and  trantiition  classes, 
in  England  the  deposits  that  most  abound  are  the  secondary,  tertiary,  and  alluvial.  Hence 
it  is  uiat  Scotland  appears  lofty  and  rugged,  when  contrasted  with  the  hilly,  flat,  and  low 
land  of  England.  To  enable  our  readers  to  form  a  general  conception  of  the  gcognostical 
structure  of  England,  we  shail  consider  the  mineral  formations  in  the  following  onler : — I, 
Primitive  and  Transition.    II.  Secondary.    III.  Tertiary.    IV.  Alluvial. 

L  Primitive  and  JVansition.  These  rocks  are  principally  confined  to  the  more  moun 
tamous  parts  of  England,  and  appear  roost  abundantly,  in  Cumberland  and  some  neighbouring 
counties ;  in  Wales ;  and  in  Cornwall  and  Devon. 

(1.)  Cumberland  district.  This  district  is  bounded  to  the  west  and  the  south  by  the  Irish 
Sea  and  Morecombe  Bay ;  towards  the  north  it  descends  into  the  plain  of  the  new  red  sand- 
stone, within  the  basin  of  the  Eden ;  and  on  the  east  it  is  boundea  by  the  central  carbonifer- 
ous chain  of  the  north.  Within  these  limits  there  are  two  sets  of  rocks,  viz.  Plutonian  and 
Neptunian ;  the  more  central  parts  being  Plutonian,  and  the  others  Neptunian.  The  order 
in  which  they  occur,  is  as  follows : — 

1.  Granite  and  Syenite.  They  form  the  geognosticdl  axis  of  all  this  region,  and  extend 
from  the  centre  of  the  Skiddaw  range  to  tiie  neighbourhood  of  Egremont.  There  is  a  fine 
display  of  the  granite  in  the  bed  of  the  Calden,  where  it  is  intersected  by  veins  of  quartz, 
ana  contains,  besides  other  minerals,  molybdena,  tungsten,  wolfram,  and  phosphate  of  lime. 

2.  A  scries  of  crystalline  slaty  deposits,  forming  the  centre  of  the  Skiddaw  region,  extend- 
ing across  Cromac  lake,  and  by  the  foot  of  Ennerdale,  as  far  as  Denthill,  is  composed  of 
gneiss,  mica  slate,  hornblende  slate,  and  chiastolite  slate.  In  some  parts  of  Skiddaw  and 
Saddleback  the  curious  mineral  named  chiastolite  occurs :  veins  of  quartz  and  galena  occur 
in  Thomthwaite,  Newlands,  Loweswater,  and  other  places;  a  copper-mine  was  formerly 
worked  in  Newlands.    The  salt  springs  of  Borrowdale  issue  from  these  rocks. 

8.  Deposit  of  cla^  slate. 

4.  An  enormous  formation  of  a  green  felspathose  slate,  intimately  associated  with  porphvry, 
like  that  of  Snowdonia  in  Wales,  and  the  Needle's  Eye  in  Scotland.  The  famous  graphite 
or  black-lead  mine  of  Borrowdale  is  situated  in  the  upper  end  of  the  valley  of  that  name, 
where  the  graphite  occurs  in  irregular  veins  associated  with  calc  spar,  brown  spar,  and 
quartz.  The  graphite  is  in  nests  in  these  veins,  and  the  veins  are  contained  in  a  Plutonian 
rock,  viz.  fblspar  porphyry,  which  is  in  some  places  amygdaloidal.  Some  nests  of  graphite 
have  afibrded  30001.  wor&  of  that  mineral. 

5.  Grey  wacke,  with  subordinate  beds  of  limestone  enclosing  organic  remains.  A  grypheea 
and  tumtella  occur  near  to  Kirby-Lonsdale ;  a  pecten,  plagiostoma,  trigonia,  and  patella 
near  to  Keswick.  On  the  north  side  of  the  geognostical  axis  the  Neptunian  formations  are 
repeated,  with  the  exception  of  the  grey  wacke  series,  which  is  probably  buried  under  the 
ola  red  sandstone  and  mountain  limestone ;  and  on  this  northern  side,  notwithstanding  its 
less  extensive  developement,  there  is  a  group  of  mountams,  almost  entirely  composed  of 
diallage  rock,  and  other  minerals ;  of  which,  it  is  said,  no  trace  occurs  in  the  south.  These 
occupy  the  place  of  the  green  felspar  slate  and  porphyry  series  of  No.  3.  of  Wales,  after- 
wards to  be  noticed ;  and  seem  to  be  in  the  precise  place  of  the  serpentine  of  the  Lizard  in 
Cornwall.  Further,  there  is  on  the  west  side  of  Cumberland  another  formation  of  granite 
and  syenite,  which  imderlies,  traverses,  and  overlies  the  clay  slate,  Na  3.,  and  is  considered 
the  great  centre  cf  elevation  of  the  region.  It  never  overlies,  it  is  said,  the  mica  slate, 
chiastolite  slate,  &c. ;  but  is  probably  connected  with  veins  of  syenite,  and  other  detached 
masses  of  crystalline  rock,  which  do  not  belong  to  the  ordinary  rocks  of  superposition.  A 
range  of  transition  limestone  extending  from  Mellam  in  Cumberland  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Wasdale  Head  in  Westmoreland,  nearly  across  the  whole  region  we  are  now  describing, 
is  finally  cut  off  by  %  protruding  mass  of  sranite,  newer  than  the  limestone. 

(2.)  Wales,  including  the  Ide  of  Angtesea.  The  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks  m  this 
extensive  district  are  arranged  as  fellows : — 1st,  Oranite  rising  among  the  clay  slate  strata  in 
the  Isle  of  Anglesea.  2dly,  A  group  of  slaty  rocks  consisting  of  mica  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and 
quartz  rock.  These  appear  upheaved  by  the  subjacent  granite.  They  occur  in  the  Isle  of 
Ang[Iesea.  In  tliis  island  are  the  great  Mona  marble  aira  Paris  copper  mmes,  in  which  the 
ore  is  common  copper  pyrites.  The  Mona  marble,  a  beautiful  compound  of  marble  and  ser- 
pentine, occurs  among  these  rocks.  Sdly,  A  great  group  containii^f  a  vei^  large  proportion 
of  felspathose  rocks  and  porphyries.  Of  these  the  district  of  Snowdonia  is  probably  the 
lowest  portion.  Some  of  the  slates  of  the  Snowdon  range  contain  organic  remains,  princi- 
pally  or  shells,  some  of  which  appear  referable  to  the  genus  Proaucta.  4thly,  A  vast 
deposit  of  clay  slate.  Sthly,  Greywacke,  which  forms  the  uppermost  or  newest  member  of 
the  great  series  of  deposits.  Connected  with  these  series  are  great  beds  of  limestone. 
Fossil  organic  remains  are  met  with  in  this  series,  and  much  more  abundantly  than  in  the 
deeper-seated  slates.  Corals  of  various  kinds,  crinoid  animal  shells,  and  Crustacea  occur 
among  these  rocks,  in  a  fossil  state.    Ot'fih,  the  remains  of  bones,  teeth,  and  the  defensive 


Part  III. 


ition  classtw, 
vial.  Hence 
flat,  and  low 
gcognoatical 
ig  onler ; — I, 

more  moiin 
leighbouring 

by  the  Irish 
ew  red  sand- 
il  carbonifor- 
'lutonian  and 
.   The  order 

,  and  extend 
lerc  is  a  fine 
ns  of  quartz, 
ite  of  lime, 
jfion,  cxtend- 
composed  of 
Skiddaw  and 
plena,  occur 
vaa  formerly 


ith  porphyry, 
ous  graphite 
f  that  name, 
vn  spar,  and 
i  a  Plutonian 
i  of  graphite 

A  ffryphtea 
,  and  patella 
^nations  are 
ed  under  the 
istanding  its 
composed  of 
uth.  These 
Vales,  after- 
13  Lizard  in 
n  of  granite 
s  considered 
}  mica  slate, 
ler  detached 
)osition.  A 
ighbourhood 

describing, 

txsks  in  this 
ate  strata  in 
te  slate,  and 
>  the  Isle  of 
n  which  the 
}le  and  ser- 
e  proportion 
irobably  the 
ains,  princi' 
ily,  A  vast 

*A«vaA«WA     VA 

limestone, 
than  in  the 
tacea  occur 
le  defensive 


Bool  I. 


ENGLAND. 


891 


f)n-oonos  named  ichthyodoruliteg,  are  met  with.  In  the  lists  of  orgtuiic  remains  of  these  slateii 
we  And  extinct  genera,  and  genera  that  still  exist :  and,  judging  from  the  nature  of  Uie 
remains,  we  infer  that  some  of  the  animals  were  inhabitants  of  deep,  others  of  shallow,  seas. 
The  organic  remains  in  greywacke  rocks  are  rare,  and  form  a  very  small  proportion  to  the 
extent  of  the  rock. 

(3.)  Cornwall  and  Devon.  In  this  district  of  England  the  rocks  of  the  primitive  class 
are  arranged  in  the  following  order : — Ist,  Granite.  There  are  four  great  projecting  masses 
of  granite  rising  through  me  bounding  slaty  strata :  they  send  arms  or  veins  among  the 
Neptunian  strata,  and  have  upraised  and  variously  modified  them.  The  granite  is  traversed 
by  contemporaneous  veins  of  granite,  and  also  encloses  contemporaneous  masses  and  veins 
of  a  compound  of  quartz  and  schorl,  named  schorl-rock.  It  is  also  traversed  by  veins  ot 
porphyry,  called  elvan.  2dly,  Resting  upon,  or  adjacent  to,  the  granite  there  is  a  vast  deposit 
of  clay  slate,  named,  in  the  county,  killas.  It  abounds  in  ores,  hence  is  sometimes  named 
metalltferous  slate.  Where  in  the  vicinity  of  granite,  there  is  interposed  gneiss  or  mica 
slate,  or  both ;  and  in  many  parts  it  contains  subordinate  beds  of  greenstone,  felspathose 
slate,  &c.  3dly,  Apparently  above  the  preceding  slates  there  occura,  in  two  places,  a  form- 
ation of  serpentine,  which,  in  the  Lizard,  contains  dialUtffe  rock,  talc  slate,  hornblende 
slate,  and  mica  slate,  and  appears  to  occur  below  the  greywacke.  4thly,  Greywacke.  This, 
which  ajmears  to  form  a  great  mass,  is  the  uppermost  and  newest  member  of  the  stratified 
series.    It  contains  considerable  beds  of  limestone,  including  various  organic  remains. 

Mines  in  Corntcall  and  Devon.  Cornwall  and  Devonshire  present  three  principal  mining 
districts.  The  part  of  Cornwall  situated  in  the  vicinity  and  to  the  southward  of  Truro,  tlie 
neighbourhood  of  St.  Austle,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Tavistock.  The  first  of  these  dis- 
tricts is  the  most  important  of  the  three,  from  the  number  and  richness  of  its  mines,  in  which 
copper,  tin,  and  lead  are  obtained.  The  ores  of  copper,  which  are  principally  copper  pyrites 
and  gray  copper,  form  regular  veins,  having  a  direction  nearly  from  E.  to  W.  in  the  rock 
named  killas ;  and  sometimes  in  the  granite  which  projects  amongst  the  slaty  strata.  The 
tin  occurs  principally  in  veins,  which,  like  the  preceding,  traverse  the  killas  and  granite. 
They  have  also,  verv  often,  a  direction  nearly  from  E.  to  W. ;  they  have  a  different  inclina- 
tion firom  that  of  the  copper  veins,  which  mtcrsect  and  interrupt  them,  and  which  are, 
consequently,  newer.  The  tin  also  occurs  in  contemporaneous  masses  and  veins,  and  dis- 
seminated through  the  granite.  Some  veins  afford,  at  the  same  time,  copper  and  tin ;  but 
most  of  them  produce  only  one  of  these  metals  in  any  (juontity.  There  are  also  in  Cornwall 
cross  veins,  that  intersect  the  veins  both  of  copper  and  tin ;  these  contain  argentiferous  galena, 
native  silver,  and  ores  of  silver.  Near  to  Tavistock  there  are  veins  of  copper,  tin,  and  lead. 
Mines  of  antimony  occur  at  Huel  Boys  in  Devonshire,  and  at  Saltash  in  Cornwall.  The  tin 
and  copper  ores  of^Corn wall  are  accompanied  with  arsenical  pyrites,  which  is  turned  to  profit 
by  manufacturing  oxide  of  arsenic  from  it. 

II.  Secondary  Rocks,  The  rocks  of  this  class  form  the  largest  portion  of  the  surface  of 
England,  and  the  districts  composed  of  them  are  generally  flat  or  hilly ;  never  assuming 
the  mountainous  character,  unless  where  the  old  red  sandstone  or  mountain  limestone  appears. 
We  shall  now  describe  the  different  formations  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur,  beginning 
with  the  deeper-seated  or  oldest  (the  old  red  sandstone),  and  finishing  our  view  with  an 
account  of  the  newest,  or  chalk. 

(1.)  Old  red  sandstone.  This  sandstone,  which  is  distinguished  from  those  newer  in  the 
series  by  its  greater  hardness  and  red  colour,  occurs  in  greatest  abundance  in  Herefordshire 
and  Brecknockshire.  Smaller  portions  occur  in  the  Cumberland  district,  the  Isle  of  Man 
and  the  Isle  of  Anglesea. 

(2.)  Mountain  limestone,  metalliferous  limestone,  or  carboniferous  limestone.  This  rock 
is  generally  grey  coloured ;  sometimes,  however,  it  exhibits  various  tints  when  it  is  worked 
as  an  inferior  kind  of  marble.  Its  firacture  is  compact,  lustre  glimmering,  and  opaque  or 
translucent  on  the  edges.  Its  structure  is  sometimes  oolitic,  as  is  the  case  in  the  vicinity  of 
Bristol.  Veins  of  calcareous  spar  frequently  traverse  it,  and  occasionally  contribute  to  the 
beauty  of  the  varieties  used  as  marble.  Sometimes  remains  of  the  encrinus  are  so  abundant 
in  it,  that  it  is  named  encrinal  limestone.  Its  name  carboniferous  is  from  its  sometimes 
occurring  along  with  coal,  as  that  of  metalliferous  from  its,  in  some  districts,  abounding  in 
ores.  It  abounds  in  organic  remains  of  various  genera  of  corals,  radiaria,  and  shells ;  also 
some  genera  of  Crustacea  and  fishes.  These  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  fossils  of  the 
transition  limestone  in  the  greywacke  districts.  Derbyshire,  Northumberland,  and  Cumber- 
land afford  fine  displays  of  this  formation. 

Mines  in  mountain  limestone.  The  mountain  limestone  forms  several  mountLinous  dis- 
tricts in  England  and  Wales ;  in  which  there  are  three  districts  rich  in  lead  mines.  The 
first  of  these  comprehends  the  upper  parts  of  the  valleys  of  the  Tyne,  the  Wear,  and  the 
Tees,  in  the  counties  of  Cumberland,  Durham,  and  York.  Its  principal  mines  are  situated 
near  Aldston  Moor  in  Cumberland.  The  veins  of  sulphuret  of  lead  or  galena,  which  form 
the  principal  object  of  the  works,  traverse  alternately  beds  of  limestone  and  sandstone.  They 
are  remarkable^  from  the  circumstance  that  they  suddenly  become  thinner  and  poorer  on 

Vol.  I  2Q 


368 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  ni. 


paasin;  fnmv  the  limestone  into  the  eondstoue ;  an  arrangement  probably  connected  with 
■ome  eleciro-magnetic  action.  There  ia  also  a  copper  mine  S.  W.  of  Aldston  Moor.  The 
ore  is  common  yellow  copper  pyrites,  which  is  associated  with  galena  in  a  vein  of  great 
extent,  and  which  does  not  seem  to  belong  to  the  same  formation  as  the  other  veins  in  this 
county.  The  iron  mines  of  Ulverston  are  in  this  district.  The  ore  is  red  hematite,  which 
traverses  the  limestone  in  the  form  of  veins ;  some  of  which  are  said  to  be  80  yards  wide. 
Near  Whitehaven  great  masses  of  reniform  hematite  alternate  with  red  beds  of  mountain 
limestone.  The  second  metalliferous  district  is  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  Derbyshire, 
and  the  contiguous  parts  of  the  neighbouring  counties.  The  districts  called  Peak  and  Kings- 
field  are  the  richest  in  ore.  The  blende,  associated  with  the  lead,  is  worked  as  an  ore,  and 
zinc  is  obtained  from  it  A  vein  of  copper  pyrites  occurs  at  Ecton  in  StaiTordshire,  on  the 
borders  of  Derbyshire.  The  Derbyshire  vems  have  been  long  famous  on  account  of  Uie 
jeautiii'l  minerals  they  produce,  especially  ^uor  spars,  and  ulso  from  the  interruption  which 
Jie  metalliferous  veins  experience  on  meeting  with  trap  rocks,  called  loadstone,  which  occurs 
alternately  with  the  limestone.  The  third  metalliferous  district  is  situated  in  Flintshire 
and  Denbighshire,  which  form  the  N.  E.  part  of  Wales.  It  is  the  most  productive  next  to 
Aldston  Moor.  Besides  lead,  it  furnishes  also  calamine  or  true  ore  of  zinc.  The  mines  are 
situated  partly  in  the  mountain  limestone,  partly  in  various  rocks  of  older  formation.  To 
the  S.  W.  of  this  district  there  are  also  leaid  mines  in  Shropshure :  like  the  preceding,  they 
occur  partly  in  mountain  limestone  and  portlv  in  older  rocks.  They  yield  a  great  annual 
return  of  lead.  Some  mines  of  galena  and  of  calamine  are  mentioned  as  occurring  in  the 
Mendip  hills  to  tlie  south  of  Bristol ;  but  they  appear  to  be  now  abandoned.  Many  beautifbl 
and  interesting  minerals  are  met  with  in  these  mines.  Of  the  vem  stones,  quart?-  in  Com< 
wall,  is  the  most  abundant;  while  it  is  fluor  spar  and  calcareous  spar  in  Derbyshire;  in 
Yorkshire  heavy  spar  or  sulphate  of  barytes ;  and  in  Cumberland,  heavy  spar  and  fluor  spar. 
(3.)  Coal  formation.  This,  which  is  the  most  important  of  the  secondary  deposits,  follows 
in  the  regular  succession  the  mountain  limestone,  on  which  it  therefore  rests.  The  lower 
beds  of  tiiis  deposit  sometimes  alternate  with  the  upper  strata  of  the  mountain  limestone. 
The  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed  are  shale,  sandstone,  clay  ironstone,  indurated  clay,  and 
coal,  alternating  in  various  ways  with  each  other.  The  shale,  sandstones,  ironstones,  and 
clays  contain  numerous  ibssil  remains  of  extinct  species  of  plants,  rarely  of  animals,  the 
animal  remains  occurring  principally  in  the  limestone.  No  countir  of  the  same  size  in  the 
world  afibrds  so  much  coal  as  England,  end  nowhere  has  its  natund  and  economical  history 
been  so  well  examined  as  in  this  island.  Me'-srs.  Conybeore  and  Phillips  arrange  the  different 
coal  districts  in  the  follo\Ying  manner : — 

1.  Coal  district  north  of  the  Ti  3nt,  or  grand  Penine  chain. — 1.  Northumberland  and 
Durham.  2.  North  of  Yorkshire.  3.  South  York,  Nottingham,  and  Derby.  4>  South  of 
Derby.  5.  North  Stafford.  6.  South  Lancashire.  7.  North  Lancashire.  8.  Cumberland 
and  Whitehaven.    9.  Foot  of  Crossfell. 

2.  Central  coal  district. — 1.  Ashby  de  la  Zouch.  2.  Warwickshire.  3.  South  Staflbrd 
or  Dudley.'    4.  Indications  near  the  Lickey  hill,  &c. 

3.  Western  coal  district,  divided  into,  1.  North  Western  or  North  Welsh. — 1.  Isle  of 
Anglesea.    2.  Flintshire. 

4.  Middle  western  or  Shropshire, — 1.  Plain  of  Shrewsbury.  2.  Colebrook-dale.  3.  The 
Glee  hills  ad  South  Shropshire.    4.  Near  the  Abberley  hill. 

5.  South  Western. — 1.  South  Wales.  2.  JTorest  of  Dean.  3.  South  Gloucester  and 
Somerset. 

These  different  districts  are  accurately  described  in  Conybeare  and  Phillips's  Oeology  of 
England  and  Wales. 

Changes  of  the  coal  fields  from  the  British  Channel  to  the  Tweed.  The  great  coal  fields 
in  England  experience  a  great  change  of  structure  in  their  range  from  tlie  Bristol  Chumel 
to  the  valley  of  the  Tweed :  these  changes  we  shall  now  enumerate,  using  the  view  given 
t^  Sedgwick.  In  the  various  coal  basins  on  the  Bristol  Channel,  the  limestone  strata  are 
develop  only  in  the  lower,  and  the  coal  beds  in  the  upper,  part  of  the  series ;  and  the 
two  members  are  separated  by  nearly  unproductive  deposits  of  millstone-grit  and  shale. 
The  arrangement  in  Derbyshire  is  nearly  the  same ;  there,  however,  the  millstone-grit  is 
more  vari»l,  and  is  of  very  great  thickness,  and  subordinate  to  the  great  deposit  of  shale, 
and,  here  and  there,  very  thick  masses  of  a  peculiar  argillaceous  sandstone,  disposed  in  a 
U^ar  manner.  On  the  re-appearance  of  the  carboniferous  limestone,  at  the  base  of  the 
Yorkshire  chain,  we  still  find  the  same  general  analogies  of  structure ;  enormous  deposits 
of  limestone  form  the  lowest  part,  and  the  coal  fields  the  highest  part  of  the  whole  series; 
and,  as  in  the  former  instances,  we  also  find  the  millstone-grit  occupving  an  intermediate 
position,  Th'8  Tr.i!!stono»grit,  however,  becomes  a  very  complex  ueposit,  with  Bcveral 
subordinate  beds  of  coal ;  and  is  separated  fVom  the  great  inferior  calcareous  group  (the  «car 
limestone),  not  merely  by  the  great  shale  and  shale-limestone,  as  in  Derbyshire,  but  by  n 
■till  more  complex  deposit,  in  some  places  not  less  than  1000  feet  thick ;  in  which  nvn 
groups  of  limestone  strata  alternate  with  great  masses  of  sandstone  and  shale,  abound  in 


Pabt  ni. 

onnectcd  with 
m  Moor.    The 

vein  of  great 
ir  veins  in  this 
ematite,  which 
30  3rard8  wide, 
da  of  mountain 
:  of  Derbyshire, 
eak  and  Kings- 
as  an  ore,  and 
irdshire,  on  the 
account  of  the 
srruption  which 
e,  which  occurs 

in  Flintshire 

uctive  next  to 

The  mines  are 

formation.    To 

)receding,  they 

a  great  annual 

icurring  in  the 

Many  beautifbl 

juart".  in  Com- 

Derbyshire;  in 

and  fluor  spar. 

leposits,  follows 

s.    The  lower 

tain  limestone. 

rated  clay,  and 

ironstones,  and 

of  animals,  the 

ame  size  in  the 

lomical  history 

ige  the  different 

lumberland  and 
.  4.  South  of 
8.  Cumberland 

South  Stafford 

th.—l.  Me  of 

[-dale.    8.  The 

jrloucester  and 

s's  OeotogyoJ' 

Teat  coal  fields 

Iristol  Channel 

the  view  given 

one  strata  are 

erles;  and  the 

Tit  and  shale, 

illstone-grit  is 

sposit  of  shale, 

,  disposed  in  a 

!ie  base  of  the 

rmous  deposits 

!  whole  series; 

1  intermediate 
— ;*i-    1 

Willi    Bcvciai 

proup  (the  »cof 
shire,  but  by  n 
in  which  nvn 
ale,  abound  in 


0OOK  L 


ENGLAND. 


828 


impressions  of  coal  plants,  and  three  or  four  thin  beds  of  good  coal  extensively  worked  fst 
domestic  use. 

In  the  range  of  the  carboniferous  chain  from  Stainmoor,  through  the  ridge  of  Crossfell  tb 
the  confines  of  Northumberland,  we  have  a  repetition  of  Uie  some  general  phenomena.  On 
,'ta  eastern  flanks,  and  superior  to  all  its  component  groups,  is  the  coal  field  of  Durham. 
Under  the  coal  field,  we  have,  in  a  regular  descending  order,  the  millstone-grit,  the  altema- 
tions  of  limestone  and  coal  measures  nearly  identical  with  those  of  the  Yorkshire  chain, 
and  at  the  base  of  all  is  the  great  scar  limestone.  The  scar  limestone  begins,  however,  to 
be  subdivided  by  thick  masses  of  sandstone  and  carbonaceous  shale,  of  which  we  had  hardly 
a  trace  in  Yorkshire ;  and  gradualljr  passes  into  a  complex  deposit,  not  distinguishable  from 
the  next  superior  division  of  the  series.  Along  with  this  gradual  change  is  a  great  devel- 
opement  of  the  inferior  coal  beds  alternating  with  the  limestone ;  some  of  which  on  the 
north-eastern  skirts  of  Cumberland,  are  three  or  four  feet  in  thickness,  and  are  now  worked 
for  domestic  use. 

The  alternating  beds  of  sandstone  and  shale  expand  more  and  more  as  we  advance 
towards  the  north,  at  the  expense  of  all  the  calcareous  groups,  which  gradually  thin  off  and 
cease  to  produce  any  impress  on  the  features  of  the  country.  And  thus  it  is,  that  the  lowest 
portion  of  the  whole  carboniferous  system,  from  Bewcastle  Forest,  along  the  skirts  of  the 
Cheviot  Hills,  to  the  valley  of  the  Tweed,  has  hardly  a  single  feature  in  common  with  the 
inferior  part  of  the  Yorkshire  chain ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  has  almost  all  the  most  ordinary 
external  characters  of  a  coal  formation.  Corresponding  to  this  change,  is  also  a  graduu 
thickening  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  some  of  Uie  lower  groups.  Amny  coal  works  have 
been  opened  upon  this  line ;  and  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Tweed  (almost  on  a  parallel 
with  the  great  scar  limestone)  is  a  coal  field,  with  five  or  six  good  eeams,  some  of  which  are 
pretty  extensively  worked.  The  beds  of  sandstone,  shale,  and  limestone,  forming  the  base 
m  the  carboniferous  system  in  the  basin  of  the  Tweed,  are  often  deeply  tinged  with  oxide  of 
iron ;  and  have  been  compared  sometimes  with  the  new,  sometimes  with  uie  old,  red  sand- 
stone: to  the  new  red  sandstone  they  have  no  relations;  "and  I  would  rather  compare 
them,"  says  Sedgwick,  "  especially  as  the  old  red  sandstone  of  the  north  of  Fuiglond  seldom 
exist  but  as  a  conglomerate,  and  is  seen  in  that  form  on  the  flanks  of  the  Cheviot  Hills,  with 
the  red  beds  of  mountain  limestone  and  sandstone,  which,  both  in  Cumberland  and  Lan- 
ca.shire,  sometimes  form  the  base  of  the  whole  carboniferous  series." 

These  coal  fields  are  traversed  and  variously  deranged  by  great  faults ;  interesting 
descriptions  of  which,  particularly  those  in  the  northern  fields,  have  been  published  by 
Messrs.  Phillips  and  Sedgwick. 

The  coal  strata,  or  metals  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are  in  some  parts  of  England 
affected  by  Plutonian  trap  rocks,  but  in  a  very  inferior  degree  to  what  takes  place  in  Scot- 
land. The  principal  trap  rock  is  greenstone,  which  appears  in  the  form  of  overlying  masses, 
as  at  Clee  Hill  and  at  Dudley ;  m  the  form  of  mtersccting  tabular  masses  or  dikes  (veins), 
as  in  Northumberland  ond  Durham.  Sometimes  the  trap  mass  has  been  forced  between  the 
strata,  when  it  has  the  character  of  a  bed,  or  these  bed-like  mosses  may  be  some  of  the  rocks 
of  the  coal  formation  softened  and  recrystallised  in  situ  by  heat  from  below.  The  great 
whin  sill  of  Northumberland,  and  the  toadstone  beds  of  Derbyshire,  are  examples  of  these 
trap  beds.  The  strata  near  the  trap  frequently  appear  changed,  the  clays  hardened,  the 
limestone  rendered  crystalline  and  magnesian,  the  coal  charred,  and  the  sandstone  hardened, 
&c.;  and  these  strata  are  either  moved  fi-om  their  original  position,  or  are  imchanged. 

Although  rather  foreign  to  our  subject,  we  may,  as  an  illustration  of  the  importance  of 
the  coal  formation  to  England,  mention  the  quantity  of  iron  manu&ctured,  and  of  coal  con- 
sumed, in  the  carboniferous  district  of  Wales.  The  quantity  of  iron,  according  to  Mr. 
Forster,  annually  manufactured  in  Wales,,  has  been  calculated  at  270,000  tons.  Of  this 
quantity  a  proportion  of  about  three-fourths  is  made  into  bars,  and  one-faurth  sold  as  pigs  and 
castings.  The  quantity  of  coal  required  for  its  manu&cture  on  the  average  of  the  whole, 
includmg  that  used  by  engines,  workmen,  &c.  will  be  about  5^  tons  for  each  ton  of  iron ; 
the  annual  consumption  of  coal  by  the  ironworks  will,  therefore,  be  about  1,500,000  tons. 
The  quantity  used  in  the  smelting  of  copper  ore  imported  into  Wales  firom  Cornwall,  in 
the  manu&cture  of  tin-plate,  forging  of  iron  for  various  purposes,  and  for  domestic  uses, 
may  be  calculated  at  850,000,  which  makes  altogether  the  annual  consumption  in  Wales, 
1,850,000  tons. 

(4)  Magnesian  limestone  formation.  The  upper  part  of  the  coal  formation  has  some- 
times a  red  colour  with  an  arenaceous  and  conglomerated  character.  Above  or  resting  upon 
it  we  have  the  magnesian  limestone  deposit.  This  deposit  extends  through  Yorkshire  and 
Durham.  Its  lower  part  is  said  to  be  separated  firom  the  coal  formation  by  a  deprait  of  sand 
and  sandstone,  with  occasional  red  marl  and  gypsuin.  The  magnesian  limestone  itself  con- 
sists m  its  lower  part  of  a  bituminous  marl  slate,  abounding  in  fossil  fishes  of  the  genua 
Pcdaothrissum;  the  middle  and  upper  parts  being  a  yellowish  small  granular  or  glimmer- 
mg  magrjosian  limestone.    The  organic  character  of  this  limestone  approaches  nearly  tt 


Vii 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


that  of  tlie  mountain  limestone  already  described.     It  contains  Prodwtee,  Vihich,  however 
do  not  occur  higher  in  thu  series ;  also  Spirifera,  a  tribe  found  as  high  as  the  oolite. 

(5.)  Variegated  or  new  red  tanditone,  with  the  red  variegated  mnrl  deposit.  Aa  the 
idiell  lunestone  is  wanting  in  England,  the  variegated  sandstone  and  the  red  and  variegated 
marls  come  together,  and  may  here,  therefore,  be  viewed  as  one  formation.  They  rest 
immediately  upon  the  magnesian  limestone,  but  of  the  two  sets  the  marl  appears  in  general 
to  be  the  uppermost  or  newest  The  sandstone  is  of  a  looser  texture  than  that  of  the  old 
red  sandstone  deposit,  has  a  red  or  variegated  colour,  and  tiie  strata  are  generally  horizontal. 
The  marls  arc  red  or  variegated  in  colour.  In  tliese  sandstones  and  marls,  beds  and  great 
masses  or  nodules  of  gypnum  occur,  as  in  Derbyshire,  Staflbrdshire,  &c.  All  the  salt  mines 
in  England  are  situated  in  this  deposit.  At  Northwich  there  is  an  extensive  deposit  of  solid 
rock  saltj  forming  two  bods,  together  not  less  than  60  feet  n  thickness.  These  beds  are 
supposed  to  form  large  insulated  masses  of  this  mineral,  extending  in  length  about  a  mile 
and  a  hidf,  and  in  breadth  about  1300  yards.  The  "alt  works  at  Droitwicn  in  Worcester- 
shire are  also  in  this  red  marl  deposit.  Iron-sand  and  ioerine  are  said  to  occur  in  this  sand- 
stone on  the  bonks  of  the  Mersey  opposite  Liverpool ;  and  in  other  places  sulphuret  of  cop- 
per, gray  oxide  of  cobalt,  and  black  oxide  of  manga.nese  occur  in  the  sandstone  or  its  marls. 
It  forms  the  surface  of  vast  tracts  extending  witii  little  interruption  from  the  northern  bank 
of  the  Tees  in  Durham  to  tho  southern  coast  of  Devonshire.  We  find  a  tract  in  the  great 
plain  in  the  centre  of  England  of  about  80  miles  in  length  and  sixty  in  breadth,  principally 
covered  with  this  deposit ;  several  islands  of  the  older  rocks,  however,  rising,  in  various 
places,  through  it  These  are,  Ist,  the  syenite,  greenstone,  and  slate  district  ot  Charnwood 
forest  m  Leicestershire ;  2dly,  the  coal  district  surrounding  Ashby  de  la  Zouch  in  the  same 
county;  connected  with  which  are  several  patches  of  tho  carboniferous  magnesian  lime- 
stone, and  a  patch  of  millstone-grit  at  Stanton-bridge  on  the  Trent ;  3dly,  the  coal-field  of 
War-.vickshire ;  4th!y,  the  coal-field  in  tho  south  of  Staflbrdshire,  with  the  transition  lime- 
stone on  which  it  rests;  5thly,  the  lower  and  nortlicrn  range  of  the  Lickey  hill,  near  Broms- 
grove  in  Worcestershire,  which  exhibits  strata,  probably  of  transition  quartz  rock.  Some 
trap  rocks  occur  in  tliis  formation  at  Upton  Pyne,  a  village  five  miles  north  of  Exeter,  and 
at  otiier  points  near  that  town. 

(6.)  Lias  and  oolite  formation.  This  great  formation  occupies  a  zone  having  nearly  80 
miles  in  average  breadth,  extending  across  the  island  fiom  Yorkshire  on  the  north-east,  to 
Devonshire  on  the  south-west  It  is  eminently  remarkable  on  account  of  the  number  and 
variety  of  fossil  organic  remains  which  it  contains,  and  its  wide  distribution  not  only  in 
England,  but  also  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  this  formation,  at  Stonesficld,  the 
first  or  earliest  remains  of  mammiferous  animals  were  found.  Crocodiles  and  many  vast 
and  strangely  organised  reptiles  occur  in  this  doposit,  with  a  vast  variety  of  shells,  many 
radiaria,  and  also  corals.  Fishes  are  z\iw>  met  with  in  a  fossil  state,  but  by  no  means  so  fire- 
quently  as  reptiles.  Fossil  plants  of  various  tribes  also  occur,  and  thus  add  to  the  organic 
variety  of  this  remarkable  formation :  they  belong  to  the  Algce,  Equisetacea,  FUices,  Oy- 
cadea,  Conifera,  and  LUia.  Beds  of  coal,  generally  of  an  indinerent  quality,  occur  in 
difllerent  parts  of  the  country  in  this  deposit 

(7.)  Wealden  clay  and  Purbeck  stone.  This  formation,  which  lies  immediately  upon 
the  oolite,  consists  of  limestones,  sands,  and  clays  abounding  in  fossil  organic  remams, 
principally  of  terrestrial  and  firesh-water  plants  and  animals,  marine  species  being  rare.  In 
the  lower  part  of  this  formation,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Weymouth,  there  is  a  bed  of  black 
earth,  called  the  dirt  bed,  containing,  in  a  silicificd  state,  long  prostrate  trunks  of  coniferous 
trees,  and  stems  of  Cycadcoidea.  These  trunks  lie  partly  sunk  into  the  deep  black  earth, 
like  fallen  trees  on  the  sur&ce  of  a  pat  bog,  and  partly  covered  by  the  incumbent  Purbecl( 
limestone.  Many  trunks  of  trees  .use  remain  erect,  with  their  roots  attached  to  the  black 
soil  in  which  they  grew,  and  their  upper  part  in  the  limestone ;  and  show  that  the  surface  of 
tlie  subjacent  PorUand  stone  was  for  some  time  dry  land,  and  covered  with  a  forest ;  and 
probably  in  a  climate  such  as  admits  the  growth  of  the  modem  Zamia  and  Cycas,  remains 
of  these  genera  being  found  here.  This  forest  has  been  submerged ;  first,  beneath  the  fi'esh 
waters  of  a  lake  or  estuary,  in  which  were  deposited  the  Purbeclc  beds,  and  sands  and  clays 
of  tlie  Wealden  formation  (amounting  together  to  nearly  1000  feet),  and  subsequently 
beneath  the  salt  water  of  an  ocean  of  sufficient  depth  to  accumulate  all  the  great  marine 
formations  of  green  sand  and  chalk  that  rest  u]^n  it 

(8.)  Chalk  formation  toith  green  sand.  This  great  deposit  consists  principally  of  chalk, 
with  less  extensive  subjacent  beds  of  green  sand  and  tufniceous  chalk.  It  stretches,  with 
little  interruption,  fix>m  Flamborough  Head  on  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  to  near  Sidmouth  on 
the  coast  of  jDevonshue ;  forming  a  range  of  hills  often  of  some  hundred  feet  high,  and  of 
whii  h  the  loost  preripltous  face  is  generally  on  the  north-west  side.  From  this  long  range 
several  nuuges  shoot  toward  the  east  and  south-east  Chalk  does  not  often  bear  the  charac 
ter  of  a  level  or  flat  country ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  is  subject  to  perpetual  undulation  of  sur< 
face,  the  hills  bein(|[  remarkable  for  their  smootli  rounded  outline,  and  the  deep  hollows  aiul 
mdentations  on  their  sidea 


Part  III 

lich,  however 
oolite. 

oiit.    Aa  the 
nd  varicgatecl 
They  rest 
urs  in  general 
hat  of  the  old 
lly  horizontal, 
eda  and  great 
he  Bait  mines 
epofiit  of  solid 
lese  beds  are 
t  about  a  mile 
n  Worcester- 
'  in  this  sand- 
))nirel  of  cop- 
or  its  marls, 
lorthern  bank 
in  the  great 
principally 
1^,  in  various 
ot  Charnwood 
h  in  the  same 
^ncsian  lime- 
coal-field  of 
ansition  lime- 
,  near  Broms- 
rock.    Some 
f  Exeter,  and 

ing  nearly  80 
north-east,  to 
)  number  and 
n  not  only  in 
tonesfield,  the 
nd  many  vast 
shells,  many 
means  so  fre- 

0  the  organic 
FUices,  C^ 

lity,  occur  in 

idiately  upon 
tnic  remams, 
iing  rare.  In 
L  bed  of  black 
of  coniferous 
>  black  earth, 
lent  Purbeck 
to  the  black 
he  surface  of 

1  forest ;  and 
teas,  remains 
lath  the  fresh 
ids  and  clays 
BubsequenUy 
^eat  marine 

illy  of  chalk, 
retches,  with 
Sidmouth  on 
tiigh,  and  of 
I  long  range 
r  the  charac 
ation  of  sur« 
hollows  aiul 


Book  I. 


ENGLANIX 


The  upper  part  of  this  formation,  through  a  great  part  of  En^fland,  is  characterised  by 
the  presence  of  common  gun-flint,  arranged  in  thin  beds  or  in  variously-shaped  masses,  dis- 
posed more  or  less  in  parallel  lines.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  formation  the  flints  becomo 
less  and  less  abundant,  and  at  length  entirely  disappear.  This  arrangement,  however,  is  not 
always  to  be  observed,  for  in  some  places  the  lower  chalk  abounds  in  flints.  In  the  chalk 
fbrmation,  the  upper  and  middle  parts  are  of  chalk,  while  the  lower  and  under  are  of  sands, 
sandstones,  and  cla^s.  The  upper  part  may  be  considered  an  original  deposit,  the  matter 
derived  fVom  the  mterior  of  the  earth ;  the  lower  of  a  mechanical  and  alluvial  nature. 
Chalk  abounds  in  fossil  remains  of  animals,  and  also  contains  fossilised  plants.  Corals  in  great 
variety,  radiated  animals,  particularly  cchinites,  are  in  vast  numbers;  shells  of  all  the  grand 
divisions  and  in  great  variety  add  to  the  zoological  interest  of  the  fbrmation,  which  is  further 
heightened  by  the  fossil  crabs,  fishes,  and  reptiles,  occasionally  met  with  in  it.  The  plants 
are  C(n\ferva,  Fuci,  Zostera,  Cycadea,  with  dicotyledonous  wood  perforated  by  some 
boring  animal.  The  formation,  as  it  occurs  in  England,  appears  to  have  been  variously 
elevated  and  depressed  at  different  times  by  some  subterranean  actions ;  but,  as  fiir  as  we 
know,  it  does  not  anywhere  occur  in  contact  with  trap  or  other  Plutonian  rocks. 

III.  Tertiary  rocha,  Hitlierto,  in  England,  these  deposits  have  been  found  only  in  what 
are  called  the  London  basin  and  the  Me  of  Wifrht  basin ;  two  spaces  conjectured  formerly 
to  have  had  the  basin  shape,  but  now  more  or  less  filled  with  tertiary  rocks ;  an  opinion, 
however,  which  the  late  observations  of  Professor  Buckland  have  shown  to  be  less  plausible 
than  has  been  generally  believed.  The  boundary  of  the  first  of  these  supposed  basins  may 
be  stated,  generally,  as  a  line  running  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  chalk,  south  of  Flam- 
borough  Head,  in  Yorkshire,  nearly  south,  till  it  crosses  the  Wash,  then  south-west  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  valley  of  the  river  Kennet,  near  Hungerford,  in  Wiltshire ;  ond  thence 
trending  south-east  to  the  south  of  the  Thames,  and  the  north-west  angle  of  the  Isle  of 
Thanet :  in  all  these  directions  the  boundary  line  is  formed  by  the  chalk  hills ;  on  the  east 
side,  the  boundary  is  the  coast  of  the  German  Ocean.  The  boundaries  of  the  Isle  of  Wight 
basin  may  be  stated  as  follows : — on  the  north,  a  few  miles  south  of  Winchester ;  on  the 
south,  a  little  north  of  Carisbrook  in  the  Isle  of  Wight ;  on  the  east,  Brighton ;  and  on  the 
west,  Dorchester.  It  is  everywhere  circumscribed  by  chalk  hills,  excepting  where  broken 
in  by  the  channel  between  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  the  main  land.  The  difrercnt  members 
of  the  tertiary  series  met  with  in  England,  arc  named  Plastic  clay,  London  clay,  Bagthot 
sands,  the  Freshwater  formations  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  the  Crag. — Plastic  clay.  This 
deposit  consists  of  a  plastic  clay  with  gravel  beds,  alternating  with  beds  of  sand  (sometimes 
ffl  a  state  of  sandstone)  and  clay.  Its  organic  remains  are  principally  marine  shells,  with 
.avers  of  lignite  or  brown  coal. — London  clay.  This  is  a  bluish  or  blackish  clay,  sometimes 
BO  much  impregnated  with  carbonate  of  lime  as  to  form  a  kind  of  compact  marl.  Layers  or 
nodules  of  septaria  (a  calcareous  concretion)  frequently  occur  in  it.  It  is  the  great  clayey 
deposit  on  which  London  is  built  It  has  been  bored  to  a  depth  of  700  feet,  without  reach- 
ing its  bottom.  The  highest  point  it  attains  is  the  summit  of  High  Beach  in  Essex,  being 
7^  feet  above  the  sea.  It  abounds  in  fbssil  organic  remains  from  the  animal  as  well  as 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Crocodiles,  turtles,  fishes,  and  crabs  have  been  observed ;  but 
these  are  few  in  number  compared  with  the  host  of  fbssil  shells.  These  shells  are  often 
very  beautifully  preserved,  frequently  retaining  the  appearance  of  recent  spficies.  There  are 
very  few  genera  of  recent  shells  which  have  not  some  representative  in  this  formation,  but 
the  specific  character  is  usually  different;  on  the  other  hand,  but  few  of  the  extinct  genera, 
BO  frequent  in  tlie  older  formations,  occur  in  this.  The  Isle  of  Sheppey,  formed  of  £x)ndon 
clay,  afibrds  a  vast  variety  of  fossil  fruits  and  seeds,  very  few  of  which  agree  with  any 
known  seed-vessels ;  many  of  them  are  conjectured  to  belong  to  tropical  plants,  some  to  the 
cocoa-nut  and  spice  tribes.  Fragments  of  wood  pierced  by  a  shell  animal,  resembling  the 
Teredo  navalis,  are  met  with ;  a  fiict  which  shows  that  the  wood  may  have  floated  about  in 
the  sea. — Bagshot  sands.  These  rest  upon  the  London  clay ;  they  consist  of  sand,  with 
greenish-coloured  clay,  variously  coloured  marls,  containing  grains  of  green  sand,  and  fossil 
trochi  and  pectinites. — Freshwater  formations  of  the  Isle  of  W^ht  and  Hampshire.  The 
Freshwater  strata  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  are  divided  into  two  deposits  by  a  rock  characterised 
by  the  presence  of  marine  remains,  and  named  the  upper  marine  formation,  from  being  a 
supposed  equivalent  to  the  sands  which  intervene  between  the  two  freshwater  deposits  of 
Paris.  The  lower  freshwater  deposit  of  Binstead,  near  Rjrde,  consists  of  a  limestone  firmed 
of  fragments  of  freshwater  shells,  white  shell  marl,  siliceous  limestone,  anu  .nd.  One 
tooth  of  an  Anaplotherium  and  two  teeth  of  a  Palaotherium  have  been  found  in  the  lower 
marly  beds  of  the  (quarries  at  Binstead.  In  the  same  quarries  several  rolled  fragments  of 
pachydermatous  animals,  and  the  jaw  of  an  anir/ial  allied  to  the  musk-f'eer  tribe.  In  Colwell 
Bay  the  upper  part  of  this  deposit  contains  a  mixture  of  fVeshwater  and  marine  shells. — The 
upper  marine  formation.  This  deposit  of  calcareous  beds  abounds  with  freshwater  shells 
In  the  lower  part,  but  in  the  upper  part  wo  find  marine  shells ;  hence  it  is  conjectured  to 
have  been  formed  in  an  estuary. —  Vp^er  freshwater  formation.  This  consists  principally 
of  yellowish  white  marls.    The  organic  rensains  are  either  freshwater  or  land.    The  ireo- 

VoL.  L  28 


396 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  DL 


logical  hiitorv  of  the  tertiary  deposits  in  England  has  not  yet  been  placed  m  direct  con- 
uexion  with  that  of  similar  deposits  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  No  trap  or  granite  rocka 
have  hitherto  been  met  with  in  England  in  anv  way  connected  with  the  tertiary  strata. 

IV.  Alluvial  rocki.  Nearly  the  whole  of  England  is  more  or  loss  covered  with  alluvium, 
or  debris  of  previously  existing  rbcks :  thus  it  occurs  on  mountain  ridges,  and  on  the  sides 
and  bottoms  of  valleys;  it  is  spread  over  plains,  fills  up,  wholly  or  purtially,  fissures  in  rooks, 
and  caves,  and  cavoma,  and  forms  beacnes  and  otlier  accumulations  of  greater  or  lesser 
extent  on  the  sea  coast.  It  varies  in  age,  fh>m  the  oldest  called  diluvium,  which  vtanda  in 
immediate  connexion  with  the  crag  or  upper  tertiary  deposit,  to  the  newest,  those  formins 
at  present  through  the  agency  of  tlie  atmosphere,  spiings,  lakes,  rivers,  and  the  waves  and 
currents  of  the  ocean.  It  encloses  numerous  remains  of  plants  and  animals,  either  more  or 
less  mberalized,  or  simply  bleached :  those  of  tlio  oldest  dcpoeits  appear  to  be  of  ani'.nal8, 
and  sometimes  of  plants,  which  are  cpparently  extinct ;  whue  tlio  newer  enclose  remains 
only  of  living  animal  and  vegetable  species.  Although  our  limits  do  not  allow  ua  to  enter 
into  details  on  this  very  important  and  curious  department  of  geology,  we  may  remark,  that 
the  characters  and  mode"  of  distribution  of  these  alluvia  are,  m  many  instances,  intimately 
connected  with  risings  and  depressions  of  the  land ;  and  consequently  with  apparent  sinking 
and  rising  of  the  waters  of  tlie  ocean,  and  the  violent  agitations  sometimes  induced  in  the 
great  mass  of  the  ocean,  anri  also  in  lakes,  by  changes  in  the  level  of  the  solid  parts  of  the 

globe.  .  _  I. 

•  Sdbsbot.  2. — Botany.  ...!  w :,(.,.  , 

The  botany  of  the  different  parts  of  the  British  empire  is  so  similar,  that  we  propose  to 
treat  under  one  head  that  of  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  their  adjacent  islands. 

Extending  through  eleven  dugrees  of  latitude,  Great  Britam  includes  a  considerable  vari- 
ety of  climate,  but  everywhere,  more  or  less  tempered  by  the  surrounding  ocean ;  so  that, 
in  no  (.Tt  of  the  island,  except  on  the  mountains,  or  high  table-lands,  can  Uie  temperature 
be  compajred  to  similar  latitudes,  upon  the  European,  much  less  upon  the  American  conti- 
nent let,  from  its  proximity  to  the  tbrmer,  the  vegetation  is,  with  few  exceptions,  similar 
to  that  of  the  adjacent  districts  of  Europe.  Although  in  consequence  of  the  un&vourable 
summers,  the  fre<^uent  obscurity  of  the  sun,  the  damp  and  foggy  atmosphere,  it  is  not  poch 
sible,  without  artificial  heat  and  protection,  to  bring  many  of  the  fruits  of  more  favoured 
climates  to  perfection ;  vet  the  mildness  of  the  winter  renders  it  easy  to  introduce  and  to 
naturalise  plants  of  much  more  southern  latitudes :  so  that  tlie  gardens,  parks,  shrubberies, 
and  even  forests,  are  adorned  with  the  most  varied  vegetation,  producing  the  most  beautiful 
flowers,  or  the  most  valued  timbers. 

On  the  extreme  southern  coast  of  England  and  Ireland,  tlie  native  vegetables  of  the 
warmer  temperate  zone  are  successfully  grov  u  in  the  open  air,  and  como  to  considerable 
perfection.  In  the  south  of  Devonshire,  the  oringe  and  lemon  trees  are  loaded  with  fruit 
of  the  finest  kind,  trained,  indeed,  to  a  wall,  but  without  protection,  or  only  provided  with  it 
during  a  very  short  portion  of  the  wmter  months ;  the  Lemon-scented  Vervain  (Lippia 
eitri^ora,  formerly  called  Verbena  triphylla,  becomes  quite  a  tree,  without  any  artificial 
protection ;  the  American  Agave,  the  creeping  Cereus,  the  Prickly  Pear,  myrtles  firom  the 
south  of  Europe ;  the  Tea,  Camellias  and  other  Chuiose  and  Japanese  plants,  thrive  well  in 
the  open  air,  as  well  as  the  Magnolias,  and  many  other  trees,  fhim  tne  southern  states  of 
North  America,  whose  native  latitudes  lie  many  degrees  nearer  to  the  tropics. 

The  only  two  floras  of  Great  Britain,  whicH  are  so  complete  as  to  demand  particuJhr  atten- 
tion, are  Sir  J.  E.  Smith's  English  Flora,  anu  Gray's  Arrangement  of  British  Plants ,  Jie 
former  classed  according  to  the  Linnman  system,  ^.-^ending,  however,  only  to  the  end  of  the 
class  Polyganiia,  and  the  first  order  of  the  class  Cryptogiuul:^  Filices.  Gray's  Flora  includes 
the  whole  of  the  British  vegetables,  arranged  according  to  the  natural  method,  and  is  the 
only  one  that  approaches,  however  deficient  it  may  still  be,  to  any  thing  lUce  a  catalogue  of 
our  present  state  of  knowledge  of  the  Cryptogamia.  Among  the  Phsnogamous  plants 
however,  Mr.  Gray  has  included  a  g:'eat  number  that  are  only  known  in  a  state  of  cultiva^ 
tion,  as  has  been  done  by  De  Candolle,  in  his  Flore  Francaise,  and  many  other  continental 
botanists.  We  have,  therefore,  deemed  it  convenient  thus  to  give  a  list  of  the  plantbt, 
according  to  each  of  these  authors ;  and  the  increased  number  m  the  columns  of  species 
according  to  Mr.  Gray,  will  be  thus  easily  accounted  for. 


Book 

wbloh 

OIM 


Namt 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


88T' 


A  liMT  of  the  Number  of  BpMtat  of  Britlili  Plaiitf,  arranged  ■oeonUng  to  the  CItnei  and  principal  Famlllea  to 
wbieh  Ibey  btlong;  exbibltkng  the  relative  proportion  which  tbeie  latter  bear  to  the  whole  of  the  reipectiva 
Olaiaei.* 


Namei  nf  the  Natural 
Famlllea. 


Fungi 

AlB« 

Uchene> 

Ilepaticm,  by  Hooker.. 

MuRci,  by  Hooker 

Fllicei 

AcOTTLEDOIf  M 

QramineB 

Cyperaccai 

JunceiD  and  Rcitlacev 

Olumacoa) 

OrchideiB 

Monocotyledonei  cietcris . 

MOKOCOTTLIDONgl  .... 

Conifers 

Amentacen 

Euphoibiaceie 

Berophnl.  and  OrobanchsD 
'.nbiata  and  Verbcne. 

Boragineie 

Erlclneie  and  Pyroles. 

CampanulacoB 

CompoaitB 

Rublacen 

Umbellifbra 

Roeaeen 

LegumlnoM 

MalvBceB 

Caryophyllen 

Cruciftra 

Ranunculaces 

DIcotyledonei  caters  . 

DiCOTTLinOMU 


-    -  2045 


-     -     416 


-    -  1220 


It  must  be  remarked,  that  in  Cyperacea,  Juncea,  Salix,  SaxifraffOt  Rosa,  Rubus,  and 
some  others,  the  species  are  not  formed  on  the  same  rules  as  m  Smith's  English  Flora ; 
and  therefore,  before  drawing  a  parallel  between  these  orders  in  Scotland,  and  m  the  whole 
of  Britain,  a  considerable  number  of  species  ought  to  be  added.  To  make  this  comparison, 
then,  about  twenty  species  may  be  added  to  the  Monocotyledones,  and  about  fifty  (say  forty- 
seven),  to  the  Dicotyledonous  plants,  making  these  two,  280  and  870 ;  whence  tlie  Monoco- 
tyledones of  Scotland  are  to  the  whole  of  those  in  the  British  dominions  as  one  to  one  and  a 
quarter,  or  as  four  to  five ;  and  the  Dicotyledones  as  eight  to  eleven. 

Ireland  possesses  a  flora  which  partakes  of  the  nature  of  those  of  England  and  Scotland. 
A  list  of  the  pheenogamous  plants  has  been  recently  published  by  Mr.  J.  T,  Mackay,  of  the 
Dublin  College  Botanic  Gaiden.  It  exhibits  a  much  poorer  vegetation  thaa  its  sister  island, 
including  only  034  species;  of  which  there  are,  41  Filices;  2i.\  Monocotyledones,  and  682 
Dicotyledones.  So  that  the  proportion  of  Filices  to  Pheenogamous  plants  is  as  1  to  21^ ; 
Monocotyledones  to  Phenogaroous  plants,  1  to  4} ;  Dicot^ledone'J  to  Phaonogamous  plant", 
1  to  1^.  The  proportion  of  Irish  Monocotyledones  to  British  Mcuocotyledones  (accordi';if; 
to  the  species  of  Smith)  is  as  1  to  Ij,  or  as  3  to  5 :  of  Irish  Dicotyledones,  1  to  If,  or  as  3  to  5. 

*  Drawn  up  by  O.  A.  <V.  Arnott,  E>q.  of  Edinburgh. 

fThe  proportioni  in  the  CryptogamU  will  bo  fbund  probably  much  more  conect  for  Scotland  than  thote  given 
In  the  Britiah  table  are  for  the  whole  ...  Britain  ;  nwini  to  the  researches  mad'j  In  that  tribe  by  Dr.  Oreville,  and 
Captain  Carmichael ;  particularly  by  the  latter  in  the  Fungi  and  AIkk  ;  the  discovpries  of  that  gentleman  alone 
1  those  two  groups,  in  one  small  district  ( Appin)  in  the  west  highlands  of  f>cotland.  amount  to  morv  apeeiof  thas 
were  previously  described  at  inhabiting  the  whole  of  the  British  douiinionr. 


3tS 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI 


Fow,  •ndcml,  of  tho  npocKii*  of  pianta  now  oniimeratod  na  natives  of  Enffland,  Scotlanu 
and  Irnianil,  and  tho  adjacent  inl«,to,  con  be  considorod  as  oxchisivoly  bolnnginf;  to  thew 
oountrioM.  For  thou(;lt  thore  are  many  wliicli  aro  not  rofbrrcd  to  as  BpccicH  in  tiio  woi!<b  of 
other  aiithorH,  yot  thav  arc,  for  tho  most  jmrt,  anion{(  such  fiiniilioa  as  aro  not  well  u..iier« 
atooti,  and  about  which  tlioro  will  alwayH  uxiut  a  diUbroncu  of  opinion ;  oa  among  tlie  Grasses, 
Willows,  DramblcB,  SiC, 

Many  plants  reach  thoir  northern  limits  in  the  south  of  England  and  Ireland.  Wo  must 
particularly  mention  tho  Strawberrjr  Tree  (Arbutui  Unedo,  Jig.  107.),  which  forms  so 
cimnning  ii  feature  in  that  most  beautiilil  of  all  scenery,  the  Lake  of  Killamey.  Home  have, 
indM<d,  supposed  that  it  was  introduced  into  Ireland  by  tho  monka  of  Mucruaa  Abbey,  at 


Btrawbairy  Trw. 


CornUi  Kuth. 


ClIialMl  lleilh. 


aomo  very  remote  period.  Its  oppearancc  is,  however,  altogetlier  that  of  an  aboriginal  native, 
coming  to  a  great  size,*  perfecting  its  bright  scarlet  berries,  which  are  disseminated  over  the 
rocks  and  islands  in  evory  direction.  Tho  Erica  vagani,  or  Cornish  Heath  (Jig.  108.  a),  is 
found  nowhere  in  Britain  except  Cornwall ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  tho  newly-disco- 
vered E.  ciliaris  (6),  and  the  following,  of  great  beauty  or  rarity :  Lobelia  Dortmanna, 
Phyteuma  orbicularis  and  P.  spicata,  Hibthorpia  europaia  and  Isnardia  palustris,  are  quite 
southern  plants  in  tlio  BritiHh  dominions. 

Tlio  Wator-Soldicr  (Slratiotcs  aloides) ;  the  Water  Violet  (Hottonia  paluglris) ;  the  small 
Maidenhair  Gross  (Briza  minor) ;  tho  Sweet  Violet  (  Viola  odorata) ;  several  Mulleins ;  tho 
Primrosc-pocrlcss  (Narcissua  poctictis  ond  b\florus) ;  tho  common  Snake's  Head  {Fritillaria 
meleagrui);  tho  Agrostis  setacca,  tlio  Star  of  Ik'thlehcm  {Ornithogalum  pyrenaicum);  the 
two  s{)ccic8  of  S<iuill  (Scilla  autumnalia  and  bi/olia) ;  tho  Mountain  Spulerwort  {Antheri- 
dim  terotint^m) ;  the  Solomon's  Seal  (Convallaria  polygonatum) ;  and  Sweet  Sedge  (Acorui 
Calamus) ;  tlie  Yellow-wort  (C'hlora  perfoliata) ;  tho  Mezereum  {Daphne  Mezereum);  the 
Flowering  Rush  {Butomua  un^cllatus) ;  the  Yellow  Marsh  Saxifrage  {Saxtfraga  Hircvdut)\ 
tliough  on  the  Continent  a  very  arctic  slant,  the  Clove  Pink  (Dianthus  caryophyllua) ;  and 
D.  prolifor ;  several  Catchflys  {Silene) ;  Euphorbias,  Cistuses,  Anemones,  the  Traveller's 
Joy  (Clematia  Vitalba);  tho  Ground  Pine  (^l^/tt^o  CAamaptfy*) ;  the  Wood-Sago  (TVucnum 
Scorodonia) ;  tho  crested  and  field  Cow-wheat  (Melampyrum  cristatum  and  arvensr) ;  some 
Orobanches,  tlie  Vella  annua,  Draba  aizoides,  and  Iberia  amara,  some  Fumitoricn  {Fvmarie 
aolida,  lutea,  and  parviflora) ;  the  yellow  and  crimson  Vetchlings  {Lathyrus  Aphaca  and 
Niasolia) ;  the  Vicia  hybrida,  lajvigatn,  and  bithynica,  Hippocrcpis  comosa ;  Orchis  Moricf 
pyramidalis,  ustulata,  flisco,  miiitaris,  tephroeanthos,  hircma ;  Aceraa  anthropophora,  Hor- 
minium  monorchia;  all  the  species  of  Ophrye,  Epipactis  rubra,  Milaxis  Loeselii;  the  beau- 
tiful and  rare  I^ady's  Slipper  (Ct/pripedium  Calceolus) ;  the  Birthwort  (Ariatolochia  (Jlema- 
HHa) ;  the  Roman  Nettle  ( Urttca  piluli/era) ;  the  Xanthium  atrumarium  and  Ainaranthua 
Blitum;  the  Spanish  Chestnut  Tree  (Fagua  caatanea);  and  Misseltoe  {Viscum  album); 
the  Sea  Buckthorn  {Hippophae  rhamnoidea) ;  and  White  Poplar  {Populua  canescena) :  these 
are  some  among  the  most  striking  of  the  British  plants,  which  do  not  reach  the  middle  of 
the  kingtlom,  and  fail  below  the  south  of  Scotland. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  Scottish  plants  are,  principally,  such  whose  types  are  found 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  high  northern  latitudes,  or  in  the  extreme  arctic  regions  of 
both  Asia  and  America;  such  as  Veronica  fruticulosa,  soxatilis,  and  alpina,  several  alpine 
grosses,  and  other  glumaceous  plants ;  such  as  Phleum  alpinum  and  Alopecurus  alpinus, 
Eriophorum  alpinum ;  Juncus  costaneua,  arcticus,  and  biglumia ;  and  Luzula  arctica.  Primula 
scotica  (Jig.  109.  a),  the  Myosotia  alpestris  (d),  Azalea  procumbens,  Gentiana  nivalis  (c) 
Sibboldia  procambena,  Convallaria  verticillata,  Epilobium  alpinum.  Arbutus  alpina,  Pj^rola 
uniflora  (6),  Saxifraga  nivalis  and  rivularia,  Stellaria  acapigera  (Uie  latter  is  exclusively 


*  Mr.  Mackay  measured  a  trunk  of  thii  flne  everireen  tree  nn  Rough  Island,  nearly  opposite  O'SuIlivan'i  Cas- 
cade, which,  in  180S,  was  9}  feet  in  girth,  at  a  foot  flrom  the  ground. 

t  On  the  authority  of  Lightfoot,  Indeed,  this  plant,  so  abundantly  found  in  England,  is  given  ■•  a  nativa  «f 
■Scotland:  but  no  living  botanist,  that  I  am  aware  of  has  ever  seen  it  there. 


Part  III 

and,  Scotlaiiu 
ginjf  to  thoRe 
I  tho  wot!<aof 
<it  woll  Ui.uer- 
ig  tiie  GrosDOB, 

id.     Wo  must 

liich  forms  so 

Bomo  have, 

ruH  Abbey,  at 


ith. 

riginal  native, 
nated  over  the 
fig.  108.  a),  is 
:  nowly-disco- 
%  Dortmanna, 
tris,  arc  quite 

is);  the  small 
Mulleins;  tho 
id  (^Fritillaria 
naicum);  the 
rort  {Antheri- 
!cdgo  (Aconu 
zrreum);  the 
ja  Hirculut); 
ohyllus);  and 
le  Traveller's 
fo  (TVucrium 
tiensc);  some 
ien  (Ptimarie 
r  Aphaca  and 
►rchis  Morict 
pophora,  Hor- 
ii;  the  beau- 
'ochia  Ciema- 
I  Amaranthus 
rum  album); 
icena):  these 
he  middloof 

pes  are  found 
;ic  regions  of 
everaF  alpine 
urus  alpinuB, 
tica,  Primula 
1  nivalis  (c) 
Ipina,  Pyrola 
!  exclusively 

'Sullivan't  Oai- 
I  aa  a  nativa  «( 


BooE  I  ENGLAND.  UO 

British)*  Aronaria  rubella  and  ikstigiata,  tho  Cherleria  ledoides,  Lychnis  Viscaria  and  alpina, 
S))ergula  soffinoides,  Potentilla  opaca,  Nuphar  Kalmiana,  Ranunculus  alpestris,  Ajuga  pyra- 
midalis,  Cardamino  bellidiflora,  (Vohua  nigor.  Astragalus  uralonsis  and  campeilrii«  Erigoron 

_:_       no     • 

a 


0,  SeoUiih  Ptimroie.  i,  Rock  Beoiplon  OriM.  a,  TrilM-Loavad  CloqoaroU. 

c,  Biiwle-Flowored  Watar-Green.    d,  Bmr.ll  Alpina  Gontian.  i,  Jointed  PipoworU 

alpinum,  Coral  lorhiza  innata,  Achillcea  tomcntoea,  Goodyera  repens;  the  most  alpine  Carices 
and  Salicos,  and  tho  Dwarf  Birch  {Betula  nana). 

There  arc  two  plants  which  deserve  particular  notice,  as  natives  of  Great  Britain,  and 
found  nowhere  ehe  in  Europe ;  but  theso  are  again  met  with  in  North  America ;  the  one  is 
Potentilla  tridontata  (Jig.  110.  a)  abundant  in  arctic  America  and  upon  the  Rocky  and  White 
Mountains,  tho  other  the  Eriocaulon  scptangulare  (fg.  110.  b).  This  latter  genus  is  mostly 
tropical,  or  a  native  of  the  warm  temperate  zones  in  America,  the  East  Indies,  and  Australia. 
The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  the  Eriocaulon  pellucidum  of  Michaux,  and  the  plant  iri 
question;  Uio  for.ner  being  found  in  North  America  as  high  as  Canada;  and,  upon  exami- 
nation, tl'.c  two  species  prove  identical.  In  these  instances,  the  Eriocaulon  and  the  Poten- 
tilla BOom  to  have  overcome  many  obstacles  in  their  migration,  and  to  have  reached  their 
costera  boundary.  The  Eriocaulon  is  confined  to  a  few  lakes  in  the  Hebrides,  where  we 
have  been  surprised  in  tlie  month  of  September  at  the  high  temperature  of  the  water,  which 
probably  never  freezes ;  and  in  some  spots  in  tho  south  and  west  of  Irf/lond :  the  Potentilla 
u  only  found  on  one  hill  in  Angusshire. 

It  is  wortliy  of  remark,  that  the  genus  Pedicularis,  which  is  so  numerous,  in  species,  in 
tho  eastern  and  soutliem  parts  of  Europe,  almost  wholly  disappears  in  Britain ;  for,  notwith- 
standing the  vast  numbers  of  it  which  are  found  in  Siberia,  the  South  of  Russia,  Switzer- 
land, extending  even  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  Germany,  Groat  Britain  possesses  but  two, 
which  are  ecjually  abundant  upon  the  Continent ;  and  although  almost  wholly  an  alpino 
genus,  the  British  mountains  possess  not  one  really  alpine  species.  It  would  appear  that  the 
climate  is  peculiarly  unsuitcd  to  their  nurture:  for  in  North  Ameri''a,  in  the  same  and  espe- 
cially in  still  higher  northern  latitudes,  they  a^in  become  abundant. 

Ireland  exhibits  a  few  striking  peculiarities  in  some  of  its  vegetable  productions.  Besides 
the  Strawberry  tree  (Arbutus  unedo)  already  mentioned,  ii  cai\  boast  of  Pinguicula  grandi* 
ttora.(Jig.  111.  a),  a  beautiful  flower,  native  of  France  and  the  Pyrenees;  Menziesia  poli* 

111 


You  L 


a,  Larga-tlowand  Baltenrort. 
d,  Naked-iUlkad  ITeltow  Poppy, 


h,  Iriih  MenziMia. 
«,  Manh  Leduni. 

28* 


2R 


3»0 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pa»t  m. 


a,  Trne  Maldin-Hair. 

h,  8horlityl«d  Briitle-Fera. 


folia  (6),  a  species  belonginff  to  the  latter  country  and  to  Spain,  and  found  in  a  wild  atato  in 
no  other  parta  of  the  worlcT;  it  is,  too,  a  moot  lovely  one :  also  St.  Patrick's  Cabbage  (Aojci- 
fra/fa  umbroia)  and  the  London  Pride  (S.  Oeum,  c)  and  their  varieties,  which  are  scarcely 
known  to  exist  but  in  Switzerland  and  the  Pyrenees;  Arenaria  ciliata,  a  native  of  the 
mountains  on  the  continent  of  Europe ;  and  to  these  rarities  have  lately  been  added  by  Pro. 
feasor  Giesccke,  the  Yellow  Poppy  {Papaver  nudicauh,  I),  and  the  Ledum  pulustre  (e,) 
both  of  tliem  peculiarly  arctic  proauctions,  and  plentiful  on  the  northern  extremity  of  Ame- 
rica and  Greenland ;  and  with  tSiase  wo  must  be  permitted  to  number,  though  Cryptogamie 

plants,  the  Trichomancs  brevisetum  (Jig.  112.  o),  which 
scarcely  grows  anywhere  else  in  the  world  but  in  Mn- 
deira  and  in  Yorkshire  (if  it  be  not  now  extinct  in  the 
latter  habitat),  the  Adiantum  Capillus  Veneris  (a),  whose 
only  locality  in  the  British  dominions  is  the  west  of  Ire- 
land, and  one  spot  in  Wales,  but  which  is  tV«quent  in 
tiio  soutli  of  Europe,  and  even  in  the  tropical  parts  of 
America;  and  two  mosses,  Hookeria  latevirens,  and 
Daltonia  splanchnoides,  entirely  peculiar  to  Ireland. 

That  country  also  possesses  three  remarkable  vege- 
table productions,  now  pretty  generally  distributed  in 
gardens  and  shrubberies  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
universally  known  by  the  names  of  the  Irisn  Broom, 
Irish  Furze,  and  Irish  Yew.  The  former  we  believe  to 
be  the  Spartium  patens  of  Linnmus,  a  Spanish  species, 
with  very  hairy  pods;  and  it  is,  probably,  not  wild  in 
that  country.  The  Irish  Furze  has  an  appearance  very 
different  from  that  of  the  European  or  Dwarf  Furzes 
(Ulex  europceus  and  nanus),  having  very  erect  short  branches,  and  closely  placed  spines; 
■0  that  the  whole  plant  has  a  remarkably  dense  and  compact  habit,  appearing  almost  as  if 

it  were  kept  close  clipped  with  shears.  It  blossoms  rarelv, 
but  we  have  seen  both  flowers  and  seed-vessels,  which  do 
not  diflTer  in  any  material  point  from  those  of  UIcx  nanus. 
In  some  gardens  it  is  called  U.  europeeus  var.  strictus ;  but 
Mr.  Mackay  considers  it  to  be  quite  a  distinct  species,  and 
he  has  called  it,  in  his  "  Catalogue  of  the  Indigenous  Plants 
of  Ireland,"  Ulex  strictus,     Stul,  the  only  stations  for  this 

Elant  are  in  the  Marquess  of  Londonderry's  park  and  shrub- 
cries,  at  Mount  Stewart,  county  of  Down,  where  there  are 
some  very  large  bushes ;  but  whence  it  came,  no  one  can 
tell.  This  would,  however,  be  a  very  valuable  plant  to  the 
agriculturist ;  for,  it  has  been  planted  (it  increases  readily 
by  cuttings)  in  dry  hilly  pastures  in  the  north  of  Scotland, 
and  in  tlie  early  spring  throws  up  an  abundant  crop  of  suc- 
culent shoots,  which  are  greedily  eaten  by  sheep,  when  there 
is  little  or  no  grass  to  support  them. 

The  third  Irish  botanical  curiosity  is  the  Irish  Yew  (fig, 
113),  Florence-Court  Yew,  oa  it  is  called  in  that  country, 
from  its  being  first  discovered  at  Florence  Court,  the  seat  of 
Lord  Enniskillen.  Mr.  Mackay  does  not  consider  it  to  be 
wild ;  but  Mr.  Hervev,  in  the  Agricultural  Magazine  for 
October,  1828,  says,  that  it  is  on  undoubted  native,  and  plen- 
tiful in  the  neighbourhood  of  Antrim,  where  there  are  trees 
at  least  a  century  old.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  upright 
branches,  which  give  the  whole  plant  somewhat  the  habit  of 
a  Cypress ;  by  the  leaves  growing,  not  in  a  distichous  man- 
ner, but  from  all  sides  of  uie  stem :  the  drupe  or  berry,  too, 
is  of  u  different  form  from  that  of  the  common  Yew. 
The  trees  that  are  aboriginal  natives  of  Britain  are  the  Oak  (two  species) ;  the  Elm  (five 
species) ;  the  Beech,  the  Ash,  the  Manle,  Sycamore,  Hornbeam,  Lime  (three  species) ;  the 
Spanish  Chestnut  (I) ;  the  Alder,  Bircn,  Poplar  (four  species) ;  and  the  Scotch  Fir;  to  which 
may  be  added  the  Moimtain  Ash,  which  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  attains  to  a  great  size. 
Of  these,  then,  the  Oak,  the  Beech,  Birch,  and  Scotch  Fir,  live  in  society,  forming  vast 
forests,  aimost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  trees.  The  finest  forests  of  Oak  and  Beech  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  southern  parts  of  England ;  the  latter  flourishing,  in  an  extraordinery 
degree,  in  the  chalk  and  deep  clay  soils  of  Sussex  and  some  of  the  neighbouring  counties. 
In  Scotland,  the  oak,  though  there  may  be  some  exceptions,  generally  forms  copse  woods, 
and  is  mostly  confined  to  Uie  valleys.    Its  northern  limit  is  scarcely  within  the  Britiah  dontir 


IriihYew 


Boo 


T 


Pa»t  m. 

1  wild  Btato  in 
abbago  (Soxi- 
h  are  Kareely 
native  ot  tho 
added  by  Pro- 
1  pulustre  (e,) 
imity  of  Ame- 
I  Ciyptogamic 
112.  b),  which 
Id  but  in  Ma* 
extinct  in  the 
eriH  (a),  whose 
e  west  of  Ire- 
is  flrsquont  in 
pical  parts  of 
itevirens,  and 

0  Ireland, 
arkable  vcge- 
distributcd  in 
kingdom,  and 
Irian  Broom, 
we  believe  to 

)anish  species, 
,  not  wild  in 
pearance  very 
Dwarf  Furzes 
daced  spines; 
f  almost  as  if 
oBsoms  rarely, 
iels,  which  do 
'  Ulex  nanus. 

strictus;  but 
;t  species,  and 
rronous  Plants 
tions  for  this 
rk  and  shrub- 
lere  there  are 
e,  no  one  can 
9  plant  to  the 

eases  readily 

1  of  Scotland, 
;  crop  of  sue* 
},  when  there 

sh  Yew  (fig. 
:hat  country, 
t,  the  seat  of 
ider  it  to  be 
Tof^azine  for 
ve,  and  plen- 
ere  are  trees 
|r  its  upright 
the  habit  of 
tichous  man- 
)r  berry,  too, 
Yew. 

le  Elm  (five 
)ecie8);  the 
ir ;  to  which 
.  great  size. 
>nning  vast 
1  Beech  are 
ctraordinary 
ig  counties. 
)pse  woods, 
nitishdomr 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


m 


nions.    It  extends  to  lat  60°,  on  the  continent  in  Ruatia,  and  64°  in  Norway;  and  if  in  Scot- 
land oaks  are  u.*  <bund  in  the  extreme  north,  it  is  rather  owing  to  want  of  shelter  and  of 
suitable  soil,  than  .  ^  any  other  circunutance. 
The  Pine,  {Pinua  3ylve»tri»,Jlg.  114.)  constitutes  noble  forests  among  the  mountainoui 

districts  of  North  Britain,  oiling  the  valleys, 
and  ascending,  probably,  to  the  height  of  iSiiOO 
feet  upon  the  hills,  among  the  nortncrn  Gram- 
pians,  and  enhibiting  individual  specimens  of 
great  size  and  beauty. 

Of  the  fVuit  trees  which  are  successfully  cul- 
tivated in  tl'.e  open  air,  the  number  is  limited. 
In  the  south,  exclusively,  or,  perhaps,  as  fkr  aa 
the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  under  ihvourable 
circumstances,  the  Vine,  the  Fig,  the  Quince, 
the  Mulberry,  Chestnut,  Walnut,  and  5>Iedlar 
may  be  advantageously  planted.  The  Apple, 
Pear,  the  Plum  of  various  kinds,  the  Peach, 
Nectarine,  and  Apricot ;  all,  according  to  soil, 
exposure,  and  other  local  circumstances,  ripen 
their  fruit  in  tho  open  air,  if  aiTonJed  the  protec- 
tion of  a  wall,  as  high  north  as  InvemcHS,  and 
some  of  the  most  hardy  ones  much  higher ;  but 
'■  the  wont  of  sun  must  ever  be  a  hindrance  to  tho 

thorough  perfecting  of  good  fhiit  in  the  north  of  Scotland. 

Of  the  various  kmdfT  of  Com,  which  are  used  aa  food  for  man  or  cattle,  Wheat,  Barley, 
Here,  Bigg,  Oata,  and  Rye  are  the  universal  crops ;  and  these  all  succeed  in  situations 
not  too  much  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  as  far  to  the  northward  as  Inverness, 
beyond  which  the  wheat  becomes  a  very  uncertain  crop ;  and  even  considerably  south  of 
Inverness,  to  the  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  in  lat.  66°,  the  cultivation  of  wheat  is 
almost  .  'holly  confined  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  country,  the  west  being  the  district  for 
pasture. 

In  regard  to  the  height  at  which  certain  plants  will  grow  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the 
southern  and  midland  parts  of  Great  Britam  do  not  contain  mountains  upon  a  sufiiciently 
lofty  scale  to  render  their  investigation  particularly  interesting.  The  northern  parts  of 
England  possess  mountains  of  upwards  of  3000  feet ;  and  as  Winch's  **  Essay  on  the  Geo- 
graphical distribution  of  Plants  throughout  the  Counties  of  Northumberland,  Cumberland,  and 
Durham,"  of  which  the  lat  55°  may  be  considered  the  medium,  embraces  a  very  great  pnr 
tion  of  this  very  (ountry,  which,  from  its  situation,  may,  in  point  of  climate,  be  considered  as 
intermediate  lietween  the  more  northern  and  southern  floras  of  Great  Britain,  we  select 
from  his  work  what  concerns  the  more  valuable  and  more  striking  vegetable  productions. 

The  Oak,  in  lat  55°,  attains  a  large  size  in  the  valleys ;  it  ascends  the  ^ills,  but  gradu- 
ally becomes  of  stunted  growth  in  Weardale  and  Teesdale,  to  the  elevation  of  16(K)  and 
1700  feet 

The  Common  Elm  {Ultmu  Campeatris)  is  not  indigenous  north  of  the  Tees;  its  place 
being  taken  by  the  Wych  Elm  {U,  montana),  which  skirts  the  mountains  at  a  height  of 
2000  feet 

The  Beech  and  Aspen  flourish  beautifully  in  the  low  sheltered  spots,  but  do  not  climb 
the  hills  to  equal  heights  with  the  oak.  The  White  and  Black  Poplars  (Popultu  alba 
and  nigra)  are  doubtiul  natives  of  the  north  of  England,  as  of  Scotland ;  though  the  White 
Poplar  is  remarkable  for  withstanding  the  north-easterlv  winds,  which  are  so  destructive  to 
vegetation  in  the  counties  of  Northumberland  and  Durham.  The  Lime,  (IHKa  Ettropeea), 
the  Chestnut  (Cattanea  vesca),  and  the  Hornbeam  (Carpintta  Betulxts),  stand  in  the  same 
predicament. 

Holly  trees  are  among  the  chief  ornaments  of  the  woods  in  Durham,  Northumberland, 
and  Cumberland,  aa  is  the  Yew  {Taxtu  Baccata).  The  Birch  (Betida  alba)  is  not  fi)und 
on  the  mountains  at  a  greater  elevation  than  the  Sycamore  (Acer  Pseudo-platanus),  whirh 
in  the  subalpine  regions  seems  to  be  as  vigorous,  and  to  attain  as  great  a  size  as  it  ao'» 
near  the  sea-cooat  The  Mountain  Ash  (Pyrua  aucuparia)  is  found  on  the  hills ;  the  WhiUs 
Beam  (Pyrua  Aria)  may  be  traced  from  uie  High-Force  of  the  river  Tees  to  the  coast , 
the  Alder  (Alntu  glutinoaa)  and  the  Guelder  Rose  (Viburnum  Opulus)  accompany  the 
streams ;  and  the  Hazel,  Black  Cherry  (Prunut  Ceratua),  Bird  Cherrv  (Prunua  Padua), 
the  Spindle-tree  (Etumtftnua  europeu*),  the  Raspberry  (Rubua  idaua),  and  the  common 
Elder,  (Sambucua  nigra),  are  found  in  all  the  woods  from  the  seo^shore  to  those  ->itu>>,ted  on 
an  elevation  of  1600  feet:  but  the  common  Mapls  (Acer  campeitfui)  occuib  ouly  in  thi> 
hedges,  in  some  parts  of  the  flat  country. 

"inie  Ash  tree  (Pramnua  excelaior),  the  White  Thorn  (Meapilua  Oxyacantha),  the  Crab 
tree,  or  Wild  Apple  (Pyrua  Malvui),  and  Black  Thorn  (Pruntia  apinoaa),  abound  throughout 


832 


DESCRIPflVE  0EO(JHAPUV. 


I'AiiT  in 


Uio  dwtrict  in  quoition.  Thn  niillai^o  {Prunun  intitUia)  in  raro :  and  tho  Plum-lroo  (I'rtinitii 
donuilica),  I'oar  (/*yru»  communii),  Red  currant  (Rifiei  ntbrum),  thn  Dcrljorry  (Jlrrhrrin 
vulgarin),  and  (looeoborry  (RibcM  Uromularin),  though  of  fVcquont  occurrence,  a]iponr  not 
to  be  original  natives  of  tiio  Moil,  But  tho  Rix:k  Currant  {Ribe$  pftraum),  tho  Acid  Moinw 
tain  Currant  {RUtt$  $picatum),  Alpino  Currant  (Ribei  alpimtm),  Black  (/urrant  {Ribet  nt> 
ifrum),  and  Privot  (lAgUMtrum  vulgart),  aro  indi^fcnoui,  and  not  untVequont. 

Tho  Furzo  ( Ulex  eurovaiu,)  attaint  to  an  elovation  of  2000  foot  in  aoouontcrod  Rpots, 
accompanied  by  tho  Braniblu.  Juniper  may  bo  traced  fVom  tho  coast  to  tho  height  oi  iMK) 
foot  The  Cloudberry  (Rubut  ChamamnruB),  tho  Bcarbcrry  ( Ar6t4/u«  Vv.t  UtmI),  ondSand 
Willow  {Salix  arenaria),  attain  tho  same  elevation ;  while  tho  Dwarf  Willow  {Salix  her' 
bacea),  but  without  its  uoual  attendant  thn  Hoticulatod  Willow  {S.  reticulatn),  rcrechcs 
to  the  top4  of  tlio  loftiest  mountains,  upwanls  of  3000  feet  abovo  tho  level  of  tho  sea. 

Coano  Grasses,  Sedgos,  and  Hushes  too  oflen  cover  the  wet  moors  with  a  scanty  and 
almost  useless  vegetation.  To  tho  asriculturist  the  diflbronl  tieatlis  are  scarcely  more 
acceptable ;  but  thov  aro  unquostinnably  among  tho  most  beautiflil  of  tho  native  plants,  and 
their  abundance  and  the  vast  extent  of  ground  which  thov  clothe,  give  a  peculiar  character 
to  very  many  parts  of  Great  Britain,  especially  in  the  North.  In  tho  districts  in  question, 
tho  common  Heather  (Ca//una  vut^am;,  the  Fir-leaved  Heath  {Erica  Cincrea),  and  th«) 
Cross-leaved  Heath  {Erica  Tetralix),  the  latter,  however,  loss  (Vagrant,  and  preferring  moist 
situations,  flourish  in  various  situations,  from  1000  to  3000  feet  a^ve  tho  level  of  the  sea, 
but  never  in  calcareous  soil,  which  circumstance  occasions  tho  striking  difllbrence  between 
tho  heaths  of  Durham  and  Nortliumborland,  and  the  Yorkshire  Wolds  as  they  are  called, 
whore  tho  substratum  is  chalk. 

Tho  most  considerable  elevation  to  which  tho  cultivation  of  wheat  extends  in  the  north 
of  England  does  not  exceed  KKM)  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Oats  grow  at  nearly 
double  that  height;  but  in  unfavourable  years  tho  sheaves  may  often  be  seen  standing  among 
tho  snow,  which  not  uncommonly  covers  tho  tops  of  the  mountains  in  October,  and  is  never 
later  in  fHIling  than  the  middle  of  November.  The  limits  of  Barley  and  Rye  are  between 
those  of  wheat  and  oats ;  but  Bigg,  a  more  hardy  kind  of  grain  than  either  of  the  former,  is 
no  longer  cultivated.  Turnips,  though  of  small  size,  and  Potatoes,  grow  at  the  same  height 
as  Oats.  On  tho  soil  of  tlio  moors  being  ploughed  for  the  first  time,  and  lime  applied,  White 
Clover  {TrifoUum  repens)  comes  up  in  abundance. 

f 

SuBSKOT.  3. — Zoology  of  Great  Britain, 
The  Zootoffy  of  the  United  Empire  might  be  treated  of  under  the  three  kingdoms  of  which 
it  is  composed,  were  our  materials  sutHcicntly  ample  to  mark  the  peculiarities  of  each.  But 
although  every  year  witnesses  an  accession  of  new  species  to  tho  British  fauna,  no  attempt  has 
yet  been  made  to  generalise  these  discoveries,  with  reference  to  the  geographic  range  of  groups 
or  species.  The  zoology  of  Ireland  has  been  sadly  neglected,  and  we  are  still  without  a 
Fauna  Scotica.  We  must  therefore  consider  the  natural  history  of  Britain  in  tho  aggregate; 
noticing  such  species  as  more  particularly  belong  to  the  northern  and  the  southern  extre- 
mities. 

Of  Quadrupeds,  tlie  most  recent  catalogue  contains  sixty  living  species,  including  the 
whale  tribe ;  besides  those  which  profjressivo  civilisation,  and  the  effects  of  the  chase,  have 
now  extirpated  from  the  islands.  Nine  species  of  Btits  have  been  detected,  four  of  which 
have  as  yet  been  found  only  in  the  southern  and  western  counties :  two  belong  to  the  division 
of  horse-shoe  bats,  so  nniniHl,  from  their  nostrils  bein,-^'^  furnished  with  a  complicated  membrane, 
like  a  horse-shoe ;  an  ap^jendage  which  is  probably  intended  to  act  as  a  sucker  to  assist  the 
animal  in  retaining  its  p*rey.  The  Vespertilio  inurinus,  or  common  bat,  has  been  bo  far 
tamed  as  to  take  flies  out  nt  its  master's  hand,  carefully  throwing  aside  the  winm.  The 
woods  and  heaths  still  sheitt  r  the  Hedgehog  {Jig.  115.),  a  harmless  and  a  most  useful  animal 
115  ill  destroying  snails,  slugs,  and  worms;  but  persecuted  by  the 

k^KWil^        .^.  vulgar  for  a  long  list  of  imaginary  and  nonsensical  properties. 

These  prejudices  have  been  extended  to  the  Mole,  whose  little 
hillocks  form  the  best  top-dressing,  as  a  sensible  farmer  once 
^JMH^^^H^^pi  assured  us,  to  poor  lands,  that  can  possibly  be  given :  their  soft 
/  wKBBI^^^^^^SS^^  ^^  ''"^  '""^  ^^^^"  mixed  with  that  of  the  Beaver,  in  the  making 
^\ , ^^I^_^^-».^si^Sfe<  of  hats.     Allied  to  the  Mole,  in  general  conformation,  are  the 

Shrew  Mice,  of  which  two  species  are  natives,  the  common  and 
the  Water  Shrew  {Sorex  araneus  and  fodiens):   both  these 
HedgeboB.  appear  to  be  widely  distributed.    Of  true  Mice  tJierc  are  threo 

distmct  sorts :  the  Common  or  House  Mouse,  the  Field  Mouse,  and  the  Harvest  Mouse ;  tlie 
latter  being  aa  destructive  to  the  farmer  as  the  first  is  to  the  housewife.  Tho  Brown  and 
the  Black  Rat  infest  dwellings,  and  are  equally  injurioiis :  the  latter  is  known  by  the  tail 
bemg  longer  than  the  body;  whereas,  in  the  Brown  Rat,  both  these  parts  are  equal.  The 
pretty  h*  le  Dormouse  {Myoxus  avellanariut),  like  the  Squirrel  and  Jerboa,  eats  its  food  in 
on  erect  *^;it'uie,  sitting  nn  its  ha  inches,  and  using  its  forefeet  as  hands.    The  Water  Rat 


Door  I. 


ENGLAND. 


3flS 


tiul  Hliort-tuilod  >*  jum  of  Punnant  (now  placed  in  tho  ((onui  Arvicola)  occur  in  England : 
out  tlio  turinor  '  •  Htatod  not  to  have  bcun  round  in  tho  northern  iHlands;  the  latter  ia  a  moat 
deftructivo  little  oninial  in  ganlena,  where  it  gruha  up  aoeda,  particularly  poaa,  Juat  aflcr 
they  have  bugun  to  germinate.  A  few  yuara  back,  tho  ahort-tailuu  inouito  audaenly  itpptmrod 
in  unnienao  nuinbora  in  the  New  Foreat,  am  notwitlutanding  every  artifice  cinpluyiKl  to 
i;  p  tlieir  ravugoa,  they  deatroyed  many  tlioua.  nda  of  young  treea,  and  devoatatod  whola 
tcrea  of  voung  plantationa. 

The  vadaer  la  a  nrxtumal  feeder,  ainoping  in  ita  hole  during  the  day,  ^ot,  when  attacked, 
if  reinarAably  quick  in  ita  niotiona,  and  aucceaatbl  in  ita  defence.  If  unduturbcd,  it  ia  liarm- 
lesa  oi'J  inottbnaivo,  chiefly  aubaiating  upon  vogetabloa,  although  it  will  likewiae  devour  tVoga 
and  ahi^j  Tho  Otter  haa  become  much  leaa  frequent  than  formerly ;  it  waa  once  conaidorod 
aa  a  bcoat  of  chaao,  oa  old  game-booka  mention  otter  hounds  particularly  trained  for  hunting 
tliia  animal.  It  feeda  entirely  upon  titih,  which  it  divoa  atlor  with  great  celerity ;  and,  unlcaa 
preaaed  by  extreme  hunger,  invariably  leavca  tho  tail  extremity  untouched.  The  lega  are 
very  abort;  and  'Jie  tooa  being  connected  together  by  a  membrane,  gives  to  the  animal  the 
power  of  awimming  very  rapidly. 

Tho  rapacious  or  carnivorous  quadrupeds  of  Britain  arc  very  few,  and  from  their  amall 
size  too  insignificant  to  inflict  much  personal  injury  upon  man.  Tho  Bear  and  tho  Wo\f 
have  lung  been  extinct  in  Britain,  and  tho  Fox  might  havo  shared  tho  same  fate,  had  it  not 
been  preserved  oa  a  beast  of  tho  chose  since  the  extirpation  of  more  formidable  game. 
Pennant  mentions  three  varieties  of  this  animal  found  in  Wales  and  other  mountainous  parta 
of  Britain :  —  1.  The  Milgri,  or  Greyhound  Fox,  is  the  largest,  tallest,  and  boldest,  and  ia 
distinguished  by  a  white  tag  or  tip  to  the  tail.  2.  The  Mostifl'  Fox,  which  ia  less,  but  more 
strondy  built.  3.  The  Curgi,  or  Cur  Fox,  of  a  still  smaller  size,  and  having  the  tip  of  the 
tail  black.  (Brit.  Zool.  i.  87.)  Tho  varieties  do  not  appear,  however,  to  have  fkllcn  under 
the  actual  observation  of  subsequent  naturalists. 

The  Ferret  tribe  comprehends  tlie  Polecat,  Weasel,  Stoat  or  Ermine,  the  Common  Marten, 
and  tho  Pine  Marten. 

The  Polecat  (PutoriuM  vulgaris  Cuv.),  called  also  the  Fitchet,  Fitchew,  or  Foumart, 
measures,  with  the  tail,  about  twenty-three  inches.  Its  fetid  smell  ia  proverbial.  Although 
included  In  tlio  list  of  British  quadrupeds,  it  appears,  according  to  Strabo,  to  have  been 
imported  firom  the  north  of  Africa.  Like  all  its  congeners,  its  habits  are  sanguinary ;  for  it 
will  destroy  and  suck  the  blood  of  many  victims,  before  it  attempts  to  carry  on  their  bodies. 
The  well-known  Ferret  is  considered  only  a  variety  of  this  species.  The  Weasel  is  much 
■mailer,  and  although  repulsive  from  its  odour,  is  yet  an  elegant-shaped  anii<\»tl.  It  feeds  on 
mice  and  small  birds,  b< "  ,vill  occasionally  attack  animals  of  a  much  larger  size.  Few 
persons  suspect  that  tli  mhs  they  see  nailed  against  farm  out-houses  frequently  belong  to 
on  animal  whose  fur,  ui  another  state,  forms  a  most  elegant  and  expensive  ornament  to 
female  dreas.  Th.n  animal,  despised  in  one  state,  and  valued  in  another,  is  the  Stoat 
C/J(f.  116.),  tho  rvst  oi  the  farmer,  and  the  destroyer  of  his  poultry.  In  the  temperate  and 
116  117 


>^...  ■' 


Bloat.  Pine  Muteo. 

southern  parts  of  Europe,  its  fur  is  yellowish-brown  above,  and  pale  yellow  beneath ;  yet 
80  soon  as  its  geographic  range  enters  on  the  more  northe  rn  countries,  as  Russia,  Norway, 
and  Siberia,  these  colours  vanish,  leaving  the  fur  of  a  pure  white  in  every  part  but  the  tail, 
which  is  tipped  with  deep  black ;  and  in  this  state  the  skin  is  called  ermme.  In  Scotland 
the  animal,  during  winter,  is  frequently  found  in  an  intermediate  stage  of  summer  and  win- 
ter clothing.  Although  small,  it  will  attack  large  rats,  and  has  l^en  known  to  pursue  a 
young  hare  by  the  scent 

The  Common  or  Beech  Marten  (M.  Fagorum  Ra^)  seems  to  prefer  dwelling  near  habita* 
tions,  choosing  the  shelter  of  out-houses  and  fiurm-buildings,  as  convenient  retreats  for  carry* 
°og  on  its  depredations  among  poultry,  of  which  it  is  a  great  devourer;  it  also  breeds 
occasionally  in  the  hollows  of  trees. 

The  Pine" 

frMn  the  las- 


Marten  (M.  Abietum  Ray,  fig.  117.)  is  rather  larger,  and  is  further  distinguished 
t  in  having  the  throat  and  breast  yellow,  instead  of  white.  It  is  wild  and  solitary; 
shunning  mankind ;  and  only  dwells  in  thick  woods  and  forests,  principally  those  composed 
of  pines.  It  climbs  with  great  &cility ;  preys  upon  birds  and  their  eggs,  and  also  upon 
iquurels;  tho  female  generally  making  use  of  the  nest  of  one  of  her  victims  for  the  rearing 


S34 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  III 


of  hor  own  young.  The  akin  of  this  ia  much  more  prised  than  that  of  the  common  Marten, 
and  appears  to  have  been  formerly,  at  least  in  Scotland,  a  lucrative  article  of  commerce. 

The  Wild  Cat  closes  our  list  of  these  small  but  ferocious  indigenous  animals.  Its  mannen 
are  similar  to  thoae  of  the  lynx,  and  Mr.  Pennant  justly  calls  it  the  British  ti^r.  In  ita 
savage  state  it  appears  to  be  much  larger  than  the  ordinary  domestic  cat ;  and  the  teeth  and 
claws,  for  the  sise  of  tho  animal,  are  tremendous.  It  is  still  found,  although  rarely,  in  the 
mountainous  and  woody  parts  of  Great  Britain.  Formerly  they  appear  to  have  been  much 
more  numerous,  and  to  nave  been  considered  a  beast  of  chase.  The  best  authorities  agree 
in  considering  this  species,  common  to  the  forests  of  Europe,  as  the  origin  of  our  domostio 
breed,  the  usual  varieties  of  which  are  well  known.  Another,  .vhich  seems  peculiar  to 
Cornwall,  is  without  any  visible  tail,  and  is  stated  to  be  an  hereditary  variety.  (,Cuv,  ii.  489.) 

To  enumerate  the  varieties  of  the  Dog  now  domesticated  in  Britain  would  be  tedious, 
particularlv  after  the  luminous  manner  in  which  this  subject  has  been  treated  bv  Pennant 
{Brit,  Zool,  i.  70.).  Britain  hoa  been  famous  for  her  dogs  from  remote  antiquity.  1  he  British 
mastiiTs  were  held  in  such  estimation  by  the  Romans,  Uiat  their  emperors  appointed  an  officer 
in  the  island,  with  the  name  of  Procurator  Cynegii,  whose  business  was  to  transmit  thence 
such  as  would  prove  equal  to  the  ferocious  combats  of  the  amphitheatre.  Strabo  also  men- 
tions that  the  mastifis  of  Britain  were  in  great  repute,  being  trained  for  war,  and  used  by 
the  Gauls  in  their  battlea 

The  Bloodhound,  during  the  troubled  periods  of  English  history,  was  in  hi^h  estimation, 
and  much  used  to  track  the  footsteps  of  robbers  and  marauders ;  but  the  breed  is  now  extinct. 
A  remarkable  variety  of  the  Greyhound,  more  peculiar  to  Ireland  (hence  called  the  Irish 
Grevliound  or  Wolf  Dog),  is  nearly  lost,  a  few  couples  alone  having  been  preserved  in  one 
of  tno  parks  in  that  island.  The  Terrier  ia  the  best  house  guard ;  while  the  Shepherd,  the 
Water,  and  tlie  Newfoundland  dogs  are  probably  the  most  sagacious. 

Of  ruminating  animals  now  existing  in  a  state  of  nature,  there  ore  but  three;  the  Stag  or 
Red  Deer,  tho  Fallow  Deer,  and  the  Roebuck.  It  would  appear,  however,  that  the  first  two 
are  not  indigenous  to  these  islands.  Mr.  Pennant  writes — "  We  have  two  varieties  of  falL'v 
deer,  wliich  are  said  to  be  of  foreipi  origin :  these  were  introduced  by  King  James  I.  out  of 
Norway,  which  he  visited  for  his  mtcndcd  bride,  Anne  of  Denmark.  He  first  brought  some 
into  Scotland,  and  firom  thence  transported  tiiem  to  his  chases  of  Enfield  and  Epping,  to  be 
near  his  palace  of  Theobald's."  The  only  memorial  of  this  palace  is  probably  preserved  in 
the  name  of  Theobald's  Road.  M.  Cuvier,  indeed,  expresses  a  doubt  whether  the  stag  was 
originally  European ;  but  Major  Hamilton  Smith,  with  much  better  reason,  considers  the 
Fallow  Deer  {Cervus  Damd)  as  indigenous  to  Europe ;  adding,  that  it  is  still  found  wild 
fh)m  Sweden  to  Gibraltar,  and  from  Ireland  to  Constantinople.  The  Stag  (Cervus  Elaphus) 
seems  to  be  unquestioned  as  an  indigenous  species ;  and  although  the  wild  breed  is  yearly 
diminishing  in  numbers,  it  is  still  found  in  Gloucestershire,  the  north-west  part  of  Devon, 
and  in  some  of  the  remote  districts  of  Scotland.  Pennant,  by  some  unaccountable  mistake, 
has  placed  tlie  Stag  and  the  Fallow  Deer  as  varieties  of  one  species. 

The  Roebuck  (Cervtis  capreolus  Ham.  Smitii)  is  much  less  than  the  two  preceding,  and 
is,  indeed,  tho  smallest  of  European  deer.  It  is  remarkably  graceful  and  active,  habitually 
preferring  the  sides  of  elevated  woods  or  forests.  As  he  leaves  a  strong  scent,  nature  has 
given  him  peculiar  sagacity  to  perplex  his  pursuers :  he  begins,  afler  a  forward  dash,  bv 
doubling  over  his  track,  to  mislead  the  hounds,  and  then  by  some  great  bounds  he  springs 
forward  to  a  cover,  where  he  lies  down  to  let  the  chase  pass.  The  roebuck  is  now  become 
very  scarce  in  Britain,  and  was  equally  so  in  Scotland,  but  we  are  told  it  has  renippeared  of 
late  years  in  Fifeshire,  in  consequence  of  the  increased  plantations.    {Brit.  An.  p.  26.) 

The  Ox  is  the  only  remaining  animal  of  this  order  which  claims  a  place  among  the 
indigenous  quadrupeds.  We  have  before  observed,  that  in  remote  ages,  a  gigantic  race  of 
oxen  was  numerous  throughout  Europe ;  and  that,  although  now  extmct,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  colossal  species  mentioned  by  Ctesar,  as  existing  in  his  time,  was  of  this 
race,  now  only  known  by  its  fossil  bones.  These  remains  lie  scattered  through  the  whole 
of  temperate  Europe,  in  the  some  strata  with  the  lost  species  of  Elephant,  but  that  the  race 
was  preserved  to  a  much  later  period  is  proved  by  similar  bones  occurring  in  more  recent 
formations,  as  in  peat  mosses,  drained  lakes,  marshes,  and  beds  of  sand.  The  wild  races, 
of  inferior  size,  belonging  to  this  species,  may  probably,  as  Major  Smith  observes,  even  now 
exist  in  Asia.  However  tliis  may  be,  it  appears  certam  that  the  real  Urus  was  found  wild 
in  the  Vosges  mountains,  and  in  the  forests  of  Ardennes  and  Germany ;  while  its  existence 
in  England  is  incontestably  proved  by  Fitz-Stephen,  who  speaks  of  the  Uri  silvestres,  which 
in  his  time  (that  is,  about  1150)  infested  the  great  forests — round  London ! 

The  only  existing  breed  of  wild  oxen  now  known,  is  the  white  Urus,  or  Urua  gcoticus  of 
Ham.  Smith.  lui  skull  agrees  with  the  tbssil  breed  in  being  "  square  from  the  orbits  to 
tlie  occipital  crest,  somewhat  hollow  at  the  forehead,  and  the  horns  showing  a  peculiar  rise 
from  their  root,  at  the  side  of  the  above  crest,  upwards,  and  then  bending  outwards,  tiien 
forward  and  inward :  no  domestic  race  shows  this  turn."    The  true  Una  was  tiirther  din 


DOOE  I. 


ENGLAND.     U:.)i^-S[ 


9«l 


Wild  ScoUiih  Ox. 


tinguiflhed  by  u  .nane,  which  is  still  observed  about  two  inches  long,  in  old  bulls  of  tiie  Scot* 
*^°  tish  race  O^jS'.  118.)>   When  thu  breed  was  exterminated 

from  the  open  forests  is  not  known ;  but  it  was  confined 
to  parks  long  before  the  Reformation.  Tlie  colour  is  en« 
tirely  white,  with  the  muzzle  wholly  black.  Their  man- 
ners are  singular :  upon  perceiving  a  stranger,  they  gallop 
wildly  in  a  circle  round  him,  stop  and  gaze,  toss  their 
heads,  and  show  signs  of  defiance ;  this  is  repeated  sevo< 
nU  times,  each  circle  being  made  smaller,  till  they  ap> 
proach  sufficiently  near  to  make  an  effective  charge.  The 
cows  conceal  their  young  eight  or  ten  davs:  and  when 
one  of  the  herd  is  wounded  or  enfeebled,  the  others  ffore 
it  to  death.  The  breed  is  still  preserved  at  Chillinghom 
Castle,  near  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  Wollaston  in  Notting* 
ham,  Gisbume  in  Craven,  Limchall  in  CheEhirc,  and  at  Chartley  in  Staffordshire. 

The  domestic  Ox  (Bos  Taurus),  considered  by  some  as  a  variety,  and  by  otlicrs  as  a  dis- 
tinct species  from  tlie  last,  is  supposed  by  Hamilton  Smith  to  have  been  first  domesticated 
by  the  Caucasian  nations  of  western  Asia.  It  is  stated  to  have  fourteen  ribs,  whereas  those 
of  the  B.  Urm  are  but  twelve ;  a  distinction  sufficiently  important  to  sanction  tiie  belief  of 
a  specific  difference.  Whether  or  not  this  parent  of  our  domestic  races  ever  existed  in  those 
islands  in  a  state  of  nature,  is  very  doubtful.  The  various  breeds  for  which  Britain  has  long 
been  justly  celebrated  will  be  noticed  under  tho  head  of  domestic  animala 

The  marine  and  cetaceous  mammalia  are  few,  and  are  not  verv  generally  dispersed.  Two 
species  of  seal  have  been  noticed  by  Pennant.  The  Piked  Whales  {Balamoptera  musculua 
and  hoops),  tho  Razor-back  Whale,  and  several  others  of  the  great  northern  cetacea,  wander 
near  tlio  Ilobridos  and  Orkney  islands,  and  occasionally  visit  tho  shores  of  Northumberland 
and  Yorkshire.  The  Porpoise  and  the  Grampus  have  a  wider  range,  and  large  shoals  roam 
unmolested  near  p11  the  coasts. 

Exterminated  native  animals.  In  every  country  the  increase  of  civilization  and  agricul* 
ture  is  marked  by  the  progressive  diminution  and  final  extirpation  of  the  larger  quadrupeds, 
particularly  of  such  as  are  injurious  to  man.  Among  those  which  history  clearly  informs  us 
were  once  living  in  Britain,  tlie  most  remarkable  are  the  Bear,  the  Wolf,  the  Beaver,  and 
tlie  wild  Boor.  To  the  writings  of  Pennant  and  Hamilton  Smith  we  are  indebted  for  the 
following  notes  on  these  lost  inhabitants  of  our  forests. 

It  appears  that  Bears,  in  the  time  of  Plutarch,  were  transported  from  Britam  to  Rome 
where  they  were  mucii  admired.  They  appear  to  have  been  extinct  in  Britain  long  before 
Queen  Elizabeth's  time. 

Wolves.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  vulgar  error  that  the  wolf  was  extirpated  in  Britain 
by  tlie  salutary  edicts  of  King  Edgar,  who  accepted  their  tongues  and  heads  as  tribute,  or  aa 
a  commutation  for  certain  crimes :  for  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  these  animals  had  again 
increased  \  such  a  degree,  that  officers  were  appointed  to  promote  their  destruction,  and 
lands  were  held  by  hunting  and  destroying  them.  Wolves  infested  Ireland  many  centuries 
afler  their  extinction  in  England ;  some  having  been  killed  so  late  as  1710.  In  Scotland, 
the  last  on  record  was  destroyed  in  1680. 

The  Beaver  was  still  an  inhctbitani  of  the  Welsh  rivers  in  1188,  as  is  attested,  according 
to  Pennant,  by  Giraldus  Cambrensis ;  but  even  at  that  remote  period  they  must  have  con- 
siderably dimmished,  as  the  historian  only  mentions  their  being  found  on  the  river  Teivi. 
Local  names  of  other  waters  in  the  principality  attest  their  existence  in  other  places.  Fossil 
remains  of  this  species  are  stated  to  have  been  found  in  beds  of  marl,  under  peat  moss  in 
Berkshire ;  and  similar  bones  have  occurred  in  Perthshire  and  Berwicksliire. 

The  Wild  Boar,  from  which  have  sprung  the  domestic  breeds  of  swine,  must  be  reckoned 
among  indigenous  quadrupeds,  although  now  extinct  in  Britain.  William  tlie  Conqueror 
punished  thg^e  who  killed  the  Wild  Boar,  the  Stag  and  the  Roebuck,  by  the  loss  of  their 
eyes.  Fitz-Stephen  affirms  that  the  vast  forest,  which  in  his  time  stood  on  the  north  side  ctf 
London,  was  the  retreat  of  Stags,  Fallow  Deer,  Wild  Boars  und  Bulls.    At  a  more  recent 

Seriod,  Charles  the  First  turned  out  Wild  Boors  in  the  New  Forest ;  but  they  were  destroyed 
uring  the  civil  wars. 

Fossil  quadrupeds.  The  splendid  discoveries  that  have  resulted  from  the  investigatiom 
of  Buckland,  Mantell,  Conybeare,  and  other  eminent  geologists,  have  opened  a  field  of  re- 
search, which  in  Britain  had  long  been  overlooked  or  neglected.  Without  entering  into  the 
juestion  whether  these  fossil  remains  belong  to  animals  which  did  or  did  not  at  some  period 
inhabit  the  spots  wherein  their  bones  have  been  found,  it  is  sufficient  to  confine  ourselves  to 
simple  facid.  The  remains  of  the  cave  bear  of  Dr.  Buckland  occur  in  several  caverns,  and 
are  sufficient  to  prove  the  living  animal  must  have  equalled  a  horse  in  size.  The  Kirkdale 
and  Plymouth  caves  abound  with  the  bones  of  an  extinct  hyiena,  somewhat  resembling  in 
its  osteology  that  now  existing  in  South  Aftica ;  with  these  have  been  found  the  bones  of  a 
tiger,  which  must  have  been  as  large  as  the  Eiengal  species.    The  tusks,  teeth,  and  other 


.\afi 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  IlL 


The  lonc-bomed  Oi. 


fira({iDent8  of  an  extinct  species  of  elephant,  totally  difl&rent  fiom  those  now  in  existence, 
119  _  have  been  detected  in  marl  clay,  &.c.  joined  with  those  of  twu 
other  gigantic  quadrupeds,  a  rhinoceros  and  hippopotamus;  while 
tiie  jaw  of  a  marsupial  animal,  unknown  among  the  existing 
race  of  beings,  has  been  found  in  the  Stoneefield  slate  quarries 
(Jff.  119.) 
Domestic  qtuidrupeda.  No  nation,  perhaps,  has  been  more 
jiw  of  Hunpial  Animii.  solicitous  to  unprove  their  originally  poor  breeds  of  domesti- 
cated quadrupeds  than  the  British ;  and  hence  their  present  superiority  over  most  of  those 
on  the  Continent.  Under  this  head  we  commence  with  the  ruminating  animals,  as  the  ox, 
the  aheep,  and  the  goat,  so  essential  in  supplying  food  and  clothing  to  man ;  while  the  horse, 
the  ass,  and  the  dog  assist  him  in  his  labour,  or  protect  his  property. 

The  princi^  breeds  of  oxen  more  peculiar  to  Great  Britain  have  been  arranged  by  Major 
Hamilton  Smith  nnder  nine  divisions.   Of  these,  three  belong  to  England,  three  to  Scotland, 
two  to  Wales,  and  one  to  Guernsey. 
The  long-homed  or  Lancaster  breed  iJig.  120.),  as  the  name  implies,  is  remarkable  for 

long  horns;  they  have  firm  thick  hides,  long  close  hair, 
large  hoofs,  and  give  in  proportion  less  milk,  but  more 
cream.  They  are  of  various  colours,  but  are  in  general 
finched,  that  is,  with  a  white  streak  above  the  spine, 
and  a  white  spot  inside  the  houghs.  The  improved 
Leicester  is  a  slight  variety,  originally  bred  near  Co- 
ventry. 

The  short-horned  breed  includes  those  that  are  named 
the  Holdemesa,  Teeswater,  Yorkshire,  Durham,  and 
Northumberland.  This  has  been  the  most  improved, 
producing  usually  twenty-four  quarts  of  milk  per  day. 
and  three  firkins  of  butter  per  season.  Their  colour  varies,  but  is  generally  red  and  white 
mixed ;  called  by  the  graziers  fleeked. 

The  middle-homed  includes  the '  Devon,  Hereford,  and  Sussex  breeds :  they  are  active, 
hardy,  and  much  esteemed  for  draught :  but  although  they  fatten  early,  do  not  milk  so  well 
as  the  last.  The  pure  Devons  are  of  a  high  red  colour,  without  spots,  a  light  dun  ring 
round  the  eye,  fine  in  bone,  clear  neck,  thin  feced,  and  the  tail  set  on  high :  the  north  Devon 
is  most  esteemed  for  eating.  The  Sussex  and  Hereford  are  larger,  the  ox  weighing  from  60 
to  100  stone. 
The  Scottish  breeds  may  be  arranged  under  the  Polled,  the  Highland,  and  the  Fifeshire. 
The  Polled  Galloway  is  the  most  esteemed :  it  is  straight  in  me  back,  the  hair  soft,  the 
colour  black  or  dark  brindled,  and  the  size  not  large.  They  travel  well,  and  reach  the 
London  markets  without  deterioration.  The  Suffolk  Dun  is  a  variety  of  this  race.  The 
Highland  race  includes  several  varieties,  the  most  valuable  ones  being  the  West  Highland, 
Argyle,  or  SI  ye,  and  the  Kyloe  from  the  Hebrides.  The  Norlands  is  another  variety,  with 
coarse  hides,  hng  legs,  and  of  a  narrow  make.  The  Orkney  or  Shetland  are  very  diminu- 
tive :  an  ox  weighing  about  60  lbs.  a  quarter,  and  a  cow  40  lbs.  Their  colours  are  various, 
and  their  shapes  bad ;  but  they  give  an  abundance  of  excellent  milk,  and  fatten  rapidly. 
The  Fifeshire  appears  an  improved  breed  of  the  Highlands,  crossed  with  the  Cambridge- 
shire ;  they  are  black,  spotted  with  gray ;  the  horns  small,  white,  and  very  erect :  a  variety 
occurs  in  Aberdeenshire. 

The  Welsh  have  twu  breeds:  the  first  is  large,  dark  brown,  with  some  white;  the  less 
long  and  slender;  the  horns  white,  and  turned  upwards:  these,  next  to  tiie  Devon,  ore  the 
best  in  yoke,  and  are  a  cross  of  the  long-horned :  the  second  is  lower,  well  formed,  black 
with  little  white,  and  are  good  milkers.  The  Aldemey  or  Guernsey  race  is  proverbially 
small :  thek  colour  is  mostly  yellow  or  light  red ;  marked  with  white  about  the  face  and 
limbs,  and  with  crumpled  horns.  The  true  breed  is  known  by  being  yellow  w.'thin  the  ears, 
and  at  the  root  of  the  tail  and  its  tuft. 

Respecting  draught  Oxen,  we  cannot  refrain  from  here  inserting  an  excellent  and  judi- 
cious remark  of  Pennant.  "  It  is  now,"  observes  this  sensible  writer,  "  generally  allowed, 
that,  in  many  cases,  oxen  are  more  profitable  in  the  draught  than  horses :  uieir  food,  harness, 
and  shoes  being  cheaper ;  and  should  they  be  lamed  or  grow  old,  an  old  working  beast  will 
be  as  good  mea^  and  mtten  as  well,  as  a  young  one."  (Brt7.  Zool.  i.  28.) 

The  Sheep  is  scarcely  inferior  ui  utility  to  the  ox :  and  the  breeds  now  cultivated  in 
Britain,  taking  all  their  qualities  into  consideration,  are  perhaps  the  most  valuable  in  the 
<vorld.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  the  fiuned  Merino  sheep  of  Spam  originated  from  the  Eng- 
lish breed,  sent  to  that  country  by  Edward  IV.  as  a  present  to  King  John  of  Arragon.  (Uak. 
Chron.  p.  206.)  Major  H.  Smith  estimates  the  present  annual  value  of  wool  shorn  in  Eng 
land,  at  five  millions  sterling. 

The  British  sheep,  according  to  Mr.  CuUey,  may  be  arranged  under  fourteen  different 
breeds,  and  some  others  might  also  be  enumerated.    These  may  be  classed  under  two  prin 


Part  IlL 

f  in  existence, 
th  those  of  twu 
potamus;  whilo 
ig  the  existing 
1  slate  quarries 

has  been  more 
ids  of  domesti- 
most  of  those 
nals,  as  the  ox, 
irhile  the  horse, 

mged  by  Major 
ee  to  Scotland, 

remarkable  for 
long  close  hair, 
milk,  but  more 
are  in  general 
ove  the  spine. 
The  improved 
bred  near  Co- 

that  are  named 

Durham,  and 

nost  improved, 

milk  per  day. 

red  and  white 

ley  are  active, 
}t  milk  so  well 
light  dun  ring 
le  north  Devon 
ghing  from  60 

the  Fifeshire. 
s  hair  soflt,  the 
md  reach  the 
is  race.  The 
''est  Highland, 
r  variety,  with 
5  very  diminu- 
rs  are  various, 
atten  rapidly, 
le  Cambridge- 
Bct :  a  variety 

lite ;  the  le?s 
evon,  are  the 
formed,  black 
proverbially 
the  fkce  and 
thin  the  ears, 

lent  and  judi- 
rally  allowed, 
food,  harness, 
ing  beast  will 

cultivated  in 

luablc  in  the 

i"om  the  Eng- 
/ij_i. 

ihorn  in  Eng 

een  diffbrent 
dor  two  prin 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


887 


pipal  divisions ;  those  derived  from  the  ancient  race  being  iUmishcd  with  horns,  while  the 
others  in  general  have  none. 

Of  the  horned  breeds,  the  most  ancient  is  the  black-ikced  (Jig.  121.),  still  met  with  in 
lome  heathy  parts  of  Yorkshire,  and  the  adjacent  northern  counties:  the  wool  is  coarse  and 
shaggy.  The  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  sheep,  also,  have  the  horns  large  and  spiral,  with  die  fiu:o 
black,  but  the  wool  is  short  and  fine :  they  have  a  voracioua  appetite,  and  a  restless  dispo* 
sition.  In  the  Dorset  the  &ce  is  no  longer  black,  but  both  sexes  are  usually  homed.  This 
breed  is  remarkable  for  producing  Iambs  at  almost  every  season,  and  is  therefore  highly  valu« 
able  for  supplying  the  London  markets  with  house  lamb.  The  Wiltshire  is  a  L>uch  lar£[er 
variety,  having  no  wool  on  the  belly.  The  Hertfordshire  is  a  fine  productive  variety,  with 
short  tails.  The  Exmoor  comes  from  Devonshire :  it  is  small,  the  wool  long,  and  tiie  face  and 
legs  white,  fjotland  furnishes  three  breeds  of  homed  sheep;  the  Dun-fiwed,  the  Shetland, 
aiM  the  Hebridean.        , 


Th*  Black-Faced  8h«ep. 


Tho  Harerord  Sbaap. 


The  hornless  race  may  be  divided  into  nine  breeds.  The  Lincoln  has  long  wool  and  a 
white  face :  in  the  Teeswater  the  wool  is  shorter  and  lighter,  and  the  legs  longer.  The 
Di^ey,  or  new  Leicester,  is  distinguished  by  a  clean  head,  and  the  exccUencv  of  its  flesh. 
The  Devonshire  Nets,  like  the  three  preceding,  are  long-wooUed ;  thev  have  white  faces  and 
•.  .'hick  necks,  short  legs,  and  large  bones.  The  short-woolled  hornless  breeds  are  the 
,' '  >  '  flg : — ^The  Hereford  (Jig,  122.)  nave  very  fine  wool,  which  grows  close  to  their  eyes, 
'■  ■■£9  and  &ce  being  white :  the  store  sheop  of  this  country  are  called  CoUings  or  Rylands. 
Tho  South  Down,  prmcipally  cultivated  on  the  chalky  downs  of  Sussex,  have  the  face  and 
legs  gray,  and  are  highly  esteemed  for  the  table.  The  Cheviot  have  the  head  bare  and  clean, 
and  are  sometimes  spotted  with  gray  or  dun ;  the  fleece  is  very  short  and  fine.  The  Hard- 
wicke  is  peculiar  to  the  rocky  districts  of  Cumberland,  and  is  speckled  on  the  fiice  and  legs. 
The  Goat,  which  in  some  parts  of  Italy  supplies  the  only  milk  and  butter  known  to  uie 
inhabitants,  is  of  little  utility  in  a  country  abounding  in  sheep  and  oxen.  But  to  the  Welsh 
mountaineers  it  is  a  valuable  animal :  the  suet  will  make  excellent  candles ;  the  meat  is 
little  inferior  to  venison,  and  those  who  have  habitually  fbasted  upon  mountain  kid,  know 
how  superior  its  flavour  is  to  lamb. 

The  Horses  of  Britain,  improved  as  they  have  been  by  the  most  sedulous  care,  next  to 
the  Arabian,  are  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  British  breeds,  originally  but  ill  adapted  for 
the  saddle,  have  progressively  improved;  and  the  crossing  of  Uie  indigenous  kind  with  those 
of  other  countries  has  produced  four  principal  classes  of  horses, — the  Racer,  the  Hunter,  the 
Roadster,  and  the  Dray  Horse ;  to  these  may  be  added  the  Pone^,  one  of  the  original  breeds. 
The  Ornithology  of  Great  Britain,  after  the  general  observations  already  made  on  that  of 
Europe,  will  be  here  but  briefly  dwelt  upon.  The  native  birds  may  be  arranged  under  three 
natural  divisions: — 1.  the  rapacious;  2.  the  perching;  and  3.  the  walking,  running  and 
swimming  orders. 

The  rapacious  birds,  as  in  all  other  countries,  are  the  smallest  in  number,  but  the  most 
formidable  in  strength.    Among  these  the  Golden  Eagle  {Aquila  chty8a'it08,fig.  123.)  is  the 

largest  known  in  the  British  islands:  this  noble  bird 
weighs  twelve  pounds,  and  is  still  fi>und  among  the 
highest  of  the  Welsh  and  Cumberland  mountains ;  it  is 
said  also  to  breed  in  Orkney.  The  Eme  or  Sea  Eagle 
is  somewhat  smaller,  and  is  principally  confined  to  the 
ma.icime  rocks  of  Wales  and  North  Britain.  The  Fal- 
con tribe  is  more  numerous  in  species ;  but  Uie  destruc* 
tion  to  which  they  are  doomed  by  game  preservers  has 
long  been  diminiwinff  their  numbers :  some  species  are 
almost  extirpated,  and  nearly  all  are  now  become  rare. 
The  Osprey  (Pandion  Haliattu),  or  Fishing  Eagle,  is  now  seldom  met  with.  The  two 
species  of  Henharrie  (Otreiw  cyanewt  and  ctneraacetu)  were  first  discriminated  by  Montagu. 
The  Owls  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Continent,  but  the  great  Snowy  Owl  has  only  of  late 
yeara  been  deiecteu  in  uie  north  of  Scotland  as  a  native  bird.  The  Eagle  or  great  homed 
Owl  is  of  the  same  size ;  the  former  hunting  by  day,  the  latter  by  night.  The  Bam  oi 
White  Owl  is  known  to  every  farmer,  and  appears  to  be  distributed  over  the  whole  habi 
table  globe. 
Vol.  L  W  8  R 


Ooldan  Eacle. 


33d 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  UL 


TKe  tooUied-bill  or  porching[  birds  {Dentiroatret  Sw.)  are  those  fiimishcd  with  a  notch  to 
tlieit  bill,  by  which  tb.tur  tbod  is  held  firm  before  it  is  awallowod.  Some  ore  formed  to  climb, 
others  to  hop  on  the  /loUnd,  and  a  few  catch  their  food  (like  the  swallows)  upon  the  wii? 
They  are  united  to  the  rapa'^ous. order  by  the  shrikes  or  butcher-birds,  so  called  Irom  their 
singular  custom  of  impalL^  >iisects  and  small  birds  upon  the  thorns  round  their  nests.  Three 
species  of  these  birds  are  known  in  Ihritain.  The  mclodv  of  the  Blackbird  and  Song-thrush 
need  not  be  eulogised;  and  during  spring  and  summer  the  woods  and  hedees  are  enlivened 
by  numbers  of  warblers,  or  small  insectivorous  birds,  which  visit  them  }r.  the  oreeding  season : 
amon^  which  tlio  Nightin|^e  is  most  conspicuous.  Large  flocks  of  Finches,  and  similar 
hard  >led  birds,  feai^  in  winter,  upon  the  red  berries  of  the  black  and  white  thorn;  while 
Crov.  ^  Starlings,  and  Fieldfares  devour  prodigious  quantities  of  slugs,  worms,  and  other 
animals  noxious  to  the  fkrmer.  The  Woodpeckers,  Creepers,  and  Titmice  prey  onlv  upon 
tliose  insects  prejudicial  to  trees ;  the  Swallows,  during  summer,  join  with  the  warblers  in 
keeping  within  due  bounds  the  myriads  of  insects,  which  would  otherwise  increase  to  an 
alarming  extent. 

The  entire-billed  birds  (Curtipedea  Sw.)  are  those  which  have  no  notch  at  the  end  of  their 
bill,  and  never  seek  their  food  among  trees :  they  are  united  to  the  former  by  the  Pigeons, 
and  comprise  the  gallinaceous,  wading,  and  swimming  tribes.  Among  the  first  Britain  pos- 
sesses tiie  Partridge,  Grouse,  and  Quail,  f-ut  more  particularly  the  Great  Bustard,  the  largest 
of  the  European  j^linacea:  its  weight  is  about  25  lbs.,  and  its  flesh  excellent.  To  enume- 
rate the  wauing  and  swimming  birds  would  for  exceed  our  li  mits :  they  visit  the  coasts  prin- 
cipally in  winter,  and  depart  in  spring. 
The  exterminated  birds  are  very  few ;  for  aiihough  some,  as  the  Egret  (^g,  124.)  and  the 
^24  Crane,  are  no  longer  conimon  in  Britain,  yet  indiviauals  pxe  some- 

times met  with,  snowing  that  man  and  not  nature  has  scared  them 
firom  their  hereditary  range.  Perhaps  the  only  extirpated  species 
is  the  cock  of  the  wood,  or  capercaillie  grouse  (  Tctrao  vrogallut  L), 
a  noble  bird  of  game,  weighing  near  thirteen  pounds;  once  com- 
mon in  the  fir  forests  of  Scotland,  but  which  has  not  been  seen,  it 
is  said,  sinf:e  1760. 

Of  domesticated  birdn  tlie  Pheasant  originally  came  from  Asia 
Minor;  tlte  Guinec,  Hen  from  Afirica;  the  Peacock  and  Fowl  from 
India;  and  the  Turkey  from  America. 

The  fishes,  both  marine  and  fireshwatcr,  are  numerous:  most  are 
edible,  and  many  higiily  esteemed.  Whale,  and  other  cetacca,  are 
mostly  confined  to  Uie  northern  shores:  but  those  of  the  west  are 
fanious  for  the  herring  and  pilchard  fisheries.  The  John  Doree  is 
as  remarkable  for  its  grotesque  form  as  for  its  exquisite  flavour. 
The  Turbot,  Cod,  Sole,  &c.  are  well  known.  The  chief  river  fish 
are  the  Salmon,  Trout,  and  Char;  and  tliese  are  principally  fiir- 
nished  by  tlie  northern  counties.  The  salmon  fisheries  ore  highly  important,  and  have  long 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  legislature:  the  eggs  of  one  fish  will  often  exceed  15,000. 
The  Char  is  confined  to  the  lakes  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland ;  those  of  Windermere 
are  the  best,  and  ^\^cn  potted  become  a  ^eat  delicacy.  The  Herring  and  Sprat  supply  the 
poor,  during  winter,  with  a  wholesome  dish ;  while  the  citizens  of  London  consider  another 
species,  called  the  White  Bait,  as  possessing  a  peculiarly  fine  flavour.  The  Anchovy  is  not 
unknown  in  some  of  our  estuaries ;  and  even  the  Flyiiig-fibh  has  occasionally  wandered  to 
the  Welsh  coast. 

The  reptiles  of  Britam,  known  in  a  living  state,  are  very  few.    Besides  the  Warty  Eft 
(Lacerta  palustris  Ija.,jig.  12f<.)  there  are  two  other  water  lizards,  and  probp.bly  as  many 
125  126 


Ecrat. 


Warty  Eft.  Comnoa  Vlp«r. 

species  inhabiting  the  land.  Of  the  Frog  and  Toad  two  sorts  of  each  occur.  The  snakes 
and  the  blind-worm  are  harmless;  the  Common  Viper  (Jg.  126.)  being  the  only  venomous 
reptile :  yet  this  species  varies  so  much  in  its  colours,  that  naturalists  have  described  it  under 
several  namet.  The  Great  or  Gigantic  Frog  of  Pennant  is  only  a  variety  of  the  commwi 
toad. 

Extinct  reptUei.  The  researches  of  geologists  have  brought  to  light  the  remains  of  such 
gigantic  and  extraordinary  reptiles,  that,  but  for  such  indubitable  proofs,  their  existence 
might  be  thought  fiibulous.  At  the  head  of  these  we  may  place  the  Megalosaunu,  resem 
bling  both  a  lizturd  and  a  crocodile,  whose  probable  length  was  near  40  feet !    The  Ichthyo 


Paiit  hi. 

with  a  notch  to 
brmcd  to  climbs 
upon  the  wir  j- 
illod  trom  their 
ir  nests.  Three 
nd  Songf-thrush 
9  are  enlivened 
eedinff  season : 
98,  and  similar 
:e  thorn;  while 
rms,  and  other 

Eroy  only  upon 
0  warblers  in 
increase  to  an 

Lho  end  of  their 
)y  the  Pigeons, 
rst  Britain  pos- 
ird,  the  largest 
It.  To  enume- 
the  coasts  prin- 

r.  124.)  and  the 
iials  pxe  some- 
as  scared  them 
irpatcd  species 
iUrogallusL.), 
ids;  once  com- 
t  been  seen,  it 

une  from  Asia 
and  Fowl  from 

rous:  most  are 

er  cetacea,  are 

)f  the  west  are 

John  Doree  is 

luisite  flavour. 

hief  river  fish 

)rincipally  flir- 

and  have  long 

xceed  15,000. 

Windermere 
•rat  supply  the 
nsider  another 
\nchovy  is  not 

wandered  to 

Jie  Warty  Eft 
>(>.bly  as  many 


The  snakes 
nly  venomous 
iribed  it  under 

the  comm(H) 

mains  of  such 
leir  existence 
lunu,  resem 
The  Ichthyo 


Book  I. 


f 


■tni 


ENGLAND. 


■^l/f'^K'rt 


830 


tu,.i  ^'.  unitinff  the  characters  of  a  lizard  with  the  snout  of  a  dolphin,  tlie  teeth  of  a  croco- 
liic,  the  ttniJ  of  a  turtle,  and  the  vertebrm  of  a  fish,  is  scarcely  less  wonderful.  The  Pleiio- 
gaurus  is  still  more  extraordinary ;  for  with  the  fins  of  a  turtle,  it  had  the  head  of  a  lizard,  and 
a  long  neck,  formed  like  the  body  of  a  serpent  Tjurtly,  the  remains  of  several  distinct 
species  of  crocodiles  have  been  discovered  in  similar  strata.  All  these  attest  the  existence, 
at  some  unknown  period,  of  a  stupendous  race  of  aquatic  monsters,  which  have  long  been 
swept  away  fircHn  the  existing  animal  creation. 

^ong  the  radiated  animals,  vast  shoals  of  transparent  Medusa  wander  about  the  coast 
during  summer,  and  are  fVequently  by  a  sudden  change  of  wind  cast  up  on  the  beach  in 
great  numbers.  But  the  deep  recesses  of  the  ocean  frequently  give  to  the  nets  of  the 
fisherman  animals  still  more  singular.  The  Black  Line  Worm,  or  9ea  Long  Worm  (Ltn- 
naus  longissimus  Sow.,  Jig.  127.),  whose  mouth  is  hardljr  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  is  said, 
by  the  fishermen,  to  measure  twelve  fathoms  in  length .  it  is  soft,  and  so  fragile,  that  tiie 
entire  animal  seems  not  yet  to  have  been  procured. 

--'■■-'■^i  .--ii^,,.,^       128 

127 


,» '., 


Blaek  line  Worm. 


Mar-blonom  Coral. 


Ellis  was  the  first  to  make  known  the  true  nature  of  those  plant-like  productions  generally 
termed  corallines.  Of  Corals,  the  British  seas  afiTord  few  native  species;  the  largest  and 
most  elegant  is  the  May-blossom  coral  {Caryophyllia  ramea),  i^g.  128.),  common  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  occasionally  found  upon  the  Cornish  coast :  it  is  cinnamon-coloured ;  and 
retains,  for  many  years,  a  slight  scent,  like  that  of  hawthorn. 

The  Conchology  of  Britain,  in  the  number  and  interest  of  its  species,  compensates  for  its 
deficiency  in  large  or  richly  coloured  object?.  The  beautifiil  varietiee  of  Pecten  opercu- 
fart's  are,  nevertheless,  fi-equently  variegated  with  *he  most  lovely  tints  of  yellow,  orange, 
pink,  and  deep  red ;  they  also  afiord  a  nutritious  food  to  the  lower  classes.  The  most  cele- 
brated edible  shell-fish  is  tlie  oyster,  well  known  and  highly  prized  by  tJie  luxurious  Romans ; 
and  every  one  is  acquamted  with  the  superior  excellency  of  those  from  Colchester  and 
Milton.  Fluviatile  shells,  in  a  country  so  humid  and  watered  as  Britain,  are  more  abundant 
than  towards  the  south  of  Europe.  Most  of  the  rivers  produce  Unio  pictorum  (Jig.  129.  <i), 
and  Unio  ovatus  (fii) :  Cyclas  cornea  (d)  is  generally  found  in  tiie  some  situations.  The  ponds 
and  stagnant  waters  are  ictequently  covered  with  Lymneus  palustris  (e),  ovatus  (g),  and 
Plonorbis  comeus  (I) ;  while  the  large  Duck-mussel  (Anocfon  anatinvi)  (c)  burrows  in  the 
a       129  J 

"""    ■  ■-'■■        "  f  •■-■■''<.■>      ','■ 


Unio  Mirtaritilbn. 


FtuTiaUIe  Bhellf. 


muddy  bottom,  A  little  fragile  shell,  Succinea  amphibia  (/),  crawls  upon  rushes  and  aquatic 
plants;  and  Physa  fontinalis  (h),  Ancylus  lacustns  (0,  and  Planorbis  vortex  (k)  prefer  clear 
ohody  streams  and  ditches  overhung  with  wood. 

Native  pearls  were  reckoned  by  the  Romans  among  the  prodnutions  of  Britain.  They 
are  the  produce  of  a  fluviatile  bivalve  shell,  the  Unio  margaritifera,  (Jig.  130.),  still  com- 
mon in  manv  of  the  northern  counties ;  but  it  was  on  the  buika  of  the  Welsh  rivetB  that  thn 
British  pearl  Qshery  was  chiefly  carried  on. 


A 


340 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paet  UL 


iA^!!f?V  CoiMidermg  toe  nature  of  the  climate,  it  may  exdUi  aurpriw,  that  more  than 
10,000  difl^rent  apooiet  have  actual!  en  found  to  inhabit  Britain.  Yet  the  bee  may  bo 
reckoned  the  only  inaeot  whose  aorvicua  are  immediately  and  obviously  beneficial  to  man 
Among  the  butterflies,  are  many  of  gtwt  beauty ;  while  Eurymus  Europome,  or  the  Clouded 
Sulphur  (/f  .  ISi.),  ia  considered  one  of  the  rarest  British  insects. 

183  ■  "*■"■■'■■' 


Ooodad  Bulphui 

Scotland.  The  toology  of  Scotland  exhibits  many  arctic  anunals  as  common  inhabitants, 
which  are  only  known  as  raro  visitants  to  the  western  shores  of  England;  in  other  respocta, 
it  does  not  materially  diflbr  fh>m  that  of  South  Britain.  The  northern  islands  give  shelter 
to  innumerable  wild  fowl,  and  to  many  peculiar  land  birds,  as  the  Ptarmigan  andthe  Golden 
Eagle.  The  great  honied  or  Eagle  Owl,  is  found  to  breed  in  Orkney.  The  Hiffhlands  are 
famous  for  an  abundance  of  Grouse,  the  red  species  (Lagopus  acotictu,  Jig.  1S2.)  being  the 
only  bird  peculiar  to  Great  Britain. 

The  domestic  animals  are  of  a  small  size ;  in  otlier  respects,  they  are  highly  valuable. 
The  polled  or  hornless  cattle,  with  the  Highland  and  the  Fifeshire,  have  already  been  noticed. 
The  iyloe  breed  are  so  named,  because  m  their  progress  to  the  south  from  the  Hebrides, 
they  cross  the  kyloes  or  ferries  in  the  main  land  and  Western  Islands.  {Ham.  Smith.) 
The  same  writer  considen  that  the  sheep  of  this  kingdom  spring  from  three  principal  breeds : 
the  first  is  ffenerally  named  dui«&ced  sheep;  they  are  a  small,  homed  race,  said  to  have 
been  originuly  impwted  fhom  Denmark  or  Norway,  and  are  still  found,  with  sliffht  varia- 
tions, in  the  North  of  Scotland  and  the  isles.  In  Kincardineshire,  this  breed  is  known  by 
its  yellow  fkce  and  legs,  and  by  the  dishevelled  texture  of  its  fieece,  which  is  in  part  coarse, 
and  in  part  remarkably  fine  wool ;  its  flesh  also  is  delicate  and  laigh\y  flavoured.  The  Shet- 
land  broed  cany  a  very  fine  weed,  in  three  difierent  successions  yearly,  two  of  which  resem- 
ble long  hair  more  Uion  wool,  and  are  called  Fore  and  Scudda.  The  wool  is  of  various 
colours.  The  Helnidian  sheep  ia  the  smallest  anunal  of  its  kind ;  its  horns  are  usually  short 
and  straight,  the  &ce  and  len  white,  the  tail  very  short,  and  the  wool  of  different  colours. 

The  Highland  Ponies  and  Shetland  Ponies  (Jig.  183.),  notwithstuiding  their  diminutive 
size,  are  greatly  esteemed  for  their  activity  and  /strength. 

183  134 


Hichlud  PoDr. 


SoottUi  Qmrhonnd. 


Among  the  numerous  breeds  of  dogs,  there  appear  to  be  three  more  particularly  1 
Scotland :  Uie  true  Shepherd's  Dog,  or  Colly,  is  still  preserved,  unmixed,  in  man 


found  in 
niany  of  the 
sheep  districts :  the  Shetland  Hound,  approaches  in  character  to  the  Greeidand  Dog ;  while 
the  Scottish  Greyhound  (Jig.  134.),  common  in  the  Highlands,  is  possessed  of  great  sagacity, 
strength,  and  swiftness. 

The  Zoology  of  Ireland  has  been  much  neglected ;  nor  are  we  prepared  to  show  what 
peculiarities  belong  to  its  natural  history.  The  Irish  Wolf  Dog,  called  also  th<.  Irish  Grey- 
hound, has  generally  been  thought  peculiar  to  this  island ;  but  others  consider  it  the  same 
breed  as  the  French  mfttin  (Canis  laniariua  L)  It  is  a  noble  animal,  standing  near  four 
feet  in  height,  and  seems  to  have  been  mainly  instrumental  in  clearing  the  country  of  the 
numerous  wolves  which  once  over-ran  it  The  cattle  and  sheep  are  inferior  to  those  of 
Britain.  Yet  Imland  exports  vast  quantities  of  salted  pFovisioiiB,  besides  the  supplies  tiir- 
nidied  to  the  navy  and  wipping  interests.  The  remains  of  the  Fossil  Elk  (jUg.  185.)  are  of 
firequent  occurrence  in  beds  of  shell  marl,  beneath  peat.  Its  antlers  measure  from  the 
utreme  tip  of  each,  no  less  than  ten  feet  ten  inches,  and  ftora  the  tip  of  the  right  horn  to 


Pa«t  lit 

>«  Uiat  more  than 

the  be«  may  bo 

enefloial  to  man. 

e,  or  tho  Clouded 


Hook  I. 


ENGLAND. 


341 


non  inhabitants, 
t  other  respects, 
ads  ffive  Bhcltcr 
andthe  Golden 
B  Hiffhlanda  are 
182.)  being  the 

lighly  valuable, 
ly  been  noticed. 
I  the  Hebrides, 
{Ham.  Smith.) 
rincipal  breeds : 
oe,  aaid  to  have 
th  sliffht  varia- 
d  is  known  by 
a  in  part  coarse, 
ed.  TheShet- 
>f  which  resem* 
)1  is  of  various 
re  usually  short 
fierent  colours, 
leir  dimmuUve 


ilarly  ibund  in 
1  many  of  the 
id  Dog;  while 
[reat  sagacity, 

to  show  what 
I'.  Irish  Grey- 
'  It  the  same 
ing  near  four 
ountry  of  the 
t  to  those  of 
Buppiies  ftar- 
.186.)  an  of 
lire  fhnn  the 
>ight  horn  to 


itf  root,  five  feet  two  inches.  Remains  of  the  same  animal  have  been  also  found  in  England, 
and  a  very  oerftot  specimen  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  The  Irish  shores  flimish  the  couchologist 
with  several  native  shells,  seldom  seen  on  the  British  coasts,  particularly  the  Isocaidi*  cor, 
yr  Heart  Cockle  (Jg-  IM-X 

185 


i:(Vr 


,    (V;./    ,.  ■„.!,r-„;  foiiUElk.  „   ^„   .., 

BMitCookU. 

Sect.  IIL — Hiatorical  Oeography. 

Britain  was  originally  peopled  from  Gaul,  by  inhabitants  of  tho  Celtic  race.  For  a  long 
time  it  appears  to  have  been  noticed  only  as  a  country  supplying^  tin ;  a  rare  and  useful  metal, 
not  then  found  in  any  oUior  part  of  Europe,  or  in  Western  Asia.  To  obtain  this  valuable 
mineral,  the  coasts  of  Britain  were  at  an  early  period  sought  by  the  ships  of  various  mer* 
cantile  states,  espociallv  the  Carthaginians ;  and  the  tin  of  Taruiish,  mentioned  by  Ezekiel, 
was  doubtless  brought  from  the  mines  of  Cornwall. 

Britain  was  invaded  by  tlie  Romans,  about  fifty-five  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Of 
the  thirty  tribes  of  barbarians  among  whom  the  country  was  then  divided,  the  most  consid- 
erable were  the  Belgfe  .'a  tlie  west,  the  Brigantes  in  the  north,  the  Silures  in  South  Wales, 
the  Iceni  in  Norfolk  and  SuHblk,  and  the  Cantii,  who  occupied  Keut  and  part  of  Middlesex. 
The  latter  had  made  some  progress  in  agriculture  and  the  arts  of  civilized  life ;  but  the 
other  inhabitants  derived  their  subsistence  firom  flocks  and  herds,  clothed  themselves  in  skins, 
and  painted  their  bodies.  The  precarious  auLlority  of  the  chiefii  derived  support  fivm  the 
influence  exercised  by  tho  Druids,  in  one  of  the  most  terrible  forms  of  superstition  that  ever 
enslaved  the  human  mind.  Besides  the  ordinary  implements  of  war,  they  had  armed  chariots, 
whicli  they  managed  with  surprising  dexterity ;  and  they  were  united  m  a  species  of  politi- 
cal confederacy,  of  which  Cassivelaunus  was  the  head.  They  could  not,  however  prevent 
the  landing  of  Julius  Ctesar,  but  that  conqueror  was  prevented  by  more  urgent  aflkirs  fl-om 
prosecuting  an  enterprise  of  which  the  difliculties  were  not  likely  to  be  compensated  by  its 
fflory.  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  the  hardihood  of  Caractacus,  and  the  heroic  desperation  of 
Boadicea,  failed  of  exciting  an  effectual  rcsiBtancc  to  the  disciplined  legions  of  Rome,  whose 
victorious  progress  was  continued  during  the  reign  of  Nero.  In  that  of  Domitian,  the  Ro- 
man dorainion  was  extended  by  the  wisdom  and  valour  of  Agricok,  who  defeated  the  Cale- 
donians under  Galgacus,  at  the  foot  of  the  Grampians ;  and  the  only  part  of  the  island  which 
remained  unsubdued  was  the  region  which  lies  north  of  tiiat  natural  rampart 

The  Britons  now  subjected  to  the  Roman  empire  were  compelled  to  cultivate  the  habits 
and  arts  of  peace :  but  when  that  empire,  weakened,  distracted,  and  verging  to  its  decline, 
was  compelled  to  withdraw  its  protection  from  its  distant  provirces,  the  Scots  and  Picts, 
emerging  from  their  mountain  fastnesses,  then  broke  in,  and  committed  dreadful  devastations 
among  their  unwarlike  neighbours.  The  Romans  had  recourse  to  the  expedient  of  frontier 
walls;  first,  one  between  mo  Forth  and  Clyde,  called  the  Wall  of  Antonine,  and  afterwards 
a  similar  rampart  between  the  Tyne  and  ^Iway,  called  tho  Wall  of  Severus.  About  the 
middle  of  the  fiflh  century,  the  Roman  forces  were  finally  withdrawn,  and  the  Britons 
were  left  to  depend  entirely  on  their  own  resources. 

The  Saxons  were  callou  in  as  allies,  about  forty  years  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman 
government  These  hardy  alvonturers,  originating  firom  the  north  of  Germany,  and  occi'py- 
mg  the  line  of  coast  firom  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  to  .Jutland,  had  long  inrestcd  by  tl.'eir 
piracies  the  neighbouring  parts  of  Britain  and  Gaul.  They  eagerly  accepted  an  invitation 
to  a  country  so  superior  to  their  own.  In  the  year  450, 1600  men  under  Hengist  and  Horsa, 
arrived  in  Britain,  and  obtained  an  easy  victorv  over  the  Scots  and  Picts.  The  success  of 
the  two  brothers  attracted  numerous  baJnds  of  their  countrymen;  and  in  the  course  of  a  cen 
tury,  colonies  arrived  from  the  mouths  of  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  and  the  Rhine,  chiefly 
composed  of  three  valiant  tribes,  the  Jvtes,  the  Old  Saxons,  and  the  Angles.  From  allies. 
they  lecame  formidable  enemies  to  the  Britons ;  whom,  after  a  long  and  sanguinary  struggle 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  they  compelled  to  retire  into  Wales  and  Cornwall. 

Thus  was  established  the  Heptarchy,  or  Seven  Saxon  Kinffdoras  in  Britain :  viz.  1.  Kent; 

2.  Sussex,  including  Surrey ;  3.  EastEnglas,  including  Norfolk,  Sufiblk,  the  Isle  of  Ely,  and 

Cambridgeshire;  4.  Wess^x,  including  all  the  southern  counties  from  Berkshire  to  Cornwall ; 

5.  Northumberland,  including  all  the  northern  counties  of  England,  and  the  southern  coun- 

ins  of  Scotland  to  the  Frith  of  Forth ;  6.  Essex,  including  E^bx,  Middlesex,  and  part  of 

29* 


M2 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paet  III. 


I 


I 


9*       i 


Hertfordshire;  7.  Mercryo,  or  Mercio,  the  largest  division,  including  the  midland  districtd 
of  England  to  the  confines  of  Wales. 

About  the  year  800  Uiese  small  states  >vero  united  into  one  kingdom,  under  the  name  of 
England,  by  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex.  The  Anglo-Saxon  dynasty  derived  i^  chief  lustre 
trom  Alft-ed,  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  monarchs  that  have  appeared  in  any  age  or 
country.  He  delivered  his  country  fh>m  the  thraldom  of  the  Danes ;  but  v\  the  coume  of 
tlio  ensuinff  century,  however,  they  regained  the  ascendency ;  and  in  1017,  Canute,  king 
of  Denmark  and  Norway,  added  England  to  his  dominions.  It  was  held  successively  by  hu 
sons,  Harold  and  Hardicanute;  but  on  the  death  of  the  latter,  it  was  restored  to  the  ^axon 
dynasty,  and  Edward  the  Ccmfessor  ascended  the  throne. 

The  craquost  bv  William  of  Normandy,  in  1066,  overthrew  ibr  a  time  the  liberties  of  the 
people  of  iinglana.  Claiming  the  crown  bv  virtue  of  ft  pretended  grant  flrom  Edward  tho 
Confessor,  and  acquiring  it  by  victory  over  Harold  II.,  himself  an  usurper,  to  tho  prejudice 
of  Edgar  Atheling,  Uie  rightnil  heir,  he  maintained  by  tyranny  a  dominion  gained  by  fraud 
and  violence.  One  of  die  consequences  of  the  acquisition  of  the  English  crown  by  William 
was  to  convey  to  the  kings  his  successors  certain  clauns  on  the  French  territory,  which  led 
to  long,  expensive,  and  sanguinary  wars. 

Henry  the  Second,  sumamed  Plantagenet,  son  of  GeofiVy  of  Anjou,  who  married  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  L,  in  the  right  of  his  father,  was  master  of  Anjou  and  Touraine;  in  that 
cf  his  mother,  of  Normandy  and  Maine;  in  tliat  of  his  wife,  of  Guienne,  Poitou,  Saintonge, 
Auvergno,  Perigord,  Angoumois,  and  ii'i  Limousin.  To  these  states  he  afterwards  annexed 
tliat  of  Bretagne.  The  possession  of  provinces  composing  above  one-third  of  the  French 
monarchy,  and  superior  in  opulence  to  the  rest  of  tho  territory,  rendered  this  vassal  more 
powerful  than  his  liege  lord,  and  contributed  to  provoke  that  rivalry  which  for  ages  existed 
between  England  and  France.  Henry  tho  Second  acquired  the  sovereignty  of  Ireland ; 
Edward  the  First  annexed  Wales  to  his  dominions,  and  for  a  time  subjugated  Scotland. 
The  contending  claims  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  for  the  crown  of  England,  utlet 
a  civil  war  of  nearly  sixj^  years,  were  adjusted  by  the  marriage  of  Henry  the  Seventh  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  lldward  the  Fourth.  Among  the  memorable  events  that  occurred 
under  the  Plantagenets,  may  be  noticed  the  signature  of  Magna  Charta,  extorted  bv  the 
barons  from  King  Jolm ;  tlie  rise  of  the  House  ofCommons  in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Third ; 
and  tlie  refbrmation  of  the  church,  commenced  by  John  WicklifTe,  in  1369. 

The  rei^  of  Heniy  the  Seventh  was  signalized  by  the  overthrow  of  the  feudal  sway,  and 
by  tlie  introduction  of  the  modern  system  of  polity.  The  emancipation  of  the  kingdom  from 
papal  dommion  was  effected  by  his  successor.  In  tho  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  most  strenuous 
exertions  were  made  to  strengthen  tlie  maritime  power  of  England,  and  extend  her  com- 
mercial intercourse.  The  result  of  these  measures  was  to  raise  the  nation  to  a  very  pros- 
perous and  flourishing  condition,  and  to  overturn  the  lawless  domination  of  the  nobles, 
substituting  for  it,  however,  an  authority  almost  absolute  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign. 

The  union  of  tho  two  crowns  on  the  accession  of  James  the  Sixth  of  Scotland  to  the  throne 
of  England,  terminated  those  animosities  which  had  proved  alike  injurious  to  both  countries. 
The  despotic  conduct  of  Charles  the  First  led  to  a  struggle  in  which  he  lost  both  his  crown 
and  his  life.  In  the  interregnum  which  ensued  under  the  Commonwealth,  the  vigilant, 
energetic,  end  decisive  policy  of  Oliver  Cromwell  exercised  a  commanding  influence  over 
every  cabmet  in  Europe.  Charles  the  Second  suffered  England  to  lose  the  ascendency 
syhicu  she  had  attained,  and  the  in&tuatcd  conduct  of  James  the  Second  led  to  the  revolu- 
tion of  1688,  from  which  epoch  to  the  present  time,  the  industry,  commerce,  and  wealth  of 
Great  Britain,  rapidly  rose  to  a  height  unparalleled  in  any  other  nation,  ancient  or  modem ; 
but  her  political  power  sustained  various  fluctuations.  She  acquired  in  the  Eost  and  in  the 
West  two  empires,  each  for  more  extensive  than  her  own  territory.  That  in  the  East  she 
retains  and  is  continually  extending ;  that  in  the  West,  having  become  independent,  is  hei 
rival  in  commerce,  and  manifests  a  disposition  to  dispute,  at  no  distant  period,  her  maritime 
supremacy.  Among  the  memorable  transactions  and  events  of  this  period  may  be  ranked 
the  union  with  Scouand  in  1707 ;  that  with  Ireland  in  1801 ;  the  Scottish  rebellions  in  1715 
and  1745 ;  the  Irish  rebellion  in  1798 ;  and  a  series  of  wars  with  France,  occurring  at 
intervals  rarely  exceeding  eight  or  ten  years.  The  contests  arising  fVom  the  French 
revolution  were  distinguished  by  tlie  most  brilliant  naval  achievements,  and  afterwards  by 
successes  which  raised  the  military  glory  of  England  to  a  level  with  her  maritime  renown, 
rendering  her  influence  paramount  among  the  states  of  Europe. 

'•"  '    ;.-..\    .;?      Skot.  rV. — Political  Geography.         -    •         w-,  ,  .  .  ^>.»... 

The  constitution  of  Great  Britain  centres  in  the  laws  by  which  the  country  is  governed, 
and  in  the  union  of  povi^^i..  by  which  the  laws  are  made  and  the  government  is  admmistered. 
The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  Parliament,  consisting  of  the  Kino,  an  hereditary 
sovereign ;  the  Lords,  an  hereditary  aristocracy ;  and  the  Hcuss  cr  CcsRicss,  Cunsiatrng  of 
rnenibefs  chosen  by  the  people  from  among  themselves,  and  therefore  said  to  represent  tna 
ccinmons  of  the  realm.    The  executive  power  is  entrusted  to  the  king. 


Book  I.  /.vj       ENGLAND.  348 

Of  the  three  estates  of  the  realm  thus  composinjf  the  legislature,  the  King  la  the  highest : 
he  ii  the  head  or  chief  of  the  parliament:  ana  except  in  extreme  cases,  a  parliament  cannot 
be  held  unless  convoked  by  him,  nor  can  it  except  by  him  be  dissolved  or  prorogued.  Hii 
Uient  is  requisite  to  give  the  force  of  law  to  any  measure  proposed  bv  either  of  the  two 
houses,  and  agreed  upon  by  tliem.  Propositions  of  laws,  or  bills  as  they  are  technically 
called,  may  be  brought  forward  in  either  house ;  all  money  bills  must  take  their  origin  in  the 
House  of  Commons ;  but  only  in  one  instance  con  the  king  initiate  an  act  of  parliament,  and 
that  is,  an  act  of  grace,  for  the  pardon  of  persons  after  a  rebellion,  or  for  the  release  of  insol* 
vent  debtors. 

The  King  is  not  supposed  to  hold  his  throne  by  divine  right,  or  in  virtue  of  any  indefea- 
sible hereditary  claim.  The  nation,  by  its  supremo  council,  has  dictated  certain  rules  of 
exclusion  with  regard  to  the  succeBsion,  cf  wliich  the  most  important  is,  that  the  siwcreign 
shall  maintain  tlic  Protesiont  icfbrmcd  religion,  and,  cither  at  his  coronation  or  on  the  first 
day  of  the  first  parliament,  shall  repeat  and  subscribe  the  declaration  against  popery.  On 
the  death  or  demise  of  tho  king,  his  heir  becomes  instantly  invested  with  the  kingly  office 
and  regal  power. 

By  a  constitutional  fiction  accordant  with  the  feudal  policy,  all  lands  ore  held  mediately  or 
immedlotely  from  tho  crown.  Thus  tho  king  is  entitled  to  all  lands  left  by  the  subsiding  of 
the  sea ;  and  estates  may  revert  to  liim  by  cschcxt,  from  the  commission  of  ciime  by  their 
posscssorB.  He  is  sovereign  in  ull  seas  and  grent  rivers ;  he  alone  has  a  prerogative  to  erect 
beacons  and  lighthouses;  he  is  entitled  to  allroyal  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  and  is  entrusted 
with  the  coinage.  All  persons  born  in  his  dominions  arc  his  subjects,  and  owe  to  him  an 
allegiance  which  they  can  neither  renounce  nor  transfer  to  any  foreign  prince.  He  is  su- 
preme head  of  the  church  within  his  dominions ;  and  as  patron  paramount  of  all  tho  benefices 
in  England,  ho  has  a  right  to  present  to  all  dignities  and  benefices  of  the  advowson  of  arch- 
bishoprics and  bishoprics  during  the  vacancy  of  their  respective  sees.  He  is  the  fountain  of 
justice,  and  has  an  undoubted  prerogative  in  creating  officers  of  state,  ministers,  judges,  and 
other  functionaries.  To  him,  as  j.  urejis  patriee,  belongs  the  care  of  all  who  are  unable  to 
take  care  of  themselves ;  he  has  an  original  right  to  superintend  the  disposal  of  charities ; 
and  in  all  such  cases  the  application  is  to  the  Court  of  Chancery.  Ho  has,  in  certain  cases, 
the  high  prerogative  of  pardoning,  and  likewise  that  of  issuing  special  proclamations  for  tlie 
prevention  of  offences.  The  power  of  making  war  or  peace  is  lodged  singly  in  the  king.  He 
IS  held  to  be  incapable  of  doing  wrong ,  and  if  an  unlawful  act  be  done,  the  minister  instru- 
mental in  that  act  is  alone  obnoxious  to  punishment  By  virtue  of  his  prerogative  the  king 
may  make  grants  and  letters  patent,  conferring  various  rights  and  privileges.  Lastly,  the 
king  cannot  be  attainted,  and  is  never  a  minor;  though  when  tlu;  crown  has  devolved  to  a 
very  young  heir,  it  hos  been  thouglit  prudent  to  appoint  a  regent,  or  council  of  regency. 
The  same  expedient  has  been  adopted  when,  by  reason  of  grievous  illness,  the  exercise  of 
the  royal  functions  has  been  interrupted. 

All  supplies  granted  by  parliament  ore  given  to  the  king ;  but  of  these  the  largest  pro- 
portion belongs  to  the  public  or  its  creditors ;  that  which  pertains  to  the  king  in  his  distmct 
capacity,  called  the  Civil  lAst,  is  the  provision  for  the  support  of  the  honour  and  dignity  of 
the  crown.  On  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  William  IV„  the  civil  list  was  entirely 
new-modelled,  being  limited  to  the  personal  expenses  of  the  sovereign,  and  the  maintenance 
of  his  state ;  while  the  branches  of  administration  hitherto  defrayed  out  of  it  were  charged 
upon  the  Consolidated  Fund.    The  sum  of  510,000?.  was  granted,  under  the  following 

IlG&jQS  * 

I»rivy  purse.  King's, £60,000 

Queen's, 50,000 

Maintenance  of  royal  establishment, - 171,000 

Salaries  in  tiie  departments  of  Chamberlain,  Steward,  Master  of  the  horse, 

home  secret  service,  &c. 154,000 

'   Pensions, 75,000 

vt.    :.«;■,  £510,000 

Thus  the  royal  prerogative  ia  counterbalanced  hy  the  control  which  the  representatives 
3f  the  people  in  parliament  exercise  over  the  public  purse.  The  king  has  the  prerogative 
of  commanding  arniies  and  equipping  fleets ;  but  without  tlie  concurrence  of  his  parliament 
he  cannot  maintain  them.  He  can  confer  appointments  to  offices;  but  without  his  parlia- 
meni  he  cannot  pay  the  salaries.  He  can  declare  war ;  but  without  the  aid  of  parliament 
he  cannot  carry  it  en.  He  has  the  exclusive  right  of  assembling  parliaments;  but  by  law 
he  m  ist  assemble  a  parliament  ever)r  three  years.  Though  head  of  the  church,  ho  cannot 
alter  the  established  religion,  or  call  individuals  to  account  for  their  reli^fious  opinions.  He 
cannot  create  any  new  office  inconsistent  with  the  constitution  or  prejudicial  to  the  subjec. 
He  has  the  privilege  of  coining  money ;  but  he  cannot  alter  the  standard.  He  has  the  power 
of  pardoning  offenders;  but  he  cannot  exempt  them  from  making  compensation  to  the  injured 
Darties.    Even  with  the  military  power  he  is  not  absolute,  since  it  is  declared  in  the  Bill  of 


1144 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  III. 


lUghto  thkt  a  itandinff  armv  without  the  conient  of  parliament  ic  illegal.  The  kingr  himnlf 
cannot  be  arraiffnod ;  but  it  any  abuio  of  power  bo  committed,  thoM  who  were  either  tho 
odviaera  or  tho  Initrumontu  of  the  meaiure  mav  be  impeached  and  tried  befbre  the  Houm  of 
Linda;  in  which  caae  it  its  of  no  avail  to  plead  the  kinff'a  command,  or  to  produce  hia  pardon. 
A  diiaolution  of  parliament  does  not  abato  an  impeachment,  neither  can  the  royal  authority 
interpoM  to  stay  or  auapend  ita  courae.  Other  restraint!  on  the  oreroffative  exist  in  the 
uncontrolled  flreodom  or  speech  in  parliament,  secured  by  the  Bill  or  Rights,  and  in  the  im* 
portant  provisions  by  which,  during  the  reign  of  George  IIL,  the  independence  of  tho  judges 
was  established. 

The  House  of  Lords  is  composed  of  the  lords  spiritual  and  temporal  of  England ;  sixteen 
temporal  poors  of  Scotland ;  one  arclibishop,  tlireo  bishops,  and  twenty-eight  temporal  peers 
dt  Ireland.  The  roll  of  tho  lords  spiritual  and  temporal  forming  the  House  of  Peers,  In  the 
sesaion  of  1838,  exhibits  426  lords,  mcluding  the  Catholic  peers  of  England.  They  are  thus 
diatingoiahed : — 


RoyildukM 

ArohblibnM  ..•••• 

Diikra  wllb  En|IUh  UUm. 
MtrquoMM 


4 
3 

91 
IS 


Earls 100 

'"•eount 18 

Billl<l|Ja S7 

HaroM Ibl 


Fsan  of  Beotland 10 

of  Ireland 98 


Total. 


490 


The  Lords  Spiritual  are,  for  England,  two  orchbishupa  and  twenty-fbur  bishon ;  and  for 
Ireland,  one  archbishop  and  three  bishops ;  tho  English  hold  their  seats  ibr  lifb,  the  Irish  by 
rotation.  Tho  archbishops  rank  abovn  all  dnkcs  except  the  princes  of  tho  blood ;  the  bishope 
next  below  viscounts. 

The  I^rds  Temporal  are  not  limited  in  number,  it  being  the  prerointive  of  tho  kins  to 
raise  to  the  peerage  any  of  his  subjects  whom  ho  thinks  deserving.  They  consist  of  dukes, 
marquesses,  carls,  viscounts,  and  barons.  The  sixteen  peers  of  Scotland  ore,  by  the  articles 
of  union,  elected  by  the  peers  of  that  country  flrom  among  thomDelves:  the  election  is 
renewed  for  every  parliament  The  Peers  of  Ireland  are,  as  established  by  the  act  of  union, 
four  lords  spiritual  sittbg  by  rotation  of  sessions,  and  twenty-eight  lords  temporal  elected  for 
life  by  the  peers  of  Ireland.  As  a  supreme  court  of  judicature,  the  House  of^  Lords  exorcises 
jurisdiction  in  civil  causes  upon  appeals  or  writs  of  error  tioxa  the  inferior  courts ;  and  in 
criminal  questions,  when  brought  before  them,  by  presentment  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in 
the  form  of  an  impeachment. 

All  members  of  parliament  have  the  privilege  for  themselves  and  their  menial  servants  of 
being  fl^ed  from  arrests  or  imprisonment  for  debt  or  trespass ;  but  not  ttom  arrests  for  treason, 
felony,  or  breach  of  the  peace.  The  peers  have  other  privileges  peculiar  U>  tliomselves.  In 
all  cases  of  treason,  felony,  or  misprision  of  felony,  a  nobleman  is  tried  by  his  peers;  but  in 
misdemeanours,  he  is  tried  like  a  commoner.  In  judicial  proceedings,  a  peer  gives  his  ver- 
dict not  upon  oath,  but  upon  his  honour;  he  answers  also  to  bills  in  chancery  upon  his  honour; 
but  when  examined  as  a  witness  in  the  inferior  courts  or  in  the  hi^h  court  of  parliament, 
either  in  civil  or  criminal  coses,  he  must  be  sworn.  Slander  against  a  peer  subjects  the 
offender  to  very  heavy  punishment,  being  branded  by  the  law  with  the  term  tccndalum  mag- 
natum.  Every  peer,  by  license  f  om  the  king,  may  make  a  proxy  Uy  vote  for  him  in  his 
absence,  u  privilege  which  cannot  be  held  by  a  member  of  the  lower  house.  All  bills  which 
may  affect  the  rights  of  the  peerage,  are,  by  the  custom  of  parliament,  to  originate  in  the 
House  of  Peers,  and  to  suffer  no  changes  or  amendments  in  the  lower  house. 

The  House  of  Commons,  as  a  distmct  branch  of  the  legislature,  is  the  peculiar  boast  of 
the  British  constitution.  In  the  earliest  times  of  which  any  record  exists  in  English  history, 
there  appear  to  have  been  assemblies  of  the  nation,  convoked  to  deliberate  on  occasions  of 
great  emergency ;  but  it  was  not  until  (A.  D.  1266)  after  the  overthrow  of  Siinon  Montfort, 
earl  of  Leicester,  that  the  people  were  regularly  summoned  by  the  king  to  sf  nd  represent- 
atives to  the  grbat  council  of  the  nation.  Tho  crown,  little  apprehensive  of  die  formidable 
character  which  the  House  of  Commons  was  afterwards  to  assume,  favoured  all  the  steps  of 
its  early  progress,  hoping  by  those  means  to  counterpoise  the  overbearing  sway  of  the  grea^ 
Iraxons,  and  at  the  some  time  to  obtain  supplies  of  money  from  the  growing  wealth  of  the 
people.  The  decline  of  the  feudal  system  had  for  some  time  favoured  such  a  course  of  policy. 
Baronies  escheated  by  forfeiture  or  for  want  of  issue  had  been  subdivided ;  hence  arose  a 
class  of  men  called  minor  barons,  holding  by  knight's  service ;  and  these  being  too  numerous 
and  toe  poor  to  be  all  called  to  parliament,  and  to  rank  with  the  greater  barons,  were  allowed 
to  sit  by  representatives.  Of  these  knirhts,  each  sAire  was  summoned  to  send  two ;  writs 
to  that  effect  bemg  addressed  to  the  weriffi  of  the  several  counties.    The  Cinque  Ports 

firobably  about  the  same  period  sent  their  barons,  and  the  cities  and  boroughs  their  burgesset, 
a  early  times  these  representatives  appear  to  have  considered  attendance  in  parliament  as 
n  hardship  rather  than  an  advantage.  It  was  expensive,  f"d,  from  the  imperfect  police  then 
established,  often  insecure ;  and  the  summons,  beinir  always  the  prelude  to  a  demand  &r 
money,  was  by  no  means  welcome.  With  the  granting  of  supplies,  however,  was  neces- 
sorilv  combined  the  ri^t  of  petition,  of  stating  grievances,  and  demanding  guarantees;  and 
tliese  could  not,  by  a  sovereign  pressed  by  vanous  exi^ncies,  be  aJwaya  denied. 


1  TyDiT^IT'rF-l 


Pa«t  III. 

ifl  king[  himieir 
irere  either  ttxi 
e  th«  HouM  of 
uce  hia  pardon, 
royal  authoritj 
ie  exist  in  the 
and  in  the  im- 
ifl  of  the  judge! 

igland;  aixteon 
temporal  peers 

of  Peers,  in  the 
They  are  thus 

M 

98 

Total «a 

tiahons ;  and  for 
ifb,  the  Iriah  by 
)od ;  the  biahope 

of  the  kinff  to 
onaiat  of  dukea, 
,  by  the  articlea 

the  election  ia 
he  act  of  union, 
•oral  elected  for 
Lords  exorcises 
'  courts ;  and  in 
of  Commons,  in 

tnial  servants  of 
Rsts  for  treason, 
themselves.  In 
18  peers ;  but  in 
r  pives  his  ver- 
pon  his  honour; 
;  of  parliament, 
ser  subjects  the 
andalum  mag' 
for  him  in  his 
All  bills  which 
>riginate  in  the 

iculiar  boast  of 

inglish  history, 

an  occasions  of 

Imon  Montfort, 

lend  represent- 

ihe  formidable 

ill  the  steps  of 

,y  of  the  great 

wealth  of  the 

urse  of  policy. 

lence  arose  a 

too  numerous 

were  allowed 

nd  two ;  writs 

Cinque  Ports 

eir  burgesses. 

parliament  as 

ct  police  then 

a  demand  &r 

',  was  necea- 

.ranteea;  and 

d.      ,«•<■,,•.',.' 


BoorL'  'l^'fi       ENGLAND.       '»''  fUb 

The  elootion  of  the  Commons  never  reated  on  any  principle  of  universal  or  eten  general 
luflhige,  excepting  perhapa  that  of  knights  for  each  shire.  As  the  kinga,  however,  could 
only  attain  tlioir  objecta  by  aaaembling  the  moat  poworftil  and  influential  of  the  people,  they 
endeavoured  to  mau  an  equal  diatarimtion  of  the  right  of  election,  ao  fkr,  at  least,  aa  related 
to  property  and  influeice,  at  the  time  when  auch  a  meaaure  waa  adapted  to  countervail  th« 
preponderance  of  the  barona.  In  after-timea,  when  aeats  in  parliament  came  to  be  appre- 
ciated oa  conferring  a  deainble  piviloge,  and  aa  conatituting  a  powerflil  check  on  the  pre- 
rogative  of  the  monarch,  it  would  have  been  irreguhir  to  have  allowed  to  the  kins  an  ubi- 
trary  aoloction ;  and  all  parties  adhered  to  the  rights  conferred  on  them  by  early  gift  or  long 
usage.  This  permanence  of  the  elective  flranchise,  amidst  the  local  changes  that  ensued  in 
the  course  of  ages,  gave  rise  to  some  very  striking  anomalies.  Manchester,  Leeds,  and 
several  other  towns,  which  within  tho  lost  century  have  become  the  commercial  capitals  of 
the  kingdom,  did  not  aend  a  aingle  repreaentative ;  while  placea  once  important,  but  now 
dwindled  into  insignificance,  returned  each  two  memben.  Cornwall,  at  a  period  when  the 
rest  of  the  kin(!|dom  was  poor  and  rude,  enjoyed  an  abundant  source  of  opulence  in  its  tin 
mines,  nnd  retimed  a  number  of  chartered  boroughs,  beyond  all  proportion  greater  than  those 
c'.  any  other  couniy.  The  places  holdinff  the  right  of  election  were  in  many  instances  so 
small,  timt  what  is  called  tho  patronage  of  them  wos  easily  acquired ;  and  that  patronage  of 
course  involved  the  advan'.ugn  of  nominating  one  or  both  candidates  for  the  representation. 
These  were  called  close  borougha,  or,  more  reproachfiilly,  rotten  borougha.  Another  anomaly 
consisted  in  a  number  of  what  were  called  treasury  boroughs,  the  nomination  of  which  rested 
with  the  administration.  With  tho  view  of  remedying  these  defects,  the  Reform  Bill  waa 
passed,  in  183S,  after  long  discussion  and  opposition.  By  this  bill  fifty-six  of  the  smallest 
boroughs  were  entirely  disfranchised,  and  thirty  were  reduced  from  two  membcra  to  one, 
while  Weymouth  and  Melcombe  Regis  were  reduced  from  four  to  two ;  a  reduction  was  thus 
mode  of  144  memben.  In  the  room  of  these,  twenty-two  large  places, — Manchester,  Bir- 
mingham, Leeds,  Sheffield,  Greenwich,  Bundcrland,  Dovonport,  Wolverhampton,  Bolton, 
BlacRbum,  Bradford,  Brighton,  Hulifhx,  Macclesfield,  Oldham,  Stockport,  Stoke-upon-Trent, 
Stroud,  and  four  districts  of  tho  metropolis,  viz.  Marylebone,  Finsbury,  Tower  Flamlets, 
and  Lambeth, — received  each  the  right  of  electing  two  members ;  while  twenty  smaller 
towns, — Anhton-under-Line,  Bury,  Chatham,  Cheltenham,  Dudley,  Frome,  Gateshead,  Hud- 
dcrsfield,  Kidderminster,  Kendal,  Rochdale,  Salford,  Soutli  Shields,  Tynemouth,  Wakefield, 
Walaall,  Worrington,  Whitby,  Whitehaven,  and  Merthyr  Tydvil,— acquired  Uie  sight  of 
nominating  one  member  each.  At  tho  same  time  twenty-seven  counties  acquired  tho  power 
of  sending  each  two  additional  members,  and  seven  that  of  sending  one  additional  member. 

The  representation  of  Great  Britain  now  stands  as  follows : — 

English  memben  for  countiM 143 

univer»itiM 4 

citiea  and  boroughs 334 

.  471 

,     ,  WeUh  memben  for  countiei IS 

citiea  and  boroughs 14 

•■  29 

'      '     Scotch  memben  for  coantiei 80 

cities  and  boroughs S3 

63 

Irish  memben  for  counties 64 

*'    '  univeniW '. 2 

cities  ana  boroughs 89 

105 

Makinginall 6S8 

The  quclifirations  requisite  for  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in  respect  to  pro> 
perty,  are  thoie : — A  person  to  be  eligible  as  a  member  for  a  county  must  have  a  freehold  or 
copyhold,  or  must  have  been  mortgagee  in  possession  at  least  seven  years,  of  a  clear  estate 
of  the  value  of  600/.  per  annum ;  and  to  be  eligible  for  a  city,  borough,  or  other  place, 
except  the  universities,  of  the  value  of  800/.  per  annum.  The  person  so  qualified  is  also  to 
be  of  mature  age,  and  must  take  the  oaths  imposed  as  indispensable  to  a  member  of  the 
legislature.  Among  the  persons  who  cannot  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons  are  judges,  cler- 
gymen, persons  holding  certain  ofiices  under  the  crown,  and  persons  having  pensions  under 
tne  crown  during  pleasure  or  for  an^  term  of  years;  sherifllk  of  counties,  and  mayors  and 
bailifis  of  boroughs,  are  ineligible  in  their  respective  jurisdictions;  but  a  sheriff  of  one 
county  is  eligible  as  knight  for  another. 

The  qualifications  required  in  electors  difibr,  as  they  relate  to  counties  or  to  boroughs.  Ia 
the  election  of  county  members  every  member  must  have  a  fteehoW  of  the  clear  yearly 
value  of  forty  shillings,  over  and  above  all  rents  and  charges  payable  out  of  and  in  respect 
of  the  same,  and  must  have  been  in  the  actual  possession  of  it  for  twelve  calendar  months, 
unless  it  came  to  him  within  that  time  by  descont,  marriage  settlement,  devise,  or  promotion 
to  a  benefice  in  the  church,  or  to  an  office.    To  these  freeholders  the  new  bill  has  added  al! 

Vol.  L  2T 


ai6 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  IIL 


p«raon«  holding  property  to  the  amount  of  ten  poundi  on  copyhold,  nr  on  leaae  of  not  len 
tiwn  lixty  yoin;  ud  »lio  thow  occupying  landi  or  tenementa  for  any  period,  at  a  rent  of 
Dot  leu  than  OOi.  por  annum. 

The  aualificationfl  of  elcctora  for  citioe  and  boroughs  wore,  previoua  to  the  premnt  act, 
extremoly  various.  The  right  of  voting  in  difibront  placea  reiidod  variouily  m  the  fVee- 
hoklera,  tlie  corporationa,  Uie  burgage  tenants,  and  somotimca  in  the  whole  body  of  resident 
householdora.  The  now  act,  however,  admits  only  the  simple  qualification  of  occupying  a 
houMj  rutcd  at  not  loss  than  lU/.  per  annum.  Those,  however,  who  were  fVoomen  under  the 
former  system  are  still  entitled  to  vote,  altliough  not  possessed  of  the  lUi.  qualification, 
provided  they  reside  within  the  borough. 

The  mode  of  pro'^ccding  to  an  election  for  a  county  and  for  a  borough  is  nearly  the  same 
On  a  diiMulution  of  parliament,  writo,  pursuant  to  a  warrant  fh)m  tl\o  king,  are  issued  undet 
Uie  great  seal,  oddreiMed  to  the  shcrills  of  counties,  directing  them  to  summon  the  people  to 
elect  two  knights  for  each  county,  and  one  or  two  burgesses  fur  each  borough.  Tn  supply  a 
vacancy  wiiilo  parliament  is  sitting,  tho  warrant  for  the  writ  proceeds  from  Uio  House  of 
Commons.  A  certain  day  afler,  tiio  date  or  Ifitle  of  tho  writ  is  fixed  for  tlio  election  to  com- 
mence ;  and  on  that  day  the  candidate  or  candidates  are  put  in  nomination,  at  the  place 
appointed,  in  tho  presence  of  tho  returning  ofTiour.  In  a  county  election,  tho  shorilf  or 
the  under-sheriff  is  the  returning  officer ;  in  a  city  or  borough,  tha  mayor  or  bailiff.  If  there 
be  rival  candidates  put  in  nomination,  the  rct\irning  officer  calls  on  the  voters  for  a  decision 
by  a  show  of  tho  hands,  atlcr  which  the  friend  of  any  candidate,  if  diHsatixfiod,  may  demand 
a  poll.  The  pull  was  formerly  taken  at  only  one  placo.  and  mi(j;ht  last  fur  lidecn  days ;  but 
under  the  new  act,  tho  cities  and  counties  are  divided  >  listricts,  witli  separate  booths,  or 
polling-places,  appropriated  to  each.  The  poll  is  uiuiu  d  to  continue  only  for  two  days, 
which  mu»t  bo  successive,  and  it  must  close  at  four  o'clock  in  tho  ailornoon  of  tlio  second 
day.  Poll  clerks  attend,  to  record  the  names  of  the  voters,  and  their  accuracy  is  watched 
bv  inspectors  nommatcd  on  each  side.  Tho  returning  officer  who  presides  must,  if  required, 
oblige  the  candidates  to  swear  to  their  qualiiications.  At  the  close  of  the  election,  or 
on  uio  following  day,  the  returning  officer  declares  the  names  of  the  persons  who  have  the 
majority  of  votes;  and,  unless  a  scrutiny  [ya  demanded,  ho  forthwith  makcH  Ida  return. 

The  duration  of  a  Parliament  has,  for  more  than  a  century,  been  extended  tu  the  term  of 
seven  years,  from  that  of  tliroe,  to  which  it  was  formerly  limited.  Tho  king,  however,  has 
tlin  power  of  dissolving  parliament  at  any  time;  he  can  also  prorogue  it  at  any  time  and  for 
any  period ;  and,  as  such  prorogation  concludes  the  session,  it  puts  an  end  to  all  bills  or  other 
proceedings  depending  in  eitlier  house,  which  must  in  tho  next  session  be  again  instituted, 
as  if  they  had  never  oeen  begun.  Eitlier  house,  or  both  houses,  may  adjoiini  of  their  own 
accord,  and,  at  their  meeting  again,  mo^  take  up  the  bills  and  other  proceedings  in  the  state 
of  advancement  in  which  they  were  left.  A  session  of  parliament  usually  commences  io 
January  or  February,  and  continues  until  Juno  or  July. 

At  tne  commencement  of  every  session  committees  of  the  whole  house  arc  appointed ;  one 
called  the  Committee  of  Supply,  to  consider  the  amount  required  by  the  crown  for  the  ser 
vice  of  the  army,  navy,  ordnance,  and  other  departments ;  and  the  other  tho  Committee  of 
Wayt  and  Meant,  to  devise  modes  of  niising,  by  taxes  or  loans,  the  sums  which  the  house 
have  granted.  In  this  committee  of  ways  and  means,  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  in 
an  exposition  technically  called  the  Budget,  demonstrates  to  the  house  in  detail  tliat  the 
sums  voted  are  sufficient  to  justi^  the  committee  in  imposing  such  taxes,  or  sanctioning 
such  loans,  as  are  then  recommended.  When  the  two  committees  are  closed,  the  House  ot 
Commons  pass  a  bill  in  which  the  grants  made  in  the  committee  of  ways  and  means  are 
recapitulated,  and  directed  to  be  applied  to  the  services  voted  by  the  committee  of  supply 
specifying  the  particular  sums  granted  for  each  service. 

Parliament  have  the  sole  right  of  making,  altering,  and  amending  all  the  laws  of  tlie 
kingdom,  and  by  their  authority  alone  can  taxes  be  imposed  or  levied.  An  annual  vote  of 
the  House  of  Commons  is  requisite  to  maintain  the  land  and  sea  forces  at  the  degree  of 
strength  which  is  every  year  fixed  and  determined  upon.  By  these  and  other  privileges, 
the  annual  meeting  of  parliament  is  secured  without  any  express  stipulation  to  that  efl'ect 
By  withholding  these  annual  votes  they  may  testify  their  disapprobation  of  the  measures  of 
government,  and  even  compel  it  to  change  its  ministers ;  indeed,  the  principle  has  now 
become  indisputable,  that  the  minister  who  cannot  rely  on  a  majority  of  votes  in  parliament 
is  disabled  from  conducting  the  affairs  of  the  nation. 

The  Privy  Council  is  composed  of  persons,  appointed  by  the  king,  who  are  bound  by  oath 
to  advise  their  sovereign  to  the  best  of^  their  judgment  with  all  the  fidelity  and  secrecy  which 
their  station  prescribes.  The  king  with  the  advice  of  his  privy  council  publishes  proclama- 
tions binding  on  the  subject;  but  they  are  to  be  consonant  to,  and  in  execution  of,  the  laws 
of  the  land.  The  power  of  the  council  is,  to  inquire  into  all  offences  against  the  govr  rn- 
ment-  and  to  commit  the  offenders  to  safe  custody  for  trial  in  some  of  the  courts  of  law ;  but 
persons  so  committed  are  entitled  to  their  habeas  corpus  as  much  as  if  they  had  been  com- 
mitted by  an  ordinary  justice  of  the  peace.   The  privy  council  is  a  court  of  appeal  in  plants 


Past  IIL 

laae  of  not  lew 
od,  at «  rant  of 

ho  proient  act, 
ily  in  the  fVee- 
Nxly  of  roiident 
of  occupying  a 
ornon  under  the 
)l,  qualification, 

loarly  the  nmo 
iro  iwued  undei 
on  the  people  to 
h.    To  Huppiy  a 
n  tlio  Iluuac  of 
election  to  coin- 
n,  at  the  place 
n,  tlio  Rhonlf  or 
bailitr.    Iftlioro 
ra  for  a  dcciHion 
cd,  may  demand 
iflccn  days ;  but 
parato  booths,  or 
i\\y  for  two  days, 
on  of  tlie  second 
iracy  is  watched 
nuHt,  if  required, 
the  election,  or 
ns  who  have  the 
his  return, 
id  to  the  term  of 
iij^,  however,  has 
any  time  and  for 
)  all  bills  or  other 
again  instituted, 
urn  of  their  own 
ings  in  the  state 
ly  commenceB  io 

appointed ;  one 

:own  for  the  ser 

Io  Committee  of 

Iwhich  the  house 

le  exchequer,  in 

detail  tliat  the 

.  or  sanctioning 

id,  the  House  oi 

and  means  are 

littee  of  supply 

I  the  laws  of  tlie 
I  annual  vote  of 

|it  the  degree  of 
lier  privileges. 

In  to  that  efiect 

Ithe  measures  of 
iciple  has  now 

Is  in  parliament 

bound  by  oath 

'.  secrecy  which 

lies  proclama- 

|on  of,  the  laws 

st  the  govrrn- 

^ts  of  law ;  but 

bad  been  com* 

Ippeal  in  plants 


Oooi  L 


ENGLAND. 


m 


ation  and  admiralty  causes,  which  arise  out  of  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  kinffdom,  as  also  in 
eases  of  idiotcy  ana  lunacy.  Wtion  questions  arise  between  two  colonies  respecting  the 
extent  of  tiieir  charter,  "the  king  in  coundT'  exercises  original  juriHdiction  in  tnem,  on  the 
principles  of  fco«iul  aoverei^ty ;  he  also  determbee,  on  the  same  principle,  the  validity  of 
claims  to  an  island  or  provmco  founded  upon  grant  from  the  king  or  his  ancestors.  But  from 
all  tho  dominions  of  the  crown  excepting  Groat  Britain  and  Ireland,  an  ajfpellate  jurisdiction, 
in  tlio  last  resort,  is  vested  in  the  privy  council.  The  judicial  authority  is  oxorciMcd  in  a 
committee  of  the  wiiolo  priyv  council,  who  hear  allegations  and  proow,  and  make  their 
report  to  At«  myeily  in  council,  by  whom  judgment  is  finally  given.  The  dissolution  of  the 
privy  council  depends  on  tho  pleasure  of  the  king,  who  mi>  y  at  his  own  discretion  discharge 
any  member,  r-  the  whole  of  them,  and  appoint  another  council.  It  continues  six  months 
after  the  demise  of  the  crown,  unless  sooner  determined  by  tlie  snccossor.  Any  natural- 
bom  subject  of  England  is  capable  of  being  a  member  of  the  privy  council,  taking  tho  proper 
oaths  for  security  of  tiio  government  and  test  fbr  tho  security  of  the  church.  A  privy  coun- 
sellor, if  he  bo  only  a  privule  gentleman,  is  styled  right  honourable,  end  takes  prrccdence 
of  all  knights,  baronets,  and  the  younger  sons  of  all  biruiis  and  viscounts. 

A  cabinet  council  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  recognised  by  the  constitution,  but  by  usage 
it  is  regarded  as  a  body  selected  by  the  sovereign  to  conduct  tho  business  of  tho  Liatc ;  and 
tho  inciiibers  composing  it  are  held  to  bo  the  responHiblo  advisers  of  tiiu  crowr.  The  cabinet 
council  usually  consists  of  those  ministers  of  state  who  exercise  tho  most  important  functions 
of  the  executive  authority ;  their  number  and  selection  depend  only  on  the  king's  plcatiuro ; 
and  each  member  receives  a  summons  for  every  attendanco.  Though  tiiis  body,  as  consti- 
tuting what  is  essentially  the  government,  bo  compoeed  principally  of  of  ers  of  Htn  ;  yet 
a  privy  counsellor  selected  by  the  king  as  a  member  of  his  cabinet  council,  may  hold  is  seat 
as  such,  without  accepting  any  particular  ofiice.  The  officers  of  state  are  those  e^..  icratod 
in  the  fallowing  lists : — 

QDkerf  qf  Slalt  forming  the  Cabinet. 

FIrrt  Lord  of  Um  Treaiury.  fleers    iry  of  Binte  (br  ColonI'.-  i  >  ■'  War. 

Lord  ChBneallor.  Chmuillor  nf  the  Exchequnr 

I/>rd  Frivy  Seal.  Pint  I^nrU  nf  tlio  Admiralty.  ! 

Proildent  of  tha  Coiinell.  Maater-general  of  the  Ord'm  co. 

Secretary  of  Btat«  fbr  tha  Home  Dapartmotit.  Preiidont  of  the  Board  of  Control, 

tiacrotary  of  Slate  for  the  Foreign  Doparlnient.  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Laiicaiter. 


Lord  Chamberlain. 
Lord  Steward. 
Maiter  of  tha  Horaa. 
Beeretary  at  War. 
Treaaiircr  of  the  Navy. 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
Faymaiter  of  the  Force*. 

Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
Lord  Chnncellnr. 
CnmniRnder  of  the  Foreei. 
Chief  Secretary. 


Offietri  qf  Stati  not  qf  tk$  CaUntt. 

Vica-Preiideiit  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
rnitinaaler-Gencral. 
Lieutenant-Oeneral  nf  the  Ordnance. 
Firit  Comminioner  of  the  Land  Bevenus. 
Attorney  .Oeneral. 
Solicitor-Oeneral. 

Ireland. 

Vice-Trea«urcr. 

Attornoy-aeneral. 

BolicitorOoneral. 


That  officer  of  state  who  holds  the  appointment  of  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  is  by 
eminence  the  minister.  In  the  event  of  a  change  of  ministry,  tlie  person  who  is  directea 
by  the  king  to  form  another,  receives  an  implied  offer  o,  li...'  high  office,  and  is  generally 
placed  at  Uie  head  of  the  administration.  The  first  loi  -  ae  treasury,  that  is,  the  first  of 
the  five  lords  commissioners  for  executing  the  office  of  lord  high  treasurer,  possesses  most 
of  the  powers  formerly  held  by  the  lord  high  treasurer,  and  is  sometimes,  though  not  in- 
variably, chancellor  and  under  treasurer  of  the  exchequer.  The  revenue  applicable  to  the 
general  purpoHcs  of  the  state  is,  with  a  trifling  ex  (option,  derived  entirely  from  taxed.  In 
the  course  of  the  last  century  it  increased  to  an  nmount  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  any 
other  country ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  wau  in  which  Great  Britain  was  engaged  with 
little  intermission  until  t!io  year  1315,  it  did  not  keep  pace  with  the  expenditure,  and  an 
enormous  debt  was  gradually  contracted,  the  interest  on  which  occasioned  a  correspondent 
increase  of  taxation. 

Since  1817,  a  deduction  haa  been  made  of  about  sixty  millions  from  the  principal  of  the 
debt,  and  about  five  millions  from  the  annual  charge  on  its  account  This  diminution  has 
been  principally  effected  by  taking  advantage  of  the  fall  in  the  rate  of  interest  since  the 
peace,  and  offering  to  pay  off  Uie  holders  of  different  stocks,  unless  they  consented  to  accept 
a  reduced  payment. 

The  system  of  fiinding  by  which  the  debt  has  been  rendered  national,  rests  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  assigning  for  the  amount  of  a  loan,  an  equivalent  amount  of  nominal  capital,  bearing 
interest  charged  on  the  national  revenue  in  half-yearly  payments  called  dividends,  or  of 
terminable  annuities  also  payable  half-yearly.  Annuities  granted  for  an  indefinite  period 
sre  called  redeemable  debt,  being  redeemable  at  the  option  of  government  when  at  par ; 
those  granted  for  a  limited  period  are  called  irredeemable  debt ;  they  exist  only  for  a  certain 
number  of  years,  and  a  portion  of  the  capital  is  annually  absorbed  in  the  interest.    The 


ms 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


funds  are  respectively  designated  according  to  the  rate  per  cent,  they  bear;  and  the  shore 
which  a  public  creditor  holds  in  any  of  them,  being  tranisferable  by  sale  under  the  name  of 
$tock,  they  constitute  a  kind  of  circulating  capital. 

The  rate  of  interest  granted  on  certain  portions  of  the  national  debt,  though  nominally 
lower  than  that  nf  five  per  cent  allowed  by  law,  has  been  rendered  advantageous  to  the 
lender  by  being  chareed  on  a  larger  amount  of  nominal  capital  than  Uie  sum  borrowed 
Loans  have  been  made  in  fhnds  at  four  and  five  per  cent,  but  the  greater  part  has  bee 
made  in  a  fiind  bearing  three  per  cent  interest  on  the  nominal  capital,  and  commonly  calle 
the  three  per  cent,  coruolidated  annuitie$.    The  prices  of  these  and  other  annuities  consti 
tuting  the  redeemable  debt  are  ratt;d  according  to  the  money  value  of  one  hundred  pound 
on  such  stock ;  terminable  annuities  according  to  the  number  of  years'  purchase  which  they 
are  supposed  to  be  worth. 

Particular  taxes  were,  at  an  early  period  of  the  fUnding  mtem,  appropriated  to  defhiy 
the  interest  of  difllerent  descriptions  of  debt ;  but  in  the  year  1786,  the  whole  were  collected 
into  one  fiind,  called  the  Consolidated  Fund.  The  particular  branches  of  revenue  included 
in  it  were  the  cuttom*  (with  the  exception  of  a  certain  amount  applicable  to  other  public 
services),  the  excise,  the  stamps,  the  land  and  assessed  taxes,  and  the  post-office,  Ix)  this 
fiind  are  applicable  moneys  ansmg  fh)m  other  reBources,  specified  in  the  annual  accounts. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  progress  of  the  national  debt,  fi-om  the  Revolution  to 
the  present  time: — 


DBbts  St  the  RAVoltitlon  In  1A89 • 

Principal. 

Interett. 

£ 

004,203 

15,730,430 

£ 

3P,M!» 

1»71,087 

ExceM  of  debt  contracted  during  the  reign  of  William  III.  above  debt 

Debt  at  the  aeceiiion  of  Queen  Anno  in  170Q. ..*...■ *■■■••■■•• 

10,394,709 

1,310,042 

Debt  at  the  accetaion  of  Georffe  L  in  1714. 

34,141,363 

3,351,358 

Debt  at  the  accetaion  of  Geonra  il.  in  1V97. ^. ••••••• 

59,092,238 

8,217,551 

138,805,430 

4,852,051 

Debt  at  the  connmencement  of  the  AmpricAn  war  in  177X 

128,583,035 

4,471,571 

Debt  at  the  conclusion  of  the  American  war  in  1784 • 

940,851,028 

0,451,772 

239,350,1-18 
C08,»32,3a9 

9,208,495 
94,045,971 

Debt  contracted  durina  the  French  war. > 

Total  flinded  and  uniUnded  debt,  Sih  January,  1617,  when  the  Engliih  and 
Irish  Exchequer!  were  conBolidated 

848,982,477 

33,854,400 

A  sinking  fund  for  the  gradual  reduction  of  the  debt  had  been  formed  by  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole  in  1716,  but  had  been  so  frequently  encroached  upon,  that  in  the  course  of  half  a  cen- 
tury, it  had  not  extinguished  above  fifteen  millions.  Its  revival  ibrmed  part  of  the  financial 
arrangements  of  Pitt  in  1786.  Out  of  the  aggregate  of  the  taxes  applicable  to  the  consoli- 
dated fiind,  government  then  pledged  itself,  that  one  million  annually  should  b^  paid  to  the 
commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt.  To  this  annual  million  were  added  the 
amount  of  government  annuities  a<i  they  successively  expired,  and  the  interest  of  such  stock 
as  was  annually  redeemed.  In  1792,  Pitt  obtained  an  act  of  parliament,  declaring,  that 
besides  a  provision  for  the  interest  of  any  loan  that  might  be  thenceforward  contracted,  taxes 
should  be  imposed  ^'>r  a  sinking  fiind  of  one  per  cent,  on  the  capital  stock  created  by  it, 
which  should  be  exclusively  employed  in  the  liquidation  of  such  particular  loan;  and  that  no 
relief  nhould  be  a^r^ed  to  the  public  from  the  taxes  which  constitnted  the  one  per  cent 
sinking  fund,  until  a  sum  of  capital  stock,  equal  in  amount  to  that  created  bv  the  loan,  had 
been  purchased  by  it  That  being  accomplished,  both  the  interest  and  the  sinxing  fiind  were 
to  be  applicable  to  the  publ'c  service.  It  was  calculated  that,  under  the  most  unfavourable 
circumstances,  each  loan  would  b*  redoenved  in  forty-five  years  fh)m  the  period  when  it  wns 
contracted.  The  provisions  in  this  act,  and  in  the  former  act  of  1786,  were  altered  by  sub- 
sequent enactments ;  but,  by  an  act  passed  in  1813,  those  alterations  were  rescinded ;  and 
it  was  provided  first,  that,  as  a  sum  equal  to  the  debt  of  1786,  and  bearing  an  interest  nearly 
equal  to  the  interest  of  Uiat  debt,  was  tihen  vested  in  the  hands  of  the  commissioners,  the 
debt  of  1786  should  be  declared  discharged  as  soon  as  the  interest  of  the  debt  redeemed 
should  be<iome  fblly  equal  to  that  debt ;  the  sums  appropriated  to  its  interest  and  sinking 
fimd  applied  to  the  charge  of  future  loans,  and  no  new  taxes  imposed  fbr  intfirestond  Rinking 
fund  of  those  loans,  till  the  same  should  amount  to  a  sum  equal  to  the  interest  of  that  con- 
sidered as  released.  Secondly,  that,  instead  of  applying  the  one  per  cent  sinking  fund  on 
each  loAn  to  the  separate  discharge  of  that  loan,  the  whole  funds  of  that  kind  united  should 


Part  IU. 

ar;  and  tho  slioro 
under  the  name  of 

though  nominally 
Ivantageous  to  the 
he  sum  borrowed 
,ter  part  has  bee 
id  commonly  calle 
tr  annuities  consti 
le  hundred  pound 
irchase  which  they 

ropriated  to  defhy 
lole  were  collected 
r  revenue  included 
lie  to  other  public 
oil-office.  To  this 
Einnual  accounts. 
1  tho  Revolution  to 


nl. 

IntereaL 

SG3 
430 

£ 

3(t^'5 

1JW1.087 

702 

1,310,043 

303 

3,351,358 

S38 

«,81-,551 

430 

4,833,051 

035 

4,471,571 

038 

0,451,772 

148 
339 

0,208,405 
34,045,071 

177 

33,854,400 

J  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
rse  of  half  a  cen- 
,rt  of  the  financial 
ble  to  the  consoli- 
lid  b#  paid  to  the 
in  were  added  the 
rest  of  such  stock 
t,  declarinfj,  that 
contracted,  taxes 
ock  created  by  it, 
loan ;  and  that  no 
he  one  per  cent. 
by  the  loan,  had 
linicing  fund  were 
tioet  unfavourable 
iriod  when  it  was 
:e  altered  by  sub- 
rescinded;  and 
in  interest  nearly 
tmmissioners,  the 
le  debt  redeemed 
rest  and  sinking 
Brest  and  sinking 
rest  of  that  con- 
sinking  fund  on 
nd  united  should 


BookL 


ENGLAND. 


349 


be  applied  to  the  discharge  of  the  first  contracted  loan,  and  successiTely  to  the  redemption 
of  all  the  loans  contracted  smce  1792 ;  the  whole  sinking  fund  created  in  1786,  or  subte- 
quently,  being  continued  for  the  redemption  of  all  debts  then  existing  or  to  be  created.  The 
system  established  by  this  act  continued  until  March,  1823,  when  an  act  cf  parliament  was 
passed,  directing  that  on  the  6th  of  April  of  that  year,  all  payments  out  cf  the  consolidated 
(bnd  to  the  commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt  should  cease,  all  stock  in 
their  names  be  cancelled,  and  that  in  future  the  annual  sum  of  five  millir/ns  shall  be  payable 
quarterly  to  the  commissioners,  and  set  apart  for  the  reduction  of  the  debt,  not  to  be  infrinaed 
upon  until  the  accumulation  of  this  sum  shall  amount  to  one  hundredth  part  of  the  debt  wen 
existing:  ^at  present,  however,  the  sinking  fund  is  declared  to  be  the  excess  of  inhume  over 
expenditure,  whatever  that  may  be.    In  1830  it  amounted  to  2,792,707/.  14«.  Q\d. 

On  the  consolidated  fund  are  likewise  charged  the  aimuities  for  forty-five  years,  created 
in  the  year  1822,  for  tho  purpose  of  apportionmg  the  burden  occasioned  by  the  military  and 
naval  pensions  and  civil  superannuations  (collectively  called  the  Dead  Weight),  amountinff 
to  5,000,OOOZ.,  into  equal  annual  payments.  The  original  intention  was  to  contract  with 
M  parties  who  might  be  willing  to  engage  to  pay  into  the  exchequer  within  forty-five  ^ears  the 
sum  wanted,  for  a  fixed  amount  of  annuity  for  forty-five  years;  but  no  capitalists  bemg  found 
to  accept  these  terms,  it  was  agreed,  instead  of  assigning  the  fixed  annuities  to  any  corporate 
body,  or  to  orivate  individuals,  that  they  should  be  vested,  namely,  2,800,000/.  terminable  at 
the  end  of  forty-five  years,  and  charged  upon  the  consolidated  fund,  in  trustees  appointed  by 
parliament ;  pyable  at  the  exchequer  half  yearly  (viz.  October  10.  and  April  5.),  and  to 
cease  in  April,  1867.  In  March,  1823,  a  portion  was  sold  to  the  Bonk  of  England  by  the 
trustees,  on  condition  that  the  bank  should  undertake  the  payments  to  be  made  m  pursuance 
of  tlie  act,  from  the  5th  of  January,  1823,  to  the  5th  of  January,  1868,  upon  tlie  transfer  to 
the  bank  of  an  annuity  of  685,740{.,  to  commence  fi:om  the  5th  of  April,  and  to  continue  for 
the  term  of  forty-five  years.  The  total  amount  of  payments  undertaken  to  be  made  by  the 
bank  in  consideration  of  the  said  annuity  is  13,089,419(. 

Besides  the  funded  debt,  there  is  generally  a  considerable  amount  in  exchequer  biUa, 
nav^  bilh,  and  ordnance  bills,  denominated  the  ur\funded  orjloatinr  debt.  Exchequer  bills 
are  issued  in  consequence  of  acts  of  parliament,  for  obtaining  jpart  of  the  money  required  for 
public  service.  They  are  sometimes  granted  on  the  credit  oi  supplies  for  the  current  year, 
and  the  produce  of  the  annual  taxes  is  in  this  way  often  anticipated.  Sometimes  they  are 
charged  on  the  supplies  of  the  following  year ;  and  in  time  of  war,  a  large  sum  to  be  thus 
raised  is  generally  authorised  by  a  vote  of  credit  previous  to  the  rising  of  parliament.  New 
exchequer  bills  are  often  issued  in  discharge  of  former  ones;  and  it  has  frequently  been  found 
necessary  to  fund  them,  by  granting  capital  in  some  of  the  stotjks  on  certain  terms,  to  such 
holders  as  are  willing  to  accept  them.  Exchequer  bills  are  issued  for  100/.,  500/.,  1000/., 
and  upwards,  but  none  for  less  than  100/. ;  and  they  bear  interest  at  two-pence  a  day  for 
every  100/.  After  being  in  circulation  they  are  received  in  payment  of  taxes  or  other  debts 
due  to  government,  and  sometimes  they  are  paid  off  pursuant  to  previous  notice  by  advertise- 
ment The  daily  transactions  between  the  bank  and  the  exchequer  are  chiefly  carried  on 
by  bills  of  1000/.  each,  which  are  deposited  by  the  bank  in  the  exchequer,  to  the  amount  of 
the  sums  received  by  them  on  account  of  government ;  they  remain  in  the  exchequer  as 
pledges  or  securities,  of  course  bearing  interest  until  the  advarxes  on  which  the  bank  first 
received  them  are  paid  off.* 

Number  of  persons  deriving  incomes  from  the  funds.  It  appears  firom  the  regular 
returns,  that  in  1830  (and  the  number  has  not  sensibly  varied  smce),  274,823  dividend 
warrants  were  issued  to  persons  deriving  incomes  firom  the  funds.  The  number  of  persona 
dependent  upon  the  funds  for  support  is,  however,  much  greater  than  appears  upon  tlie  face 
of  this  account :  for  the  dividends  upon  the  funded  property  belonging  to  public  establish- 
ments, are  paid  upon  single  warrants,  as  if  they  were  due  to  so  many  private  individuals. 

The  customs  and  excise  form  the  two  main  branches  in  the  collection  of  the  revenue ;  the 
former  relating  to  goods  imported,  the  latter  to  those  produced  and  manufactured  within  the 
country.  Among  the  accommoCationa  to  trade,  established  by  Mr.  Pitt,  is  the  bonding 
system,  by  which  the  goods  of  merchants  are  warehouaed  under  tho  joint  custody  of  the 
proprietor  and  of  government;  payment  of  duty  not  being  demanded  until  a  sale  is  efiected. 
This  has  been  also  extended  to  British  spirits. 

Tho  navy  is  the  force  on  which  Great  Britain  mainly  relies  for  mamtaining  her  own 
independence,  and  her  ascendency  over  foreign  nations.  By  it  she  has  acquired  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  seas,  and  the  advantages,  which  that  sovereignty  confers,  of  securing  her  pos- 
sessions in  the  most  distant  quarters  of  the  globe,  of  protectmg  her  commerce,  and  sustaining 
the  exertions  of  her  armies  ouring  war.  Buflng  the  most  active  period  of  the  last  maritime 
war,  the  number  of  seamen  in  employment  amounted  to  140,000;  and  there  were  in  com* 
mission  160  saU  of  the  Ime  and  160  frigates,  with  30,000  marinea.    The  estimate  for  1881 


Vol.  I. 


•See  BtatiiUeal  Tfeblet,  tt  end  of  Cbap. IV. 

80 


3S0 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartIH 


":M 


;l 


m 


comprehcndod  22,000  seamen  and  10,000  marines.  The  pay  of  these  men  amounts  to 
1,061,000/. ;  their  subsistence,  to  60;),000?. ;  which,  with  the  cost  of  stores,  and  allowance 
for  wear  and  tear,  raised  the  regular  current  expense  to  nearly  2,000,000/.  The  building 
and  repair  of  vessels,  the  charges  of  the  dock-yards,  pay  of  officers  connected  with  the  navy, 
and  a  variety  of  other  items,  amounted  to  about  an  equal  sum.  These  charges,  wiui 
I,6d8,(t00/.  in  half  pay  and  pensions,  made  up  the  snm  of  4,057,000/.  oa  tlie  entire  navy 
estimate  for  the  year  1831. 

The  military  force  of  the  nation,  at  the  close  of  tho  French  wars,  amounted  to  200,000 
regular  troops,  exclusive  of  about  100,000  embodied  militia,  a  large  amount  of  loc^l  militia 
and  volunteers,  to  which  might  also  be  added  a  number  of  regiments  employed  in  the  terri- 
tories of  tho  East  India  Company,  and  in  its  pay.  After  the  peace  of  1815  a  rapid  reduction 
of  tlio  military  establishment  was  effected.  The  militia  were  disembodied ;  the  regular  force 
was  reduced,  and  in  1835  the  estimates  were  for  81,271  men,  independent  of  19,720  employed 
in  India,  and  paid  out  of  the  land  revenue  of  that  country.  The  charge  for  these  forces  was 
5,784,808/. ;  but  about  half  of  Uiis  sum  consisted  of  half-pay,  retired  allowances,  pensions, 
and  other  charges  consequent  on  tlie  former  immense  establishment 

The  laws  of  England,  established  during  ten  centuries  of  legislation,  constitute  the  most 
extensive  system  of  jurisprudence  ever  constructed.  The  municipal  law  is  divided  into  two 
kinds,  tiie  unwritten  or  common  law ;  and  the  written  or  statute  law.  The  common  law 
derives  its  force  from  immemorial  usage;  and  its  evidences  exist  in  the  records  of  the  seve- 
ral courts  of  justice,  as  well  as  in  books  of  reports  and  judicial  decisions.  It  includes  not 
only  tho  system  by  which  the  ordinary  courts  of  justice  are  guided  and  directed ;  but  certain 
portions  of  the  ancient  civil  and  canon  laws  which  are  used  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  the 
military  courts,  tlie  court  of  admiralty,  and  the  courts  of  the  two  universities.  The  written 
laws  are  those  made  by  tlie  king,  lords,  and  commons,  in  parliament  assembled ;  they  are 
judicially  called  Statutes,  and  are  cither  declaratory  of  the  common  law,  or  remedial  of 
some  of  its  defects.  The  statutes  arc  also  distinguished  as  either  general  or  special,  public 
or  private. 

The  high  court  of  parliament,  independently  of  its  legislative  functions,  is  the  supreme 
court  of  judicature  in  the  kingdom.  The  House  of  Lords  exercise  jurisdiction  in  civil 
causes,  upon  appeals  or  writs  of  error  from  the  inferior  courts,  and  in  criminal  questions, 
when  brought  before  them  by  presentment  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in  tho  form  of  an 
impeachment 

The  Jiigh  Court  of  Chancery,  in  which  presides  the  Lord  High  Chancellor,  has  two  di* 
tinct  tribunals:  the  one  ordinary,  beuig  a  court  of  ci.ii  ion  law;  the  other  extraordinary, 
being  a  court  of  equity.  From  the  ordinary  or  legal  coirt  issue  all  original  writs  that  pass 
the  great  seal,  all  commissions  of  charitable  uses ;  as  also  of  bankruptcy,  idiotcy,  and  lunacy ; 
for  such  writs  it  is  always  open  to  the  subject  In  the  extraordinary  court  or  court  of  equity, 
the  chancellor  exercises  a  most  extensive  jurisdiction,  determining  causes  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  ordinary  tribunals,  and  others  in  which  reason  and  justice  require  that  the  rigorous 
application  of  the  rules  of  common  law  sliould  be  mitigated.  These  decisions  emanate  from 
the  judgment  of  the  lord  chancellor  alone.  An  assistant  judge,  called  Vice-chancellor  of 
England,  has  power  to  hear  and  determine  all  causes  depending  in  the  court ;  all  his  decrees 
are  valid  and  efferfual,  subject  however,  to  reversal  by  the  lord  chancellor,  and  not  to  be 
enrolled  until  signed  by  him;  nor  are  they  to  discharge,  reverse,  or  alter  any  decree  of  the 
lord  chancellor  or  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls.  The  Master  of  the  Rolls,  who  ranks  next  to 
him  in  dignity,  and  holds  his  office  for  life,  acts  in  a  judicial  capacity  as  assistant  to  the  lord 
chancellor,  an'l  also  hears  and  determines  causes  on  certain  appointed  days ;  but  his  orders 
and  decrees  l  anot  be  enrolled  until  signed  by  the  lord  chancellor,  who  has  the  power  to 
discharge  or  alter  them.  The  masters  in  chancery  are  twelve  in  number,  including  the 
Master  of  the  Rolls,  who  is  their  chief,  and  also  including  the  Accountant-General.  They 
are  assistants  and  associates  of  the  lord  chancellor  and  the  master  of  the  rolls,  and  sit  with 
tliem  in  court  by  turns,  two  at  a  time.  In  1826  the  property  of  suitors  Li  chancery  amounted 
to  more  than  40,000,000/.  The  masters  make  up  their  accounts  with  the  Accountant- 
general,  and  pay  into  the  Bank  of  England  all  moneys  remaining  in  their  hands,  to  be  placed 
to  his  account.  He  merely  keeps  the  account  with  the  bank,  the  governor  and  company 
being  answerable  for  such  moneys. 

The  Court  of  King's  Bench  is  the  supreme  court  of  common  law  in  the  kingdom,  and 
takes  cognisance  both  of  criminal  and  civil  causes :  the  former  in  what  is  called  the  crown 
side  or  crown  office ;  the  latter  in  the  plea  side  of  the  court  It  is  also  a  court  of  appeal, 
into  which  may  be  removed,  by  writ  of  error,  determinations  of  all  the  courts  of  record  m 
England.    The  court  consists  of  a  chief  justice,  and  three  miune  judges. 

The  Uourt  of  Common  Pleas  takes  cognisance  of  all  civif  actions  dependuig  between  sub* 
ject  and  subject  Many  questions,  however,  may,  by  legal  contrivances,  1»  brought  into 
ttiis  or  mto  the  Court  of  Kin^f's  Bench  at  the  option  of  the  parties.  The  Court  of  Cwimon 
Pleas  consists  of  a  chief  justice,  and  three  puisne  judges. 


Part  in 

m  bmounta  to 
and  allowance 
The  buildin{; 
with  the  navy, 
charges,  witli 
10  entire  navy 

itcd  to  200,000 
}f  local  militia 
ed  in  the  terri- 
rapid  reduction 
e  regular  force 
9,720  employed 
leso  forces  was 
inccs,  pensions, 

stitute  the  most 
livided  into  two 
he  common  law 
rds  of  the  scve- 

It  includes  not 
ted;  but  certain 
;ical  courts,  the 
3.  The  written 
nblcd ;  they  are 

or  remedial  of 
ir  special,  public 

is  the  supreme 
diction  in  civil 
minal  questions, 

the  form  of  an 

or,  has  two  dis- 

extraordinary, 

writs  tliat  pass 

toy,  and  lunacy ; 

•court  of  equity, 

eyond  the  reach 

lat  the  rigorous 

IS  emanate  from 

ce-chancellor  of 

all  his  decrees 

)r,  and  not  to  be 

ly  decree  of  the 

10  ranks  next  to 

itant  to  the  lord 

but  his  orders 

as  the  power  to 

including  the 

feneral.    They 

ils,  and  sit  with 

icery  amounted 

he  Accountant- 

ds,  to  be  placed 

ir  and  company 

3  kingdom,  and 
lied  the  crown 
[jourt  of  appeal, 
rts  of  record  iu 

■  between  sub- 
brought  into 
;(^  Common 


PooK  I. 


ENGLAND. 


8S. 


The  Court  of  Exchequer  has  jurisdiction  both  in  law  and  er^uity.  In  it  are  tried  all  qnes- 
cions  relating  to  the  revenue,  and,  by  fictions  of  law,  various  civil  actions  and  personal  suite. 
The  judges  are  four ;  a  chief  baron  and  three  puitni  barons. 

Trial  by  jury,  an  institution  coeval  with  the  origin  of  the  constitution,  and  justly  valued 
by  the  peopie  as  the  bulwark  of  their  liberties,  is  employed  in  all  cases  between  the  crown 
and  the  subject,  in  all  criminal  cases,  and  in  all  those  for  which  damages  are  awarded.  The 
jury  in  England  consists  of  twelve  persons,  whose  verdict  must  be  delivered  by  their  fore- 
man as  unanimous,  or,  in  the  technical  phrase,  as  agreed  upon. 

Courts  of  Assize  and  Nisi  Prius  art  auxiliaries  to  the  superior  courts  at  Westminster  for 
the  trial  of  causes  in  every  county  in  England,  twice  a  year  in  most  counties,  once  a  year 
in  others.  The  counties  are  comprised  in  six  circuits :  1st,  the  Home  Circuit ;  2d,  the  Mid- 
land ;  8d,  the  Norfolk ;  4th,  the  Oxford ;  5th,  the  Northern ;  and  6th,  the  Western  Circuit. 
These  circuits  are  supplied  b^  the  twelve  judges,  two  being  appointed  to  each.  In  these 
courts,  the  senior  or  superior  judge  generally  sits  on  the  crown  side  fbr  the  trial  of  crimintils, 
and  the  junior  or  inferior  judge  on  the  nisi  prius  side,  for  the  decision  of  cases  of  property. 

A  Court  of  General  Quarter  Sessions  of  tne  Peace,  held  in  every  county  once  in  every 
quarter  of  a  year  is  the  most  important  of  the  minor  tribunals.  Its  jurisdiction  extends  to 
all  felonies  and  trespasses ;  but  capital  felonies  are  usually  remitted  to  the  assizes.  The 
sheriflTs  toum  is  also  a  court  of  record,  held  twice  a  year  at  some  place  within  the  county. 
The  court-leet  or  view  of  fhmk-pledgo  is  a  court  of  record  held  once  a  year,  within  a  par- 
ticular hundred,  lordship,  or  manor,  before  the  steward  of  the  leet.  It  is  the  King's  court 
l^ranted  by  charter  to  the  lords  of  those  hundreds  or  manors.  In  aid  of  these,  and  other 
institutions  tending  to  the  maintenance  of  order  and  tranqv.illity  throughout  the  country, 
subordinate  magistrates  are  appointed  in  each  county,  under  the  name  of  justices  of  the 
peace.  They  hold  special  commissions  from  the  king,  and  are  empowered  to  suppress  riota 
and  aflVays,  to  take  securities  for  the  peace,  and  to  commit  felons  and  inferior  criminals. 
Their  jurisdiction  L  enforced  by  constables  and  other  subordinate  officers. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

The  productive  industry  of  England,  at  this  moment,  far  surpasses  that  of  any  other 
country,  either  ancient  or  modem.  Her  fabrics  clothe  the  most  distant  nations;  her  vessels 
traverse  alike  the  polar  and  equatorial  seas.  The  downfall  of  the  feudal  power ;  the  civil 
and  social  advantages  which  the  people  acquired  under  the  last  Henries ;  and,  above  all,  the 
spirit  of  enterprise  diifused  among  them  under  Elizabeth,  gave  a  great  impulse  to  commerce 
and  industry.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  era  of  the  Revolution,  that  the  nation  entered 
upon  that  grand  career  of  prosperity,  in  which  she  has  ever  since  proceeded  with  accele- 
rated activity. 

Agriculture,  as  the  greatest  and  most  essential  source  of  human  wealth  and  comfort,  must 
always  claim  pre-eminence  over  the  other  branches  of  human  industry.  For  two  or  three 
centuries  the  English  tenantry  have  been  an  independent  and  substantial  race.  Such  had 
been  the  progress  of  agriculture,  that,  even  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  England  had 
become  a  regular  grain-exporting  country.  Still,  fifty  years  ago,  the  practice  of  this 
important  art  was  comparatively  cumbrous,  costly,  and  unproductive.  Since  that  time, 
nobles  and  statesmen  have  vied  with  each  other  in  their  zeal  for  the  promotion  of  agricul- 
ture. Prizes,  exhibitions,  and  other  institutions  calculated  to  excite  a  spirit  of  improvement, 
have  been  established  on  a  great  scale.  Even  royal  pc*ronage  was  extended  to  this  most 
useful  of  arts,  and  a  board  was  formed  under  public  auspices  "or  its  promotion.  An  extraor- 
dinary impulse  was  also  given  by  the  scarcity  at  the  close  ot  the  eighteenth  century ;  when 
the  continental  ports  were  closed,  and  grain  rose  to  an  unprecedented  price,  from  which  it 
has  since  been  reduced,  indeed,  but  not  to  its  former  rate.  The  old  routine  system  was, 
after  Uiat  crisis,  broken  up,  and  every  exertion  made  to  augment  the  products  of  the  soil. 
Commons  were  enclosed,  marshes  drained,  grasses)  of  the  most  useflil  species  cultivated,  and 
every  process  that  multiplied  exppvunents  had  proved  to  be  advantageous,  introduced.  Par- 
ticular attention  was  bestowo-'.  in  improving  the  breed  of  cattle  and  sheep ;  and  for  the 
accomplishment  of  this  purpose,  the  best  species  were  imported  from  abroad.  At  the  same 
time,  economical  farming  was  greatly  studied ;  the  disproportionate  number  of  horses  and 
oxen  was  reduced ;  and  machinery,  particularly  the  threshing-machine,  came  into  general 
use.  Thus  a  great  augmentation  took  place  in  the  produce  of  the  soil ;  still  greater  in  tiie 
profit  of  the  farmers,  and  much  the  greatest  in  the  rent  of  the  landlord,  which,  in  many 
instances,  was  more  than  tripled.  The  reduced  prices,  however,  which  have  ultimately 
been  the  result  of  this  augmented  production,  have,  at  last,  rendered  it  difficult  to  supper 
the  great  advance  in  this  last  particular. 

The  natural  fertility  of  England  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  countries  in  the  south  of 
Europe.  Her  pastures,  however,  are  richer ;  and  her  soil  is  capable  of  yielding  all  the 
valuable  kmds  of  grain  in  abundance,  and  of  good,  if  not  superior  quality.  These  natural 
advantages,  improved  by  her  extraordinary  incmstry,  raise  the  agricultural  products  of  Eng 
land  to  a  much  greater  amount  than  those  of  any  other  country  in  Europe. 


3sa 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IlL 


i« 


u 


:'i-:i! 


The  surfiioe  of  England  is  thirty -sevea  millions  of  acres.  About  half  a  million  is  occu- 
pied by  roads ;  and  if  we  also  make  allowance  for  waters,  natural  and  artificial,  &c„  we  ma^ 
probably  linve  to  deduct  two  millions  from  the  part  which  forms  the  proper  subject  of  agri- 
culture. Of  this,  half  is  under  tiie  plough,  and  half  devoted  to  pasturage;  upwards  of  three 
millions  are  in  wheat ;  about  three  millions  in  oats  and  beans,  and  between  two  and  three 
millions  in  barley.  About  300,000  cwt  of  hops,  of  the  value  of  £200,000,  and  4,400,000 
gallons  of  cider,  are  annually  produced. 

The  manufactures  of  Britain,  still  more  than  even  the  immense  products  of  her  agricul- 
ture, have  astonished  the  world,  and  raised  her  to  a  decided  superiority  over  all  other  nations. 
This  distinction  she  has  attained,  not  so  much  bv  their  extreme  fineness;  for,  as  to  this 
particular,  France  excels  not  only  in  silks  and  cambrics,  but  even  in  woollens ;  and  British 
porcelain  does  not  equal  that  of  Dresden.  But  she  stands  unrivalled  in  the  immensity  of 
usefhl  and  valuable  products,  calculated  for  the  consumption  of  the  great  body  of  mankmd ; 
and  above  all  in  tiie  stupendous  exertions  made  in  contriving  and  constructing  the  machinery 
by  which  ttiey  are  produced. 

The  woollen  manufacture  is  the  old  staple  of  the  country.  As  soon  as  England  began  to 
exercise  any  kind  of  industry,  her  first  aim  was  to  manufiicture  her  own  wools,  instead  of 
leaving  this  operation  in  the  hands  of  the  Flemings.  The  fabric  began  in  Kent  and  Sus- 
sex ;  but  soon  spread,  and  fixed  itself  in  the  interior  districts ;  that  of  coarse  woollens  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkdiire,  and  that  of  the  finer  cloths  in  Gloucestershire  and  Wiltshire.  In 
ISOO,  the  total  value  of  Uie  fabrics  was  20,000,000/.,  of  which  not  much  less  than  half  was 
exported.  In  the  course  of  the  centui^  it  has  continued  increasing,  though  not  with  the 
same  rapidity  as  some  other  fabrics.  The  quantity  exported  has  not,  however,  been  aug- 
mented m  proportion.  In  1802,  it  exceeded  7,000,(X)0/. ;  but  in  1832  was  only  5,240,0001!. 
This  manufacture,  however,  depending  chiefly  upon  home  consumption,  is  less  liable  to  vicis- 
situde than  those  which  have  their  prmcipal  market  in  foreign  countries. 

The  wool  is  partly  produced  in  Britain,  partly  drawn  n:om  abroad.  English  wool  is 
divided  into  long  and  short  The  former  was  long  considered  as  exclusively  adapted  to 
worsted  stuffs ;  but  the  recent  improvements  in  machinery  have  enabled  the  manufacturer  to 
pixiduce  these  stuffs  almost  equally  well  from  shorter  wool.  The  short  wool  is  fitted  for 
cloth  and  hats ;  but  all  that  is  produced  in  England  is  of  secondary  fineness.  EfiTorts  were 
made,  about  the  close  of  Uie  last  century,  to  introduce  the  merino  breed  firom  Spain,  and  not 
without  success ;  but  the  flesh  being  bad,  the  ftirmers  gave  it  up,  and,  devoting  themselves 
to  the  improvement  of  the  carcase,  have  allowed  the  wool  even  to  degenerate,  though  the 
increased  quantity  is  supposed  to  indemnify  them.  The  best  short  wool  is  that  of  Sussex 
(Southdown)  and  Norfolk ;  the  best  long  wool  that  of  Lincoln.  The  number  of  short-woollcd 
sheep  throughout  England,  in  1828,  amounted  to  about  14,850,000,  that  of  long-woolled  tc 
4,150,000 ;  and  the  produce  was  264,000  packs  of  long,  and  120,000  packs  of  short  wool ; 
to  which  m^ht  be  added  69,000  packs  of  lamb's  wool,  and  0000  for  Wales ;  making  in  all 
463,000.  The  defect  of  English  wool  renders  it  necessary  to  import  a  large  quantity  fivm 
abroad.  The  fleece  chiefly  valued  is  that  of  the  merino,  long  confiied  to  Spain :  and  Spanish 
wool,  in  the  early  part  of  this  centui7,  was  introduced  to  the  extent  of  6,000,000  Ibb.  annu- 
ally, but  in  1827  it  fell  short  of  4,000,000  lbs.,  and  in  1832  did  not  exceed  2.626,000  lbs.  It 
has  been  supplanted  by  the  wool  of  Saxony,  and  other  parto  of  northern  Germany,  where  the 
merino  breed  has  ')oen  introduced  and  propagated  with  the  greatest  success.  The  importa- 
tion fi-om  Germany,  which  in  1810  was  only  778,000  lbs.,  was  in  1830  so  high  as  26,073,000  lbs., 
tliough  >n  1832  only  19,832,000  lbs. :  New  Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  Land  in  that  year 
fumitiiied  2,377,000  lbs.  of  very  fine  wool ;  and  the  supply  is  increasing.  The  entire  im- 
port amounted  La  1830  and  1831  to  about  32,000,000  lbs. ;  m  1832  to  only  28,140,000  lbs. 

The  annual  value  of  the  woollen  manufacture  appears  to  be  about  20,000,000Z.  sterling, 
and  tiie  persons  employed  between  400,000,  and  500,000.  There  were  exported,  in  18^ 
396,661  pieces  of  cloUt;  23,453  pieces  napped  coatings,  duffels,  &c. ;  40,984  pieces  of  ke^ 
sejrmeres;  34,874  pieces  baize;  1,800,714  stufis  or  worsted;  2,304,750  yards  flannels; 
1,681,840  yards  blanketing;  690,042  yards  carpe^uig,  &c.  There  wore  exported  also 
4,199,000  lbs.  of  British  wool,  and  2,204,000  lbs.  woollen  yam. 

The  cotton  manufacture  is  of  much  more  recent  introduction,  and  for  a  kn^  period  the 
progress  of  this  branch  of  industry  was  slow.  In  1760,  ^e  value  of  the  fiibric  was  coly 
200,000/.  In  1767,  James  Hargreaves,  a  common  Lancashire  weaver,  invented  the  spinning 
jenny,  by  which  at  first  8,  and  finally  120  spmdles  were  moved  by  a  single  spinner.  Har- 
greaves became  exposed  to  the  persecution  of  the  working  people  employra  in  t!iis  operation ; 
was  obliged  to  flee  to  Nottingham ;  and  died  in  poverty.  Richard  Arkwright,  a  barber  of 
Nottingham,  invented  the  water-twist,  or  "  perpetual  twist,"  spinning  firame,  in  which  the 
whole  process  was  performed  by  the  machine,  and  the  workmen  had  only  to  supply  the  material 
snd  watcli  its  progress.  Samuel  Crompton,  in  1775,  produced  the  machine  called  the  mule, 
a  combination  of  the  two  preceding,  which  it  soon  superseded  both  in  the  finer  and  moro 
valuable  articles. 

That  machuiery  should  weave  aa  well  as  spin,  was  necessary  to  consummate  the  triumpli 


Part  III 

million  is  occu- 
ial,  &c„  we  mny 

subject  of  agri- 
ipwarda  of  threo 
1  two  and  three 
D,  and  4,400,000 

9  of  her  agricul* 
all  other  nations. 
;  for,  as  to  this 
3ns;  and  British 
he  immensity  of 
ody  of  mankmd ; 
ig  the  machinery 

Inglond  began  to 
rools,  instead  of 
t  Kent  and  Sua- 
3  woollens  in  the 
id  Wiltshire.  In 
iss  than  half  was 
jgh  not  with  the 
wever,  been  aug- 
only  5,240,000i. 
ess  liable  to  vicis- 

English  wool  is 

sively  adapted  to 

3  manufacturer  to 

tvool  is  fitted  for 

!88.    Efforts  were 

)m  Spain,  and  not 

oting  themselves 

Brate,  though  the 

is  that  of  Sussex 

of  short-woollcd 

long-woolled  tc 

of  short  wool ; 

making  in  all 

ge  quantity  from 

)ain :  and  Spanish 

00,000  Ibb.  annu- 

12,626,000  lbs.  It 

rmany,  where  the 

The  importa. 

26,073,000  lbs., 

ind  in  that  year 

The  enture  im- 

28,140,000  lbs. 

00,000^.  sterling, 

xported,  in  18^ 

34  pieces  of  ker- 

yards  flannels; 

e  exported  also 

kng  period  the 
&bric  was  ooly 
tted  tlie  spinning 
spinner.  Har> 
tliis  operation ; 
ght,  a  barber  of 
ae,  in  which  the 
pply  the  material 
called  the  mule, 
finer  and  more 

late  the  triumph 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


'Jb,i 


of  art.  Th!3  was  aecofflpliflhed  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cartwright,  a  clerg3rman  of  Kent,  who  in- 
vented a  machine  by  which  cloth  was  woven ;  but  the  first  trial  was  unsuccessful  as  to  profit, 
and  an  impression  long  prevailed  that  cottons  could  be  woven  cheaper  by  the  hand.  Witiiin 
the  last  few  years,  however,  the  system  of  power-loom  weaving  has  been  adopted  to  an  im- 
mense extent ;  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  in  Britain  80,000,  absorbing  10,000,000/.  of  &  ^ 
lUid  5,000,0002.  of  floating  capital,  employing  160,000  operatives,  and  working  up  124,800,000 
pounds  of  cotton. 

The  steam-engine,  Ute  moving  power,  the  greatest  of  all  these  discoveries,  remains  to  be 
mentioned.  Machines  moved  by  horses  and  water,  originally  employed  in  manulacturing 
and  other  processes,  were  cumbrous,  expensive,  and  often  unmanageable.  The  steam-engine, 
brought  to  perfection  by  Watt,  became  at  once  the  moving  power  of  all  this  machinery,  and 
thept'ncipal  caufie  to  which  its  vast  results  may  be  attributed. 

llie  cotton  wool  imported  into  Britain,  whicn  in  1781  little  exceeded  5,000,000  lbs.,  rose 
in  1609,  to  98,000,000;  in  1817,  to  126,000,000;  and  in  1832,  to  288,000,000.  The  finest 
is  that  called  Sea  Island,  a  name  given  to  what  is  grown  on  the  coast  of  Georgia  and  Caro- 
lina. The  bowed  Georgia,  produced  in  the  inlerior,  is  not  of  equal  value.  Next  to  the  Sea 
Island  rank  the  West  India  and  Brazil.  Of  the  quantity  imported  in  1831,  there  came 
from  the  United  States,  219,333,000  lbs. ;  firom  Brazil,  31,695,000;  from  the  East  Indies, 
25,805,000;  from  the  West  Indies,  2,401,000;  and  from  Egypt,  7,714,000  lbs.  The  con- 
sumption of  printed  cottons  has  diminished  in  England,  silk  being  preferred  as  an  ornamental 
dress,  and  the  use  of  cotton,  j  /inted  or  dyed  previously  to  weaving,  having  become  preva- 
lent The  demand  abroad,  however,  is  still  extensive,  so  that  the  amount  of  pieces  printed 
is  about  4,500,000,  giv.'"^g  employment  to  100,000  persons. 

The  produce  of  the  cotton  manufacture  is  34,000,000/.  annually.  Of  this  18,000,000/.  is 
paid  in  wages  to  800,000  persons  employed  in  its  different  branches ;  and  allowing  for  those 
who  are  dependent  upon  them,  and  for  the  subsidiary  employments,  it  aflbrds  subsistence  to 
not  much  fewer  than  1,400,000  people.  The  value  of  cotton  manufactures  exported  in  1831 
was  13,282,000/.;  of  twist  and  yarn,  3,975,000/.  They  were  chiefly  of  the  following 
descriptions: — Calicoes,  cambric  muslins,  dimities,  &c.,  299,597,000  yards;  lace,  gauze-net 
and  crape,  48,164,000  yards ;  cotton  and  linen,  mixed,  1,668,000  yards ;  velvets  and  vel- 
veteens, 404,000  yards ;  counterpanes  and  quilts,  number,  23,000 ;  hosiery,  shawls,  handker- 
chiefs, &.C.,  536,000  dozen ;  tapes,  bobbins,  &c.,  99,000  dozen ;  thread,  1,105,000  lbs. ;  twirt 
and  yam,  48,098,000  lbs. 

The  working  in  metals  is  also  one  of  the  branches  in  which  England  has  attained  to  a 
most  decided  pre-eminence.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  rose  to  the  rank 
of  a  staple :  and  within  the  last  half  century  it  has  greatly  increased  in  importance.  Shef- 
field, perhaps  the  original  f.'co.t  of  the  trade  in  England,  is  still  distinguished  for  the  most 
solid  and  useful  articles,  knives,  grates,  and  their  appendages,  agricultural  implements,  &c.; 
while  Birmingham  adds  to  these  utensils  a  variety  of  small  articles,  ornamente,  and  toys, 
which,  though  minute  in  detail,  amount  to  a  vast  value  in  the  aggregate.  Each  of  these 
two  great  cities  forms,  as  it  were,  the  centre  of  a  large  circle  of  population,  all  employed  in 
the  same  manner.  The  numbur  of  persons  employed  in  the  product  and  manuracture  of 
metals  is  estimated  at  350,000,  and  the  entire  produce  at  17,000,000!.  The  export  of  hard- 
ware and  cutlery  in  1831  amounted  to  16,799  tons,  value  1,620,000/.;  in  1832,  it  was  15^294 
tons;  value,  1,433,000/. 

The  silk  manufacture  was  of  late  origin  in  England ;  but  it  wr"  considerably  iminoved  by 
the  revocntion  of  the  'ilict  of  Nantes,  which  drove  a  number  of  French  weavers  into  that 
country.  It  is  established  in  a  quarter  of  the  metropolis,  called  Spitalfields,  where  it  em- 
ploys about  25,000  men :  at  Macclesfield,  Manchester,  Coventry,  and  in  other  parts  o(  the 
country,  the  number  occupied  in  it  may  amount  to  40,000.  The  entire  value  of  the  manu- 
&cture  was  estimated  some  years  ago  at  4,000,000/. ;  and  may  now,  probably,  1:3  betwren 
5,000,000/.  and  6,000,000/.  Notwi  ;  .^'mding  the  removal  of  the  prohibitory  duties  on  the 
importation  of  foreign  silks,  the  British  manufacture  has  :  laintained  its  groand,  and  gnne  on 
increasing.  The  importation  of  raw  and  thrown  silk  ii.  -^ili  was  4,224,0Ci0  Ibe. :  .'hick 
1,814,000  lbs.  were  iWim  the  East  Indies  and  China;  1,006,000  lbs.  from  France ;  56  ■":■.>  lbs. 
from  Italy;  and  458,000  lbs.  from  Turkoy.  The  exports  amounted  in  1332  to  52J,000/., 
chiefly  to  North  America  and  the  West  Indies. 

In  the  manufacture  of  earthenware  and  porcelain,  England  has  of  late  made  vast  ad' 
vances,  and  brought  its  various  products  to  a  high  degree  of  beauty  and  elegance.  Burslem 
in  Staffordshire  had,  for  centuries,  been  noted  for  its  fiibrication  of  a  coarse  kind  of  ware ; 
but  it  was  reserved  for  Mr.  Wedgwood  to  carry  this  art  to  perfection  by  a  combination  of 
elegance  and  cheapness.  Fine  white  clay  from  the  south-western  counties,  and  ground  flint, 
iSf.  the  chief  materials  of  thia  celebrated  ware,  which  bears  the  name  of  its  inventor.  The 
white  ware  of  Derbv  and  the  porcelain  of  Worcester,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  are  still 
finer  productions.  The  latter  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  13  different  materials,  and  each 
cup  passes  through  23  hands.    Earthenware  pays  no  duty,  so  that  its  amount  cannot  be  offi- 

VoL.  I.  30*  tU 


o54 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  m. 


cia?',y  aBcertaiiiod ;  tho  i^^port,  however,  Iiqjb  diminiohed  froin  nearly  700,000/.  in  1815-Id 
t.if;.:v490,00'Uinl832. 

'■'■les  are  imported  from  all  quarters  of  the  world;  the  entire  quartity  in  1824  was 


<v. 


J0O,J0O  cwt,  value  700,000/.  In  1830  only  225,000  cwt  were  iinporttu.  In  that  year  the 
iiiues  tanned  or  otherwise  nianv<f'>ctured  amounted  to  46,800,000  )>)r  ,  valut:  3,f>00,0()0/. ;  and 
as  tiie  va'ne  of  tho  llnislied  article  is  supposed  to  bo  tliree  tirtOe  that  of  th;:  in«teria],  this 
value  will  amount  to  rex.iy  12,000,000/.  The  shoes  mart-,  in  Enfrland  aie  estirii acd  at 
6,800,000/.  and  the  whcit.'  manufacture  employs  about  250,0ii0  per?'  ii>. 

Beer,  gloss,  soap,  and  •.nndles  are  branches  of  production  ^vtiioh  cijploy.i  lar,^"  '  ;  ital 
End  numerous  v  crkmen,  lujd  yield  a  yearly  amount  of  great  miIuo.  In  Ixindon  the  t  >;•,  ty 
of  malt  liquor  ar.imally  brewed  is  1,700,000  barrelt.  if  whicli  ;i^i,CO(l  »^!'  exj. . .  jd.  "  !  ■  i» 
chiefly  porUr,  a  liquor  pemiliarly  appreciate  to  Lon  ,'i>d,  and  i\jc  which  she  h  liimoui?  th.  i  gh- 
out  tho  world.  In  all  Enjrland,  there  wero  s.-ewed,  ii  1820,  alv.it  7,400,000  barrelw,  f>t  the 
viiluo  of  upwards  of  22,00(,»,n00/. ;  witli  jut  iiicluding  l,.iOO,000  o^rrels  of  table-beer.  Can- 
dies. — In  1829,  the  manufectunj  amounti^u  *>  110,000,000  lbs.,  which  would  make  a  value 
of  8,208,000/.  Soap. —  The  aianufacturc,  in  1829,  was  100,000,000  lbs.  which  wotld 
amount  to  3,175.000/. 

The  linen  manufecturo  js  tiiat  in  which  En/^fiand  ."  nost  dt^ficient;  for  tJiougi'  ahe  is  fip- 
posod  to  produce  the  value  of  1,0  sO.OOO/.  a  ^"■^^r,  this  do  v)  not,  supeniedo  the  iiGi^assity  of 
lerge  imports  fro3r  Scotland  and  Ireland.  Of  late,  ihe  tlegml  wjt.;K'./'  '  .'C  of 'ace  iaa 
bee.ii  carried  to  greji.  perfection  by  means  of  bobbint!  frauts.  By  I'bis  m'Ji-'iactnve  a  value 
')f  Ib'ViifRiv',  tU  sil)<  and  Sea  Island  cotton  is  wroujht  into  kce,  estiiJvt.ted  at  1,390,000/.  and 
oropji  i  );t  iOS/KK)  perjons.  Dutilled  lii^juors  or  spirits,  too,  tljough  they  produce  a  revenue 
of  2,0  ■•\!'(K?J.,  r  •  neither  tqual  in  quality  nor  amount  to  those  of  the  sister  countries  of 
Scc^tland  nnd  h-  i>  r!<),  whi*.+  produce,  if  it  had  not  been  excluded  by  national  jealousy,  would 
probably  i:v  '1-5  timo  hi'se  driven  that  of  England  out  of  the  market.  The  quantity  distilled 
iu  1833."  ano  \9VJ2  avera  ;ed  7,350,000  gallons. 

Mines  it?  ai  oi;e  of  the  most  copious  sources  of  the  wealtli  of  England.  Tho  useful  metals 
dntt  iniucrals  those  wiiicii  afford  the  instruments  of  manufacture  and  are  subservient  to  the 
jiiiiy  purposes  of  life,  are  now  I'.i'awn  from  the  ecjth  more  copiously  there  than  in  any  other 
country.  Her  most  valuable  metals  are  iron,  copper,  and  tin ;  her  principal  minerals  are 
coal  and  salt. 

Iron,  the  material  of  so  important  a  class  of  manufacture,  abounds  in  England,  particularly 
m  Wales,  Staffordshire,  and  Derbyshire.  While  it  was  supiwsed,  however,  that  the  blast 
fiMioces  could  be  composed  only  of  charcoal,  the  limited  supply  of  wood  depressed  the  pro- 
dutij,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  iron  made  in  England  from  fifly  new  fur« 
naces  did  not  exceed  17,000  tonx.  It  was  tlien  found,  however,  &at,  furnaces  filled  with 
coke  might  be  boated  to  the  same  degree  as  those  of  charcoal,  and  the  inexhaustible  supply 
of  coal  might  be  employed  m  brmging  the  iron  mines  into  value.  Hence,  the  increased 
production  lias  been  asionisliingly  rapid.  In  1796,  it  amounted  to  125,000  tons;  in  1806,  to 
250,000  tons;  in  1830,  it  was  680,000  tons,  worth  5,100,000/. ;  and  which  the  additional 
labour  of  forming  it  into  bar  iron  may  raise  to  6,300,000/.  The  export  amounted  in  1832  to 
about  150,000  tons,  worth  1,120,000/.  It  is  exported  chiefly  in  tlie  forms  of  bai°  iron,  to  the 
amount  of  74,024  tons;  bolt  and  rod  iron,  6938;  pig  iron,  17,566;  cast  iron,  12,495;  hoops, 
9417;  nails,  4347,  &c. 

Copper,  also,  hiis  risen  to  importance  in  the  course  of  the  last  half  century.  It  is  found  chiefly 
in  Cornwall,  to  the  amount,  in  1832,  of  11,947  tons,  and  is  carried  thence  to  Swansea,  to  be 
smelted  with  the  coal  of  North  Wales,  which  itself  produced  1320  tons  of  coppr  r.  The 
total  produce  is  14,449  tons,  which,  at  90/.  per  ton,  wUl  be  1,300,410/. 

Tin,  a  rare  and  peculiar  metal,  is  found  only  in  Cornwall  and  part  of  Devon.  So  early 
was  it  known,  that  wo  find  the  British  Islands  first  recognized  by  its  name,  and  it  is  enu- 
merated among  the  articles  with  which  the  Carthaginians  supplied  the  markets  of  Tyre. 
As  Coin  wall,  with  the  exception  of  the  Indian  island  of  Banca,  is  the  only  tract  known  to 
produce  tin  in  large  quantities,  there  is  a  considerable  export  ia  most  countries  of  Europe, 
particularly  France  and  Italy.  The  annual  produce  of  the  ii:,i;!ep  amounts  to  83,000  cwt ; 
of  the  value  of  115,000/. 

Lead  is  found  in  Cumberland,  Derbyshire,  and  Northua>v  h],  to  the  supposed  amount 
of  about  16,000  tons  annually ;  which,  at  20/.  per  ton,  will  H;  th  320,000/.  ^n  1833,  the 
British  lead  exfs.    'd  was  13,898  tons. 

Coal,  thd  mor        table  of  all  the  mineral  substan'  ' 
perity,  exist4i  '       <  *t  inexhaustible  quantities  in  ' 
and  Sti^ord,  anu  in  that  of  Glamorgan  in  South  W..  ( 
steam  which  sets  the  machinery  in  motion,  and  k,  i"A'. 
every  substance  into  a  useful  and  merchantable  f  ' 
sity  of  extensive  plantations  for  fuel,  it  enables  a  mucu  gr 


devoted  to  cultivaution.    The  Northumberland  and  Durho 
■quare  miles,  the  South  Wales  field  is  1200 ;  which,  alio 


«vhich  Britain  derives  her  pros- 

<  ','"ia  of  Northumberland,  DeiVy 

it  fuses  the  metals,  produces  i!:>; 

istrumcntal  in  bringing  almost 

'uperseding  also  tlie  neces- 

'iroportion  of  the  toil  to  be 


has  been  estimated  at  732 
I'or  the  average  depth,  will. 


::x. 


Part  III. 
m.  in  1815-18 

J'  in  1824  wu 
n  that  year  the 
sr«0,0(X)/.;  and 

.!!  uiiiferJal,  this 
je  v'Stiruitod  at 

a  largo  c  ».?ital 
ion  the  t .;%  .  ty 
[>>.r.  .3d.  "  !.'  is 
ittmoi'gtii.  Mgh« 

0  barreltj,  of  the 
ble-beer.  Can- 
Id  make  a  value 
s.  which  woLld 

ougi'  she  is  E'lp- 
the  necessity  of 
'  re  of  lace  lias 
'.  ictuio  a  value 
l,890,000i.  and 
x4uce  a  revenue 
iter  countries  of 

1  jealousy,  would 
quantity  distilled 

'he  useful  metals 
ibservient  to  the 
han  in  any  other 
lal  minerals  are 

land,  particularly 
r,  that  the  blast 
pressed  tlie  pro- 
)m  fifty  new  fur- 
laces  filled  with 
haustible  supply 
e,  the  increased 
ana ;  in  1806,  to 
the  additional 
anted  in  1832  to 
f  bar  iron,  to  the 
,  12,495;  hoops, 

t  is  found  chiefly 
)  Swansea,  to  be 
)f  copp-:  r.    The 

even.  So  early 
I,  and  it  is  enu- 
arkets  of  Tyre, 
tract  known  to 
tries  of  Europe, 
to  83,000  cwt; 

ipposed  amount 
I.    Tn  1833,  the 

erives  her  pn»' 
berland,  DeiVy 
9,  produces  ilrii 
bringing  almost 
also  the  neces- 
'  the  toil  to  be 
timated  at  732 
ige  depth,  will, 


flOOK  I 


.Y 1'* 


ENGLAND. 


i>i>i;j'j 


aw 


>t  is  calculated,  be  sufficient  to  supply  all  England  for  1700  or  2000  years.  At  all  events,  it 
seems  certain  that  she  is  secure  for  many  centuries  against  any  denoiency.  The  quantity 
shipped  flrom  Durham  tc.iA  Northumberland  is  stated  at  3,300,000  toni ;  and  the  whole  em- 
ploy ed  as  fuel,  and  in  the  manufactories  and  mines  throughout  Engfland  (adding  700,000 
exprirtcd  to  Ireland),  at  not  less  than  15,500,000  tons.  The  mines  on  the  Tyne  employed 
8491  persons  underground,  and  3463  above ;  those  on  the  Wear,  about  three-fourths  of  this 
number :  tlie  conveyance  of  these  coastwise  employs  1400  vessels  and  15,000  men ;  while, 
in  London,  7500  whippers,  lighter-men,  factors,  agents,  &c.  are  engaged  in  landing  and 
distributing  it  Taking  into  view  the  whole  of  Great  Britain,  Mr.  M'Culloch  considers  that 
the  coal  trade  will  give  occupation  to  not  less  than  160,000  persons.  In  1829,  the  total 
quantity  shipped  was  6,224,125  tons;  of  which,  6,014,132  were  sent  coastwise;  840,240,  to 
Ireland ;  128,893,  to  the  British  colonies :  356,419,  to  foreign  countries. 

Of  salt,  Britain  possesses  an  immense  supply.  The  finest  and  most  valuable  kind  is  the 
rock  salt,  drawn  from  muies  and  from  brine  springs  in  the  county  of  Chester.  The  salt  is 
refined  by  being  boiled  along  with  the  brine  of  the  springs,  and  is  then  called  white  salt. 
The  annual  prMuce  is  15,0(X),000  bushels,  of  which  about  10,000,000  are  exported,  chiefly 
to  North  America,  the  Netherlands,  and  Russia. 

Tlie  commerce  of  Britain,  like  her  manufacturing  industry,  is  now  completely  without  a 
rival.  The  exports  of  Britain  consist  almost  wholly  of  her  manufactured  produce.  Cotton 
takes  the  precedence  of  all  others.  In  1830,  the  quantity  exported,  including  twist  and 
yarn,  was  valued  at  about  15,000,000^  stCTling ;  being  two-fiflhs  of  the  whole  exportption. 
Tiicy  are  sent  to  every  country,  but  most  especially  to  those  from  which  (he  raw  material  is 
imported.  The  United  States  take  an  immense  quantity ;  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil  im- 
port largely ;  the  market  in  the  independent  states  of  South  America  is  daily  enlarging,  and 
they  make  their  way  in  increasing  quantities  even  into  the  East  Indies.  In  Europe,  Portu- 
gal and  Italy  are  extensive  markets ;  and  though  studiously  excluded  from  Spain,  large  con- 
signments are  sent  to  Gibraltar,  evidently  with  a  view  to  clandestine  introduction.  Germany 
takes  a  great  quantity  both  of  manufactured  goods,  and  of  yarn  and  twist  for  her  own  manu- 
factories. The  woollen  manufacture  has  a  difierent  and  less  extensive  range.  The  United 
States,  the  greatest  market,  take  tiirce-eighths  of  the  whole ;  afler  which  rank  the  East  In- 
dies, Russia,  Portugal,  and  Germany.  The  wrought  metals  find  a  great  variety  of  market  j. 
Of  bar  iron,  7000  tons,  and  copper  50,000  tons,  go  to  the  East  Indies.  Ireland  takes  7000 
tons  of  bar,  700  of  cast,  and  2300  of  wrought  iron.  The  West  Indies  take  largely  both 
Iron  and  copper.* 

Among  the  imports,  a  large  portion  consists  of  raw  materials,  brought  in  vast  quantities  to 
be  manuractured,  in  many  instances  for  the  use  of  the  regions  from  which  they  come.  Under 
the  head  of  manufactures,  we  have  enumerated  the  principal  of  these  articles,  and  tlie 
countries  from  whence  imported.  They  are  chiefly  cotton,  wool,  silk,  and  hides ;  to  which 
may  be  added,  bark,  ashes,  and  barilla ;  cochineal,  indigo,  madder,  and  other  dvoing  stufl^. 
Although  grain  and  provisions  are  now  produced  in  suflScient  quantity  for  internal  consump- 
tion, there  is  much  want  of  the  raw  produce  of  uncultivated  land.  Under  this  head  a  promi- 
nent rank  may  be  assigned  to  timber  and  naval  stores.  Fir  and  oak  timber,  and  staves,  are 
brought  chiefly  from  North  America ;  masts,  deals,  and  deal  ends,  from  Norway  and  Russia ; 
oak  plank  from  I'russia. 

The  import  trade  of  consumption  is,  after  all,  the  most  extensive :  it  consists  chiefly  in 
obtaining  from  southeiii  regions,  and  those  warmed  by  tropical  suns,  the  accommodations  and 
luxuries  which  cannot  be  matured  under  a  less  genial  sky.  Wine  would  have  been  intro- 
duced to  a  very  great  extent,  had  not  its  exclusion  been  made  a  prime  object  of  fiscal  regu- 
lation. This,  nowever,  has  been  so  potently  applied,  that  the  use  of  wine  has  not  increased 
in  any  proportion  to  the  general  wecuth  of  the  nation ;  and  it  has  been  forced  from  the  near- 
est and  best  wines  of  France,  to  the  less  palatable  produce  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  Brandy, 
also,  still  account'.Hl  th  '  finest  of  spirituous  liquors,  forces  itself,  to  a  certain  extent,  into  the 
circ'  A'  \n<\  •  r.^j.  Biu  iic  saccharine  and  aromatic  products  of  the  tropical  plains  form  the 
baF '^^  .'  an  ramien"?  commerce,  which  even  the  adherents  of  the  mercantile  system  cherish, 
>  V  r  the  idea  that  mi.  •  ^i  of  it  is  carried  on  with  English  colonies.  The  leading  articles  are 
^ugar,  tea,  cofiee,  tobacco,  and  spices.  Notwithstanding  the  immense  cotton  manufacture 
of  Britain,  tho  piece  goods  of  India,  m  :  their  peculiar  excellence,  still  find  their  way  into 
the  country. 

The  shipping  by  which  so  extensive  a  trade  is  carried  on,  must  necessarily  be  very  exten- 
sive. Ill  1603  it  was  only  95,000  tons.  It  rose  in  1701  to  273,000;  in  1751,  to  609,000; 
in  1792,  to  1,186,000.  The  vessels  belonging  to  the  British  empire  at  the  end  of  1834,  were 
20.055,  of  2,716,000  tons,  and  nR"igated  by  Ifl'^.OOl  men.  The  entries  and  clearunces  for 
the  coasting  trade,  in  iS52,  amounted  each  to  8,500,000  tons.  Besides  these,  m  the  same 
year,  4546  foreign  vessels,  comprising  639,979  tons,  and  navigated  by  35,399  men,  entered 
til"  v^xXb  of  Great  Britain.* 

•  See  Btatiitical  Tablet,  ai  end  of  Cbap.  IV. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  K1 


The  fisheries  do  not  seem  to  have  been  so  much  cultivated  in  Britain,  aa  the  hard^  enter' 
prise  of  the  nation  might  have  led  us  to  expect  The  wliale  fishery  was  considered  so  valu- 
able, both  for  its  products,  and  as  a  nursery  for  seamen,  that,  till  1824,  a  bounty  was  granted 
in  proportion  to  tlie  tonnage  of  the  vessels  employed.  They  have  found  theur  way  to  the 
antarctic  polar  sea,  m  search  of  an  oil  which,  though  not  superior  for  burning,  is  better 
adapted  to  the  purposes  of  manufiicture,  than  that  drawn  from  the  arctic  reg&ns.  This 
fishery,  within  the  last  twelve  years,  has  considerably  diminished  both  in  amount  and  in  the 
value  of  its  products,  owing  to  the  use  of  gas,  the  greater  cheapness  of  rape-oil  for  manu- 
fiicture, and  pIso  to  a  larger  part  of  the  tnme  being  ennosscd  by  Scotland.  In  1820  there 
sailed  fi-om  England  only  41  vessels,  of  13,766  tons  burden ;  which  brought  in  4912  tuns  of 
oil,  and  289  tons  of  whalebone.  The  following  year  was  still  more  deficient,  owing  to  the 
disasters  encountered  by  the  vessels  engaged  m  the  fishery. 

Of  the  fisheries  in  the  British  seas,  that  of  Herrings,  the  most  important,  belongs  almost 
antirely  to  Scotland.  Next  to  this  ranks  that  of  Puchords,  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall  and 
sart  of  Devon.  The  fish  is  found  there  in  such  immense  shoals,  that  it  forms  the  chief  food 
of  the  people  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  is  also  largely  salted  for  exportation. 
The  value  annually  taken  is  reckoned  at  50,000Z.  or  60,00(M. 

The  interior  navigation  of  England  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  prime  sources  of  her 
prosperity.  Till  the  middle  of  last  century,  the  making  of  canals  did  not  enter  into  the 
system  of  English  economy.  In  1755  was  formed  the  Sankey  canal,  a  Ime  of  twelve  miles, 
to  supply  Liverpool  with  coal  from  the  pits  at  St.  Helen's.  The  example  then  set  by  the 
Duke  of  Bridgewater  gave  a  general  impulse  to  the  hation.  Since  that  time,  upwanls  of 
30,000,000{.  sterling  have  been  expended  in  this  object.  Twenty-one  canals  have  been  car- 
ried across  the  central  chain  of  hills,  by  processes  in  which  no  cost  has  been  spared ;  all  the 
resources  of  art  and  genius  have  been  employed;  every  obstacle,  however  formidable,  which 
nature  could  present,  has  been  vanquished.  By  locks,  and  by  inclined  planes,  the  vessels 
are  conveyed  up  and  down  the  most  rugged  steeps ;  they  are  even  carried  across  navigable 
rivers  by  bridges.  When  other  means  fail,  the  engineer  has  cut  through  the  heart  of  rocks 
and  hills  a  subterraneous  passage.  Of  these  tunnels,  as  they  are  called,  there  are  said  to  be 
forty-eight,  the  entire  length  of  which  is  at  least  forty  miles. 

The  Duke  of  Bridgewater  formed  the  plan  of  opening  a  communication  between  Man- 
ciiester  and  his  extensive  coal-mines,  at  Worsley.  The  obstacles  were  so  great,  both  firom 
nature  and  art,  that  the  attempt  must  have  proved  abortive,  had  he  not  been  seconded  by  the 
genius  of  Brindley,  who,  firom  a  common  millwright,  raised  himself  to  be  the  first  engineer 
of  the  age.  The  canal  was  carried  through  vast  excavations,  made  partly  in  the  interior  of 
the  mine  itself;  it  was  led  by  aqueducts  over  a  succession  of  public  roads,  and  over  the  river 
Irwell  by  a  magnificent  bridge,  which  left  space  for  vessels  witii  their  sails  spread  to  pass 
beneath.  By  deep  cuttings,  and  by  artificial  mounds,  in  some  places  supportea  upon  piles, 
a  level  of  upwards  of  fifty  miles  was  completed.  The  Duke  expended,  m  this  undertakir>q', 
his  whole  fortune,  amounting  to.350,000I. ;  and  its  failure  would  have  left  him  destitute: 
but,  OS  it  unmediately  enablra  him  to  reduce  the  price  of  coal  in  Manchester  to  one  half,  the 
trade  in  a  short  time  yielded  twenty  per  cent,  upon  his  outla''-  rnd  rapidly  produced  an 
immense  income. 

The  Grand  Trunk  Canal,  an  undertaking  on  a  still  greater  scale,  formed  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Marcjuess  of  Stafford,  by  a  course  of  ninety  miles  through  Stafilbrdshire, 
connects  the  Trent  with  the  Mersey,  Laverpool  with  Hull,  and  the  eastern  with  the  western 
coasts.  It  gave  animation  to  the  trade  of  all  the  districts  throagh  which  it  passed,  particu- 
larly that  of  the  Potteries,  and  served  as  a  basis  for  various  canals  and  railways  branching 
from  it.  From  a  point  near  the  commencement  of  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Ellesmere  ctmS 
has  branched  far  into  Wales,  and  conveys  to  Liverpool  the  mineral  and  agricultural  produce 
of  that  principality.  From  its  eastern  termination,  large  branches  have  been  extended  to 
Derby,  to  Nottingham,  to  Grantham,  and  other  considerable  towns. 

The  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal,  by  a  more  northerly  line  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles,  connects  the  Mersey  with  the  Aire,  a  tributary  or  the  Ouse,  and  thus  enaUea  Liver 
pool  and  Hull  to  communicate  by  another  line  across  the  great  cloth-manufkctnring  districts. 
An  important  branch  of  this  canal  is  carried  to  Lancaster,  and  on  to  Kendal. 

From  the  vicinity  of  London  the  Ghrand  Junction,  at  an  expense  of  two  millions,  was  car- 
ried by  a  line  of  ninety  miles  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Coventiy.  Near  Daventry,  the  Grand 
Union  strikes  off,  and  joins  the  Grand  "n^nk,  thus  securing  for  London  an  inland  coihmuni- 
cation  with  Liverpool,  and  with  all  the  great  manufacturing  cities  of  ik'i  West  A  great 
system  of  canals  was  formed  round  Birmingham,  of  which  one  resrlt  was  to  connect  the 
Grand  Trunk  with  the  Severn,  and  thus  to  form  a  connexion  betweeii  all  the  four  gre  -t 
rivers  of  England,  and  all  its  commercial  and  manufiictnring  citiea  A  canal  had  already 
been  formed  fl?om  Coventry  to  Oxford.  That  of  the  ThameH  tmA  8-^  ••'em  joined  these  tvra 
main  rivers  at  the  highest  navigable  point  of  the  former.  The  Gloucester  and  Berkeley  is 
a  lateral  canal  to  the  Severn,  by  means  of  which  Gloucester  is  connected  with  t^e  Bristol 
llhamiel  by  a  direct  line.    The  principal  canals  to  the  south  of  the  Thames  are  the  Eennat 


Pabt  KI 

B  hard^  enter- 
idered  bo  valu- 
y  was  granted 
sir  way  to  the 
lin^,  is  better 
«gionB.  This 
unt  and  in  the 
■oil  fbr  manu- 
In  1820  there 
1 4912  tuna  of 
,  owing  to  the 

elongs  almoBt 
Cornwall  and 
the  chief  food 
>r  exportation. 

sources  of  her 
inter  into  tiie 
twelve  miles, 
lien  set  by  the 
le,  upwards  of 
lave  been  car- 
pared  ;  all  the 
lidable,  which 
;s,  the  vessels 
ross  navigable 
tieart  of  rocks 
are  said  to  be 

letween  Man- 
sat,  both  from 
conded  b^  the 
first  engineer 
he  interior  of 
jver  the  river 
iprsad  to  pass 
d  upon  piles, 
undertakirq', 
im  destitute: 
one  half,  the 
produced  an 

under  the 
Staffordshire, 

the  western 
«ed,  particu- 
^s  branching 
(smere  camJ 
ural  produce 

extended  to 

and  twenty 
tables  Liver 
ing  districts. 

ins,  was  car- 
y,  the  Grand 
id  codimuni- 
it  A  great 
connect  the 
>  four  gre  "t 
had  already 
}  ^sse  tws 
Berkeley  is 
tlie  Bristol 
theKeniwt 


Book  I. 


nrt' 


ENGLAND. 


U'.i'<.l(| 


357 


and  Avon  canal,  ond  the  Berks  and  Wilts  canal,  through  which  a  communication  is  formed 
from  the  Thames  near  Abingdon  to  tlio  cities  of  Bath  and  Bristol.  The  total  length  of  canals 
in  Great  Britain,  excluding  those  under  five  miles,  is  2581  miles. 

Railways  form  another  contrivance,  by  wliich  the  conveyance  of  goods  is  wonderfully 
fkcilitated,  by  causing  the  wheels  to  roll  over  a  smooth  surface  of  iron.  Railways  were  at 
first  used  only  on  a  small  scale,  chi^il^  in  the  coal-mines  round  Newcastle,  for  conveying 
the  mineral  m>m  the  interior  to  the  surface,  and  thence  to  tiic  place  of  shipping ;  and  it  is 
reckoned  that  round  that  city  tliere  is  on  extent  of  about  three  hundred  miles  of  tliese  rail- 
ways. Thev  were  gradually  employed  on  a  greater  scale,  particularly  in  Wales,  where  IIlS 
county  of  Glamorgan  has  one  twenty-five  miles  long,  and  in  all  two  hundred  miles  f  rail- 
way. The  railway  between  Manchester  and  Liverpool  extends  tliirty-one  miles,  and  is  car- 
ried over  sixty-three  bridges,  thirty  of  which  pass  over  the  turnpike  road,  and  one  over  the 
river  Irwell.  The  entire  cost  was  about  820,000/. ;  but  the  intercourse  has  been  so  exten- 
sive as  to  affiird  an  ample  remuneration.  The  Cromford  and  High  Peak  railway  is  carried 
over  the  high  mountainous  district  of  Derbyshire,  connecting  the  two  canals  which  bear 
these  names.  Its  length  is  thirty-three  miles,  carried  over  fifly  bridges,  and  rising  to  a  level 
d*  992  feet  above  the  Cromford  canal.    The  entire  expense  has  not  exceeded  180,0001. 

The  common  high  roads  of  the  kingdom  are  also  an  object  of  high  importance  to  trade  and 
general  intercourse.  Half  a  century  ago  most  of  them  appear  to  have  been  in  a  miserable 
state,  but  they  are  now,  perhaps,  the  best  in  the  world,  chiefly  through  the  application  of  the 
turnpike  system,  under  which  they  are  made  and  repaired  by  tolls  levied  upon  the  travellers, 
uid  administered  by  county  trustees.  There  are  a  few  cases  where  roads  ore  to  be  carried 
through  poor  provinces,  or  form  grand  lines  of  national  communication,  in  which  government 
judges  it  expedient  to  assist,  or  even  to  undertake  the  entire  construction  of  them.  In  1823, 
the  turnpike  roads  extended  in  all  to  24,531  miles  in  length.  The  amount  of  tolls  was 
1,214,0001.,  burdened  with  a  debt  of  5,200,000/. 

Bridges,  in  a  country  intersected  by  numerous  and  often  broad  rivers,  necessarily  attracted 
a  great  share  of  attention ;  and  the  ingenuity  and  wealth  of  England  have  been  employed 
in  maxing  extensive  improvements  in  this  branch  of  architecture.  South wark  Bridge  is  the 
most  complete  of  any  yet  formed  of  iron.  This  species  of  bridge  has  the  advantage  of  being 
lighter,  and  of  requiring  much  fewer  arches  than  those  of  stone.  A  still  raore  daring  form 
Ijfff,  ,  .   ,      I  ■)■         ■       has  been  given  t'/ this  material  by 

bridges  of  suspeiision,  formed  by 
iron  chains  stretched  f"    ss,  and 

■  ■■■ ^^iMiiiM  supported  by  fixed  poi.   -        each 

■^jJBMMl^  B  /'Ml"'.ilt[!L..--_'^-  L  X^  i.'i  i-^alKS    slcle.    This  constructioi.   ji   <•  cer- 
tain scale,  has  existed  in  China 
from  the  earliest  ages.    The  Ame- 
ricans were  the  first  to  adopt  it  of 
Henai  Bridge.  any  western  nation.    The  greatest 

undertaking  of  this  kind  yet  executed  is  the  Menai  Bridge  (Jig.  137.),  over  the  strait  which 
separates  Wales  from  Anglesea.  Arches  of  masonry  on  each  side,  at  the  distanc"  of  five 
hundred  and  sixty  feet,  are  united  by  a  bridge  of  suspension,  composed  of  iron  chains.   ... 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 
The  population  of  England  in  former  times  was  imperfectly  known,  being  calculated  only 
from  very  vague  surveys  and  estimates.  In  1377  the  results  of  a  poll-tax  were  given  as 
2,300,000 ;  but  from  the  many  evasions  to  which  such  a  census  would  gi-.  '  'hat  number 
was  probably  below  the  truth.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  during  the  a;  : :  a  menaced 
Spanish  invasion  in  1575,  a  pretty  careful  survey  was  made,  the  result  of  which  gave  4,500,000. 
At  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  the  increase  appeared  to  be  about  a  million.*  From  the  com- 
mencement of  fJie  present  century  decennial  enumerations  have  been  made,  of  which  the 
following  are  the  results: — 


Engtanrl. 
Wa|.  s  . 

Population, 
ISOI. 

Incruate 
perceDt. 

PopuUlion, 
1811. 

IncreaM 
pcrccot. 

FopulatloD, 

lai. 

Increoae 
percent. 

Fonuhtion, 
1831. 

8,331,434 
541,546 
470,598 

14} 

13 

9,551,«W 
611,788 
640,500 

171 
17 

11,361,437 
717,438 
310,300 

16 
13 

13,098,338 
805,-236 
977,017 

rv.  fte 

Total 

9,343,578 

27f 

10,804,176 

34t 

12,iW8,l74 

38 

14,180,591 

*  Population  if  the  BriUik  Empire  and  Cohniit. 

Great  Britain  andlreland 24>?il'^ 

Itfnrth  AiripriMn  nnlnnieg , , , ,,.,.,.,,,.,..  =  =  ,,,  =  ,::  =  ■.■.;:  =  ,,==!!  =  ........ 

West  India  "         

AfVican  "         ' 

iatie  "         

.lustralian  "         

.•  Ht  India  Company  ,-. 


1,309,000 

800,000 

300,000 

1,000,000 

05,000 

133,000,000 


Tota' 


150,806,834 
f  Am.  Ed.< 


#%• 


338 


DESCUEPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  11. 


r,i'' 


I't'ipo'-tion  qfdeathi,  marriageM,  (f-c.  to  thr  populution. — Among  tlio  facta  that  attest  tlit> 
improved  condition  of  the  people  of  Er<^lanJ  siico  1770,  the  oxtraitrainory  diminution  in  tlie 
rate  of  mortality  u  one  of  the  least  equivocal.  In  1780,  the  deaths  in  England  and  Wales 
amounted  to  about  1  in  40  of  the  population  ;  <i>  1700,  to  about  1  in  4&;  in  1811,  to  1  in  52, 
and  at  en  avero^M  of  the  five  years  ending  with  ld30,  1  in  54.  The  improvement  has  been 
particularly  couapicuous  in  the  great  towns ;  and  is  to  bo  iMcribed  to  tlio  more  comfortable 
situation  of  oU  r'  x.  p  (jreutcr  attention  paid  to  cleanliness,  &c.  The  proportion  of 
marriages  to  '!  <  ,if  i  iltf  -n  ..hi  recontlv  declined.  In  1760,  there  was  1  mnrrio^o  for  every 
116  individu  , '  •  in  i~v.  1  in  118.  liurinp  the  five  years  ending  with  1810,  it  was  as  1 
to  122;  I'.i.  dur  1,.  i.iO  t»vo  years  ending  with  1830,  it  was  as  1  to  129.  But  this  decrease 
is  to  be  u  ;cri  jod  wnolly  to  tho  greater  prevalence  of  moral  restraint,  the  proportion  of  ille- 
gitimate I  irths  not  having  increastd.  The  number  of  births  to  a  marriage  in  England  is 
ut)out  4.    Consumption  is  the  most  fatal  diricase. 

Tho  national  character  of  the  English  exhibits  some  very  bold  and  marked  features.  Of 
these  tho  most  conspicuous  is  that  love  of  liberty  which  pervades  all  classes.  The  liberty 
for  which  the  English  have  succ '?  V'  .idcd,  includes  tho  right  of  thinking,  saying, 

writing,  and  doing  most  thTsfK  >viiicti  opmioii  may  liictatr,  and  inclination  prompt.  Tlie 
knowledge  tliat  the  liighest  omces  and  digniMes  in  tho  state  are  accessible  to  all,  redouble^ 
their  activity,  and  encourages  them  tc  perseverance.  It  is  but  little  more  than  a  ct  n'ury 
bince  they  began  to  be  distinguished  as  a  manufacturing  and  commercial  people,  yet  tiiey 
Jmvo  already  outstripped  other  European  nations  in  mechanical  ingcnuit]^,  in  industry,  and  in 
mercantile  enterprise.  The  enormous  increase  of  capital,  and  the  substitution  of  machinery 
for  human  labour  in  most  of  their  manufkcturcs,  seem  likcljr  at  no  distant  period  to  produce  a 
total  change  in  the  condition  o  British  society.  Much  of  its  tone  is  given  by  the  landed 
gentry;  a  numerous  body,  whose  estates,  though  generally  considerable,  are  not  enormciis: 
wh.i!^;  on  the  Continent,  landed  property  is  usually  in  one  or  other  of  two  extremes ;  cither 
divided  into  minute  portions,  or  partitioned  into  a  fow  princely  domains.  The  English  gentry, 
unlike  tlieir  continental  neighbours,  reside  during  the  greater  part  of  the  yeor  at  their  coun- 
try-seata;  appearing  in  London  and  at  court  only  for  a  few  months  in  the  spring.  In  this 
class,  liid  indeed  among  the  English  in  gcnerol,  an  uncontrolled  temper,  clevotcd  by  the 
feelinof  of  independence,  oflen  impels  individuals  into  extremes  both  of  good  and  evil.  No- 
where exists  a  purer  spirit  of  patriotism;  nowhere  break  forth  •  .o  violent  excessta 
fiiction.    In  no  country  of  Europe,  pcrhujiH,  arc  tliere  so  many  men  who  act  steaUiiy  upot. 

f>rinciple ;  yet  in  none  exists,  at  the  same  time,  so  large  a  jjroportion  of  individuals  living  i  • 
labitnal  and  open  violation  of  all  principle,  and  frequently  in  contempt  of  legal  ordinunces. 
Domestic  life  is  cultivated  by  the  English  more  uedulously  than  by  an^  of  the  continental 
nations ;  tlio  sanctity  of  marriage  is  more  carefully  guarded ;  and  cnastity  in  the  female  sex 
more  strictly  observed.  In  its  minor  features,  the  English  character  has  undergone  various 
changes.  The  vices  of  drinking  and  swearing,  once  so  prevalent,  are  happily  no  longer 
fashionable.  Horse-rt^cing,  hunting,  and  rural  sports,  are  carried  to  excess  by  some  of  the 
country  getHlemen ;  and  t"e  more  barbarous  practice  of  boxing  still  has  cultivators.  Per- 
haps the  most  estimable  quality  of  tho  English  is  their  love  of  justice;  the  source  of  ail 
honourable  dealing  nmong  the  higher  lasses,  and  of  what  is  emphatically  called  ^flir|»Zay, 
in  the  transac*ion;^  of  hum!  ler  life.  "'"^  principh  ,  that  a  man's  word  should  be  his  bond,  is 
acted  upon  moi.t  i/gorousiy  where  the  j;reate8t  int'ircsts  are  at  slake ;  as  on  its  observance 
more  than  on  tlmt  of  any  law  that  ha?  been  or  can  be  devised,  the  commercial  and  financial 

Srosperity  of  tht;  country  depends.  The  English  are  the  most  provident  people  in  the  world, 
lore  than  a  million  o'  individuals  are  members  of  f'iendly  societies,  and  the  deposits  in 
savings  banks  ex. -ed  13,000,0001.  "'iie  great  extension  of  life  insurance  affords  another 
proof  of  this  laudablu  disposition.  Tho  English  also  deserve  to  ')e  called  a  humane  people, 
zealous,  both  from  feeling  and  from  princip' «,  for  the  promotion  of  evdy  thing  that  tends  to 
the  welfare  of  their  fcllow-cr  'ures.  '  lime  in  England  has  undergone  a  considerable 
change.  Highway  robbery,  so  p  valeni  towards  the  beginning  and  middle  of  last  century, 
is  now  nearly  unknown,  and  n)  ts  of  crimes  and  violence  have  been  materially  lessened. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  has  I,  .  ver  rapid  increase,  particularly  within  the  last  twenty 
y^rs,  of  crimes  ao^ainst  propetur.  A  u.  terial  change  has  recently  been  effected  in  the 
ciiminal  law  of  Erigland,  by  the  abolition  ot'an  immense  number  of  capital  punishments. 

Pnmition  for  the  Poor.  A  enmpulaory  rate  haa  been  levied  on  all  kinds  of  fixed  property,  for  the  aiippott  ot  all 
impotent,  poor,  and  nii'inplnycd  persons,  ever  since  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  1700  the  rates  amounted  to  about 
l,eO0,00O{.,  and,  notn'iih!>landinc  the  increase  of  population  and  taxation  in  tho  interval,  tliey  were  little  more 
than  3,00n,000<.  at  the  close  of  ihc  American  war.  In  179S  several  ill-considered  changes  were  made  in  the  mode 
of  granting  relief,  ami  the  pernicious  practice  of  eking  out  wages  by  contributions  from  tlic  rates  was  then  also 
adopted.  From  this  period,  down  to  the  termination  of  the  late  French  war,  the  progress  of  tho  rates  was  very 
.a.iid,  so  that  they  amounted  to  9,320,n00{.  in  the  year  1H17-18.  They  have  since  liecn  reduced,  but  they  still 
amounted  in  1831-32  to  P,509,000/,  The  abuses  arising  out  of  the  practice  of  paying  wages  out  of  rates  are  not 
inherent  in  the  system.  They  were  engrailed  upon  it  so  late  as  17B5,  nnrt  r.i?.y,  snd  it  U  to  be  iiupeu  will,  be  en- 
t!!e!y  r^!:;ovcd.  A  refoiffi  uf  iliiti  sort  would  of  itselftakc  nearly  a  third  part  from  the  rates.  [By  the  act  of  14th 
Angiist,  IESM,  which  provides  for  the  appointment  of  llircc  poor-law  commissioners,  with  power  to  makn  rules  and 
rcuiilatinns  for  the  management  of  the  poor  ar.d  he  administration  of  the  poor  laws,  these  abuses  have  beea 
i('f<irmed.— Am.  Ed 


Part  M. 

Ota  that  attest  tlii> 
diminution  in  tiie 
irland  and  Walu8 
1811,  to  1  in  52, 
>vcment  has  boon 
more  comfortable 
riio  proportion  of 
inrriago  for  every 
1810,  It  was  as  1 
But  til  is  ()<<crcasc 
jroportion  of  ille- 
go  in  England  is 

3d  features.     Of 

IC8.    Tlio  liberty 

thinlcing,  saying, 

m  prompt.    Tiie 

to  all,  redouble' 

B  than  a  century 

people,  yet  tiiey 

ri  industry,  and  in 

tion  of  machinery 

iriod  to  produce  a 

'en  by  the  landed 

re  not  enornniiis: 

extremes;  either 

e  English  gentry, 

BO  rut  their  coun- 

spring.    In  tliia 

',  elevated  by  tlic 

od  and  evil.    No- 

)lent  excess   , 

ict  steotiiiy  upoi, 

lividuala  liying  v> 

,epal  ordinunces. 

tiie  <'ontbental 

n  the  female  sex 

iderffone  various 

ippiiy  no  longer 

3  by  some  of  the 

iiltivators.    Per- 

Lhc  source  of  all 

cailed  ^air  play, 

i  be  his  bond,  is 

n  its  observance 

ial  and  financial 

)le  in  the  world. 

the  deposits  in 

affords  another 

humane  people, 

ig  that  tends  to 

a  considerable 

of  last  century, 

irially  lessened. 

the  last  twenty 

effected  in  the 

inishments. 

the  Biippnrt  ot  all 
mounted  to  about 
'  were  little  more 
made  in  the  mode 
itcs  was  tlicii  also 
ho  ratrs  was  very 
:od,  but  they  still 
It  of  ratci  are  not 
hupeu  wiii,  be  en- 
By  the  act  of  14th 
to  makn  rulea  and 
abuses  bare  bees 


Book  I.  KNGLAND.  liO 

The  English  arc,  in  general,  i  people  soberly  religious,  though  the  nation,  amoug  its  other 
excesses,  has  presented  striking  diiplays  of  inndclity  and  fanaticism.    The  Church  of  Eng« 
land  was  established  in  the  reign  or  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  the  reformation  was  completed 
which  had  been  begun  in  that  of  Henry  VIII.  It  is  an  integral  part  of  the  constitution,  hav- 
ing  for  its  head  the  king,  who,  as  head  of  the  church,  nominates  to  vacant  bishoprics  and 
cortain  other  preferments,  constitutes  or  restrains  ecclesiastical  jurisdictions,  inflicts  ecclo- 
liosticai  censures,  and  decides  in  the  last  retort  in  all  ecclesiastical  causes,  an  appeal  lying 
ultimately  to  him  in  chancery,  iVom  the  scntenco  of  every  ecclesiastical  judge.    In  respect 
to  its  church  government,  England  is  primarily  divided  into  two  provinces  or  archbishoprics, 
Canterbury  and  York.    Each  province  contains  various  dioceses  or  scats  of  suiTrogan  bisiiops, 
Canterbury  including  twonty-ono,  and  York  three,  bcsirles  tiio  bishopric  of  Sodor  iikI  Man, 
which  was  annexea  to  it  by  Henry  VIII.    Every  diocese  is  divided  into  archdeaconries, 
of  which  the  whole  number  amounts  to  sixty,  each  archdeaconry  into  rural  deaneries,  which 
are  the  circuits  of  the  archdeacon's  and  rural  dean's  jurisdiction ;  ani  each  deanery  into 
parishes,  towns  or  villages,  townships,  and  hamlets.    The  principal  cliurch  of  each  seo  is 
appropriately  called  the  cathedral  church ;  it  is  possessed  by  a  spiritual  body  corporate,  called 
a  dean  and  chapter,  who  are  the  council  of  the  bishop,  but  derive  their  corporate  capacity 
from  *ho  crown.    Chapters  ore  usually  composed  of  canons  and  prebendaries ;  tiio  mainte- 
nance or  stipend  of  a  canon  as  well  as  of  a  prebendary  being  a  prebend.    Prebendaries  are 
distinguished  into  simple  and  dignjtary.    A  simple  prebendary  has  no  cure,  and  nothing  but 
his  revenue  for  his  support;  a  dignified  prebendary  has  alvvajfs  a  jurisdiction  annexed,  which 
is  gained  by  prescription,     ''"'lo  archdeacon  has  autliority  in  the  bishop's  absence  to  hold 
visitations,  and  under  the  1     lop  to  examine  clerks  previous  to  ordination,  and  also  before 
institution  nnd  induction.     Ho  has  also  power  to  excommunicate,  to  impose  penances,  and 
to  reform  irregularities  and  abuses  among  liio  clergy,  and  has  charge  of  the  parish  churclios 
within  tiio  diocese.    Below  tiie  archdeacon  and  the  ecclesiastics  composing  the  chapter,  no 
mcinber  of  tho  Church  of  England  is  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  dignitary.     The  inferior 
orders  constitute  what  is  called  tho  parochial  clergy.     The  principal  person  of  a  parochial 
church  is  entitled  either  rector  or  vicar,  that  title,  which  is  really  more  appropriate  and 
honourable,  having  become  corrupted  by  vulgar  misuse.     The  revenues  of  the  church  of 
England  are  very  extensive;  and  considering  the  diflbrent  offices  and  gradations  of  its  mem- 
bers, •  i-ry  varior.sly  distributed   The  rental  subject  to  tithe  has  been  stated,  in  returns  mode 
to  nriiament,  at  20,000,000/.    Besides  the  tenth  of  this  amount,  that  is  to  say,  the  tithe, 
clergy  have  other  funds,  which  arc  supposed  to  raise  their  entire  income  to  upwards  of 
;f,0OO,0(X)Z.    The  Episcopal  revenues  are  of  various  amounts ;  that  of  the  see  of  Durham  is 
estimated  at  30,000/.  per  annum,  and  is  usually  considered  tho  largest.    The  lowest,  that  of 
Landaff,  falls  short  of  3000^    The  prebends  enjoyed  by  canons  and  prebendaries  are  some 
^f  them  very  ample ;  those  which  exceed  lOOOZ.  a  year  are  called  golden  prebends.    Those 
(I  -nitaries  are  also  competent  to  hold  livings  as  rectors  and  vicars.    The  salaries  of  curates 
'  formerly  in  many  cases  extremely  small ;  but,  by  a  legislative  provision  and  by  funds 
b     :ted  o'\t  of  the  piiblic  revenue,  most  of  them  have  been  augmented  in  proportion  to  the 
value  of  the  benefice  and  its  population;  801.  a.  year  is  the  lowest  stipend,  and,  if  tlie  living 
be  worth  400Z.  per  annum,  the  bishop  may  allow  the  curate  of  such  living  1001.  a,  year, 
whatever  be  its  population. 

In  her  intellectual  character,  England  may  be  justly  considered  as  standing  proudly 
eminent.  Bacon,  Boyle,  Locke,  Newton,  Davy,  with  a  long  train  of  coadjutors,  have  dis- 
closed to  mankind  perhaps  a  greater  sum  of  important  truths  than  lie  philosophers  of  any 
other  country.  Strong,  clear,  sound  sense  appears  to  be  thn  qvi;)3jly  peculiarly  English; 
and  her  reasoners  were  the  first  to  oxplode  those  scholastic  su';tleUcs  which,  having  usurped 
the  name  of  philosophy,  so  long  reigned  in  the  schools.  It  waf  their  merit  to  discover  and 
establish  true  philosophy,  and  apply  it  to  objects  of  real  interest  and  utility. 

In  works  of  imagination,  the  genius  of  the  English  is  bold,  original,  and  vigorous.  In  the 
drama,  Shakspeare  stands  unrivalled  among  ancient  and  modern  poets,  by  his  profound  and 
extensive  knowledge  (  mankind,  his  boundless  range  of  observation  tliroughout  all  nature, 
his  exquisite  play  of  fancy,  and  his  irresistible  power  in  every  province  of  thought  and  feel- 
ing, the  sublime  and  the  pathetic,  the  terrible  and  the  humorous.  In  epic  poetry,  Milton 
is  acknowledged  by  common  consent  to  stand  first  among  the  moderns.  Spenser  and  Dryden 
are  alike  eminent,  the  one  for  sweetness,  tho  other  for  versatility ;  while  in  correctness  ot 
taste,  and  the  polished  harmony  of  numbers,  Pope  has  no  rival  among  the  poets  of  any 
modem  nation. 

In  hisiorical  writing,  England  has  many  illustrious  names,  among  which  that  of  Gibbon 
deserves  on  honourabir  place.  In  oratory,  some  of  her  statesmen  have  acquired  great 
renown,  though  the  general  taste  both  in  the-  senate  and  at  the  bar  seems  to  delight  rathei 
in  plain  sense  and  in  cogency  of  argument,  than  in  those  elaborate,  ornate,  and  declamatory 
flights  by  which  the  great  speakers  of  antiquity  acted  on  the  imagination  and  passions  of 
their  hearers. 

'''ho  institutions  for  public  education  in  England  are  extensive  and  splendidly  endowed. 


DESCRIPTIVE  QEOORAPHY. 


Part  IIL 


)!'■! 


I       <  ^ 


:•! 


Ill 

I     ill 


The  two  univenitios  of  Oxford  and  Cambridgo  are  not  only  V.u  wealthieat  but  the  moat 
tnciont  in  Europe.  Thoy  onjoy  amongf  other  privilogoi  that  ofrotuminff  each  two  mombera 
to  parliament,  and  of  holdini;  courta  for  the  decision  of  cauiea  in  which  mombera  of  their 
own  body  are  interoated.  They  were  of  eccleaiaatic  ori|rin ;  but  they  havo  lonif  been  con- 
■idorod  as  lay  corporationa.  Tneir  reaourceM  have  bcon  augmented  by  the  munificence  of 
■ovcreisna,  and  of  opulent  individual*.  The  eatabliahmonta  compoaing  them  are  diatinguiahed 
into  coilngcB  and  halla ;  the  latter  boing  academical  houaea  not  incorporated  or  endowed, 
tliough  they  have  had  considerable  benomctiona,  which  aro  dispensed  to  the  students  in  exhi* 
bitions  limited  to  a  stated  period.  Oxford  hoa  nineteen  colleges  and  five  halla;  Cambridge 
has  thirteen  colleges  and  four  halls,  which  last,  however,  possess  the  same  privileges  as  the 
former.  Each  university  is  under  the  government  of  a  chancellor,  high  steward,  vice- 
chancellor,  and  rithcr  ofnconi ;  the  persona  who  preside  over  the  difibrent  establishments  as 
mastem,  wardens,  rectors,  principals,  or  provosts,  bear  the  general  denomination  of  heads  of 
colleges,  and  each  college  nos  a  number  of  fellowships  to  which  large  emoluments  and  easy 
duties  are  attached.  Tiicy  possona  also  extensive  patronage  in  church  livings,  and  a  number 
of  exhibitions  or  acholarsnips.  These,  though  or  considerable  value,  are  not  auppoeod  ade- 
quate to  defray  the  expense  of  a  rosidonco  at  a  university,  which,  at  the  lowest,  is  calcu- 
lated to  amount  to  150^.  a  year.  On  the  books  of  each  university  are  the  names  of  many 
members  who  have  long  ceased  to  reside ;  but,  exclusive  of  these,  the  number  actually  resi- 
dent at  Oxford  may  be  stated  at  ?OOO..and  those  at  Cambridge  amount  to  considerably  more. 
Students,  according  to  their  proficiency  in  leariilng,  are  Entitled  to  the  degmos  of  bachelor 
and  master  of  arts,  bachelor  and  doctor  in  divinity,  and  bachelor  and  doctor  in  the  faculties 
of  physic  and  law.  The  time  required  by  tiie  statutes  '.o  bo  occupied  in  study  before  each 
■tudent  can  bo  qualified  for  taking  those  degrees  is  three  years  for  a  bachelor,  and  about  four 
years  more  for  a  master  of  arts ;  seven  years  afler  that  he  may  commence  bachelor  of  divinity, 
and  then  five  years  more  entitle  him  to  take  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity.  In  law,  a 
student  may  commence  bachelor  after  six  years',  and  in  physic  after  five  years*  standing. 
Only  one  year's  attendance  and  the  hearing  of  a  smgle  course  of  lectures  are  required  as 
preparatory  for  entering  into  holy  orders,  the  lownoss  of  tlie  inferior  church  livings,  and  tlie 
expense  of  residence,  rendering  it  difficult  to  exact  more  firom  the  greater  number  of  can- 
didates for  ordination.  The  qualifications  for  a  bishop  include  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity. 

The  mode  of  instruction  is  by  private  tutors,  who  teach  classical  literature  and  the 
mathematics,  the  latter  branch  of  study  being  particularly  cultivated  at  Cambridge.  The 
public  examinations  are  conduct(<d  with  great  diligence,  and  excite  emulation.  Tlie  lucra* 
tive  fcllowsliips  may  sometimes  tempt  their  posscHsors  to  indulge  in  luxurious  case ;  but  to 
those  who  are  seriously  disposed  to  study,  they  afibrd  facilities  fi)r  research  hardly  attainablo 
in  any  otlier  sphere. 

Two  educational  establishments,  the  London  University  and  King's  College  have  been 
recently  instituted  in  London. 

Of  the  public  schools  of  England,  the  most  distinguished  are  those  of  Westminster,  Eton, 
Winchester,  and  Harrow.  Although  originally  founded  as  charity-schools,  vet  being  now 
appropriated  to  the  education  of  boys  of  the  first  fiimilies,  the  habits  formed  in  them  are 
very  expensive.  Greek  and  Latin  are  almost  exclusively  taught  there  by  masters  eminently 
qualified;  and  Englishmen  of  education  generally  excel  in  the  knowledge  of  both  languages. 

For  boys  of  the  middle  rank,  and  those  destined  for  commercial  pursuits,  there  are  numer- 
ous private  academies. 

Colleges  for  the  particular  study  of  law  and  equity  have  long  been  establiiihed  in  the 
metropolis,  under  the  names  of  inns  of  court  and  inns  of  chancery.  The  principal  of  these 
arc  the  Middle  and  Inner  Temple,  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  Gray's  Inn.  Before  any  person  can 
be  admitted  to  practise  as  an  advocate,  he  must  be  regularly  entered  in,  and  be  a  member 
of,  one  of  the  inns  of  court  for  five  years,  and  must  have  kept  his  commons  in  such  inn, 
twelve  terms.  In  favour  of  those  who  have  taken  a  degree  of  master  of  arts  or  bachelor  of 
laws  at  an  English  university,  three  years  are  sufficient  to  be  a  member  of  the  ina  Afler 
complying  witTi  these  conditions,  and  paying  the  regular  fees,  the  student  may  be  called  to 
the  bar  without  having  been  required  to  make  any  public  demonstration  of  his  proficiency  or 
ability. 

Of  primary  schools  for  the  great  body  of  the  people,  there  formerly  existed  a  considerable 
number ;  but  the  deficiency  of  them,  at  present,  is  greatly  to  be  deplored.  The  metropolis, 
indeed,  contains  several,  of  which  the  most  considerable  is  Christ-church  Hospital  or  the 
Blue-coat  School,  in  which  about  1100  children  are  maintained  and  educated.  The  number 
of  charitable  foundations  in  different  parts  of  the  country  amounts  to  3,898,  yielding  an 
income  of  65,395/.  Of  these,  however,  many  give  also  board  and  lodging,  so  that  their 
advantages  can  extend  to  only  a  small  number ;  others  liave  been  neglected,  and  left  exposed 
to  those  abuses  to  which  old  establishments  are  generally  liable.  Sc  greatly  was  the  in- 
fluence of  these  inBtitutious  on  the  great  body  of  the  lower  orders  diralnishei],  that  within 
the  last  SO  years  Uie  larger  proportion  of  labouring  people  were  unal)l<  to  read.    The  evilb 


Part  IIL 

hioNt  but  tho  moit 
each  two  momben 
ii  motnbora  of  their 
ivi!  long  beon  oon- 
the  munificence  of 
n  arc  (liiitin((ui*hod 
irated  or  endowed, 
lie  atudontfl  in  exhi- 
I  halls ;  Combridffe 
e  privileges  as  the 
ligh  steward,  vice> 
t  establishnionts  as 
ination  of  heads  of 
loluments  and  easy 
ingB,  and  a  number 
)  not  supposed  ade- 
le  lowest,  is  calcu- 
tho  names  of  many 
mber  actually  resi- 
considerably  more, 
legrnos  of  bachelor 
tor  in  the  faculties 
I  study  before  each 
clor,  and  about  four 
achelor  of  divinity, 
ivinity.  In  law,  a 
vo  years*  standing, 
res  are  required  as 
ch  livings,  and  Ute 
er  number  of  can- 
f  doctor  in  divinity, 
literature  and  the 
Cambridge.  The 
ation.  The  lucre* 
rious  case ;  but  to 
1  hardly  attainablo 

/ollego  have  been 

Westminster,  Eton, 
8,  yet  being  now 
med  in  them  are 
nasters  eminently 
of  both  languages, 
there  are  numer- 

istablished  in  the 
principal  of  these 
any  person  can 
and  be  a  member 
ons  in  such  inn, 
rts  or  bachelor  of 
r  the  inn.  After 
may  be  called  to 
his  proficiency  or 

cd  a  considerable 
The  metropolis, 
Hospital  or  the 
3d.  The  number 
398,  yielding  an 
\g,  so  that  their 
and  lefl  exposed 
atly  was  the  in- 
he^,  that  witiun 
ead.    The  evilk 


iXMI  I. 


/!'•)•  Mr  ENGLAND     -.>'(»• 


861 


truing  from  want  of  education  among  them  have,  at  length,  beon  strongly  felt;  and  very 

Srcat  exertions  have  been  made,  chieny  by  the  benevolence  of  private  individuals,  to  rcmady 
le  defect. 

Of  tho  Bcientiflo  institutions  of  England  the  foremost  is  "  the  Roval  Society  of  Loodoo 
for  improving  Natural  Knowledge."  In  its  infkncy  it  owed  much  to  the  protection  of  Oliver 
Cromwell ;  and  having  survived  tho  Commonwealth,  Nvas  incorporated  by  royal  charter,  in 
1003.  The  Society  publish  an  annual  volume  unilor  tho  name  of  Philoiophical  'IVamta^ 
tioM,  The  Society  of  Antiquaries  traces  its  oriuin  to  tho  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  but 
was  no*,  incorporated  until  IwSl.  It  has  publiahou  a  series  of  volumes  entitled  Arckaologim. 
Several  private  societies  have  been  formed  for  tho  cultivation  of  particular  branches  of 
knowlotlgc,  by  the  union  of  individuals  distindpishod  for  their  attainments  in  or  devotion  to 
thoso  branches.    Besides  these  and  other  institutions  in  tho  metropolis,  most  of  the  great 

ttrovinciul  towns,  as  Manchester,  Bristol,  Derby,  Liverpool,  and  Newcastle,  have  formed 
iterary  and  philosophical  societies,  which  have  made  some  important  contributions  to  science 
and  literature  in  their  Transactions. 

The  principal  public  libraries  have  owed  their  origin  to  the  spirit  and  enterprise  of  privata 
individuals ;  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford  was  tho  bequest  of  Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  and 
was  enriched  by  successive  donations.  The  British  Museum  derived  its  first  treasures  tirom 
the  collections  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton  and  Sir  Hans  Sloane ;  but  has  acquired,  through  purchase 
bv  parliament,  the  Harleian  and  Lanadowno  M8S.,  tho  libraries  of  Major  Edwards  and  Dr. 
Bumcy,  and  several  valuable  collections  of  coins  and  minerals.  It  has  also  been  enriched 
bv  tho  entire  collection  of  Georffo  III.,  presented  to  tho  nation  by  his  successor.  With 
this  accession,  the  library,  which  previously  consisted  of  125,000  volumes,  has  been  aug- 
mented by  one-half.  The  Museum  is  also  very  rich  in  specimens  of  natural  history,  par- 
ticularly of  mineralogv. 

Institutions  of  a  highly  usefbl  character  have  sprung  fVom  the  general  desire  of  knowledge 
which  marks  the  present  age.  Their  object  is  to  communicate  knowledge  to  the  commeiw 
cial  classes,  as  well  as  to  persons  who  have  not  opportunities  for  a  regular  course  of  study; 
and  tho  chief  moans  employed  for  this  purpose  are  a  librarj^,  a  roading-room,  and  courses  of 
lectures.  Of  these  establishments  are  the  Royal  Institution,  tho  London  Institution,  &c.; 
and  all  the  ^cat  cities  and  towns  have  now  their  public  libraries. 

Of  the  Fino  Arts,  that  of  painting  has  been  greatly  neglected  in  England.  Portrait 
painting,  indeed,  always  met  with  encouragement;  yet  Vandyke,  the  leader  in  this  branch  c£ 
art,  was  a  foreigner.  It  was  only  toward  the  closo  of  the  last  century  that  Reynolds  formed 
a  style  decidedly  English,  and  of  dititinguished  excellence. 

The  Royal  Academy,  under  the  immediate  patronage  of  tho  king,  consists  of  forty  artists^ 
including  tiie  president,  while  a  number  of  others  are  attached  in  expectancy  os  associates. 
There  are  four  professors,  viz.  of  painting,  of  architecture,  of  anatomy,  and  of  perspective, 
who  annually  read  public  lectures  on  the  subjects  of  their  several  aopartments.  To  tho 
schools  of  this  academy  free  admission  is  given  to  all  students  properly  qualified  for  receiv- 
ing instruction,  and  there  is  an  annua]  exhibition  of  paintings,  sculpture,  and  architectural 
designs,  to  which  all  artists  may  send  their  works  for  admission,  if  approved  by  the  commit- 
tee appointed  to  judge  them.  The  splendid  collection  of  paintings  formed  by  the  regent 
duke  of  Orleans  was  imported  entire,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  now  embellishes  the  gaflery 
of  the  Marquess  of  Stafford.  The  nobles  of  Italy,  also,  on  the  devastation  of  that  country 
were  obliged  to  strip  their  palaces  of  these  valued  ornaments,  and  to  dispose  of  them  at 
low  rates  to  English  speculators.  From  those  sources  were  formed  the  Grosvenoi,  the  An* 
gerstein,  and  many  other  private  collections.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Angerstein,  in  1824,  his 
collection  was  purchased  by  parliament,  and  made  the  basis  of  a  national  gallery,  which  has 
since  received  considerable  additions  both  by  purchase  and  bequest. 

In  the  other  departments  of  the  fine  arts,  music,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  the  English 
have  been  far  excelled  by  the  continental  nations ;  in  engraving,  they  have  produced  some 
distinguished  names. 

The  publishing  and  selling  of  books  form  one  of  the  prmcipal  branches  of  her  productive 
industry.  PcricSical  literature  has  a  very  extensive  circulation.  In  the  metropolis  nearly 
sixty  magazines  and  reviews  are  published,  of  which  the  monthly  value  has  been  estimated 
at  00002.  Another  important  characteristic  of  the  national  spirit  may  be  remarked  in  the 
immense  circulation  of  newspapers,  notwithstanding  a  heavy  stamp-duty.  There  are  in 
London  eight  daily  morning  papers,  and  five  daily  evening  papers ;  seven  papers  published 
thrice  a  week ;  and  upwards  of  forty  weekly  papers.  Of  the  latter  species  of  newspaper, 
every  provincial  city  has  two  or  three,  and  every  town  of  consequence  has  one.  The  num- 
ber of  stamps  issuea  for  the  London  newspapers  in  1832  was  21,4^,882.  The  produce  of 
the  duty  in  that  year  was  400,4512, 

The  favourite  amusements  of  the  Engliah  are  those  which  combine  the  advantages  of  air 
and  exercise.  The  stage,  though  eminently  rich  in  dramas,  and  supplied  with  actors  of  high 
talent,  is  not  the  habitual  resort  of  the  people.  In  former  times  hunting  was  almost  the 
sole  business  of  life  among  the  English  squires ;  and  though  their  tastes  are  now  much 

Vol.  I.  31  2V 


m 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paht  ni 


varied,  this  original  pastime,  in  all  its  forms,  continues  to  be  e&eeTif  fbllowed.  By  the 
nobility  and  gentry,  horse-racing  is  supported  with  equal  ardour,  and  no  country  rivals  Eng- 
land  in  the  high  excellence  to  which  she  has  brought  tlie  breed  of  animals  employed  in  this 
diversion.  The  races  of  Doncaster,  of  York,  and  above  all  of  Newmarket,  are  attended  by  the 
most  distinguished  persons  in  the  country  for  rank  and  opulence ;  and  other  race-courses 
Attract  great  multitudes  of  miscellaneous  spectators.  Among  tlio  common  people  bnxing 
matches  present  a  similar  occasion  of  laying  wagers.  Bull-baiting  was  put  down  only  by 
statute.  Of  the  national  out-door  games,  those  of  ^cket  and  tennis  deserve  especial  com- 
mendation, from  their  tendency  to  enliven  the  spirits  and  invigorate  the  frame. 

In  their  habits  and  modes  of  ordinary  life,  the  English  ma^  be  called  a  domestic  people, 
especiolly  when  compared  with  the  French.  In,  common  with  other  northern  nations,  the 
English  retain  a  taste  for  fermented  or  distilled  liquors,  which,  however,  has  been  in  a 
great  measure  corrected  and  subdued  among  the  higher  and  middle  classes.  Beer  and  porter 
constitute  the  staple  drink  of  the  great  body  of  the  people ;  but  malt  spirit  of  a  clieap  and 
very  pernicious  kind  is  consumed  in  great  quantities  by  the  lowest  orders,  especially  in  the 
metropolis,  where  it  is  rapidly  accelerating  their  degeneracy.  Among  tlio  middle  classes 
the  wines  of  Spain,  Portugal  and  Madeira  ure  in  general  use ;  but  the  collars  of  tlie  rich 
nre  stored  with  the  choicest  products  of  the  French  vineyards.  Convivial  excess,  so  long  tlie 
reproach  of  the  English,  has  become  comparatively  rare. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography . 

England  and  Wales  are  divided  into  counties  or  sliires.  Wales,  until  tlie  time  of  Ed- 
ward 1.,  was  an  independent  principality,  but  is  now  an  appendcnt  territory,  of  very  inferior 
magnitude.  It  has  still,  however,  its  own  courts  of  judicature,  and  retains  some  national 
peculiarities.  The  number  of  counties  in  England  is  forty,  and  in  Wales  twelve ;  making  in 
oil  fifly-two.  The  following  statistical  table,  gives  a  general  view  of  tlie  extent,  popula- 
tion, employment,  and  wcaltii  of  eacii  coimty : — 


M 

Incnnio 

in  1814-1 

5,  arising  from 

■'- 

CounUcs. 

10/.  and 
upwards. 

Rental 
of  Uotucf. 

linn, 
IbSI. 

lAtA. 

Trade. 

OHices. 

Rilri, 

lioa 

Cilira  anJ  Towm. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

Bedford 

430 

723 

12,019 

95,383 

304,970 

94,798 

1,481 

90,994 

Bedford 

Reading 

•   Winiluor 

Newbury 

Biirkinshiim . 
Ayleiibury  . .. 

0,959 

15,595 

7,103 

5,959 

.    3,010 

.    5,031 

Berka  

Bucks  

744 

743 

3,713 

1,894 

83,572 
35,055 

115,289 
140,520 

710,889 
002,872 

299.703 
222,961 

3,217 

1,998 

139,533 

158,483 

Cambridge.... 

G86 

2,645 

49,761 

143,955 

705,371 

239,087 

5,100 

115,103 

CiiinbridKO  ■ .. 
Ely 

.  20,917 
0,189 

Chester  (a)  ... 

1,017 

1,784 

92,854 

334,410 

1,114,927 

289,309 

4,907 

2(',G08 

144,102 

Chepter 

MiiccleslleUI  . 

21,363 
23189 

Cornwall 

1,407 

2,853 

48,117 

302,440 

022,258 

330,113 

3,233 

77,930 

'21,202 

Lniinee^ton. . 
Fnlnu.iith 

2,231 
4,760 

Cumberland . . 

1,497 

2,400 

42,040 

109,081 

737,438 

179,752 

3,447 

40,297 

58,*-50 

Carlisle 

30,0061 
11,393 

Derby  (6).... 
Devon 

Dorset 

1,077 

2,468 

1,139 

2,287 
12,337 

3,051 

45,033 
237,000 

57,808 

237,170 
494,108 

159,353 

883,370 
1,924,912 

720.303 

210,583 
754.444 

311,634 

2,908 
9,471 

4,002 

43,000 
32,800 

108,303 
950.713 

104,832 

DiThv 

t  Exeter 

<  riyinuutli  — 
I  Devon  pnrt  . .. 
(  Wcvniouth  . . 

<  Poole 

2;i,627 

27,932 

40,651 

.  34,883 

7,655 

0,459| 

4,075 

(  Sberliorne  . .. 

Durlmin  (c) . .  ■ 

1,010 

4,360 

09,471 

253,e27 

885,5.50 

953,031 

3,771  52,300|  100,040, 

j  Durham 

)  Sunderland  . . 

10,135 
17.060 

Essex  (d) 

1,525 

0,984 

139,806 

317,933 

1,584,108 

603,935 

8,030 

.59,248 

320,541 

t  Colclieslor  .    . .  10,167 

<  Harwich 4,2fl7 

(  Saffl-on  Wnlden  4,702 
(Gloucester....  11,933 

Gloucester  («). 

Hereford 

Hertford 

Huntingdon  . . 

Kent (/)...  . 

1,133 

971 
345 

1,403 

0,080 

1,794 

3,490 

945 

16,139 

951.974 

30,434 
70,299 
16,791 

347,110 

380,904 

110,970 
143,341 
53,149 

470,155 

1,315,723 

029,150 
583,057 
325,694 

1,087.442 

367,243 

01,851 

202,989 

08,401 

1,686,328 

S.-37 

2,790 
4,319 
4,150 

19,342 

_ 

201,402 

70,000 

115,092 

50,093 

399,080 

1  Bristol 

ITewkcBbury  . 
(  Cirencester . . 

Hereford 

Hertford 

HuntinRdon  . 
(  Canterbury  . . 
jDeptford  and 
J     Greenwich. 
(Maidstone ... 

59,074 
5,780 
5,420 

10,289 
.^247 
3,907 

13,649 

44,348 
15,387 

fe 


■J  Nantwich  - 
Chesterfield 
[atiock  -   -   -   3,303 


4.8MA  1(e)  Gateshead   - 
5,7751     Bi"bop.  W.  i.- 


moutn 


15.1771     Btocklrn.-..-   T'c;' 

I     Suiiiii  Siiieius   U,t« 
14,4831  (d)  Chelmsford    3;4^ 


i!»n|.t:m  S«,949  |  Dunl  •  7,SoB 
d  -  -  a«a7  Marnate-  10,339 
<clirater     0,89t  I    Ranuiate  -    '.StiS 


"T-^  f" — '  yv>^''- ' 


Part  ni 

fbllowed.  By  tho 
!ountry  rivals  Eng- 
.la  employed  in  this 
ore  attended  by  the 
other  race-courges 
non  people  bnxing 
I  put  down  on!/  by 
lervc  especial  ccni- 
ianie. 

a  domestic  people, 
rthern  nations,  the 
vcr,  lias  been  in  a 
IS.  Boer  and  porter 
irit  of  a  cheap  and 
■s,  especially  in  the 
tlie  middle  classes 
cellars  of  the  rich 
excess,  so  long  tlie 


itil  tlie  time  of  Ed- 
iry,  of  very  inferior 
:uins  some  national 
twelve ;  making  in 
he  extent,  popula* 


DoOK  I. 


*1    '»<ic'.J«£' 


:-.        ENGLAND.      :';:5.'f  h 


Cilict  auJ  TowM. 

BLMlford 

6,059 

Rendinc 

15,595 

Windsor 

7,103 

Newbury 

5,059 

Biirkinjrhiim . 

3,610 

Aylesbury  . . . 

.    5,031 

Sauibiiduo . . . 

.  20,917 

Ely 

6,189 

JliPFter 

21,363 

Hacclt'stleld  . 

23139 

-jaiinccstou. . 

2,231 

""nlnmuth 

4,760 

"arlisle 

20,0061 

Vliiti.'liavuu . 

11,393 

)iTllV  

2:1,627 

■;.x«ti!r 

27,933 

'lyuioulh  — 

40,651 

Icvonpnrt  . .. 

34,883 

Vcvniouth  . . 

7,655 

6,459| 
4,075 

hcrliornc  . .. 

nrham 

10,135 

undorlnnd  . . 

17,060 

olclipstor  .   . 

16,167 

nruich 

4,2fl7 

tflVon  Waldon  4,7621 

loucdster . . . 

n,9,i:i 

ristol 

59,074 

BWknsbury  . 

5,780 

rcnccster . . 

5,430 

-■rcford 

10,282 

;rtford 

.",247 

intlnedon  . 

3,267 

interbury  . . 

13,649 

iptfori!  and 

Srecnwich.. 

44,348 

lidstone ... 

15,387 

7,S65 

Mnrnale- 
Ra-<i<gate 

'ii'SS 

■   '.9ej 

£  ■* 

Income  in  1814-13,  arising  firom 

CountlM. 

iZS 

HOUIM, 

IW.  and 
upwanto. 

Rintd 
ofHoiian. 

FDpult- 

Uon, 
1631. 

l«uL 

Tnde. 

OOeo. 

li 

rwr 

Rata, 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

Manchester. . 

182.8U 

Lancashire  (a) 

Leicester  (») . . 
Lincoln  

Middlesex  . . . . 

1,806 

810 

2,787 

297 

38,400 

3,357 
4,030 

116,379 

705,833 

62,748 
78.694 

5,143,340 

1,336,854 

197,003 
317,344 

1,358,541 

3.139,043 

951,908 
3,030,611 

5,763,373 

3,808,079 

319,607 
373,671 

15,355,345 

30.030 

5.837 
0..'!50 

1.174,863 



413,530 

153,594 
338.053 

779.135 

Liverpool....  165,175 
Lancaster...    12,613 

Wignn 20,774 

Leicester....    39,306 

(Lincoln 11,843 

■Boston 11,340 

Stamford ....     5,837 
Fart  of  London  and 

Monmouth  . . . 

5K 

1,688 

31,572 

98,130 

898,981 

103,571 

437 

9.800 

33.089 

Monmouth  . . 

4,016 

Norfolk  (c)... 

2,013 

5,333 

97,007 

390,054 

1,516,651 

533,010 

16,505 

338,867 

Norwich 

Yarmouth .  ■ . 

61,116 
31.115 

Northamp- 
ton   

Northum-      | 
burland  (d)  ] 

005 
1,809 

8,237 
6,140 

40,327 
120,424 

1704870 
222,912 

947,578 
1,291,413 

18S,3aj 
436.104 

1,421 
5,763 

59,900 

173,018 
88,035 

Northampton 
Peterborough 
Newcastle . . . 
Berwick 

15,351 
5,353 

43,360 
8,930 

Nottingham . . 

774 

3,597 

71,396 

325,320 

751,636 

314,501 

3,073 

106,707 

Nottingham  . 
Newark 

50,680 
9,557 

Oxford 

Kutland 

Salop 

742 
200 

1,403 

3,628 
341 

3,402 

01,869 
4,631 

03,091 

151,726 
19,385 

823,503 

790,866 
138,316 

1,083,701 

312,809 
30.938 

879.933 

4,815 
799 

4,861 

36.805 

151,233 
12,872 

99,065 

Oxfora 

(  Shrewsbury. . 

JWenlock  .... 

Bridgenorth  . 

20,649 

83,493 
17,435 
5,398 

Somerset  (e)  . . 

1,549 

16,508 

513,909 

403,908 

3,308,723 

1,329,265 

13.837 

20.100  300,560 

Ludlow 

,Bath 

<  Bridgewater . 
(  Taunton  .... 
(  Southampton 

<  Portsmouth. . 
(Winchester.. 
(  Staiibrd 

<  Newcastle . . . 

^Lichfleld 

(  Ipswich 

\  Bury  St.  Ed- 
mund's .... 

5,353 

38,063 

7,897 

11,139 

19,134 

50,309 

8,713 

6,956 

8,193 

6,499 

80,301 

11,436 

Southamp.     j 
ton i 

Stafford  (/). . . 

1,533 
1,196 

9,363 
6,ia 

198,331 
108,507 

314,313 
410,485 

1,240,517 
1,200,324 

923,713 
538,720 

10,751 
10,838 

8.7W) 
48.800 

239,122 
171,578 

Suffolk 

1,586 

3,573 

oi,ro9 

296.304 

1,151,304 

453,484 

11,978 

290.684 

Surrey 

811 

33,865 

964,438 

488,336 

1,589,701 

1,564,532 

81.033 

321,304 

Southwark  ■ . 
Guildford .... 

91,501 
3,916 

Sussex  («■).... 
Warwick  (A). . 

1,461 

084 

0,818 
9,368 

202,837 
100,602 

372,328 
336,988 

919,350 
1,269,756 

372,058 
669,389 

4,610 
12.966 

10.950 

289,051 
192,303 

(Brighton  .... 

<  Tjowes 

(  Chichester . . . 
(  Birmingham. 

<  Coventry .... 

<  Warwick.... 

40.034 

8,590 

8,870 

146.986 

87,070 
9,109 

Wcstmorc- 

782 

1,039 

31,120 

55,041 

299.582 

52,575 

1,184 

32,044 

Kendal 

10,015 

Wilts 

Worcester  (<) . 

1,283 
074 

3,033 
4,872 

68,577 
100,820 

339,181 
311,350 

1,215,619 
820.020 

376,070 
37'' 303 

6,981 
1,137 

3,100 
3.800 

220,931 
97,178 

Salisbury .... 
Worcester : . . 
(York 

9,876 
18,610 
86,434 

York(t) 

N.  Wales. 
Anglcsca 

0,013 
402 

20,189 
320 

415,539 
4,080 

1,371,396 
48,335 

4,700,424 
94,700 

1,719,886 
3,998 

34,416 

03.300 

580,126 
19,196 

)l/!eds 

^Hull 

123,393 
36,393 
50,111 

2,497 
4,389 

(Sheffield 

(  Bnaumnris.. 
1  Holyhead... 

Cacrnar-       1 

von  (/)■  • . .  ! 
Denbigh  (ni)  .. 
Flint  (n)...... 

775 

538 

7,S82 

65,753 

131,213 

30,041 

320 

33,440 

Caernarvon. 

7,642 

.... 

856 
176 
292 
COS 

460 

74 

570 

14,411 
3,375 

4,578 
7,971 

7,590 

909 

8,303 

83,167 
60,012 
3.5,009 
66,485 

47,763 

64,780 

100,655 

312,576 
175,115 
112,516 
313,083 

161,98!) 
146,816 
282,091 

19.677 

11,660 

7,361 

18,748 

32,783 
13,727 
30,320 

305 

795 

68 

794 

SCO 

282 

5,361 

i5,'4biD 

41,139 
35.513 
10,760 
38.665 

20.928 
20.085 
37.057 

Dcnhigh .... 
Holywell ... 

Dolgclly 

Welshpool . . 

Brecknock . . 
Cardigan  . . . 
Caermarthen 

3,786 
8,969 
4.087 
5.355 

5,036 
2.795 
9.935 

Merioneth. . . . 

Montgomery  . 
8.  Wales. 



Cardigan  (o) . . 
Caermurthen  . 

728 
926 

Glamor-        ) 
gan  (p). . .  1 
Pembroke  (})  . 
Radnor 

.... 

1,712 

31,868 

130,612 

373,603 

103,203 

3,149 

55,000 

48.301 

Swansea  . . . 

13.604 

.... 

740 
174 

12,701 
8,802 

81,424 
34.651 

220,341 
101,056 

45,348 
3.429 

1,531 
40 

98,308 
15.29S 

Pembroke  . . 
Radnor . . 

6.511 
1,089 

• 

'alBnltnn  ■ 
galfnrd  - 
Rochdale  - 
Preston  ■  ■ 
Oldham  - 
Pllkinnton 
Cromptan 
Blackburn 


6uxietn  farfc 
..Ijorllon  Row 
arrington    - 


Ch( 
Wi 


41.1<» 
40,78<1 
35,r» 
3.1,112 
33.381 
11.(106 

7,om 

27.091 
24.067 
20..'ie9 
16,018 


Bury  -  -  - 
Chorler  -  - 
Prescot    -    - 

(t)  Louifhbo- 
rougn    -   - 

(e)  Lynn  Regis 

(d)  Tynemoulh 
Nnrlh  ShioMj 
Hexham  -  - 
Morpeth  -  - 

(«)  Wells    -   - 


L^OPfl 
9,282 
5,055 

10,800 
13,370 
10.182 

6,042 
3,890 
6,649 


(/)  Wolverham|>- 
ton   -    -    -    34.732 
Billion     .    -    14.493 

(flHasUnis  -  ii/.OOT 
Rro     -    -   -     3,715 

(A)  LeDminglon  6,200 
Kenilwnrlh  -     3,607 

(:}  niiilloy  -  -  23,043 
Kidderminster  14.981 
Ilurnbridge  -  6,148 
Eveaham     •     3,991 


Drnilwich  - 
(t)  Whitby  - 
Scarborough 
Beverley  -  - 
Doncaster  - 
Huddonflold 
Halifax  - 
tiradrord  -  • 
Bs-nstey  -  - 
Kipon  -  - 
Pontefroot 


3,487 
11,725 
a700 
8,303 
10,801 
19035 
I.V3R9 
33,333 
10,330 
?,080 
4,833 


(/)  Bangor  - 
(m)  Wre.'cham 
Llangollen  - 


(nJiMold 
Flint 


1,751 

5,48;» 
3,630 
8080 
3,31« 

>"vil  .  .  29,083 
Cardiff    -   -     6.187 

(ff)Haverfardwoat  3.015 
Tenby         •     3,138 


04 


DESCllIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Parf  til 


The  topographical  details  of  Engfland  may  be  distributed  under  the  following;  suhtec- 
Hont : — 1.  Southern  counties ;  2.  Eastern  counties ;  3.  Midland  counties ;  4.  Nortlicrn  coun* 
ties ;  6.  Western  counties. 

SuBSBCT.  1. — Southern  Countieg,  < 

Under  this  head,  Kent,  Surrey,  Sussex,  Berksiiiro,  Hampshire,  Wiltshire,  and  Dorset,  the 
counties  south  of  the  Thames,  and  along  the  Cimnnel  will  be  comprclionded.  This  fine 
district  is,  in  general,  of  a  level  character ;  but  is  trave.'sed,  however,  by  ranges  of  low  hills 
or  downs,  which  give  to  it  o.  varied  and  picturesque  aspect.  Chclk  is  a  predominant  feature 
in  its  soil ;  and,  on  the  coast,  forms  those  bold  cliffs,  which  characterise  the  southern  bound- 
ai7  of  Britain.  Many  tracts  are  under  high  cultivation,  yielding,  in  perfection,  tlio  usual 
agricultural  products,  witli  others  of  great  valu<.>,  peculiar  to  this  district ;  particularly  hops, 
in  Kent,  and  part  of  Sussex  and  Surrey.  A  promment  feature  consists  of  large  expanses  of 
downs,  composed  of  chalky  soil,  scarcely  fit  for  the  plough,  but  pastured  by  vast  Hocks  of  sheep. 
Kent,  the  largest  and  nncst  of  these  counties,  holds  a  conspicuous  place  in  Englisli  annals. 
The  men  of  Kent  have  been  noted  as  a  race  peculiarly  stout,  hardy,  and  courageous.  In 
the  west  are  extensive  wealds,  presenting  still  many  finely  wooded  districts ;  also  larTC  ii  irshy 
tracts,  interspersed,  however,  with  dry  cultivated  portions,  in  which  the  best  grain  in  the  king- 
dom is  raisea.  The  interior  around  Mpidstono  and  Canterbury  forms  almost  a  continued 
garden,  supplying  fruits  for  the  markeis  of  London :  and  above  all,  hops,  that  essential  ingre- 
dient in  the  staple  beverage  of  the  English  nation. 

Canterbury,  the  chief  place  in  Kent,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  veneiablo  of  the  English 
cities.  It  is  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  he  kingdom,  the  residence  of  its  primate ;  whu, 
u  such,  places  the  crown  on  the  sovereign's  head,  and  ranks  next  in  dignity  to  the  royal 

femily.  Its  cathedral  (_/?/?•.  138.)  is  of  early 
origin  and  of  vast  extent ;  while  revered  through 
.  "!  Catholic  world  as  the  shrine  of  the  mur- 
dered Bccket,  it  was  visited  by  crowds  of  pil- 
grims,  and  enriched  with  offerings ; '  w*  of  these 
treasures  it  was  stripped  by  Henry  "\'lll.  Con- 
tcrbury  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  crosf,  and  in- 
tersected by  branches  of  tlie  Stour.  Munufiic- 
tures  of  cloth,  silk,  and  cotton  woo  early  in- 
Produced,  and  still  subsist,  though  I'te;-  caimot 
bear  a  comparison  with  those  of  the  g  >  c.d  towns 
of  the  interior  and  of  the  north. 

Maidstone  and  Tunbridge  are  among  the 
agreeable  inland  towns  in  Kent.  The  former, 
of  great  antiquity,  has  one  of  the  most  elegant  jmrochial  churches  in  the  kingdom.  It  is 
the  chief  market  for  hops ;  and  has  some  manufactures,  particularly  of  paper.  Tunbridge 
Wells,  situated  five  or  six  miles  from  the  town  of  Tunbridge,  have  long  been  a  place  of 
public  resort  Tiie  springs  are  considered  efficacious  in  coses  of  debility  and  certain  chronic 
disorders.  The  town  has  also  a  tliriving  manufacture  of  Tunbridge  ware,  consisting  of 
various  wooden  ornaments,  snufli'-boxes,  children's  toys,  &c. 

But  the  chief  places  of  Kent  are  maritime,  the  most  ancient  being  those  called  the 
Cinque  Ports.  At  an  early  period,  they  were  considered  the  most  important  stations  for  the 
defence  of  the  kingdom,  and  were  bound  to  furnish  and  equip  fifty-seven  vessels,  each 
manned  with  twenty-one  sailors ;  in  return  for  wliich,  their  citizens  iield  the  rank  of  barons, 
and  sent  two  members  to  parliament  from  eacli  port  Their  greatness  is  now  depnrted,  and 
some  of  their  harbours  have  been  filled  up  by  sand. 

The  Kentish  Cinque  Porta  are  Dover,  Sandwich,  Hythe,  and  Romnoy.  The  first  is  still 
a  place  of  considerable  note.  The  spacious  castle  on  a  commanding  eminence,  the  white 
and  towering  clifls,  present  to  the  approaching  marmer  an  imposing  spectacle.  As  the  main 
channel  of  communication  with  France,  it  maintains  twenty-seven  pckets  in  constant  ser- 
vice.   Romney  and  Hythe  are  of  little  maritime  importance.    Sandwich  on  the  east  coast, 

yields  in  importance  to  its  nominal  de- 
pendencies. Deal,  Margate,  and  Rams- 
gate.  Deal  derives  its  prosperity  from 
the  vicinity  of  that  fiae  anchorage,  the 
Downs,  where  the  outward-bound  fleets 
of  England  usually  remain  for  a  certain 
period,  when  they  obtain  supplies  and 
refreshments  from  Deal.  Margate  k 
crowded,  though  not  fashionable ;  and 
the  estnbUshment  of  stoam-packets  al- 
lows daily  intercourse  with  the  metro- 
DoTw  Cutle.  poiig.    It  likewise  carries  on  some  trade 


Cuteifaurr  Catbednl. 


parf  m 

!  followinjif  mhiiec- 
;  4.  Nortliern  coun* 


liro,  and  Dorset,  tho 
hcndcd,  Tliis  fine 
ranges  of  low  hills 
)redominant  feature 
the  southern  bound- 
KjrfectioH,  the  usual 
;  particularly  hop?, 
if  large  expanses  of 
vast  flocks  of  sheep, 
e  in  English  annals, 
nd  courageous.  In 
3;  alsolaro'eiiiirshy 
st  grain  i:i  tho  king- 
almost  a  continued 
:hat  essential  ingre- 

iabloof  the  English 
f  its  primate ;  who, 
lignity  to  the  royal 
.  138.)  is  of  early 
Mle  revered  throug!; 
shrine  of  the  mur- 
1  by  crowds  of  pil- 
brings; '  n»  of  these 
Henry  nil.  Can- 
of  a  crosp,  and  in- 
!  Stour.  Manufec- 
tton  wc'o  early  in> 
:hough  !  hey  cannot 
!  of  the  g-c.d  towns 
irth. 

are  among  the 
!ent.    The  former, 

kingdom.  It  is 
paper.  Tunbridge 
ig  bepn  a  place  of 
ind  certain  chronic 
'are,  consisting  of 


those  called  the 
ant  stations  for  the 
ven  vessels,  each 
t'ne  rank  of  barons, 
now  dcpnrted,  and 

The  first  is  still 
linence,  the  white 
icle.  As  the  main 
ts  in  constant  ser- 
on  the  east  coast, 
to  its  nominal  de- 
rgate,  and  Rams- 
8  prosperity  from 
lie  anchorage,  tho 
ward-bound  fleets 
main  for  a  certain 
tain  supplies  and 
eol.  Margate  is 
fashionable;  and 

<,».^n^   - I— ►-  -' 

!  with  the  metro- 
ies  on  some  trade 


BUOK  I. 


ENGLAND. 


Sd5 


with  the  Baltic,  and  supplies  the  metropolis  with  grain  and  fisli.  Having  risen  within  tiic 
labt  half  century,  it  is  built  with  regularity,  and  contains  twelve  marble  Imths,  into  which 
tiic  sea-water  is  admitted  for  tho:^o  who  preibr  that  mode  of  bathing.  Ramsgate,  situated 
on  tlie  isle  of  Thanet,  possesses  *  .e  advantage  of  a  smooth  and  extensive  beach.  Conside- 
rable improvements  have  been  made  in  the  harbour  at  the  expense  of  government,  with  the 
view  to  its  yielding  protection  to  vessels  navigating  this  coast,  where  the  dangerous  shoals 
of  the  Goodwin  Bands  have  often  prov<:J  fatal. 

Deptford,  Woolwich,  Ciiatliam,  and  tilieerness,  are  grand  establishments  for  the  construc- 
tion of  ships  of  war.  Deptford  contains  also  the  Victualling  Office.  Woolwich  is  the  de- 
p6t  of  artillery,  and  the  theatre  of  all  tho  operations  connected  with  its  construction  and 
preparation.  Here  is  also  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  in  which  an  hundred  young  men  of 
respectable  family  are  trained  in  all  tho  branches  of  knowledge  necessary  for  the  engineer- 
ing department ;  and  who,  after  a  strict  examination,  are  appointed  to  commissions  in  the 
service.  Chatham  is  tho  grand  magazine  of  naval  stores.  The  rope-house  is  1128  feet  long, 
in  which  cables  101  fathoms  in  length,  and  upwards  of  two  fool  m  circumference,  are  con- 
structed. Twenty  forges  arc  constantly  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  anchors,  some  of 
which  are  five  tons  in  weight  This  important  post,  with  the  exception  of  Portsmouth,  is 
now  the  strongest  in  Britain.  Sheerncss,  on  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  is  a  smaller  station, 
chiuily  employed  in  the  repair  of  shattered  vessels. 
Greenwich,  about  two  miles  below  Deptford,  is  celebrated  for  its  superb  hospital  (Jig.  14C.) 

for  disabled  and  superannuated  ma- 
riners. This  edifice  was  begun  by 
Charles  II.,  on  a  design  of  Inigo 
Jones,  as  a  royal  palace.  It  remained 
unfinished,  until  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liam III.,  when  it  was  converted 
into  a  naval  hospital.  It  was  en- 
larged by  the  addition  of  three  wings, 
enrichea  by  donations,  and  by  a  tax 
of  6d.  a  month  firom  every  seaman, 
and  it  now  supports  3000  boarders, 
and  pays  pensions  to  6400  in  dif- 
ferent quarters  of  the  kingdom.  In 
Oraenwich  Hoipiuki.  Greenwich  park  stands  the  cele- 

brated observatory,  fumislied  with  the  best  instruments  that  can  be  obtained  for  perfecting 
astronomical  observations.  The  recorded  observations  of  Flamsteed,  of  Halley,  of  Bradley, 
mi  of  Maskclyne,  rank  among  the  most  important  contributions  to  astronomical  science. 

At  Gravesend,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  the  vessels  employed  in  foreign  commerce, 
both  in  going  up  and  down,  must  stop  and  undergo  an  examination.  Rochester,  with  an 
ancient  cathedral,  contains  in  its  vicinity  numerous  seats,  among  which  may  br  particularly 
noted  Cobham  Hall.  Lee  Priory  is  also  remarkal'lo  for  its  works  of  art ;  and  Knowle  Park 
forms  a  magnificent  structure  of^^great  extent, 

Sussex  extends  about  forty  miles  along  the  Channel.  It  is  covered  to  the  extent  of 
170,000  or  180,000  acres  with  noble  oaks  which  are  sought  for  the  use  of  the  royal  navy. 
The  Sussex  sheep  are  peculiarly  valued  lx)th  fo;"  ri«utton  and  wool. 

The  capital  is  Chichester,  an  ancient  little  city  with  a  cathedral.  Winchelsea,  Rye,  and 
Hastings  are  Cinque  Ports,  which  have  lost  their  ancient  importance ;  but  Hastings,  from 
its  fine  views  of  land  and  sea,  attracts  numerous  visitants  during  the  summer.  Brighton,  the 
gayest  of  all  the  southern  watering-places,  from  being  a  large  fishing  village,  rapidly  rose  to 
be  an  elegant  town.  Its  extensive  lawn  called  tbo  Steyne,  sloping  towards  the  sea,  fonris 
an  agreeoble  promenade.  The  Pavilion,  or  palace  built  by  George  TV.,  and  the  chain  pier 
are  among  the  objects  of  note. 

The  rough  downs  and  bleak  heaths  of  Surrey  contrasted  with  its  numerous  fine  parka 
and  wooded  districts,  give  to  its  scenery  a  striking  md  picturesque  character.  Southwark 
is  in  Surrey ;  but  it  is  too  entirely  a  part  of  Londoa  to  he  treated  eepant  aly  from  the  rest  of 
that  capital.  Along  the  southern  bank  of  tho  Thames  are  Kew,  witli  i'^  palace  and  fino 
gardens,  containing  plants  from  every  quarter  of  tho  world;  Richmond  and  its  hill,  which 
commands  u  magnificent  view  of  the  Thames  winding  among  worxled  parks  and  palaces. 
Camberwell,  Clapham,  and  other  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital,  arc  entirely  composed 
of  the  villas  of  opulent  citizens,  and  the  seats  are  numerous.  At  St.  Anne's  Hill,  a  beautiful 
villa  on  ine  Thames,  Fox  passed  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  literary  retirement 

Berkshire  contains  extensive  sheep  pastures ;  and  a  great  expanse  of  its  eastern  border  is 
occupied  by  forests ;  yet  more  than  Jialf  its  extent  consists  of  fine  arable  land.  The  sheep 
fair  of  Usley  is  the  most  considerable  in  the  kir.^dom,  the  annual  number  sold  averaging  two 
I'.undred  and  fiily  tliuusaiid.  The  iiogs  also  of  this  county  are  in  high  repute.  Berkshire  ia 
romarkable  for  its  manu<^icturcs  of  copper,  which  ia  brought  from  Swansea  to  the  annual 
pxtent  of  six  hundred  to  cue  thousand  tons. 

31* 


366 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


Reading-  the  capital  of  Berkshire,  is  remarkejble  in  history,  aa  several  parliaments  were 
held  there,  and  a  siese  was  sustained  during  tlie  civil  war.  It  still  enjoys  some  prosperity, 
through  the  export  of  the  produce  of  the  fertile  surrounding  district 

Windsor,  from  the  beauty  of  its  site,  on  an  eminence  near  the  Thames,  and  the  magniR- 
r^cnco  of  its  royal  castle  i^S'  ^41-)>  forms  a  commanding  feature  in  the  prospect  for  man; 


Windior  Caitlo. 

miles  around.  William  1.  constructed  hero  a  fortress  of  considerable  size ;  but  the  wliole 
structure  was  re-modelled  by  Edward  III.  Since  it  ceased  to  be  important  as  a  place  of 
strength,  it  has  been  o(  jupied  as  a  palace ;  and  is  the  only  one,  in  fact,  suitable  to  the  dignity 
of  i'ae  monarch.  Tho  noble  terrace  walk  1870  feet  in  length,  commands  a  finely  varied 
and  extensive  prospect.  George  III.  completely  repaired  St.  George's  chapel,  and  partly 
restored  the  north  front  of  tlie  upper  ward ;  but  in  consequence  of  his  illness,  the  improve- 
ments were  suspended  fbr  eleven  years.  George  IV.  resumed  them  on  a  scale  commensurate 
with  the  importance  of  so  venerable  an  edifice ;  and  large  sums  of  money  were  voted  by 
parliament  for  this  national  purpose.  The  royal  apartments  contain  an  extensive  collection 
of  paintings,  among  wiiich  are  some  fine  portraits  by  Vandyke,  and  some  historical  pictures 
by  Guide,  Correggio,  Carlo  Dolci,  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  The  chapel  of  St.  George  is 
considered  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the  ornamented  Gothic  in  the  kingdom.  The  choir 
in  particular  is  of  admirable  workmanship,  and  adorned  with  banners  of  knights  of  tlie  garter 
ranged  on  each  side.  It  includes  also  the  tombs  of  many  of  tlie  English  princes,  particularly 
their  lato  majesties,  and  the  Princess  Charlotte ;  and  some  of  its  windows  are  painted  after 
the  designs  of  Reynolds.  To  the  south  of  ■  palace  extend  Windsor  Great  Park,  and 
Windsor  Forest,  grand  features,  first  formed  ^y  William  the  Conqueror.  Even  ofter  the 
considerable  abridgment  that  has  taken  place,  the  domain  is  still  fifty-six  miles  •  .  circum- 
ference, containing  within  its  range  some  noblo  timber.  Parts  of  it  were  devoted  by  George 
in.  to  his  iavourite  pursuit  of  experimental  farming. 

The  other  towns  of  Berkshire  are  small ;  at  Newbury,  two  obstinate  battles  were  fought 
in  1643  and  1G44.  Maidenhead  (formerly  Mainhithe),  on  tivi  Thames,  is  beautifully  encircled 
with  villas. 

Hampshire  contains  extensive  remains  of  those  grand  forests  whirl'  once  overspread  so 
great  a  part  of  England.  The  principal  is  the  New  Forest,  bordering  on  the  Channel  and 
the  bay  of  Southampton.  From  this  tract  of  about  02,305  acres,  William  tlie  Conqueror 
drove  out  the  inhabitants,  and  demolished  the  parish  churches,  that  the  royal  sports  might  be 
carried  on  undisturbed.  The  forests  of  Bex,  Holt,  Alice,  lic,  containing  upwards  of  30,000 
acres,  belong  .  Iso  to  the  crown.  The  wood  is  chiefly  oak  and  beech ;  the  former  with  a 
short  thick  trunk  and  strong  crooked  branches,  rende/mg  it  of  excellent  service  as  knoe- 
timber  for  the  navy,  while  the  masts  and  acorns  feed  hogs  of  vast  size,  weighing  sometimes 
eight  hundred  pounds,  and  producing  the  best  bacon  in  the  kingdom. 

Winchester  is  one  of  tho  most  ancient  and  venerable  cities  in  England.  During  part  of 
the  Saxon  period,  it  was  the  metropolis.  It  had  atone  time  upwards  of  ninety  churches  and 
chapels,  with  colleges  and  monasteries  attached  to  them.  Being  frequented  on  account  of 
its  fairs,  and  chosen  as  one  of  the  staples  for  wool,  it  became  at  one  period  the  seat  of  a  very 
extensive  commerce.  After  the  Norman  conquest,  when  London  became  the  roypl  residence, 
the  decline  of  Winchester  commenced,  and  was  accelerated  by  the  removal  of  the  wool 
trade ;  but  above  all  by  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  It 
now  owes  its  importance  to  its  rank  as  an  episcopal  city,  and  h  county  town  in  which  assizes 
are  held  alternately  with  Southampton.  Its  venerable  cathedral  (jig.  l'I2.)  has  been  the 
work  of  successive  ages.  It  v.'as  founded  urider  the  Saxon  kings,  enlaiged  by  William  of 
Wykeham  under  Edward  III.,  and  completed  by  Bishop  Fox,  in  tfie  sixteenth  century,  wh«'ii 


Part  ITI 

parliamenta  were 
3  some  prosperity, 

and  the  magnifi- 
arospect  for  man} 

R     -        ■    -      "■•-■    '•    •• 
>.  ;■■  '.  (•■  ■■!■■       1  Km 


Book 


ENGLAND. 


.:■! 


367 


ze ;  but  the  whole 
ant  as  a  place  of 
table  to  the  dignity 
.nds  a  finely  varied 
chapel,  and  partly 
Iness,  the  improve- 
cale  commensurate 
ney  were  voted  by 
ixtensive  collection 
I  historical  pictures 
il  of  St.  George  is 
ngdom.  The  choir 
lights  of  the  garter 
rinces,  particularly 
are  painted  after 
Great  Parle,  and 
Even  ofter  the 
miles  ■"  .  circum- 
devoted  by  George 

lattles  wore  fought 
autifuUy  encircled 

ice  overspread  so 

the  Channel  and 

am  the  Conqueror 

,'al  sports  might  be 

ipwards  of  30,000 

the  former  with  a 

It  service  as  knee- 

iffhing  sometimes 

During  part  of 
lety  churches  and 
;ed  on  account  of 
the  seat  of  a  very 
»e  roynl  residence, 
loval  of  the  wool 
f  Henry  VIII.  It 
n  in  which  assizes 
12.)  has  been  the 
en  by  William  of 
ith  century,  wh«'ii 


extensive  additions  were  made  to  it  in  the  highly  ornamented  and  pointed  English  style; 

of  which  several  of  tho  specimens  hero  pre- 
served are  reckoned  the  finest  in  the  king- 
dom. The  college,  or  rather  school,  founded 
by  Bishop  Wykehanj  is  also  a  magnificent 
edifice,  and  is  one  of  the  four  great  classical 
schools  to  which  the  distinguished  youth  of 
England  resort.  Southampton  now  surpasses 
Winchester,  and  is  a  flourishing  town,  at  the 
head  of  the  bay  called  Southampton  Water. 
It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  the 
,.„  ,  ...  south  of  Europe,  and  regular  packets  sail 

Portsmouth  is  the  grand  arsenal  for  equipping  the  powerful  navies  of  Great  Britain.  The 
■larbour  is  formed  by  a  considerable  bay,  with  a  commodious  entrance,  perfectly  landlocked, 
and  sheltered  fi-om  every  v/ind,  aftbrding  secure  anchorage  all  round ;  and  capable  fi"om  its 
dimensions  of  containmg  t'\e  whole  British  navy.  The  Isle  of  Wight  forms  at  its  eastern 
extremity  the  safe  and  magnificent  road  of  Spithead,  the  principal  rendezvous  of  the  national 
fleets.  Tho  place  has  been  strengthened  by  fortifications,  till  it  has  become  the  strongest 
and  most  finished  fortress  in  the  empire,  and  is  considered  absolutely  impregnable.  Ports- 
mouth itself  is  situated  on  an  island  about  fourteen  miles  in  circumference,  separated  from 
the  land  only  by  a  narrow  channel.  The  suburb  of  Portsea,  on  the  same  island,  begun  only 
a  century  ago,  has  now  outgrown  the  original  town,  and  contains  the  principal  dockyards. 
Here  are  carried  on,  upon  a  gigantic  scale,  all  the  operations  subservient  to  building,  equip- 
puig,  and  refitting  ships,  and  supplying  the  navy.  The  sea-wall  of  the  dockyards  extends 
nearly  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  and  encloses  an  area  of  one  hundred  acres:  the  forge,  where 
anchors  of  huge  dimensions  are  formed ;  the  ropery,  above  a  thousand  feet  long ;  the  spacious 
dry  docks ;  the  endless  range  of  warehouses ;  the  gun-wharf,  the  armoury,  are  objects  which 
astonish  by  their  immensity. 

Christchurch  is  noted  for  a  fine  ancient  church ;  Beaulieu  for  the  ruins  of  its  venerable 
abbey ;  Andovor,  Basingstoke,  and  Romsey  are  considerable  towns. 

The  Isle  of  Wight  is  about  twenty-three  miles  m  length,  and  thirteen  in  breadth ;  divided 
by  a  channel  of  only  a  few  miles  from  the  coast,  on  which  are  the  bays  of  Portsmouth  and 
Southampton.  It  is  traversed  by  a  ridge  of  chalky  downs,  in  which  are  fed  about  fort/ 
thousand  fine-woolled  sheep  of  the  Dorsetshire  breed.  On  the  north  are  luxuriant  meadows 
supporting  valuable  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle ;  while  on  the  south  are  fine  arable  plains, 
yielding  grain  much  beyond  the  consumption  of  the  island.  The  island  is  celebrated  for  its 
striking  and  peculiar  scenery ;  the  grand  views  of  land  and  sea  enjoyed  from  its  high  open 
downs ;  tiio  deep  and  dark  ravines  of  its  southern  shore,  and  the  bold  romantic  clifl's  which 
it  there  presents  to  the  expanse  of  the  English  Channel.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous 
features  is  the  range  of  coast  called  the  Underclifi".  This  district  presents  the  appearance 
of  a  scries  of  gigantic  steps  rising  from  the  shore,  to  the  summit  of  the  great  porpendicular 
wall.  The  chines,  or  chasms,  with  torrents  bursting  through  them,  are  also  characteristic 
features. 

T!ie  western  part  of  the  Isle  presents  the  rugged  and  pouited  clif6,  called  the  Needles, 
and  a  range  of  magnificent  white  cliffs,  rising  perpendicularly  to  the  height  of  500  or  600 
foet.  These  precipices  are  inhabited  by  gulls  and  puffins,  the  eggs  of  which  are  taken  by 
the  islander,  suspended  in  a  basket,  which  is  fixed  by  a  rope  to  the  summit.  The  eastern 
shore  presents  the  Culver  Cliff's,  a  range  of  precipices  which,  in  grandeur  and  ruggedness, 
are  not  surpassed  by  any  other  on  the  island, 

Tiio  castle  of  Carisbrook  is  an  ancient  edifice,  in  which  Charles  I.  was  for  some  time 
imprisoned.    Tho  towns,  Newport,  Yarmouth,  Cowes,  and  Ryde,  are  small. 

Dorset  consists  of  open  chalky  downs,  fit  only  for  sheep,  which  are  here  of  a  breed  called 
the  Southdown  {Jig.  143.),  peculiarly  fine  both  as  to  carcase  and 
wool.  The  fleece  is  very  short  and  fine ;  the  mutton  fine  in  the 
grain,  and  of  an  excellent  flavour.  The  number  of  sheep  is  estimated 
p,t  800,000,  producing  2,790,000  pounds  of  wool.  The  islands  of 
Purbeck  and  Portland  are  valuable  for  the  production  of  fine  firee- 
stone. 

Dorsetshire  has  no  remarkable  towns.    Dorchester,  the  capital ; 

Poole,  with  an  excellent  harbour ;  and  Weymouth,  finely  situated 

for  a  bathing-place,  are  the  principal. 

Southdown Bieop.  Wiltshire  is  a  fine  county ;  the  chalk  hills  here  terminating,  form 

the  table-land,  termed  Salisbury  Plain ;  a  naKed,  undulating  surface,  which  affords  pastnrnge 

fer  sheep.    Tlio  northern  pari,  or  Wiltshire,  watered  by  the  Thames,  is  chiefly  underwtod 

Bnd  pasture  and  supiA)rts  a  valuable  breed  of  cattle,  from  whose  milk  Js  made  the  excellent 


iiiS 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  )TI. 


SaUiburr  Cathedral. 


cheese  bearing  the  name  of  the  province.  Wiltshire  is  a  manuikcturing  county.  The  pro> 
duce  is  of  the  finest  description ;  superfine  broadcloth,  kerseymeres,  and  fancy  articles ;  fine 
flannels  at  Salisbury,  and  at  Wilton  the  carpets  which  bear  its  name. 

Salisbury,  the  capital,  is  a  huidsome  and  well-built  town.  The  streets  are  spacious  and 
regular,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  kept  clean  by  streams  of  water,  from  the 

river  Avon.  The  pride  of  Salisbury  is  its 
cathediti  {fig.  144.)  completed  in  1268, 
which  ia  considered  the  mo".'.  elegant  and 
finished  Gothic  structure  in  the  kingdom. 
It  has  also  the  loftiest  spire,  rising  to  the 
height  of  four  hundred  utid  ten  feet 

Wiltshire  has  a  number  of  thriving  little 
towns,  in  which  fine  woollen  manufactures 
are  carried  on  with  activity:  Devizes, 
Marlborough,  Chippenham,  Malmsbury, 
Warminster,  Wilton,  &c.  Most  of  them 
are  adorned  with  fine  old  churches. 

Stonehenge  {fig.  145.),  in  Salisbury 
Plain,  a  remarkable  monument  of  antiquity, 
is  fupposed  to  be  tlie  remnant  of  a  temple 
of  the  Druids.     "  It  consists,"  says  Mr. 
Sullivan,  "  of  the  remains  of  two  circular 
and  two  oval  n.nges,  having  one  common 
centre.    The  miter  circle  is  one  hundred 
and  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  in  its  per- 
fection consisted  of  thirty  upright  stones.    Tho  upright  stones  are  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
feet  high,  ih)m  six  to  seven  broad,  and  about  thre<;  feet  thick ;  and  being  placed  at  the 
,  , . .  , .  145  distance  of  three  feet  and  a  half 

from  each  other,  are  joined  at 
the  top  by  imposts  or  stones  laid 
across.  The  inner  circle  is 
somewhat  more  tlian  eight  feet 
from  the  inside  of  the  outward 
one,  and  consisted  originally  of 
Stonehenge.  fojty  smaller  stoncs ;  of  which 

only  eleven  are  standing."  In  the  interior  of  all  are  two  oval  ranges,  supposed  to  be  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  work,  composing  the  cell  or  adytum.  The  stones  that  form  it  arc  stupen- 
dous, some  of  them  measuring  thirty  feet  in  height  The  whole  number  is  computed  to  have 
been  originally  one  hundred  and  forty. 

No  county  is  adorned  with  so  many  fine  seats  as  Wiltshire.  Wilton  House  contains  the 
finest  private  collection  of  ancient  sculpture  in  the  kingdom.  Corsham  House  and  Longford 
Castle  contain  celebrated  collections  of  pictures.  Wardour  Castle  is  distinguished  for  its 
grand  terrace;  Stourhead  for  the  romantic  beauty  of  the  grounds:  Longleat  is  a  superb  seat. 

SuBSECT.  2. — The  Eastern  Counties. 

Under  this  title  are  comprehended  the  counties  of  Essex,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Cambridge, 
Huntingdon,  and  Lincoln.  The  surface  of  this  division  is  fiat  and  imvaried.  Its  sluggish 
streams  unite  in  the  shallow  marshy  estuary  of  the  Wash ;  a  great  proportion  of  its  watere, 
however,  never  reach  tliat  receptacle ;  but,  spreading  and  stagnating  over  the  land,  form  the 
Fens,  a  tract  which  is  not  unproductive  to  the  husbandman,  but  sends  forth  pestiU  ntiai 
vapours,  subjecting  the  inhabitaiits  to  attacks  of  fever  and  ague.  The  district  contains  o'ide 
portions  of  good  arable  land,  which  are  well  cultivated  by  skilful  farmers  with  large  capitals; 
and  is  noted  for  its  breeds  of  cattle,  and  for  the  products  of  butter  and  cheese. 

Essex,  situated  along  t!;e  north  of  the  Thames,  is,  perhaps,  the  richest  of  tlie  English 
counties.  It  is  diversified  'jy  gentle  undulations,  which  «^j  no.,  intpmipt  the  careful  culture 
given  to  its  rich  alluvial  soil.  Its  wheat,  with  that  of  Kent  is  reckoned  the  best  in  Eng- 
land ;  but  the  districts  near  the  metropolis  are  chiefiy  in  pasture,  or  artificial  grass,  for  sup- 
plying calves  to  the  London  market  or  for  fattening  the  cattle  brought  up  from  the  north. 

Chelmsford,  the  county  town,  is  a  small  regularly  built  place,  wiUi  a  handsome  town-hall. 
Colchester,  the  ancient  Camelodunum,  contams  a  strong  castle,  said  to  have  been  fbunded 
by  the  Romans.  It  ia  supported  by  a  manufacture  of  baize,  and  by  the  oyster  fishery. 
Harwich,  a  seaport  with  a  deep  and  spacious  harbour,  is  the  place  where  the  government 
packets,  in  ti^ne  of  peace,  sail  for  Holland  and  Germany.  Many  villas  have  been  erected  in 
this  county,  in  consequence  of  its  vicinity  to  the  metropolis. 

Sufiblk  is  bordered  by  only  a  small  portion  of  eastern  coast    The  greater  part  of  it  b 


Part  111. 

ounty.    The  pro- 
ncy  articles ;  fine 

are  spacious  and 
if  water,  from  the 
of  Salisbury  is  its 
mpletod  in  1258, 
mc^',  elegant  and 
3  in  the  kingdom, 
pire,  rising  to  the 
lid  ten  feet 
}r  of  thriving  little 
illen  manufactures 
ctivity:  Devizes, 
lam,  Malmsbury, 
c.  Most  of  them 
d  churches. 
5.),  in  Salisbury 
jment  of  antiquity, 
nnant  of  a  temple 
insists,"  says  Mr. 
ns  of  two  circular 
vin^  one  common 
;le  IS  one  hundred 
ter,  and  in  its  per- 
ighteen  to  twenty 
ing  placed  at  the 
ree  feet  and  a  half 
her,  are  joined  at 
posts  or  stones  laid 
5  inner  circle  is 
)re  tlian  eight  feet 
le  of  the  outward 
isted  originally  of 
Istoncs ;  of  which 
ised  to  be  the  prin- 
)rm  it  are  stupen- 
computed  to  have 

ouse  contains  the 

luse  and  Longford 

tinguished  for  its 

is  a  superb  seat. 


rfolk,  Cambridge, 
;ed.  Its  sluggish 
ion  of  its  waters, 
he  land,  form  the 
forth  pestilential 
ict  contains  >vide 
■th  large  capitalti; 
se. 

it  of  tlie  English 
le  careful  culture 
the  best  in  Eng- 
al  gross,  for  sup- 
rem  the  north, 
dsome  town-hall, 
ve  been  founded 
I  oyster  fishery, 
the  government 
I  been  erected  in 

iter  part  of  it  'a 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


S6li 


capable  of  good  cultivation,  and  is  carefblly  tilled.    The  county  is  almost  purely  agricul 
lural,  there  being  neither  trade  nor  manufactures  of  any  importance. 

Among  the  towns  of  Suffolk,  Ipswich  is  considerable,  though  its  employment  is  confined 
to  sending  down  the  Orwell  malt  and  grain,  the  produce  of  the  county.  Bury  St.  £>lmund'ss 
an  ancient  town,  is  rendered  veneiuble  by  some  fine  old  churches.  Lowcstoff,  the  most 
easterly  point  of  England,  is  a  noted  seat  of  the  herring  fishery. 

Norfolk,  though  inferior  in  fertility  to  the  two  counties  now  described,  has,  by  its  industry, 
rendered  itself  more  flourishing  than  either.  The  soil  generally  is  a  light  sand,  scarcely  tit, 
origir  ally,  for  any  thing  but  sheep ;  beneath,  however,  is  a  bed  of  rich  soapy  marl,  whicii 
the  farmers,  with  great  labour,  dig  out,  and  spread  over  the  ground.  The  light  sandy  loam 
tiius  formed  is  peculiarly  favourable  to  the  growtli  of  barley,  in  which  grain  two-thirds  of 
the  country  is  laid  out.  Norfolk  has  extensive  manufactures ;  producing  various  ornamental 
&brics  of  silk  and  worsted.  The  ports  carry  on  a  considerable  export  of  grain,  and  a  spirited 
fishery. 

Norwich  is  the  finest  city  in  the  east  of  England.  The  chief  industry  of  Norwich,  how- 
ever, consists  in  manufactures.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  large  colony 
of  Flemings  settled  there,  and  established  the  fabric  of  woollens,  which  soon  reached  an 
•mprecedented  height.    The  light  and  ornamented  forms  became  tiie  staples ;  bombasines, 

crapes,  fine  camblets,  and  worsted  damask.  In  its 
general  structure,  it  has  the  defects  of  an  old  town, 
the  streets  being  narrow  and  winding,  though  those 
recently  built  are  in  a  more  improved  style.  The 
cathedral  (fig.  146.),  founded  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, ranks  among  the  finest  ecclesiastical  edifices  in 
the  kingdom.  Its  style  of  architecture  is  the  Saxon, 
of  that  broad  and  massive  character  which  prevailed 
before  the  introduction  of  the  i>ointed  arch  and  the 
iiBMis  light  ornamental  style.     The  castle,  placed  in  the 

J        {M^Si    ^'"'^^  centre,  is  more  ancient  still,  since  antiquaries  refer 

dw^rraESil    ^^,  it  to  the  reign  of  Canute.    Its  style  is  Saxon ;  the 

keep  remains  entire. 

Yarmouth,  by  commerce  and  fishery,  has  attained 
a  prosperity  almost  equal  to  that  of  Norwich.  Situ- 
ated at  the  mouth  of  the  Yare,  it  is  the  chief  chan- 
nel by  which  the  manufactures  of  that  city  are 
transported  to  foreign  parts,  A  more  important 
resource  is  its  herring-fishery,  which  employs  six 
thousand  seamen,  and  produces  annually  upwards 
of  fifty  thousand  barrels.  Its  quay,  upwards  of  a 
mile  long,  is  said  to  be  second  only  to  that  of 
Seville.     Yarmouth  is  also  much  frequented  as  a  watering-place. 

Lynn  Regis  is  a  flourishing  seaport  on  the  Wash,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ouse,  which,  with 
its  tributaries,  brings  down  the  agricultural  produce  of  many  rich  counties. 

Seats. — Norfolk  contains  several  of  the  most  superb  seats  in  England.  Holkham,  built  by 
Lord  Leicester  on  a  design  of  Inigo  Jones,  and  particularly  noted  for  a  gallery  room,  is  richly 
adorned  with  sculpture  and  paintings,  and  has  also  a  very  extensive  library.  Houghton  is  a 
magnificent  seat. 

Cambridgeshire  presents  a  considerable  variety  of  surface.  Its  northern  district,  called 
the  Isle  of  Ely,  inters-icted  by  the  lower  channels  of  the  Ouse  and  the  Nen,  exists  almost  in 
an  intermediate  state  between  land  and  sea.  Drainage,  however,  to  a  great  extent  has  been 
effected,  and  many  tracts  have  been  converted  into  fine  meadow,  or  made  to  yield  large 
crops  of  oats,  though  the  danger  of  inundation  can  never  be  wholly  averted.  The  classic 
stream  of  the  Cam  or  Granta,  in  descending  to  join  the  Ouse,  waters  a  valley  called  "the 
Dairies,"  where  some  good  cheeses  and  long  rolls  of  excellent  butter  are  prepared  for  the 
tables  of  tlie  Cambridge  students.  The  southern  and  western  districts,  encroached  upon  by 
the  downs  from  the  south,  are  only  fit  for  the  pasture  of  sheep. 

The  capital  of  Cambridge  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  two  great  universities.  There  are 
thirteen  colleges  and  four  nails,  in  which  the  masters,  tutors,  and  students,  not  only  teach 
and  are  taught,  but  are  lodged  and  boarded.  Some  of  the  largest  of  these  endowments  are 
stated  to  be  for  "  poor  and  indigent  scholars ;"  but  are  filled  with  the  sons  of  opulent  families, 
who  cannot  live  there  but  at  a  very  considerable  expense.  Yet  the  resort  continues  to 
increase,  and  the  existing  colleges  are  insufficient  to  contain  the  applicants,  who  must  often 
wait  several  years  previously  to  admission.  These  collages  are  large,  and  generally  fine 
and  handsome  building ;  yet  they  do  not  prodvice  the  same  noble  and  imposing  efllect  as 
those  in  the  sister  university.  There  are,  however,  two  structures  such  as  its  rival  cannot 
Vou.  I  2  W 


Norwich  Cathedral. 


870 

match. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


Kini'i  Colkwa  Cbtpal- 


The  first  of  these  is  the  chapel  of  King's  College,  (Jg.  147.)>  built  between  tho 

reigns  of  Henry  VI.  and  Henry  VIII.  Its 
interior  has  been  called  inatciiless;  the  roof 
is  of  the  most  perfect  workmanBhip,  and  its 
supp)rt  without  pillars  has  been  viewed  aa 
an  urchitectural  mystery.  But  the  most 
strihing  characteristic  is  the  prodigious 
blaza  of  painted  glass,  on  each  side,  fhxn 
twelve  brilliantly  tinted  windows  fifty  feel 
hi^li,  giving  to  the  fabric  the  appearance  of 
being  walled  with  painted  glass.  The  other 
is  Trinity  College,  particularly  admired  for 
its  library,  two  hundred  feet  long,  designed 
by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  perhaps  the 
most  elc^nt  library-room  in  the  kin^om. 
The  hall  is  also  the  largest  in  Cambridge ;  and  tlie  roof  is  ornamented  with  fine  specimens 
of  old  wood-work.  Its  chapel  is  marked  by  a  beautifbl  simplicity,  and  contains  Roubiliac's 
statue  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  supposed  the  best  resemblance  that  exists  of  that  great  man. 

The  principal  library  contains  100,000  volumes,  many  of  which  are  scarce  and  valuable. 
Trinity  college,  in  its  ornamental  hall,  has  40,000.  Earl  Fitzwilliam,  from  his  scat  neai 
Richmond,  presented  lately  a  handsome  library,  some  fine  pictures,  and  a  large  collection  of 
engravings.  The  botanic  g^arden  is  inferior  to  none  in  the  kingdom,  except  those  of  Kew 
and  Liverpool.  The  collection  of  valuable  manuscripts  and  antiquities  is  likewise  extensive. 
Since  the  university  was  adorned  by  tho  immortal  name  of  Newton,  mathematics  and  natural 

Shilosophy  have  been  the  ruling  pursuits ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  lustre  reflected  on  it  by 
f  ilton,  as  well  as  by  Bentley  and  Person,  it  has  left  to  Oxford  the  foremost  place  in  classical 
knowledge. 

At  Newmarket,  horse-racing  has  chosen  its  most  favourite  ground.  This  town  lies  amid 
bleak  hills,  that  have,  however,  a  sufficient  extent  of  level  heath  to  make  the  finest  course 
in  the  kingdom.  It  consists  of  one  long  street,  chiefly  filled  with  inns  and  cofiee-houses  for 
the  reception  of  the  sporting  world,  who  crowd  thither  in  tlie  appropriate  seasons,  which  are 
April,  July,  and  October.  The  bustle  is  then  immense.  "  Trains  of  horses,"  says  Dr. 
Spiker,  "  were  led  up  and  down  the  streets.  Excellent  equipages,  gigs,  curricles,  landaus, 
flew  past  us  and  past  each  other  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow.  Horses  were  prancing 
about  with  their  riders ;  jockeys  were  carrying  bridles  to  and  fro :  in  short,  all  was  life  and 
bustle."  The  course  is  covered  with  turf,  whence  the  pursuit  of  horse-racing  itself  is  usu- 
ally designated  the  turf.  Close  to  the  goal  is  drawn  on  rollers  a  small  wooden  house,  in 
which  sits  the  judge,  usually  on  experienced  groom,  who  decides  which  is  the  winner.  The 
Btand  is  an  open  raised  house  for  ladies  and. other  curious  spectators;  but  men  of  real  busi- 
ness crowd  round  the  betting  post,  immediately  behind  tlie  judge,  where  they  remain  closely 
vedged  together,  "and  nothing  is  heard  but  the  continual  cry  of  twenty,  thirty,  forty,  two 
hundred  pounds  on  such  a  horse." 

The  small  city  of  Ely  rises  like  an  island  amidst  the  surrounding  fens,  and  displays  a 
magnificent  cathedral.  Wisbeach,  a  thriving  town  on  a  navigable  branch  of  the  Ouse, 
combines  a  prosperous  trade  with  some  spirit  of  literary  enquiry. 

Huntingdonshire  lies  to  the  eastward  of  Cambridge ;  the  two  are  governed  by  the  same 
sherifl*,  chosen  alternately  in  each.  Huntingdon  is  entirely  agricultural ;  the  pastures  are 
peculiarly  rich,  and  adapt  it  tor  producing  the  famous  Stilton  cheese.  Huntingdon,  the 
county  town,  though  small,  has  an  antique  and  respectable  appearance.  St.  Ives  is  a  largo 
village  on  the  Ouse. 

Lincolnshire  occupies  the  eastern  coast  from  tlie  Wash  to  the  Humber.  The  southern 
Mrritory,  called,  from  tliat  circumstance,  "  Holland,"  comprises  more  than  half  of  tiie  Bed- 
ford level,  or  fen  country,  and  is  naturally  an  almost  continuous  swamp ;  but  a  great  extent 
of  it  has  now  been  drained,  and  produces  fine  pasture  land,  and  excellent  crops  of  oats.  The 
rearing  of  live  stock  forms  the  chief  occupation ;  and  Lincoln  has  breeds  of  every  descrip- 
tion that  are  held  in  high  estimation.  The  sheep,  which  amount  to  upwards  of  2,000,000, 
E reduce  the  long  wool,  which,  from  the  length  of  its  staple,  is  chiefly  fitted  for  worsted, 
aize,  and  other  fabrics.  Rabbits,  almost  innumerable,  are  bred  in  the  upper  districts ;  and 
the  unreclaimed  fens,  during  the  wet  season,  swarm  with  teal,  ducks,  geese,  and  aquatic 
game  of  every  form  and  description,  with  which  London  and  many  other  parts  of  England 
are  chiefly  supplied  from  this  county.  Manufectures  have  entirely  deserted  it;  even  its 
own  wood,  since  the  iate  inventions  in  machinery,  is  no  longer  spun  or  carded  within  itself. 
The  Trent,  during  all  its  course  through  this  county,  is  navigable  for  large  vessels,  and 
artificial  channels  unite  its  streams,  particularly  the  Foss  Dyke,  between  the  Witham  anrt 
the  Trent  Foreign  commerce,  however,  is  much  limited  by  the  increasing  sand-banksi  by 
which  the  coasts  and  harbours  are  obstructed. 


Part  II. 

built  between  tho 
Henry  VIII.    lU 

latchlesB;  the  roof 
trkmanHhip,  and  its 
us  been  viewed  as 
y.    But  the  most 
8    the    prodigious 
in  each  side,  fVom 
wmdowa  fifty  feet 
the  appearance  of 
I  glass.   The  other 
jlarly  admired  for 
eet  long,  designed 
,  and  perhaps  the 
1  in  the  kin^om, 
ith  fine  specimens 
jntains  Roubiliac's 
that  great  man. 
irce  and  valuable, 
rem  his  scat  ncai 
large  collection  of 
ept  those  of  Kew 
ikewise  extensive, 
matics  and  natural 
reflected  on  it  by 
:  place  in  classicid 

lis  town  lies  amid 
the  finest  course 
1  cofiee-houses  for 
leosons,  which  are 
liorses,"  says  Dr. 
Jurricles,  landaus, 
Bs  were  prancing 
t,  all  was  life  and 
cing  itself  is  usu- 
wooden  house,  in 
the  winner.  The 
nen  of  real  busi- 
ey  remain  closely 
thirty,  forty,  two 

IS,  and  displays  a 
ich  of  the  Ouse, 

ned  by  tlie  same 

the  pastures  are 

Huntingdon,  the 

5t.  Ives  is  a  largo 

.  The  sciuthem 
half  of  the  Bod- 
it  a  great  extent 
ropsofoats.  The 
of  every  descrip- 
rds  of  2,000,000, 
Lted  for  worsted, 
er  districts;  and 
iese,  and  aquatic 
parts  of  England 
■ted  it;  even  its 
led  within  itself, 
irge  vessels,  and 
the  Witham  and 
g  sand-banks,  by 


DOOK  1. 


ENGLAND. 


4i'. 


The  city  of  Lincoln  was,  during  tho  middle  ages,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and  «plen< 

did  capitalp^of  England.    The  cathedral  (Jg.  14b.)  still  holds  the  lirst  rank  among  religious 

edifices.  From  a  distance  its  three  towers 
appear  conspicuous;  two  of  them  180,  and 
one  300,  foot  high,  and  ornamented  with 
various  pillars  and  tracery;  and  as  the 
structure  stands  on  a  hill,  in  the  midst  of 
a  vast  surrounding  flat,  it  has  the  most 
commanding  site  in  the  county.  When 
plundered  by  Henry  VIII.,  it  wa.s  found 
to  contain  an  extraordinary  treasure,  in 
gold  and  silver,  pearls,  diamonds,  uikI 
otlier  precious  stones.  Lincoln,  supported 
only  by  its  county  trade,  and  by  the  re- 
maming  opulence  of  the  cathedral,  now 
holds  a  moderate  rank  among  provincial 
Lioeoln  Cathudtal.  towns.     Its  fifty  churclics  are  reduced  to 

eleven ;  and  the  fragments  of  the  others  are  dispersed  throughout  tho  town,  many  ordinary 

houses  being  adorned  with  Gothic  arches,  doorways,  and  windows. 
Boston,  on  the  Witham,  carries  on  the  trade  of  Holland,  or  southern  Lincolnshire,    It 

exports  the  grain,  and  aflbrds  a  great  market  for  cattle ;  and  has  thus  doubled  its  population, 

A  fine  Gotliic  church  attests  the  early  prosperity  of  Boston. 

SiJDSECT.  3. — Central  Counties. 
Under  this  term  we  comprehend  that  part  of  tho  interior  which  is  bounded  on  the  soutlj 
and  south-west  by  the  two  divisions  already  described ;  on  the  north  and  north-west  by  York- 
ahircTand  Ijancashire ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  counties  of  Salop,  Worcester,  and  Gloucester. 
In  a  description  of  this  portion  of  the  country,  London  claims  a  distinct  and  separate 
notice.  As  the  metropolis  oi  tho  united  kingdom,  it  is  the  seat  of  legislation,  jurisprudence, 
and  government ;  the  principal  residence  of  the  sovereign,  at  wiiich  affairs  of  state  are 
tmnsacted,  and  relations  maintained  with  foreign  courts ;  the  centre  of  all  important  opera- 
tions whether  of  commerce  or  finance,  and  of  correspondence  with  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 
Ijondon,  in  its  comprehensive  sense,  includes  tiie  city  and  liberties  of  London,  the  city  of 
Westminster  and  its  liberties,  the  borough  of  Southwark,  and  tlie  parishes  and  precincts 
contiguous  to  those  three  component  parts  of  the  metropolis.  Its  extent,  from  Poplar  in 
the  east  to  Bel  grave-square  in  the  west,  is  nearly  eight  miles ;  its  breadth,  from  Islington 
in  the  north  to  Walworth  in  the  south,  exceeds  five  miles.  The  circumference,  allowing  for 
inequalities,  is  computed  at  thirty  miles.  T'  buildings,  streets,  squares,  and  other  spaces, 
including  that  taken  up  by  the  river  Thanic-  winding  from  the  eastern  to  the  western 
extremity,  about  seven  miles  on  an  average  ic""lth  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  occupy  an  area 
of  eighteen  square  miles. 

By  a  more  convenient  topographical  arrangement,  London  has  been  divided  into  six  grand 
portions:  1st,  the  City,  which  may  be  termed  the  central  division;  2d,  the  western  division, 
including  Westminster ;  3d,  the  north-west  division,  including  tlie  district  north  of  Oxford- 
street  and  west  of  Tottenham-court-road, — these  two  last,  mentioned  divisions  constitute  the 
west-end  of  tlie  town ;  4th,  the  northern  division,  comprising  the  whole  district  north  of 
Holbom  and  tha  City  from  Tottenliam-court-r  md  on  tlio  west  to  Shorcditch  and  Kingsland- 
road  on  the  east,  including  St.  Pancras,  Som  rs-town,  Pontonville,  Islington,  Iloxton,  and 
Kingsland ;  5th,  the  eastern  division,  including  the  whole  district  east  of  the  city  and  of 
Shoreditch ;  6th,  the  southern  division,  'on.jyrising  the  liorouga  of  Soutliwark,  and  the 
mass  of  buildings  extending  *rom  Rotherli.ilie  to  Vauxhall,  and  ranging  southward  for  more 
than  two  miles.  The  divisions  north  and  south  of  the  Thames  communicate  by  five  bridges, 
— London  Bridge,  Southwark  Bridge,  Blackfriaxs,  Waterloo,  and  Westminster  bridges. 
The  port  of  London  extends  from  London  Bridge  to  Deptfi.rd,  a  distance  of  about  four 
miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  from  four  hv  !rod  to  five  hundred  yards.  Its  divisions 
are  the  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Pools,  and  the  space  between  Limehouse  and  Deptfbrd. 
Connected  with  it  arc  certain  spacious  docks,  whicxi  will  be  hereafter  noticed. 

The  population  of  London,  according  to  the  returns  in  1831  of  the  census  in  1830,  is  thus 
staled: — 

Persons 

Cit7  of  London  within  the  walls 57,<i!)S         ' 

without  the  walls  (incliidin"  the  Inns  of  Court) 67,878 

Boroueh  of  Southwark 91,301 

City  of  Westminster 303,080 

Pnrinhes  within  the  bills  of  mortality —  761,348 

Adjacent  parishes  not  within  the  bills SSi.Sffl        j     ' 


Total       1,474,080 


m 


DESCRIPTIVE  OECKJRAPHY. 


m. 


i3rnulatcd  in  London  by  tho  introduction  of  Imckney 


Tho  north  division  of  Ijondnn,  nn  viowed  tVutn  tho  inoi^t  contrul  and  olovatcd  \yoi.n,  risvH 
rontly  tVom  tho  ThanioH,  nnd  cxtondn  to  tho  foot  of  u  riuiffo  of  hillx  on  which  nro  aituatod 
tho  viili4;<!H  (if  Ilininatond  and  Hi^hjjrato.  Un  tho  oiixt  and  west  aru  fortilo  nluiiia  oxtiMidiiiff 
at  Inaat  twt  .1,  hiiivm,  and  walored  by  tho  windin^f  and  gitntly  flowing  'I'liiiiiieH.  On  tho 
goiith,  the  d.sUiiil  viow  in  houndod  by  tlio  iii);h  (fnuindi)  of  "vlmioiul,  Windilcdon,  K|)Mom, 
\o^^"(XMi,  and  Olackhnath,  (crniinating  in  tho  iiorizon  by  '  Hill,  Uoxhill,  and  tho  Rnl- 
r  wO  and  Wrotiinm  Hills.  rthootor'H  lliU  jh  a  I'dnupicnou'  uj.  --t  to  tho  eastward;  anti,  in  a 
more  northerly  direction,  oartM  of  l']pi»in>jp  Kmi'st  and  other  wooded  uplands  of  Ehsox. 

So  early  as  tho  roi^n  of  Nuro,  IxHidon  iiad  liecoino  a  |)luuo  of  considerable  traffic,  as  ap|K>an 
from  Tacitus,  the  carlicHt  of  tho  Roman  historians  who  mentions  it  by  name.  Tho  lionians 
fortified  it  with  a  wall,  and  made  it  one  of  their  principal  stations,  At  tho  be^rinning  of 
the  third  conturv,  it  is  ropresentoci  as  a  threat  anu  wealthy  city,  and  considoreu  to  bo  tho 
metropolis  of  Britain.  In  the  end  of  tho  Mixth  century,  it  became  the  capital  of  tho  Kaat 
Saxons,  whoso  kinff,  Sobert,  is  reputed  tho  founder  of  the  cathedral  church  dedicated  to 
Saint  Paul,  and  of  tho  abbey  and  abbey  church  of  W  estminster.  Atler  the  union  of  tho 
■even  kinj^doms,  Egbert,  in  83!),  held  here  his  tirst  wiucnaifemoli;  or  council :  but  London 
was  not  con3titutou  tho  capital  of  Enifland  until  its  recovery  from  tho  Danes  by  AliVed. 
VViliiam  of  Normandy,  whose  interest  it  was  to  concili<ito  tho  citizenx,  tliough  ho  built  tho 
fortress  called  the  Tower,  to  keep  them  in  awe,  confirmea  tho  piivilegos  and  innnunitics 
which  they  had  enjoyed  under  Etlward  tho  ConCesHor.  Notwitlmtanding  several  visitations 
of  tiro  and  pestilence,  Ixindon  cnntimic<l  to  increase,  especially  attor  the  accuHsion  of  tho 
Tudors,  when  tlio  overthrow  of  feudal  vassalage,  u;id  tlu;  more  frecuient  resort  to  the  capital, 
caused  an  augmentation  so  ra]iid  as  to  alarm  tiin  governniei  The  ilisaolution  of  monas- 
teries, of  which  London  contained  so  largo  a  pioixirtion,  acocicrated  this  increase,  while  it 
cave  an  impulse  to  industry  and  commerce.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  influx  of  strangers 
driven  from  the  Netherlands,  by  tho  jwrsecutions  of  tho  Duko  of  Alva,  heightened  tho  alarm, 
and  the  queen  was  even  induced  to  issue  tho  alsurd  decree  that  no  more  dwelling-houses 
should  bo  built :  a  prohibition  which  did  not  retard  tho  growth  of  tho  city.  In  16!)0,  tho 
refinements  of  Pans  and  Madrid  were  onmlal 
coaches  and  sedan  chairs. 

The  reign  of  Charles  II.  includes  tho  most  memorable  epoch  in  tho  history  of  London. 
In  1605,  a  plague  swept  away  11K),(X)0  persona.  In  September,  10(H),  broke  luif  that  great 
nnd  awf  ■  tiro  which  dcstroye<l  4(H)  streets,  13,000  houses,  and  89  churches.  For  tlio  ro- 
buildiii.'  i!'  :'.'i  city,  an  admirable  plan  was  presented  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  tho  archi- 
tect: JiiB  <'i'."oulty  of  reconciling  conflicting  interests,  allowed  it  to  bo  but  very  partially 
adop*.  '  iV'  rebuilt  tho  cathedral  of  St.  Paul  and  most  of  tho  parish  churches  in  tlie 
Gie?  tin  ot)  ic,  and  the  front  of  Cuildhall  in  tho  original  Gothic.  Instead  of  wood  and  plaster, 
the  cii'ct'  m  itcrials  of  the  fbrmcr  city,  the  now  buildings  were  of  brick,  in  tho  substantial 
though  huA-y  stylo  then  in  vogue.  Tiiere  were  no  flagged  footpaths ;  tho  streets  wore  ill- 
pavea :  and  as  there  was  no  system  of  drainage  by  sewers,  and  no  distribution  of  pure  water 
by  pipes,  they  were  in  some  places  far  from  endurable.  The  city,  however,  gained  by  the 
change,  though  with  the  sacrifice  of  many  interesting  memorials  of  its  ancient  state,  and  of 
its  most  glorious  times. 

Westminster,  though  founded  in  the  time  of  the  Sa.\  )n8,  and  chosen  at  an  early  period  as 
a  royal  residence,  did  not  at  first  keep  jmce  with  I^ndon.  The  abbey  and  its  church,  founded 
by  Sebert,  were  rebuilt  by  the  architects  who  reared  so  many  splendid  fabrics  of  Gotliic 
masonry  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  III.  and  Etlward  I.  The  celebrated  hall  was  built  by  William 
Rufiis  in  1097  and  1098,  and  it  underwent  a  thorough  repair  in  tliat  of  Richard  II.  On  the 
dissolution  of  monasteries,  Henry  VIII.  converted  tliis  religious  establishment  into  a  college, 
and  afterwards  into  a  bishopric.  Westminster  thus  became  a  city,  and  has  ever  since  re- 
tained that  rank  by  courtesy,  though  it  never  had  but  one  bishop,  having  been  transferred  by 
Edward  VI.  to  the  sec  of  Norwich. 

The  city  of  Westminster  is  comprised  in  the  united  parishes  of  St.  Margaret  and  St. 
John ;  the  liberties  include  seven  other  parishes,  St.  Martin's  in  the  Fields,  St.  James's,  St 
Ann's,  St  Clement  Danes,  St  Mary's  le  Strand,  St.  George's  Hanover  Square,  and  St  Paul's 
Covcnt  Garden,  with  tlie  precinct  of  the  Savoy  and  that  of  St  Martin's  le  Grand.  Several 
of  the  parishes  westward  of  Temple  Bar  had  each  its  church  and  contiguous  village,  com- 
municating with  each  other  by  roads  and  footpaths.  The  Strand  was  originally  a  high  road 
connecting  London  with  Westminster  by  the  village  of  Charing.  After  the  Restoration, 
the  west  end  of  the  town  rapidly  increased;  and  its  inhabitants,  affecting  superior  refine- 
ment of  manners,  claimed  to  be  considered  aa  a  distinct  class  of  beings  fi-om  the  industrious 
merchants  east  of  Temple  Bar.  By  degrees,  as  the  vacant  ground  was  built  upon,  the  two 
cities  and  their  suburbs  were  united ;  and  at  length  the  distant  villages  of  Mary-le-bone 
and  St  Pancras  became  integral  parts  of  the  metropolis.  A  splendid  quarter,  now  occupied 
by  the  most  fiishionable  part  of  the  community,  has  been  built  to  the  west  of  St  James'd 
nirk  and  tlie  new  palace.     The  villages  surrounding  London,  formerly  at  some  distance-;- 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


mprt        (1  (jxprt  dock,  tlio  funncr  con' 

•r,    xclusivo  of  boBins.     To  thcsn  havo 

•  'anal.    The  wnrchou.scH  at  tlu;  WrHt 

t,H,  tnoHt  (V)tnm(xliouH.     Tlio  London 

vVappitijj.     The  tobacco  worehouHO  be- 

r  itM  kiiKlin  tlio  world.   It  covcfh  u  spaco 


on  tlio  oast,  Stopnoy  and  TiimeliouMO ;  on  tlio  loutli,  Pocklmni,  (.'ambnrwoll,  llrixton,  Clap* 
ham;  on  tlio  wont,  Ilroin|)Um  and  Knit{litHt)ri(l^i3 ;  on  tlio  north,  Hackney,  lloxUjn,  Ulin^tonf 
Iii((l)K>ito  iind  Ilaiiipstuiui, — lKiiii(;  now  joinotl  to  llio  uiotropoliM  by  continuod  rantroa  of 
itruotit,  inny  \to  coniiidcred  eh  intoKml  iK)rtions  of  it.  Tho  {lopulation  within  a  rauiiia  of 
oiffht  iiiiloH  from  tit.  I'iuiI'h,  which  Ih  all  virtually  liondon,  duuH  not  full  Hhort  of  1,800,000. 

I'ho  Krowtli  of  Londuii,  as  a  por',  waaat  first  by  d"  ih'-hiih  ni|)id.  In  l-M'i,  hcMidoH  IxiatA 
and  otlnr  cratl  not  ro{<;iMtnred,  there  belonged  to  tho  ix>'  liondon  UOCO  HliipH,  of  tho  burthen 
of  50r>,174  tons;  manned  by  3*<2,7Hfl  men  and  lioyg.  t  iho  itanio  voar,  tho  (^rom  cuHtoma 
duty  collected  in  tho  iiort  of  liondon  anioiiiu^.,'  to  0,4:i4,Hr)4/.  Tho  mrt  of  Ixindon  hoti 
already  been  described  n»  oxtcndinff  from  Ixindon  Dridgo  to  Doptforo,  a  ditttJinco  of  four 
miloit;  the  avoraffo  breadth  bci  hilly  ii  <Mmrter  of  a  tnilo.  Even  thoHU  limits  wore  fur 
iVoni  aflbrdinff  odetpiato  accoininoduti'     to  'hinpin       and  tho  example  of  improvoincnt 

exhibited  by  Liverpool  at  lonffth  roiu   \  tli  ui  i»ndon  to  form  companies  for  con- 

structing docks,  with  coinmodious  ([uuvs  aid  -«■.     Tho  West  India  Docks,  strotch- 

ing  acrowH  tho  isthmus  forming  the  Isfo  /!>■  ••  .^  Middlesex  side  of  tho  river,  wcro 
opened  in  1802.  They  consiMted  origii 
tahiing  (tlxnit  i)U  and  tho  latter  alxxit  U.> 
recently  boon  added  tho  south  dock,  formui  \\  : 
India  Docks  aro  of  vast  extent,  and  are,  in  i 
Docks,  also  of  very  great  extent,  arc  sitiiiitiMl  i 
longing  to  them  is  the  lurgcxt  and  finest  building 
of  near  5  acres !  Tlio  vaults  underneath  tho  ground  aro  IBJ  acres  in  extent,  and  have 
stowage  for  (10,()(K)  pipes  of  wine !  There  aro  also  the  St.  Katharina^s  Docks,  adjoining  tho 
Tower;  tho  East  India  Doc^s,  at  Blackwoll;  and  tho  Commercial  Docks,  on  tho  Hurrcy 
side  of  tho  river. 

Southwurk,  tho  third  great  portion  of  tho  inetroixilis,  (more  commonly  called  tho  Bornuffh, 
and  as  such  returning  two  inunibers  to  parliament,)  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Thuiiios.  The  Borough  was  governed  by  its  own  bailiUs  until  Edward  VI.  granted  Houth- 
wark  ;o  tho  city  of  Jiondon  tor  a  sum  of  money;  nHiT  which  it  became  one  of  tho  city 
wards  by  the  name  of  Bridge  Ward  Without.  It  is  much  frecjiiontcd  by  agriculturists  from 
Kent,  Sum 'y,  and  Sussex;  and  is  tho  principal  hop-markot  m  tho  kingdom.  Numerous 
Btroots  in  every  direction  connect  it  with  the  surrounding  villages;  and  by  tho  fivo  magnifi- 
cont  bridges  it  communicatoH  with  every  (piarter  of  liOndon  and  Westminster. 

London,  is  well  built,  well  paved,  well  lighted,  and  abundantly  supplied  witli  water.  For- 
eigners who  visit  it  for  tho  first  time  noon  discover  that  utility,  not  ornament,  is  the  main 
characteristic  of  the  town,  and  that  business,  not  amusement,  occupies  tho  minds  of  its 
inhabitants.  Tho  main  streets  arc  spacious;  and  all  tho  streets  have  tho  advantage  of  Hogged 
foot-pavements  on  each  side.  The  houses  are  of  brick ;  and  though  in  the  most  populous 
streets  discoloured  by  smoke,  have  by  no  means  a  gloomy  appearance.  Tho  charm  of  London, 
as  a  great  city,  is  its  variety.  Those  who  dislike  tho  narrow  streets  of  the  city,  shady  in 
summer,  and  sheltered  from  cold  winds  in  winter,  may  delight  in  tho  spacious  streets  and 
squares  of  the  west  end ;  those  who  desire  to  contemplate  what  Dr.  Johnson  called  "  the  full 
tide  of  human  existence,"  may  visit  Chcapsido,  Fleet  Street,  or  tho  Strand  :  Bond  Street  is 
the  resort  of  gaiety  and  fashion ;  and  Regent  Street,  for  architectural  effect,  is  one  of  the 
grandest  streets  in  Europe.  Great  improvements  havo  been  made  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Strand  from  Charinjf  Cross  to  Burleigh  Street,  by  taking  down  an  immense  mass  of  small 
and  old  houses,  partly  in  narrow  streets  and  courts,  and  erecting  others  of  large  dimensions 
and  forming  wide  and  handsome  streets.  Hero  also  has  been  erected  the  elegant  and  com- 
modious structure  of  Hungcrford 
Market.  Another  improvement  i^ 
that  of  opening  a  line  northward 
from  Bridge  Street,  BlackfViars, 
through  the  site  of  Fleet  Market 
and  across  Clcrkenwell,  to  Isling- 
ton :  it  is  intended  that  a  parallel 
line  should  extend  from  Waterloo 
Bridge  across  the  Strand,  past  the 
portico  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre, 
and  into  the  northern  district  of 
the  metropolis. 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral  {Jig.  149.), 
the  masterpiece  of  Sir  Christopher 
Wren,  is  the  finest  specimen  of 
modem  architecture  in  the  king- 
s'- PbuI'i.  fiom,  and,  ftf>pr  St.Peter's  at  Rome, 
nay  rank  as  the  finest  ecclesiastical  structure  in  Christendom ;  but  it  is  so  surrounded  with 
Vol.  L                                                      88 


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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

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DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  Ht, 


i>  U<ilw\\  tk:'t[S!-Wt.<«'"«sbni.A|;*h>ti".. 


^uiUiogi  that  the  beauty  of  its  exterior  cannot  be  appreciated.  The  style,  which  is  Grecian, 

unites  erandeur  of  design  with  just- 
ness of  proportion.  The  interior  of 
St.  Paul's  iH  too  bare  of  ornament; 
but  the  defect  is  partly  supplied  by 
marble  monuments  m  various  de- 
^■rees  of  merit 

Westmmster  Abbev  (Jig.  150.) 
is  a  noble  specimen  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. The  interior  is  grand  in 
design  and  rich  in  detail,  and  the 
interest  which  it  excites  is  en- 
hanced by  the  numerous  monuments 
of  kings,  warriors,  statesmen,  phi« 
losophers,  an(^  y  }ts,  which  it  en- 
closes. The  chapel  built  at  the 
western  extremity  by  lienry  VII. 
in  honour  of  the  blewed  Virgin,  is 
in  the  richest  style  of  the  later 


Weitmioitor  Abbor- 


Somenel  Home. 


•'ilT  '  weKmiMior  ADOoy.  I' ),'ji  lit ,:":,' 

Gothic,  and  Its  exterior  has  been  skilfully  renovated. 

Among  the  parish  churches  of  the  metropolis,  thuv  of  St  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  is  distin- 
guished for  Hie  fine  proportions  and  finished  elegance  of  its  interior.  "The  stately  portico  of 
St  Martin's,  Charing  Cross,  excites  universal  admiration ;  next  to  which  may  rank  that  of 
the  new  church  of  St  Pancras ;  the  steeple  of  which  is  constructed  on  the  model  of  the  Temple 
of  the  Winds  at  Athens.  The  other  public  buildings  are  too  numerous  to  be  described,  uid 
a  bare  mention  of  them  would  give  little  satisfaction.  The  principal  inns  of  court,  and  their 
subsidiary  inns,  are  remarkable  rather  for  plaiimess  than  mt^ificence  of  architecture.  The 

pile  called  Somerset  House  (Jig. 
151.)  would  have  a  grand  effect 
if  its  eastern  wing  were  com- 
pleted; and  this  desideratum  L 
partly  supplied  by  the  buildings 
assigned  to  "  King's  ^ollege,  Lon* 
don.  The  Banqueting  House  at 
WLitehall  is  a  memorial  of  the 
fine  taste  of  Inigo  Jones ;  and  its 
ceiling  is  decorated  with  an  alle- 
gorical pamting  from  the  pencil 
of  Rubens,  which  is  still  exposed 
to  view,  though  the  apartment  has 
been  converted  into  a  chapel. 
Westminster  Hall,  of  which  the  portal  has  been  rebuilt  in  the  original  style,  is  reputed  the 
longest  hall  in  Europe  unsupported  by  pillars.  It  is  276  feet  long  by  76  broad.  Within  it, 
on  coronation  festivals,  10,000  persons  have  dined.  On  its  south  side  are  entrances  to  the 
new  law  courts,  the  King's  Bench  Common  Pleas,  Exchequer  and  Chancery,  with  an  addi- 
tional court  for  the  vice-chancellor.  The  House  of  Peers  is  a  spacious  and  lofly  chamber, 
decorated  with  tapestry  representing  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  armada.    The  subordinate 

apartments  and  passages  are  of  recent  construction  and  of  a  dig- 
nified elegance.  The  House  of  Commons,  originally  a  chapel  dedi- 
cated to  St  Stephen,  retains,  perhaps,  too  much  of  that  character 
in  Its  front  and  side  galleries,  the  seats  rising  on  either  hand 
beneath  them,  and  the  speaker's  chair  exactly  in  the  place  where 
a  pulpit  might  have  stood.  The  house  was  aUered  and  enlarged, 
to  admit  the  accession  of  members  consequent  on  the  union  with 
Ireland.*  The  Bank  of  England,  a  buildmg  of  great  extent;  the 
Royal  Exchange;  the  East  India  House,  in  I^adcnhall  street; 
the  Tower,  which  has  still  an  arsenal  and  a  garrkcn,  being  the 
depository  of  the  regalia  of  the  United  Kingdom ;  the  Trinity 
House,  and  the  New  Mint  both  situated  on  Tower  Hill;  the 
new  Post  Office,  in  St  Martin  le  Grand ;  the  new  Palace  in  St 
James's  Park,  die.  deserve  mention. 

The  Monument  (fig.  152.)  is  one  of  the  most  c(Ni^cuoas  orna- 
ments of  the  metropolis.  The  pedestal  is  42  feet  the  shaft  of  the 
column  120  feet  the  cone  at  the  top  with  the  blazing  urn  of  gilt 
brui  40  feet  making  the  total  height  of  the  monument  202  feet  It  was  erected  by  Sir 
CStriatopher  Wren,  to  commemorate  the  fire  of  London,  in  1666. 


Th«  MonuBMOt. 


*  Tbe  Parliainont  Hounea  were  burnt  down  in  1834. 


'  ,;=i.VTT!'  ■('«?!«'" 


pARTHt. 

J,  which  is  Grecian, 
r  of  desig^n  with  just* 
ion.  The  interior  of 
>  bare  of  oroatnent; 
B  partly  supplied  hy 
ents  (n  various  de> 

Abbey  (Jiff.  150.) 
pen  of  Gothic  archi- 
interior  is  grand  in 
t  in  detail,  and  the 

it  excites  is  en- 
unerouB  monuments 
}rs,  statesmen,  phi* 
pr  its,  which  it  en- 
ihapel  built  at  the 
lity  by  lienry  VII. 
e  bleraed  Virgin,  is 
style  of  the  later 

Walbrook,  is  distin- 
le  stately  portico  of 
:h  may  rank  that  of 
lodel  of  the  Temple 

0  be  described,  and 

1  of  court,  and  their 
architecture.  The 

merset  House  (Jig. 
ave  a  grand  effect 
wing  were  com- 
his  desideratum  Li 
i  by  the  buildings 
ling's  College,  Lon< 
loiqueting  House  at 
I  memorial  of  the 
ligo  Jones ;  and  its 
rated  with  an  alle- 
irom  the  pencil 
ich  is  still  exposed 
the  apartment  has 
into   a  chapeL 
e,  is  reputed  the 
iroad.    Within  it, 
entrances  to  the 
, .  with  an  addi- 
nd  lofty  chamber, 
The  subordinate 
on  and  of  a  dig- 
ly  a  chapel  dedi- 
of  that  character 
on  either  hand 
the  place  where 
red  and  enlarged, 
01  the  union  with 
great  extent ;  the 
eadenhall  street; 
rrison,  being  the 
om;  the  Trinity 
[■ower  Hill;  the 
ow  Palace  m  SL 

ioni^euons  oma>> 
,  the  abaft  of  the 
zing  urn  of  gilt 
erected  by  Sir 


Book  1. 


.  Y  i  f;  A  ?! ;  KNGLAND.    ri-^:  n ; 


m 


sry. 


The  bridges  of  London  attract  attention  by  their  beauty  and  utility.  Until  the  year  1710, 
the  only  one  existing  was  London  Bridge,  built  in  the  twelfth  century,  with  arches  so  nar* 
row,  unequal,  and  ill-placed,  as  to  form  a  sort  of  breakwater,  occdsioning  a  rapid  at  fall  of 
the  stream,  highly  dangerous  to  boats  and  barges.  The  new  London  Brid^fe  (Jg.  153.)  com- 

153 


New  I  aDilun  Uridce. 


menced  in  1824,  and  opened  in  1S31,  has  taken  its  plase.  The  bridge  consists  nf  five  semi- 
elliptical  arches ;  the  centre  arch  152  feet  span,  with  a  rise  above  high  water  mark  of  29  feet 
6  inches ;  the  two  next  the  centre  arch,  140  feet  span,  rise  27  feet  6  inches ;  the  two  abut- 
ment arches,  130  feet  span,  rise  24  feet  6  inches.  The  length  of  the  bridge  from  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  abutment  is  028  feet ,  within  the  abutments,  782  feet  The  roadway  is  53  feet 
between  the  parapets ;  of  this  width,  the  footways  occupy  9  feet  each,  and  the  carriage-way 
85  feet  Southwark  Bridge  leads  from  Queenhithe  to  Bankside,  Southwark.  Of  its  three 
arches  of  cast  iron,  the  central  one  is  240  feet  span ;  the  others  210  feet  each.  The  piers 
and  abutments  are  of  stone,  the  rest  of  the  work  iron :  this  is  the  most  stupendous  bridge 
of  these  materials  in  the  world.  Blackfriars  Bridge,  built  between  the  years  1760  and  1769, 
has  8  piers  and  9  elliptical  arches;  length  095  feet  Waterloo  Bridge  (fig.  154.),  of  granite, 

154 


Waterloo  Bridie. 


has  nine  arches,  each  120  feet  span ;  the  piers  are  20  feet  thick.  Westminster  Bridge  has 
fourteen  piers  supporting  thirteen  large  and  two  small  arches.  The  width  of  the  middle 
arch  is  76  feet ;  that  of  the  two  next,  72,  that  of  the  last,  52.  Waterloo  Bridge  is  the  finest 
piece  of  masonry  in  Europe :  the  expense  exceeded  1,000,0001.  These  immense  works, 
with  the  exception  of  London  Bridge,  have  all  been  accomplished  by  associations  of  private 
individuals. 

The  municipal  institutions  of  London  have  received  from  time  such  modifications  as  were 
reiiuisite  to  improve  them.  The  city  is  divided  into  twenty-five  wards,  the  Borough,  as 
findge  Ward  Without,  making  the  twenty-sixth.  Each  has  lor  its  magistrate  an  alderman 
chosen  for  life :  and  those  persons  collectively  fbrm  the  Court  of  Aldermen.  The  chief 
magistrate,  styled  Lord  Mayor,  is  elected  annually,  from  the  Court  of  Aldermen,  by  the  great 
bo^  of  fteemen  called  the  Livery.  The  Common  Council  is  an  elective  body  representing 
the  several  wards.— These  public  bodies  form  a  sort  of  parliament,  the  court  of  aldermen 
ranking  as  peers,  that  of  common  council  as  the  commons.  The  military  force  of  the  city 
formerly  consisted  of  the  Train  Bands ;  but  under  an  bCt  passed  in  1794,  two  regiments  of 
militia  are  raised  by  ballot,  each  consisting  of  2200  men.  No  troops  can  enter  the  city,  nor 
cMi  ite  own  militia  dcp.^- 1  ucm  it,  without  permission  of  the  lord  mayor.  His  power  is  very 
great ;  and  though  his  office  be  elective,  his  authority  does  not  cease  on  the  demise  or  abdi- 
cation of  the  king,  as  that  of  the  commission  officers  does :  and  in  such  cases  the  LordMavur 


■m 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


of  London  is  said  to  be  the  principal  officer  of  the  kin^om.  There  are  two  aheriffb,  one  for 
London  and  one  for  Middlesex ;  but  they  make  but  one  officer;  and  if  one  of  them  dioa,  the 
office  is  at  an  end  until  A  Buccessor  to  him  is  chosen.  The  next  officers  m  rank  are,  the 
Recorder,  the  Chamberlain,  and  the  Common  Sereeant 

The  police  of  the  metro^lis  has  not  been  brou^t  to  b  very  hUfh  degree  of  efficiency,  but 
is  continually  undergoing  improvements.  There  are  eleven  offices :  the  Mansion  House ; 
:.he  Guildhall;  Bow  Street;  Queen  Square,  Westminster;  Marlborough  Street,  Hiffh 
Street,  Mary>le-bone ;  Hatton  Garden;  Worship  Street ;  Lambeth  Street,  in  Whitechapel; 
High  Street,  Shadwell ;  Union  Street,  Sonthwark ;  and  Wapping  New  Stairs,  for  offences 
connected  with  tiio  dipping  and  port.  The  Bow  Street  Police  Office  is  wholly  under  the 
direction  and  management  of  the  Secretarj^  of  State  for  the  Home  Department  All  the 
magistrates  belonging  to  it  are  in  the  commission  of  the  peace  for  the  counties  of  Middlesex, 
Surrey,  Kent,  and  Essex,  this  being  the  chief  police  office  of  England.  Subject  to  its 
authority  is  the  body  of  foot  and  horse  patrole  by  which  the  roads  within  ten  miles  of  the 
metropolis  are  watehed  and  guarded  during  a  considerable  pert  of  the  night  In  another 
deportment  of  police  a  most  important  change  has  been  effected  by  substituting  for  the 
nightly  wateh  appointed  by  different  parishes  without  concert  or  coH>peration,  a  constabi)- 
LARV  POLicB  roRoi,  regularly  organized,  and  subject  to  officera  appointed  by  the  Home 
Secretary  of  State.  The  men  are  maintained  by  rates  levied  on  the  different  parishes, 
and  are  on  duty  night  and  day,  in  successive  divisions,  relieving  each  other  like  gendarmes. 

The  gaols  and  prisons  cannot  be  passed  without  notice.  The  King's  Beech  prison,  in 
Southwark,  is  under  the  particular  authwity  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  The  liberties, 
or  rules,  comprehend  an  area  three  miles  in  circumference,  within  any  part  of  wiiich  debtors 
may  reside  on  paying  certain  fees.  The  Fleet  Prison,  chiefly  for  debtors,  is  situated  on  tJie 
east  side  of  Forrin^on  Street  Whitecroes-street  prison  was  erected  in  1817,  for  the 
reception  of  such  debtors  as  were  liable  to  be  confined  in  the  city  gaols  of  Newgate  and  the 
Compter.  Newgate,  a  place  of  confinement  for  prisoners  before  and  after  trial,  has  been 
placed  under  new  regulations  through  the  efforts  of  benevolent  persons  anxious  to  render  it 
a  place  of  reform.  Bridewell,  Bl&ckfi-iars,  though  a  prison,  is  usually  ranked  among  the 
hospitals.  The  Middlesex  House  of  Correction,  in  Coldbath  Fields,  has  long  been  the  terror 
(^delinquents,  through  the  double  punishment  of  incarceration  and  hard  labour.  The  Peni- 
tentiary at  MUbonk  is  destined  for  the  reception  of  convicts  selected  from  those  sentenced 
to  transportation  or  to  confinement  on  board  the  hulks  for  a  certain  term  of  years.  They  are 
confined  here  to  hard  labour  for  a  shorter  term,  part  of  which  is  remitted  if  they  behave  well 
ToUiill-fields  Bridewell  is  a  large  pile  of  building,  finished  in  1638.  A  new  House  of  Cor- 
rection has  been  erected  at  Brixton,  in  Surrey. 

The  charitable  institutions  of  London  would  require  a  volume  for  their  descriptic 
Chelsea  and  Greenwich  hospitals  are  asylums  provided  by  national  gratitude  to  support  '"> 
aged  or  infinn  who  have  devoted  their  liest  days  to  the  service  of  their  country  by  land  auu 
sea.  St  Bartholomew's  and  St  Thomas's  hospitals  are  assigned  to  the  maimed  and  diseased. 
Bridewell  Hospital  to  the  correction  of  the  idle,  and  Christ's  hospital  to  the  support  and 
education  of  the  young  and  helpless.  For  the  cure  of  diseases,  and  for  the  relief  of  acci- 
dental injuries,  there  are  various  institutions ;  such  are  the  London,  Middlesex,  St  George's, 
and  Westminster  hospitals ;  St.  Bartholomew's,  St  Thomas's,  and  Guy's,  are  also  celebrated 
as  schools  of  surgery ;  the  hospitals  of  Bethlehem  and  St  Luke's  are  appropriated  to  insane 
patients:  tliere  are  sixteen  medical  charities  for  particular  purposes,  as  the  Ophthalmic 
Institution,  the  Small-pox  Hospital,  the  Vaccine  Society,  &.c. ;  fourteen  lyinpr-in  hospitals 
and  charities ;  schools  for  the  indigent  blind,  and  for  the  deaf  and  dumb ;  the  Philanthropic 
and  Humane  Societies,  the  Refiige  for  the  Destitute,  tlie  Foundling  Hospital,  the  Magdaun 
Asylum,  the  Female  Penitentiary,  &c.  To  the  class  of  charitable  foundations  belong  idao 
the  alms-houses  of  the  various  city  companies. 

The  most  distinguished  schools  of  the  metropolis  are,  Christ's  Hospital,  the  Charter-house, 
Westminster,  St  Paul's,  and  Merchant  Tailor  s  schools.  For  the  acquisition  of  the  higher 
branches  of  knowledge,  an  important  ptrovision  has  been  made  in  the  establishment  of  Uie 
London  University,  and  in  that  of  the  institution  called  Kin^r's  College,  London. 

Of  the  scientific  and  literary  associations  of  the  metroixtlis,  the  most  considerable  are  the 
Royal  Society,  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  the  Society  ror  the  Encouragement  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures,  the  Royal  Institution  for  facilitating  the  introduction  of  useful  Inventions  and 
Improvements,  the  London,  and  the  Russel  Institutions.  The  College  of  Physicians,  and  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  decide  on  the  admission  of  members  to  practise  in  each  of  those 
professions.  For  the  cultivation  of  sciences  connected  with  them,  four  eminent  societies 
exist  and  lectures  ore  established  at  various  theatres  of  anatomy  and  hospitals.  Of  instittr 
tions  for  particular  branches  of  knowledge,  the  more  eminent  are  the  Linnean,  the  Geological, 
the  Horticultural,  the  Geographical,  and  the  Zoological  societies.  As  a  national  repositciy 
(^literature,  of  antiquities,  and  of  objects  belonging  to  natural  history,  the  British  Museum- 
elsewhere  described,  is  daily  rising  in  public  estimation. 

London  is  the  orincipal  literary  emporium  of  the  kingdran.    Almost  all  books  of  import 


Part  III. 

two  sheriffk,  one  for 
no  of  them  dios,  the 
in  in  rank  are,  the 

'ee  of  efliciencv,  but 
le  Mansion  luuie; 
Dugfh  Street,  Hivh 
et,  in  Whitechapel; 
'  Stairs,  for  offences 
is  wholly  under  the 
spartment.  All  the 
unties  of  Middlesex, 
nd.  Subject  to  its 
bin  ten  miles  of  the 
night  In  another 
suMtitutug  for  the 
iration,  a  conbtabii- 
inted  by  the  Home 
9  different  parishes, 
her  like  gendarmes. 
g'a  Bench  prison,  in 
neh.  The  liberties, 
art  of  which  debtors 
rs,  is  situated  on  Uie 
d  in  1817,  for  the 
}fNew^to  and  the 
fler  trial,  has  been 
anxious  to  render  it 
'  ranked  among  the 
long  been  the  terror 
labour.  The  Peni- 
sm  those  sentenced 
of  years.  They  are 
if  they  behave  well, 
new  House  of  Cor- 

their  descriptic 

itude  to  support  V' 

:ountry  by  land  aau 

aimed  and  diseased, 

to  the  support  and 

the  relief  of  acci- 

esex,  St.  George's, 

are  also  celebrated 

»ropriated  to  insane 

s  tl;e  Ophthalmic 

lyinpf-in  hospitals 

the  Pliilanthropic 

ital,  the  Magdafen 

Nations  belong  also 

the  Charter-house, 
ition  of  the  higher 
tablishment  or  Uie 
ondon. 

)n8iderable  are  the 
ment  of  Arts  and 
ful  Inventions  and 
hysicians,  and  the 
9  in  each  of  those 
eminent  societies 
itals.  Of  institu- 
m,  the  Geological, 
lational  repository 
British  Museum- 
books  of  import 


IS 


Book  I 


ENGLAND. 


rv->;:ryy 
t 


.tiwii 


877 


ance  are  there  printed  and  published;  and  thence  distributed  over  the  Kingdom;  fomxtjtti 
considerable  branch  of  commerce.  The  annual  value  sold  is  estimated  at  from  1,000  fiOOL 
to  2,000,000{.  sterling.  Bemg  also  the  centre  of  intelligence  relative  to  public  affairs,  the 
metropolis  gives  circulation  to  a  prodigious  number  of  newspapers  and  periodical  joumdi. 
Some  of  the  newspapers  circukte  upwards  of  8000  a  day ;  and  by  the  profit  derived  from 
such  extensive  sale,  and  firom  advertisements,  they  are  enabled  to  maintain  complete  and 
costly  establishments  for  obtaining  earlv  political  intelligence,  and  fbr  reporting  trials  and 
parliamentary  proceedings.  The  number  of  single  papers,  published  annually  in  London, 
as  calculated  from  the  stamp  returns,  exceeds  16,000,000. 

The  manufkctures  of  the  metropolis  are  too  miscellaneous  to  be  particuhirised ;  indeed, 
London  may  be  called  a  commercial  rather  than  a  manufiicturing  city.  The  most  consider- 
able is  the  Spitalfields  silk  manufacture,  which,  however,  has  for  ydars  remained  stationary, 
while  that  or  other  parts  of  the  kingdom  has  been  rapidly  extending.  In  household  furni- 
ture the  artisans  of  London  take  the  lead  both  in  the  design  or  fashion  of  the  articles,  and 
in  the  excellence  of  their  construction.  The  same  may  be  said  of  coaches,  carriages,  and 
harness,  of  watches,  of  gold  and  silver  plate,  and  of  jewellery.  Of  articles  of  consumption, 
the  peculiar  product  of  London  is  porter.  In  1828-4,  the  quantity  brewed  was  1,168,000 
barrels,  incluuing  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  ale ;  and  almost  the  whole  of  which 
was  produced  by  eleven  great  establishments.  The  distilleries  of  British  spirits  are  very 
extensive. 

The  foreign  trade  of  London  has,  since  the  peace,  continued  nearly  stationary.  The  vici- 
nity of  Liverpool  to  the  manufacturing  districts,  and  her  more  easy  and  frequent  intercourse 
with  Ireland,  give  her  considerable  advantages.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  vant  population 
of  London  and  of  the  basin  of  the  Thames,  her  proximity  to  the  Continent,  the  immense 
wealth  and  connexions  of  her  merchants,  will  most  probably  suffice  to  ensure  her  predomi- 
nance. The  charges  on  vessels  frequentmg  the  Thames,  though  withm  these  few  yean 
very  heavy,  are  now  extremely  moderate. 

The  inland  trade  of  London  is  very  extensive,  as  appears  from  the  number  of  arrivals  by 
all  the  great  roads  of  the  metropolis,  and  by  the  Regent's  Canal,  extending  from  the  Thames 
to  the  basin  at  Poddington,  a  sort  of  internal  port,  communicating  with  the  principal  canals 
of  the  kingdom.  Sixty-four  mail-coaches  ana  a  great  number  of  steam-packets  maintain  a 
constant  communication  between  the  London  General  Post-Office  and  the  cities  and  towns 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  regulated  speed  of  t'.e  mails  is  eight  miles  an  hour, 
including  stoppages. 

London  is  the  great  money  market  of  the  empire.  The  Bank  of  England,  founded  i 
1694,  has  become  the  greatest  bank  of  circulation  and  deposit  in  Europe.  Its  usual  issue 
amounts  to  about  20,000,000^  sterling;  it  advances  about  10,000,000^  sterling  to  govern- 
ment, and  discounts  bills  to  the  value  of  about  3,000,0002.  Though  some  of  its  privileges 
are  curtailed  by  the  late  act,  this  is  compensated  by  the  regulation  which  makes  its  notes  a 
legal  tender.  The  Stock  Exchange  is  the  place  where  purchases  and  sales  are  effected  hv 
brokers,  at  a  commission  of  one-eighth  per  cent  on  the  amount  of  stock  purchased  or  sola. 
The  establishment  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  brokers,  about  thirteen  hundred,  elected 
annually  by  ballot,  and  bound  in  a  certain  sum  to  the  observance  of  certain  regulations, 
which  are  superintended  and  enforced  by  a  committee.  None  but  members  are  admitted  on 
the  stock  exchange ;  and  no  stock-broker  can,  by  the  regulations,  become  a  dealer,  and  sub- 
ject himself  to  the  operation  of  the  bankrupt  laws.  If  he  becomes  a  bankrupt,  he  is  desig- 
nated a  scrivener.  The  property  bought  and  sold  in  this  market,  between  the  hours  of  ten 
and  four,  is  sometimes  enormous.  The  Insurance  Companies  are  about  twenty  in  number, 
of  which  only  three  are  incorporated  by  charter.  Of  other  joint-stock  companies,  for  pur- 
poses immediately  connected  wiUi  London,  the  principal  are  me  Water  and  Gas  Light  Com- 
panies. 

As  the  seat  of  legislation  and  jurisprudence,  London  is  necessarily  the  resort  of  the  prin- 
cipal persons  in  the  kingdom  durlns  the  session  of  parliament,  which  usually  continues  from 
Christmas  to  midsummer ;  and  as  that  period  includes  three  of  the  four  law  terms,  the  afflux 
of  strangers  is  increased  by  those  who  are  interested  in  any  proceedings  before  the  courts. 

The  town  mansions  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  are  not  so  remarkable  as  their  country  resi- 
dences for  architectural  beauty ;  but  some  of  them  are  celebrated  for  their  treasures  of  lite- 
rature or  art.  The  grounds  of  St.  James's  Park,  Hyde  Park,  and  Kensington  Gardens, 
emphatically  called  the  lungs  of  London,  and  the  fine  enclosure  of  the  Regent's  Park,  are 
destined  fbr  the  recreation  of  the  public. 

Middlesex  may  be  regarded  as  the  dairy  and  garden  of  London.  Its  soil  is  mostly  a  poor 
gravel ;  but,  by  the  application  of  manure,  it  is  fitted  for  kitchen  gardens  to  the  extent  of 
nearly  three  thousand  acres ;  the  same  extent  of  fruit  gardens,  and  about  half  that  extent 
of  nurseries,  whence  the  greater  prt  of  England  is  supplied  with  choice  plants  and  exotica. 
But  the  largest  portion  of  Middlesex  is  in  grass,  partly  for  the  support  of  iO,OuO  cows, 
which  supply  London  with  milk,  and  partly  for  furnishing  it  with  hay,  that  of  Middlesex 
being  said  to  be  made  in  a  superior  manner  to  any  other  in  Uie  kmgdom.  Great  profits  have 
V0L.L  32*  2X 


879 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PautIH. 


HuBptonCowL 


been  derived  fhxn  that  specien  of  clay  which  ia  convertible  into  brick.    Large  tracts  have 
yielded  400(U.  an  acre ;  and  after  this  clayey  substance  has  been  pared  off,  the  soil  has  been 
Msily  restored,  by  manure,  to  the  uses  of  affriculture. 
HampUm  Court  (J^.  IRS^),  built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  enlarged  by  Sir  Christopher 

Wren,  forms  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
English  pahices.  Here  are  many  fine  pic- 
tures, among  which  are  seven  of  the  <;ar- 
toons  of  Raphael,  regarded  as  the  master* 
pieces  of  that  renowned  painter.  Bushy 
Park,  the  seat  of  William  IV.  while  Duke 
of  Clarence,  is  surrounded  with  magnifl* 
cent  woods.  Chiswick,  the  villa  of  the 
Duke  df  Devonshire,  and  Osteriey  Park, 
both  in  this  vicinity,  contain  fine  paintings 
Syon  House  is  the  seat  of  the  Duke  ot 
Northumberland.  But  the  chief  ornaments 
of  Middlesex  are  the  villas  of  the  wealthy 
citizens  of  London.  At  Twickenham,  bB^ 
faarous  hands  have  demolished  Pope's  villa.  Strawbeny  Hill  ia  a  light  fkntastic  ihbric,  built 
by  Horace  Walpole.  The  villas  which  cover  the  hills  of  Hompstead  and  Highgate  com- 
mand beautiful  prospects. 

Hertford,  Bedford,  Buckmgham,  Oxford,  Northampton,  Leicester,  consist  generally  of  a 
vast  plain,  varied  by  gentle  undulations;  the  air  is  healthy  and  pure;  the  agriculturists  are 
careful  and  laborious.  The  horses  and  black  cattle  of  Leicestershire  are  famous  throughout 
the  kingdom.  Bedford  and  Berks  have  some  fabrics  of  shawls,  straw  hats,  and  bone  lace. 
Silk  and  woollen  hosiery  have  found  their  way  into  Leicester  and  Oxford  shires,  and  Coven- 
try has  for  centuries  been  renowned  for  its  silk  manufacture. 

Oxford  justly  claims  the  first  rank  amonff  the  midland  cities.  Its  university,  the  most 
richly  endowed  in  Europe,  and  the  nursery  of  so  many  great  men ;  the  numerous  and  exten- 
sive edifices  connected  with  it,  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  a  truly  noble  effect, 
render  it  one  of  the  most  interesting  places  in  England.  The  visiter,  as  he  passes  alon^ 
either  of  the  two  main  streets  (Jig.  15(3.),  beholds  at  every  step  some  antique  and  mojestie 

structure ;  even  the  houses  of  pri- 
vate individuals,  presenting  the 
aspect  of  ornamented  cottages  rising 
one  above  the  other,  have  a  better 
effect  than  the  usual  mechanical 
lines  of  street  This  beautiful  city 
is  supported  almost  entirely  by  tiie 
university,  which  is  of  great  anti- 
quity, and  the  principal  buildings 
which  now  ornament  it  were  buUt 
between  the  times  of  Henry  VI.  and 
Elizabeth.  Oxford,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  was  a  place  of  consider- 
able political  importance;  parlia- 
ments were  summoned  to  meet 
there,  and  the  king  maintained  it 
long  as  his  lost  strong-hold.  It  has 
nineteen  colleges  and  fbor  halls,  in  which  reside  above  three  thousand  persons,  of  whom 
about  a  third  are  maintained  out  of  the  funds  of  the  colleges ;  au  1  many,  under  the  charae< 
ter  of  masters,  fellows,  and  other  fbnctionaries,  enjoy  liberal  incomea 

The  Bodleian  Library  is  the  most  extensive  in  England,  after  that  of  the  British  Musemn. 
In  the  spacious  quadrangle  which  contains  this  library  are  also  the  public  schools;  a  large 
gallery  of  portraits  havm?  reference  to  the  university ;  the  Arundel  marbles,  and  the  Pom- 
fret  statues,  which,  though  much  mutilated,  present  some  fine  specimens  of  ancient  sculp- 
ture. The  RadcliAe  Library  is  the  finest  library  room  in  Oxford ;  but  it  labours  under  a 
deficiency  of  books.  Christ-church  is  an  ample  and  venerable  edifice,  adorned  with  some 
fine  old  painted  glass.  In  an  adjoining  aparbnent  is  the  collection  of  pictures  bequeathed 
by  General  Guise,  which  contains  some  specimens  of  unquestioned  excellence.  New  Col- 
lege chapel  attracts  admiration  by  its  fine  series  of  paintings  on  glass,  executed  by  Jervis. 
mer  the  designs  of  Sir  Joshua  R^nolds.  All-Souls  College,  Magdalen  College,  am 
Queen's  College,  display  architectural  beauties  of  no  common  older. 

Woodstock  has  a  gay  aspect;  to  the  interesting  features  in  Ibglish  history  and  romance 
it  adds  the  solid  benefit  of  a  large  manufacture  of  leather  gloves.  Buckingham  and  Da- 
ventry  arc  small  antique  towns,  Newport  Pagaell,  in  Bucks,  forms  a  sort  of  centre  of  th»» 
lace  trade.    Bedford  carries  on  some  manufiwtures  of  this  description ;  and  being  situated  i» 


Bicb  BtiMt,  Osfbid. 


PautIIL 

Lai^e  tracts  havo 
off,  the  soil  hu  been 

by  Sir  Chrbtopher 
the  largest  of  the 
re  are  many  fine  pio 
re  seven  of  the  tax. 
arded  as  the  master* 
led  painter.  Bushy 
liam  rv.  while  Duke 
mded  with  magnifi< 
ck,  the  villa  of  tiio 
and  Osterley  Park, 
sntain  fine  paintings 
scat  of  the  Duke  ot 
t  the  chief  ornaments 
villas  of  the  wealthy 
Lt  Twickenham,  Iw- 
fiintastic  fabric,  built 
and  Highgate  com- 

nsist  generally  of  a 
he  agriculturists  are 
e  famous  throughout 
hats,  and  bone  lace, 
d  shires,  and  Coven- 
university,  the  most 
lumcrous  and  exten- 
a  truly  noble  effect, 
as  he  passes  along 
uitique  and  majcstie 
1  the  houses  of  pri- 
Is,   presenting    the 
ented  cottages  rising 
other,  have  a  better 
)  usual  mechanical 
This  beautiful  city 
lost  entirely  by  the 
;h  is  of  great  anti< 
principal  buildinss 
iment  it  were  buut 
es  of  Henry  VI.  aid 
brd,  in  the  reign  of 
I  place  of  considep 
mporto/ice;  parliv 
immoned  to  meet 
cing  maintained  it 
trong-hold.    It  has 
persons,  of  whom 
under  the  charae< 

)  British  Musemn. 

;  schools;  a  large 

les,  and  the  Pom* 

of  ancient  sctdp> 

t  labours  under  a 

idomed  with  some 

tures  bequeathed 

ence.    New  Col- 

:ec'uted  by  Jervia 

en  College,  ana 


iry  and  romance 
'  gham  and  Da> 
centre  of  tb« 
being  situated  a 


;of 


BooE  L 


ENGLAND. 


mi'?^a 


879 


a  rich  valley,  watered  by  the  Ouse,  has  a  ccmside'i-able  stir  in  transmitting  its  produce.  Tho 
industry  of  Dunstable  is  attested  by  the  straw  hats  which  bear  its  name  Hertford  is  a 
small  provincial  capital,  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  college  which  (lie  East  India  Companv 
have  founded,  for  the  education  of  the  civil  servants  whom  they  send  abroad :  8t  Alban's 
is  venerable  for  its  antiquitv,  and  its  cathedral.  Northampton,  a  place  of  considerable  name 
in  English  history,  »  well-built  town  on  the  Nen,  with  a  market-place  which  has  been 
reckoned  the  finest  in  the  kingdom,  has  a  manulhetory  of  boots  and  dioes  for  exportation, 
and  of  lace.  It  is  a  great  centre  of  the  inland  travelling  between  London  and  the  norUi; 
and  the  trade  in  horses  has  always  been  carried  on  in  great  fiiirs  at  this  pkce.  Leicester 
is  a  still  more  important  provincial  capita].  It  i>  a  place  of  note  in  English  histonr,  and 
attests  its  ancient  importance  by  some  fine  old  churches ;  but  it  had  fUlen  into  considerable 
decay,  till  it  was  revived  bv  the  prosperity  of  the  surrounding  country,  chiefly  in  conse- 


capital  of  Rutlandshire,  is  a  very  small  town. 
The  seats  of  this  extensive  district,  though  not  so  thickly  planted  as  in  the  southern,  are 
107  vet  numerous.    Foremost  stands  Blen- 

heim (Jiff.  157.)  that  proud  monument 
of  a  nation's  gratitude  to  its  long  un- 
rivalled hero.  Its  exterior  displays  th|it 
minuteness  of  detail  and  general  hea- 
viness, which  characterise  the  designs 
of  Vanbrugh :  some  of  the  apartments, 
however,  are  of  almost  unequalled 
grandeur;  jparticularly  the  great  hall, 
nfly-three  feet  by  forty-four,  and  six^ 
high ;  and  the  library,  one  hundred  and 
eighty  feet  by  forty-three.  The  woods, 

also,  the  lake,  and  the  general  disposition  of  the  grounds,  ore  greatly  admired.   The  gallery  of 

Sictures  is  one  of  the  verf  finest  in  the  kingdom,  containing  some  of  the  best  worlu  of 
lubens,  Vandyke,  and  Titian.  Stowe,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  is  celebrated 
as  the  most  elaborate  and  splendid  example  of  the  species  of  gardeniiuf  called  classical,  in 
which  an  attempt  is  made  to  present  nature  herself  in  an  ornamented  mm.  Her  ovm  pro- 
per ornaments,  of  wood,  water,  hill  and  plain,  are  heightened  by  the  introduction  of  tem- 
ples, ruins,  statues,  inscriptions,  and  other  objects  calculated  to  excite  lofty  and  poetical 
ideas.  Modem  taste  rejects  many  of  these  accessories,  as  breaking  in  upon  the  idea  of 
simple  nature,  to  which  it  seeks  to  make  the  nearest  possible  approach ;  yet,  a  space  of  four 
hundred  acres,  filled  with  groves,  temples,  and  meandering  streams,  must  present  many 
beautifbl  sites.  "  The  rich  landscapes,"  says  Walpole,  "  occasionad  by  the  multi}>licity  of 
temples  and  obelisks,  and  various  pictures  that  present  themselves  as  we  shift  our  situation ; 
occasion  surprise  and  pleasure,  sometimes  recalling  Albsno's  landscapes  to  our  mind,  and 
oftener  to  our  fancy  the  idoktrous  and  luxurious  vates  of  Daphne  and  Tempe."  The  hpuse 
also  is  handsome  and  richly  ornamented,  an**  contains  some  fine  paintings.  Wobum  Abbey, 
where  the  house  of  Russel,  by  pmcely  shows  and  festivals,  have  thrown  a  new  lustre  on 
British  agriculture,  is  a  magnificent  edifice.  The  stables,  experimental  fimn,  and  other 
appendages  of  the  most  useful  of  arts,  excite  the  adnuration  of  every  fiumer  and  even  ama- 
teur ;  nor  is  this  residence  deficient  in  the  lighter  embellishments  of  painting  and  statuary. 
Althorp,  near  Northampton,  is  adorned  with  many  rare  and  valuable  works  of  art ;  but  it  is 
in  London  chiefly  that  Earl  Spencer  keens  his  library,  the  first  in  the  kingdom.  Opposite 
to  Stamford  is  Burleigh,  a  noble  old  residence  of  Cecil,  Elizabeth's  minister.  It  contains  a 
fine  library  of  books  and  manuscripts;  and  the  Exeter  fiunily  have  enriched  it  with 'a  col- 
lection of  paintings,  generally  supposed  to  be  the  most  extensive  in  England.  Near  Oak- 
ham, is  another  Burleigh  on  the  hUl,  once  the  seat  of  the  gay  revels  of  Buckingham.  It 
has  a  noble  terrace  in  flrant,  and  contains  a  good  library,  with  some  curious  paintmgs.  ,  On 
he  border  of  Leicestershire  and  Lmcolnshire,  stands  the  Duke  of  Rutland's  proud  castel- 
lated edifice  of  Belvoir.  From  a  lofty  height  it  overlooks  a  vast  extent  of  country,  includ- 
ing the  vale  of  the  some  name,  one  of  the  richest  and  most  beautifl)l  in  England.  The  col- 
lection of  paintings  is  of  great  value. 

Warwick  is  a  noble  county.  Its  woodlands,  the  remains  of  the  wide  ancient  forest  of 
Arden,  are  still  extensive,  arid  a  great  part  lies  in  fine  natural  g^ass.  Pasturage  predomir 
nates  greatly  over  agriculture,  occupving  nearly  two-thirds. 

Warwick,  an  ancient  uid  well-built  town,  still  preserves  a  portion  of  its  prosperity  by  the 
nwnnfkoture  of  woollens.  Coventry  is  a  large  old  town,  built  venr  irregularly,  and  many  of 
the  houses  exhibiting  the  uncouth  architecture  of  a  distant  period.  Its  ecclesiastical  monu- 
ments, however,  are  of  importance.  8t  Michael's  is  a  very  light  and  elegant  structure, 
with  a  spire  rising  to  three  nundred  fbet    The  fkbric  of  silk,  introduced  more  than  a  cen- 


180 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  10 


"yfy 


tury  a^  by  the  French  reftigees,  hu  made  a  most  rapid  pro^sa,  so  that  in  1810  it  employed 
2^19  loomB.  In  the  making  of  watches,  also,  this  city  now  rivals  Jjondon.  Leamington, 
though  its  spa  is  mentioned  by  Camden,  never  became  a  scene  of  crowded  resort,  lill  the 
teginning  or  this  century ;  yet  so  great  since  that  period  has  been  its  attraction,  ttmt  it  has 
risen  from  a  mere  village  to  bo  a  ^urishing  place.  There  are  both  hot  and  cold  baths ;  and 
the  waters  are.  used  either  for  drinking  or  bathing.  Leamington  now  possesses,  on  a  hand- 
some scde,  baths,  inns,  a  theatre,  an  assembly-room, — all  the  accommodation  for  the  sick 
and  the  gay.  Stratford,  a  considerable  town  on  the  Avon,  to  which  the  muse  has  ffiven  a 
deathless  name,  is  the  birth-place  of  Shakspeare ;  the  poetical  pilgrim  here  beholds  the 

Senuine  tomb  of  the  poet,  and  the  site  of  the  house  chosen  by  him  ror  his  final  residence ; 
lough  the  house  itself  a  barbarous  hand  has  demolished.  Birmingham  is  in  Warwickshire, 
but  as  it  is  the  capital  of  the  iron  country,  which  is  almost  wholly  in  Stafi^shire,  wo  shall 
class  it  with  the  great  towns  devoted  to  the  working  of  that  material. 

There  are  two  castellated  seats  in  this  county,  Kenilworth  and  Warwick,  both  of  almost 

matchless  gruideur ;  but  the  former  presents  only  the  picturesque  remains  of  its  pristine 

158  state  <Jg.  158.).    Founded  in  the 

reign  of  Henry  I.,  it  was  extended 
ana  adorned  by  John  of  Gaunt;  and 
remained  with  the  princes  of  the 
house  of  Lancaster  till  wrested  from 
them  by  the  triumph  of  the  house  of 
York.  It  continued  thenceforth  a 
royal  appanage ;  and  was  bestowed 
by  Elizabeth  on  her  handsome  fa- 
vourite, Leicester,  whose  residence 
Kenilworth  Cud*.  here,  and  the  splendid  fStes  and  ro- 

mantic mcidents  connected  with  it,  have  been  bo  happily  worked  up  by  tne  greatest  romance 
writer  of  the  age.  At  the  close  of  the  civil  ware,  it  was  given  up  wholly  by  Cromwell  to 
his  soldiers  for  plunder,  and  was  reduced  to  the  totally  fallen  state  in  which  it  now  appears. 
The  walls  were  ii^decd  entire,  but  completely  naked  and  roofless;  and  tho  visiter  who  stands 
at  the  interior  foot  of  the  tower  can  trace  only  by  chimneys,  and  other  slight  marks,  the 
successive  apartments  rising  above  each  other  till  they  are  terminated  by  the  dome  of  the 
sky.  Kenilworth  exhibits  the  feudal  age  in  its  total  downfall ;  but  the  traveller  has  only  to 
proceed  a  few  miles  in  order  to  see  it  entire  and  in  full  glory.  This  is  the  proud  mansion 
once  inhabited  by  the  king-making  Earl  of  Warwick  C^.  159.).    It  was  built  by  tlie  Earl 

^^  of  Warwick,  who,  in  the  four- 

160  flBb         .,.„..  teenth  century,  distinguished  him- 

self at  the  battles  of  Cressy  and 
Poitiers.  Edward  IV.  seized  an 
opportunity  of  annexing  it  to  the 
crown.  It  was  afterwards  bestowed 
by  King  James  on  Lord  Brooke, 
who  spent  a  large  sum  in  restoring 
it  fh>m  a  state  of  decay ;  and  the 
late  earl  repaired  it  so  judiciously, 
and  made  his  additions  in  such 
harmony  with  the  original  pile, 
that  he  may  be  considered  almost 
the  creator  of  the  edifice  in  its 
Wuwtek  CuUe.  present  state.     The  entrance,  cut 

through  a  rock,  and  opening  at  once  on  three  of  the  loftiest  towers,  has  an  effect  truly 
striking.  The  interior  is  equally  grand  and  interesting.  First  is  a  passage  or  corridor  up- 
wards of  300  feet  in  extent,  seen  from  end  to  end,  and  <Qong  which  the  state  apartments  are 
arranged.  The  graoad  hall,  62  feet  long,  is  wainscoted  with  oak,  hung  with  armour,  and 
maintained  in  full  feudal  keeping. 

Staffordshire  has  a  somewhat  bleak  and  uninvitmg  aspect ;  the  farms  are  smaller,  and 
improvements  less  advanced  than  in  the  other  midland  counties,  but  its  mineral  stores  are 
immense.  The  region  of  coal  is  supposed  to  be  about  50,000  acres  in  extent,  and  cannot  be 
exhausted  for  ages.  Besides  its  economical  uses,  this  mineral  is  the  main  basis  of  the  works 
and  manufactures  of  the  county,  and  of  all  those  in  the  north-west  of  England,  which,  but 
for  this  ample  supplv  of  fuel,  could  never  have  attained  their  present  astonishing  height 
Iron,  the  most  useful  of  metals,  exists  in  equal  abundance ;  and  since  the  discovery  that  it 
could  be  worked  with  coke,  iron  works  have  been  establidied  on  an  immense  scale.  Tho 
whole  district  firom  Wolverhampton  to  Birmingham  may  be  called  a  Cyclopean  land,  where 
furnaces  without  number  are  continually  pouring  out  fire  and  smoke.  The  clays  afford  the 
material  of  the  pottery,  which  forms  the  other  great  Stafford^ire  manufiicture.  It  is  lone 
cc  soms  ccarsc  vcwela  were  made  at  Borslem ;  but  Mr.  Wedgwood  raised  this  fabric  to 


aimn/%  > 


Part  IH 

1819  it  employed 
on.  Leamington, 
ed  resort,  till  the 
iction,  that  it  hu 
id  cold  batliB ;  and 
eeases,  on  a  hand- 
ation  for  the  sick 
nuse  has  given  a 
here  beholds  the 
9  final  residence; 
in  Warwickshire, 
fordahire,  we  shaJl 

ck,  both  of  almost 
ins  of  its  pristine 
Founded  in  the 
.,  it  was  extended 
}hn  of  Gaunt ;  and 
de  princes  of  the 
irtill  wrested  from 
iph  of  the  house  of 
tied  thenceforth  a 
and  was  bestowed 
her  handsome  fa- 
rt whose  residence 
sndid  f&tes  and  nv 
I  greatest  romance 
lly  by  Cromwell  to 
en  it  now  appears, 
visiter  who  stands 
slight  marlts,  the 
)y  me  dome  of^  the 
aveller  has  only  to 
he  proud  mansion 
bwlt  by  tlie  Earl 
rho,  in  the  four- 
distinguished  him- 
es  of  Cressy  and 
rd  IV.  seized  an 
nnexing  it  to  the 
terwards  bestowed 
on  Lord  Brooke, 
e  sum  in  restoruig 
if  decay ;  and  the 
d  it  so  judiciously, 
idditions  in  sudi 
he  original  pile, 
considered  almost 
iie  edifice  in  its 
'he  entrance,  cut 
an  effect  truly 
ge  or  corridor  up- 
te  apartments  are 
with  armour,  and 

are  smaller,  and 
lineral  stores  are 
nt,  and  cannot  b< 
asis  of  the  works 
Tland,  which,  but 
tonishing  height 
discovery  that  it 
nse  scale.  The 
pean  land,  where 
)  clays  afford  the 
;ure.  It  is  long 
led  this  fabric  to 


Book  T. 


ENGLAND. 


881 


the  highest  perfection,  and  rendered  it  an  object  of  national  importance.  Not  content  witli 
the  native  materials,  he  imported  tho  finest  white  clays  and  best  flints  firom  the  southern 
counties ;  and  formed  that  variety  of  articles  called  Wedgwood's  ware,  applicable  to  all 

CpoHCs  of  use  and  ornament,  and  superior  in  some  respects  to  the  best  porcelain.    Hence 
sprung  up  a  range  of  villages  forming  a  district  called  the  Potteries,  of  which  Burslem 
is  tho  centre,  and  which  contam  about  60,000  inhabitants.  * 
Tho  principal  cluster  of  large  towns  in  Staffordshire  consists  of  those  in  the  southern 

Sarter  which  are  employed  in  making  iron,  and  manufkcturing  it  into  various  forms.  Of 
is'district  Birmingham  is  ttie  capital ;  and  at  the  remotest  periods  iron  is  mentioned  as  its 
staple,  but  tho  grand  impulse  given  was  early  in  the  last  centunr,  when  Joim  Taylor,  the 
founder  of  the  wealthy  family  of  that  name,  Matthew  Boulton,  IJaq.,  and  other  Wividuals, 
by  tho  spirit  of  their  undertakings,  and  by  their  liberal  patronage  of  skill  and  ingenuity  in 
every  line,  contributed  greatly  to  the  establishment  of  the  manufiusturing  fiune  of  the  town. 
Mr.  Boulton,  having  secured  the  celebrated  Mr.  Watt,  estaUiahed,  in  conjunction  with  him, 
tt  Soho,  hear  Birmmgharo,  their  inunense  manufkctory,  in  which  talent,  science,  capital,  ex- 
perience, united  every  thing  which  could  raise  hardware  articles  to  perfection.  Pre-eminent 
above  all  ia  the  steam-engine,  which  Mr.  Watt,  its  great  improver,  not  only  applied  to  the 
osa  of  his  works  here,  but  constructed  for  the  rest  of  England.  The  copper  coinage  exe- 
cuted at  Soho  by  steam-power  for  the  use  of  government  has  been  greatly  admired.  Under 
the  impulse  of  such  an  example,  the  citizens  of  Birmingham  soon  produced  their  standard 
articles  of  a  cheapness  and  excellence  which  defied  all  competition.  The  articles  manu- 
fiictured  in  Birmmgham  consist,  in  a  great  measure,  of  such  as,  individually,  appear  un- 
worthy of  being  named,  yet  astonish  and  dazzle  by  their  magnitude,  when  half  the  world  ia 
to  be  supplied  with  them ;  such  as  pins,  buttons,  nails,  paper  trtiys,  filigree,  and  toys.  There 
are  not  wanting,  however,  fabrics  of  greater  magnitude,  taken  even  singly,  such  as  that  of 
fire-arms,  &c.  During  the  last  war,  the  gunsmiths  of  Birmingham  met  the  demand  with 
such  energy,  that,  on  one  occasion,  they  delivered  to  government  14,000  muskets  in  a  week. 
Of  ponderous  machinery,  none,  perhaps,  is  more  interesting  than  that  of  the  metal  rolling- 
mills.  Birmingham  is  commodiously  built,  with  suitable  churches  and  other  edifices,  but 
without  any  thing  prominent  in  architecture,  or  any  antique  monuments.  The  town  can 
boost  of  enlightened  citizens,  under  whose  auspices  letters  and  the  arts  have  been  cultivated 
with  ardour.  The  institutions  for  the  education  of  the  poor  are  not,  perhaps,  surpassed  by 
any  in  the  kingdom  for  extent  and  efficacy. 

The  other  great  manufacturing  towns,  almost  all  in  StafK)rdshire,  are  Wolverhampton,  a 
very  populous  place,  oi  considerable  antiquity,  with  a  fine  old  church;  but  indebted  for  itn 
present  greatness  to  tl^e  making  of  locks  and  keys  in  a  manner  superior  to  any  town  in  the 
world.  Wednesbury  has  a  fine  old  Gothic  church ;  but  its  main  boast  at  present  is,  the 
making  of  all  the  hard  materials  of  coach  harness  in  an  unrivalled  manner.  Walsall  flour- 
iidies  by  the  makuig  of  every  thing  connected  with  saddlery ;  Dudley  by  its  nails :  but  it 
has  also  a  casUe  of  some  note  in  history,  commanding  a  view  of  seven  counties. 

The  nomintd  capital,  Stafford,  is  yet  to  be  noticM ;  an  ancient  but  small  town,  of  neat 
appearance,  ornamented  with  the  usual  county  buildings.  The  Grand  Trunk  Canal,  how« 
ever,  passing  by  it,  has  given  an  impulse  to  its  mdustry ;  and  it  carries  on  a  considerable 
manuracture  of  boots  and  shoes.  Newcastle-under-Line,  and  Ttunworth,  are  both  consider- 
able towns  on  one  of  the  great  Lond(si  roads. 

Lichfield  is  a  more  elegant  and  interesting  place.  Its  most  prominent  object  is  the  cathe- 
dral, of  high  antiquity,  the  finest  part  of  which  was  built  in  1140;  some  particular  portions 
are  equal  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  in  Britain :  such  are  the  portico,  richly  adorned  with 
sculpture ;  the  choir;  and  St  Mary's  chapel.  The  society  fixed  there  by  this  richly  endowed 
establishment,  together  with  the  neatness  of  the  town,  and  its  pleasant  situation,  have 
induced  many  of  the  gentry  in  this  quarter  to  make  it  their  residence.  These  circumstances 
have  contributed  to  give  to  Lichfield  that  intellectual  character  which  b  so  conspicuous, 
and  has  made  it  almost  the  literary  metropolis  of  south-western  England.  The  birth  and 
early  education  of  Johnson  and  Garrick  are  alone  sufficient  to  immortalise  it  Lichfield 
enjoys  high  privileges  as  a  city,  having  a  district  of  some  extent  round  it  considered  a  county 
of  itself. 

Derbyshire,  in  its  natural  features,  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  any  county  of  Eng- 
land. Except  in  the  lower  and  southern  districts  on  the  Trent,  the  whole  county  is  traversed 
by  ranges  of  rugged  and  rocky  hUls,  penetrated  by  vast  excavations,  and  separated  by 
narrow  valleys.  Lead  is  abundant,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  galena.  Iron  is  also  worked  very 
plentifiiUy.  This  county  is  dso  celebrated  for  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its  calcareous  sub* 
stances,  particularly  the  kind  called  Blue  John  (fluor  spar),  which,  by  the  skilfiil  application 
of  a  gentle  heat,  is  nwde  to  exhibit  the- most  brilliant  colours.  Lastly,  there  are  numerous 
not  springs  varii?usly  impregnated ;  and  the  county  contains  two  oi  the  most  remarkable 
watering-places  in  Uie  kmgdom,  Matlock  and  Buxton. 

In  proceedino  to  CasUeton,  the  traveller  passes  through  the  Winyato,  or  gates  of  tho 


tea 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Pa«t  in. 


windi,  a  narrow  road  of  about  a  mile  in  length, 
160 


P*tk  CtTwa.  Dwhrikln. 


between  precipicet  a  thooMnd  feet  hivh, 
dark,  ruraed,  and  perpendicular.  At  tnv 
end  of  tnia  road  opens  on  one  side  Mun 
Tor,  or  the  Shivenng  Mountain,  ISUU  fcot 
hiph ;  on  the  other  the  High  Peak  crowned 
with  the  ruina  of  a  Saxon  fortrew ;  aiid 
at  its  foot,  the  wonder  of  wonders,  "  the 
Peak  Cavern."  (Jg.  160.)  This  is  a  h\ig« 
gulf,  42  feet  higli  and  120  long,  at  tho  foot 
of  perpendicular  clifls.  The  visiter  ii 
thence  guided  through  a  succesaion  of 
dark  cavernous  apartments,  and  is  ferriod 
along  a  subterraneous  river;  abovo  which 
the  rocks  rise  so  close,  tlut  ho  muHt  lie 
flat  on  his  face.  At  the  end  of  somewhat 
above  2000  foet  the  cavern  terminates,  or, 
at  least,  becomes  no  longer  passable. 
Elden  Hole  is  a  iissuro  near  Buxton,  whicii 
lieMends  perpendicularly  to  an  unknown  depth.  A  line  of  2652  feet  has  been  let  down 
without  finding  a  bottom.  Poole's  Hole,  noar  Buxton,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  petri- 
flwtions  with  which  it  is  filled. 

On  descending  into  the  Low  Peak,  a  milder  grandeur  presents  itself.  The  most  nigged  chains 
•f  Derbyshire  are  interspened  with  beautiftil  valleys ;  but  none  equals  that  of  Matlock,  where 
^„  .  .„  '  the  banks  of  the  Derwent  are  bordered 

•4rt  V  .;  101  ^  —  by  extensive  woods,  interspersed  with 

the  boldest  and  most  varied  forms  of 
rock.  Dovedale  (fi/f.  161.)  is  a  wilder 
ecene,  where  the  river  Dove  is  hcin< 
med  in  by  perpendicular  rocks,  of  fonni 
so  bold,  and  covered  with  such  variety 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  that  this  has  6onie< 
times  been  deemed  the  most  picturesque 
spot  in  England. 

Derby,  the  capital  of  this  county,  on 
the  Derwent,  is  handsome  and  wel. 
built,  and  has  extensive  manufactures. 
Silk,  introduced  at  the  commencement 
of  the  last  century,  has  continued  to 
flourish.  Porcelain  is  also  manufac- 
tured here ;  and  what  is  called  its  white  ware  is  considered  almost  unrivalled.  A  consider- 
nble  number  of  workmen  are  employed  in  cutting  and  polishing  marble ;  and  Uie  Derbyshire 
■par  is  fiishioned  into  a  variety  of  beautiful  forms. 

The  watering-places  in  Dierbyshire  have  the  next  daun  to  notice.  Matlock  contains 
mineral  springs,  efficacious  in  consumptive  and  rheumatic  complaints.  Buxton,  in  the  High 
Peak,  surrounded  by  naked  mountains,  attracts  a  much  greater  multitude ;  and  its  waters 
axe  considered  very  powerful  in  rheumatism,  gout,  and  other  diseases.  The  Duke  of  Devon- 
shire has  hero  constructed  a  superb  crescent,  occupied  by  inns,  shops,  ball-rooms,  and  every 
thinfr  that  can  contribute  to  the  accommodation  and  gaiety  of  the  visitants. 

Of  seats,  Chatsworth  has  sometimes  been  considered  the  finest  in  England.  It  was  built 
ty  William  first  duke  of  Devonshire,  in  1702;  and  is  191  fer ;  square,  of  the  Ionic  order, 
richly  ornamented  both  within  and  without.  Keddlestone  House  has  a  fine  Doric  fi-ont,  360 
feet  long,  considered  one  of  the  finest  architectural  features  in  England.  Hardwicke  Hall 
was  long  the  residence  of  the  unfortunate  Mary ;  the  furniture  and  the  portraits  remain,  in 
many  respects,  in  the  same  state  as  during  her  residence. 

Nottiii^am  is  watered  by  the  broad  stream  of  the  Trent,  its  tributaries,  and  numerous 
canals.  The  Vale  of  Belvoir,  to  the  south-east,  ranks  with  the  richest  tracts  in  the  island. 
The  north-western  part  contains  the  remnant  of  the  great  forest  of  Sherwood,  famed  for  the 
revelries  of  the  merry  outlaw  Robin  Hood.  Being  covered,  also,  in  a  great  measure,  with 
the  ornamented  grounds  of  noblemen  of  high  rank,  it  is  called  the  "  dukcries."  The  manu* 
factures  of  hosiery  in  this  county,  Leicester  and  Derby,  employ  33,000  frames  and  73,000 
operatives,  producing  in  cotton  880,000/.,  worsted  870,000!.,  silk  241,0001.  The  lace  trade 
employs  150,000  enmroiderers  in  this  counter. 

Nottingham  is  a  large  town,  boldlv  and  picturesquely  situated  upon  the  Trent  Its  streets 
are  arranged  along  the  fiice  of  a  hill  so  steep,  that  the  ground  floors  of  the  street  behind,  in 
some  instances,  rise  higher  than  the  roofs  of  those  in  front  The  rocky  materials  of  this  hill 
are  so  soft  and  yielding,  that  they  are  cut  to  a  great  extent  into  cellars  and  warehouBes. 
The  making  of  stockings  has  always  been  the  staple  of  Nottingham.    They  are  worked  fs! 


paut  in. 

Iioannd  feet  hidi, 
indicular.  At  tnv 
on  one  side  Mam 
[ountain,lSUOrcot 
[igh  Peak  crowned 
ixon  fbrtreBB ;  and 
of  wondere,  "  the 
).)  Tkifl  is  a  h\xge 
20  long,  at  the  foot 
L  The  viBiter  ii 
ti  a  succession  of 
ants,  and  is  ferried 
•ivcr;  above  which 
B,  that  ho  must  lie 
3  end  of  somewhat 
rem  terminates,  or, 
longer  passable. 
leor  Buxton,  which 
has  been  let  down 
kable  for  the  petri- 

roost  rugged  chains 
;  of  Matlock,  where 
rwont  are  bordered 
,  interspersed  with 
Bt  varied  fomis  of 
r.  161.)  is  a  wilder 
iver  Dove  is  hem« 
lular  rocks,  of  forms 
i  with  such  variety 
that  this  has  some* 
he  most  picturesque 

1  of  this  county,  on 
andsome  and  wel. 
isive  manufactures, 
the  commencement 
has  continued  to 
is  also  manufac- 
Eilled.  A  consider- 
md  Uie  Derbyshire 

Matlock  contains 
luxton,  in  the  Hi^h 
lie ;  and  its  waters 
he  Duke  of  Devon- 
1-rooms,  and  every 
ts. 
land.    It  was  built 

if  the  Ionic  order, 

te  Doric  front,  360 
Hardwicke  Hall 

irtraits  remain,  in 

lies,  and  numerous 
icts  in  the  island, 
rood,  famed  for  the 
eat  measure,  with 
riee."  The  manu- 
nes  and  73,000 
The  lace  trade 

iTrent  Its  streets 
le  street  behind,  in 
laterials  of  this  hill 
and  warehouses, 
key  are  worked  cv 


BuokL 


ENGLAND. 


388 


fhtmos,  which,  in  the  middle  of  last  century,  scarcely  exceeded  1900,  and  at  present  amount 
to  10.000.  Tho  lace  trade  recently  added  is  of  very  groat  importance.  There  are  stated  to 
be  1340  machines  in  the  town,  apd  1070  in  the  noighbcurhood ;  and  the  lace  sold  in  its  mar- 
ket is  valued  at  130,00M.  Nottingham  has  also  a  great  inland  trade  by  tho  Trent  and  canal* 
connected  with  it 

Newark  is  notwl  for  its  castle,  and  for  a  parish  church,  nid  to  be  the  finest  in  the  king« 
doo). 

Nottinghamshire  may  boast  some  splendid  Beats.  Worksop  Manor,  built  by  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  contains  fine  portraits  of  tlio  Howard  family.  Clumber  Park  is  fitted  up  in  a  rnatr 
niflcont  stylo  by  tho  Duko  of  Newcastle,  with  a  very  valuable  collection  of  pictures.  Wel- 
beck  Abbey,  a  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  is  noted  for  its  fine  stables,  Newstoad  Abbey 
lu4  jwen  stripped  of  its  fine  fUmiture  and  paintings  before  it  came  to  the  late  Lord  Byron. 

'■'"'''  Btnmtcrt  4,.— The  Northern  Countiei. 

The  northern  counties  of  England  may  be  described,  generally,  as  reaching  fhmi  the 
Humber  and  the  Mersey  to  the  Scottish  border.  They  include  tlie  wide  extent  of  yorAsAtre, 
divided  into  three  ridings,  and  of  Lancashire,  Durham,  Northumberland,  Cumberland,  and 
Wettmoreland.  The  eastern  portion  is  interspersed  with  large  bleak  tracts  of  mountain, 
nxMS,  and  moor.  Its  ports  carry  on  a  thriving  trade  in  coarse,  bulky,  and  usefUl  commodities. 
The  south-western,  comprising  Lancashire  and  the  west  ridipg  of  Yorkshire,  by  the  vast  pr» 
duce  of  its  manufactories,  leaves  far  behind  it  every  other  district  in  the  world.  The  north- 
western, or  the  country  of  the  Iiokes,  has  a  higher  degree  of  picturesque  beauty  than  anj 
other  part  of  England. 

The  counties  of  Northumberland  and  Durham  are  hilly  and  elevated ;  and  their  chief 
wealth  is  subterraneous.  A  species  of  coarse  coal,  mixed  with  lead,  everywhere  abounds ; 
ind  the  load  is  exported  to  the  extent  of  firom  five  to  ten  thousand  tons.  But  within  this 
mineral  region  there  is  enclosed  a  smaller  one,  reaching  firom  the  mouth  of  the  Coquet  to 
the  Tees,  a  length  of  about  fifty  miles,  and  having  its  greatest  breadth  of  about  twenty  miles 
upon  the  Tyne.  Within  this  tract  are  found  uninterrupted  beds  of  that  valuable  ctml  with 
which  London  is  whoNy  supplied,  and  of  which  great  quantities  are  either  sent  to  other  parts 
tS  the  kingdom,  or  exported. 

Newcastle  was  fkmed  at  an  early  period  in  the  military  annals  of  England.  It  formed  a 
loading  point  in  the  wall  of  Hadrian  and  in  that  of  Severus.  Robert,  son  of  tlie  Conqueror, 
built  here  a  castle  of  immense  strength,  more  than  two  miles  in  circuit,  which  served  long 
ai  the  main  bulwark  against  Scottish  invasion.  Scarcely  a  trace  of  it  now  remains ;  and 
the  occupations  of  Newcastle  are  entirely  changed.  Both  banks  of  the  river,  down  to  Tyne- 
mouth,  form  an  immense  wharf,  to  which,  by  railways  and  steam  wagons,  coals  are  conveyed 
ftom  the  contiguous  pits.  In  1830,  the  quantity  exported  was  867,613  chaldrons,  about 
2,300,000  tons.    Newcastle  carries  on  very  extensive  manufactories,  particularly  that  of 

S'ass.  There  are  thirty-one  works  on  tho  Tyne,  which  in  some  years  have  produced  glass  to 
e  value  of  500,0001.  In  shipping  it  is  second  only  to  London,  having  belonging  to  it,  in  1832, 
1077  vessels,  of  the  burthen  of  220,784  tons.  Foundery,  pottery,  weaving,  are  not  on  a 
very  great  scale.  Newcastle  is  now,  on  the  whole,  a  well-built  town,  though  some  of  the 
streets  are  inconveniently  steep :  it  is  highly  ornamented  by  the  spire  of  St.  Nicholas,  con- 
ridered  by  the  best  iudges  as  one  of  the  fiiest  speciqiens  of  the  i^  Miic.  It  possesses  a  iite- 
ruy  society,  which  has  published  valuable  transactions ;  and  an  mitiquarian  society,  destined 
particularly  to  receive  the  Roman  coins,  &c.  which  are  frequently  dug  up  on  this  line.  The 
large  town  of  Gateshead,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  though  placed  in  Durham,  is  really 
port  of  Newcastle,  and  raises  its  population  to  57,000. 

A  contmued  range  of  great  commercial  towns  cluster  thick  around  Newcastle.  Near  the 
mouth  of  the  Tyne  are  North  Shields  and  South  Shields,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river;  the 
latter  being  in  Uie  county  of  Durham.  They  carry  on  with  activity  the  coal  trade,  and  the 
others  proper  to  Newcastle ;  particularly  ship^building  and  the  making  of  ropes  and  sails. 
Tynemouth,  at  the  immediate  opening  of  the  river  into  the  ocean,  displays,  on  a  bold  prom- 
ontory, a  castle,  a  light-house,  and  a  fine  old  abbey ;  they  form  a  striking  and  romantic  scene, 
which  contrasts  with  those  immediately  above.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Wear,  are  Sunderland 
and  Wearmouth, — ^the  one  a  very  great,  and  the  other  a  considerable  port  Their  prosperity 
is  supported  by  the  same  great  trade  of  coals,  of  which  in  1832  they  sent  600,000  tons  to 
the  port  of  London,  two-thirds  of  that  which  comes  down  the  Tyne.  They  carry  on  also 
the  same  manufiictures,  particularly  ship-building,  in  which  Sunderland  is  supposed  to  exer 
a  greater  activity  than  any  other  place  in  the  kingdom.  The  bridge  there  has  long  beea 
celebrated:  it  consists  of  one  arch  of  iron  framework  thrown  across  the  river,  200  feet  span, 
1^  100  fiset  high,  allowing  very  large  vessels  to  pass  under  without  lowermg  their  sails. 
"Nothing,"  says  M.  Dupin,  "can  be  more  striding  than  this  view  of  the  two  cities,  end  the 
ividge  that  unites  them ;  that  majestic  arch  chawn  against  the  sky,  which  allows  large  vessels 
to  pass  under  its  vault  witii  their  sails  flying."  He  afterwards  adds,  in  regard  to  these  poru 
ffenerallv :  "  It  is  an  admirable  th;''r  within  au  extent  of  coast  which  a  man  may  walk  over 


864 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartHI 


Alawleli  CmU«, 


on  foot  in  throe  or  four  houra,  to  loe  two  great  rivert  receive  16,000  vesMls,  and  Mnd 
them  away  loaded  with  the  proiluco  of  thuir  banlu.  On  the  nune  narrow  apace  are  lix 
flouriHhinif  towna,  containing  a  population  of  65,027  peraoni,  all  devoted  to  commerce  and 
industry." 

Durlmm  ia  handiomoly  built,  though  on  very  uneven  ground ;  ita  grand  ornament  ia  tho 
oatheiiral,  roared  in  the  eleventh  contury,  wnioh  ia  perhapa  unrivalled  aa  to  ita  aituation, 
ranging  along  tho  aummit  of  a  prRcipitoua  rock  eighty  foot  high  above  tho  Wear,  which 
windd  along  it<*  boae.  Tho  see  of  iKirham  ia  the  ricneat  in  iSigland ;  and  the  cathedral, 
bcMidcH  a  dean,  twelve  prebendaries,  and  two  archdeacona,  haa  attached  to  it  about  aixty 
apiritiml  aervanta  of  various  ranka. 

Tho  number  of  smaller  towna  in  thoae  countiea  ia  atill  conaiderable.  In  Durham,  Stock- 
ton near  the  mouth  of  the  Teea  carries  on  the  trade  of  that  river ;  in  1882  it  carried  173,000 
tona  of  coal  to  London,  and  haa  also  the  Baltic  trade,  and  the  manu&cture  of  sailcloth  and 
oUier  naval  matcriala.  Hexham,  on  the  Upper  Tvne,  ia  the  capital  of  interior  Northumber- 
land, and  of  the  grand  ancient  scene  of  border  debate.  Morpeth  has  a  weekly  market  for 
the  cattle  brought  up  from  Scotland, 

The  seata  are  chiefly  great  baronial 
castles,  at  the  head  of  which  ntands  Aln- 
wick (fig.  162.)-  This  proud  keep  of  the 
Percies  covers  five  acres,  and  is  defend- 
ed by  aijtteen  towers.  An  expense  of 
200,000/.  haa  been  incured  in  converting 
the  interior  fVom  a  feudal  castle  into  the 
moat  splendid  of  modern  mansions.  Wark- 
worth  Castle,  another  seat  of  tho  Percies, 
retains  its  antique  character.  Lumley, 
the  feudal  castle  of  the  Earls  of  Scar- 
borough, presents  entire  its  august  and 
fbrmidable  firont  Raby  Castle,  Howick,  Lambton  Hall,  and  Bishop  Auckland,  are  fino  seats. 
Yorkshire  is  next  in  order :  its  eastern  diviaion  resembles  the  two  counties  just  described ; 
while  the  western  forms  part  of  the  great  central  seat  of  English  monu&cturo.  The  York- 
■hireman  has  a  character  of  his  own,  marked  by  shrewdness,  simplicity,  good  humour,  and  a 
species  of  drollery ;  so  that  the  London  comic  stage  is  considered  incomplete  without  one  ct 
his  representatives.  The  North  Riding  consists,  to  a  great  extent,  of  moorlands ;  tlie  hills 
of  which  rise  often  to  a  considerable  height  These  dreary  tracts  spread  over  the  whole 
Riding,  so  that  culture  can  exist  only  in  the  valleys.  The  East  Riding,  which  extends  to  the 
Humber,  is  traversed  also  by  a  range  of  high  wolds,  which,  though  rugged,  have  not  been 
able  to  resist  the  energies  of  British  industry.  Theso  Ridings  pesent  to  the  German  Ocean 
high  and  often  precipitous  rocks,  of  which  Flamborough  Iwad,  nearly  500  feet  high,  forms 
one  of  the  boldest  features  in  English  landscape.  The  West  Riding  is  composed  chieflv  d 
a  wide,  flat,  fertile  plain,  traversed  by  the  Aire,  the  Calder,  and  other  navigable  rivers,  which 
convey  its  produce  to  the  eastern,  and,  by  means  of  canals,  to  the  western  sea.  In  this  tract 
is  placed  the  immense  manufacturing  district  of  Yorkshire ;  in  its  extreme  west  is  the  dis- 
trict of  Craven,  the  most  rugged  and  mountainous  of  all  England ;  for  here  rise  Ingleborough, 
Whamside,  Pennigent,  each  to  the  height  of  nearly  three  thousand  feet  There  is  scarcely 
a  county  in  which  the  spirit  of  agricultural  improvement  has  been  so  active  as  in  Yorkshire; 
and  vast  tracts  of  waste  and  common  land  have  been  reclaimed  and  rendered  productive. 

Hull,  the  prmcipal  port,  is  the  fourth  commercial  city  in  England,  only  surpassed  by  Lon- 
don, Liverpool,  and  Bristol.  It  carries  on  a  most  extensive  export  of  goods  brought  by  the 
interior  system  of  rivers  and  canals.  It  is  the  principal  of  the  whale-fishery  ports ;  though 
this  branch  has  lately  declined.  During  the  nine  ^ears  ending  with  1818,  the  average 
number  of  vessels  fitted  out  tnm  Hull  for  the  whale  fishery  amounted  to  iH^ ;  while  in  18^ 
it  sent  out  only  A3.  In  18S2,  it  owned  557  ships,  carrying  68,892  tons,  and  there  entered 
its  poit  1279  vessels,  of  the  burden  of  1^661  tons.  The  Old  Dock,  completed  in  1778,  the 
Humber  Dock  in  1809.  and  the  Junction  Dock  in  1829,  ccHitain  a  space  of  twenty-diree 
acres.  Ooole,  on  the  Ouse,  a  little  above  its  junction  with  the  Humber,  is  beginning  to  share 
with  Hull  in  the  exportation  of  woollens.  Though  a  few  years  ago  a  mere  village,  and  still 
in  1831,  containing  only  1670  mhabitants,  it  haa  two  spacious  docks,  and  in  1829  the  customs 
exceeded  40,0001.,  and  the  declared  value  of  exports  amounted  to  625,000i.  Goods  sent 
firom  Leeds  or  Wakefield  by  rivers  or  canals  can  be  embarked  at  Goole  in  tho  course  of 
twelve  hours. 

Whitby  is  a  very  ancient  town,  with  the  remains  of  a  fine  abbe]r  built  soon  after  the  Con- 
quest.   Its  modem  importance  is  derived  from  large  mines  of  alum.    The  export  of  theii 
i>roduce  forms  a  consioerable  trade,  to  which  Whitby  soon  added  the  other  branches  preva- 
ent  on  this  coast,  and  became  second  only  to  Hnll. 

Scarborough,  romantically  situated  on  a  promontory  between  two  rocks  OTerlookiqg  *he 
nea,  is  the  chief  watering-place  of  the  north  of  England.       .!.>.«.><....«  »~ ..  < . ,  >;  y.. . 4.  «. 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


366 


OTerlookingf  ♦he 


Yurk,  the  cftpitol,  ii  Uia  fint  object  that  itrikei  ui  h  we  proceed  into  tlie  interior  of  the 
North  and  West  Ridingi.  Thia  celebrated  city,  though  ao  much  eclipaod  by  aevoral  that  ar« 
only  of  to-day,  atill  boaata  a  di|niity  auperior  to  them,  and  to  almoat  any  other  in  England. 
Eboracum  waa  a  diatinguiahed  noman  atation ;  Tor  aome  time  York  diaputod  with  London  the 
diitinction  of  being  the  capital  of  England ;  and  when  obliged  to  give  up  thia  claim,  continu- 
ed the  unqueationed  motriMiolii  of  the  north,  till  tho  creative  powers  or  trade  raised  uprivala 
to  it  in  tho  north-west.  The  houses  are  high,  and  tho  ntreets  narrow ;  yet,  altogether,  York 
is  a  handsome,  raspeotaUe-Iookinff  old  city.  It  boasls  one  fbaturo  of  almost  unrivalled 
beauty, — its  oathednl.  {Jg.  168.)  On  the  exterior  all  the  richness  and  elegance  of  Gothic 

ornament  has  been  lavished,  particularly 
upon  the  western  flront  and  the  large  win- 
dow in  the  eastern.  But  the  interior  is 
without  a  rival  in  the  empire ;  its  efl'ect  is 
altogether  sublime :  its  numerous  windows 
of  painted  grlass  shed  a  dim,  aolemn,  reli- 
gious light,  in  accordance  with  the  charac- 
ter of  we  edifice.  Tho  chapter-house  is  of 
singular  elegance  ond  magnificcnco;  and, 
though  of  great  extent,  hoa  its  roof  support- 
ed by  a  single  pin.  The  choir  of  this  splen- 
did edifice  sufiored  severe  injury  fhun  a  fire 
kindled  by  tho  hands  of  a  maniac ;  but  by 
Yotk  CsiiMdnl.  great  exertions  has  been  fliUy  repaired.  The 

remains  of  the  ruined  abbey  of  St  Manr,  and  those  of  several  of  the  twenty-three  churches 
of  York,  are  also  deserving  notice.  There  are  likewise  some  elegant  modern  edifices,  par- 
ticularly the  assembly  room,  the  county  hall,  guildhall,  the  mansion-house,  and  the  museum 
of  the  Yorkshire  Philosophical  Society.  York  is  still  a  gay  town,  visited  by  many  of  the 
northern  gentry,  particularly  at  the  time  of  its  races.  It  conies  on  some  inland  trade  by 
the  Ouse,  which  passes  through  it 

Doncaster  is  much  fVequcntod  during  the  time  of  its  races.  Pontcfroct  is  surrounded  by 
a  great  extent  of  garden  and  nursery  ground,  the  produce  of  which  is  sent  to  a  considerable 
distance.  Scarcely  a  vestige  remains  of  that  immense  and  powerful  keep,  covering  seven 
acres,  in  which  Thomas  of  Lancaster,  Richard  II.,  and  many  other  fallen  chiefs  ana  statrs- 
men,  were  immured.  The  parliament,  during  the  civil  wars,  having  taken  it  ailer  three 
successive  and  arduous  sieges,  caused  it  to  be  completely  demolished. 

Leeds  is  tho  capital  of  western  Yorkshire,  and,  in  a  commercial  sense,  of  the  whole 
county.  Although  it  was  of  some  note  even  in  early  times,  its  present  greatness  is  modern, 
and  of  the  most  rapid  growth.  The  population,  which  in  1775  was  only  17,117,  amounted 
in  1331  to  123,893 ;  being  thus  nearly  quintupled.  A  peculiar  activity  and  spirit  of  enter- 
prise has  been  observed  among  the  manufacturers  of  Leeds :  it  was,  doubtless,  greatly 
favoured  by  the  vast  extent  of  inland  navigation,  which  seemed  to  centre  here,  connecting 
it  with  the  capital,  with  both  seas,  and  wiUi  the  counties  to  the  south,  from  which  it  derives 
inexhaustible  supplies  of  fine  coal.  The  woollen  manufacture  is  not  carried  on  wholly  in 
large  towns ;  the  cloth  is  wrought  to  a  certain  state  of  forwardness  in  the  numerous  villages, 
thence  sent  into  Leeds,  where  it  is  purchased  and  worked  up  into  a  saleable  state.  The 
cloths  are  sold  in  weekly  markets,  held  in  the  cloth  halls,  the  most  remarkable  feature  in 
Leeds.  That  for  mixed  cloths  was  built  in  1758,  that  for  white  cloth  in  1775.  They  form 
quadrangular  edifices  round  an  open  area,  and  are  divided  into  stands,  of  which  in  the  first 
hall  are  1800,  and  in  the  second  1210.  These  are  let  at  a  moderate  rent  to  the  owners  of 
the  cloth,  who,  on  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  occupy  their  stands,  and  though  the  market  remains 
open  only  an  hour,  goods  to  an  immense  value  are  often  disposed  of.  Although  the  staple 
of  Leeds  and  of  Yorkshire  be  common  cloth,  yet  other  branches  are  in  some  degree  included* 
u  sail-cloth,  cotton,  carpets,  and  superfine  cloths.  Mr.  Drinkwater  states  the  persons  emf 
pfeyed  in  the  mills  for  wool  at  6200;  worsted,  702;  flax,  2434 ;  cotton,  80;  silk,  158 ;  in 
all,  6664 ;  of  whom  5318  are  males,  and  3346  females ;  to  which  may  be  added  1814  in  the 
suburb  of  Holbeck.  The  town  of  Leeds  is  mostly  well  built,  with  several  brood  and  spa** 
cious  streets;  and  the  theatre,  the  new  court-house,  and  the  commercial  buildings,  finished 
in  1620,  are  elegant  structures.  Kirkstall  Abbey,  three  miles  distant,  presents,  in  a  beauti- 
fill  situation,  the  most  complete  specimen  of  the  architecture  of  the  12th  century  that  is 
extant  The  people  of  Leeds  have  formed  a  literary  and  philosophical  society,  and  an  insti- 
tution for  the  promotion  of  the  .fine  arts;  tat  the  purpose  of  which  a  very  handsome  and 
commodious  edifice  has  been  erected :  meritorious  exertions  have  also  been  made  for  the 
education  of  the  poor. 

Of  the  oUier  towns  of  the  clothing  district,  which  cluster  round  Leeds,  Wakefield,  beauti- 

flilly  situated  on  the  Calder,  has  a  cloth  market,  on  a  smaller  scale,  resembling  that  of  Leads, 

and  also  great  grain  and  cattle  markets.  Halifax,  and  the  whole  district  about  twenty  miles 

(ound  it,  naa  bmn  converted  ftwa  a  desert  into  a  populous  and  prosperous  scene,  ccRtaisir.s 

VouL  83    ;  2Y 


386 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


fu,l. 


)    hi 


altogether  110,000  inhabitants.  Its  staples  are  what  are  properly  called  stufi ;  shallooiu, 
serges,  baize,  moreens,  keracys ;  and  it  has  lately  embraced  a  considerable  share  of  the  coU 
ton  manufacture.  Huddersfield  is  also  a  very  thriving  town,  employed  nearly  in  the  same 
branches ;  and  its  market  hall  is  supposed,  next  to  that  of  Leeds,  to  present  the  greatest 
show  of  woollens  in  the  kbgdcmi.  Bradford  and  Keighley  are  large  towns,  which  carry  on 
to  a  ^at  extent  the  manufacture  of  worsted :  besides  which,  Bradtbrd  has  great  iron  found- 
ries m  its  neighbourhood. 

In  the  southern  part  of  this  riding,  the  manu&cturea  of  iron  and  cutlery  take  the  place  of 
those  of  woollen ;  and  flourish  to  such  an  extent,  that  they  are  second  only  to  the  great  iron 
district  around  Birmingham.  Sheffield  is  the  capital  of  this  district.  It  early  derived  im- 
portance fVom  the  fabrication  of  arms,  but  it  has  reached  a  much  higher  degree  of  greatness 
since  it  betook  itself  to  the  more  useful  fabrics  of  knives,  forks,  razors,  snuilers,  scissors, 
combs,  buttons,  saws,  sickles,  and  various  instruimints  of  husbandry.  The  art  of  plating 
goods  with  silver  is  carried  to  a  vast  extent.  The  silver  is  soldered  upon  tl<e  copper ;  ana 
the  articles  are  wrought  by  the  hand  or  stamped.  The  cutlers  of  Sheffield  koep  many  hun- 
dred patterns  of  knives,  of  which  some  are  of  the  value  of  seven  or  eight  jjuiuuos,  contain- 
ing twenty-eight  blades  within  the  handle ;  while  others,  afler  passing  through  a  multitude 
of  different  hards,  are  sold  for  a  penny  each.  The  rapid  ^wth  of  Sheffield  commenced 
about  the  year  1750,  when  the  river  Don  was  rendered  navigable  to  within  a  few  miles  of 
the  town.  Since  that  time  its  advance  has  been  steady  ;  new  branches  having  been  con- 
stantly adding,  and  tlie  former  ones  extending.  Th'*  houses  are  chiefly  modem,  and  well 
built ;  and  tlie  town  makes  a  tolerable  appearance,  notwithstanding  the  smoke  of  the  forges 
in  which  it  is  involved.  The  military  barracks  erected  here  form  an  extensive  pile  of  build- 
ing. The  infirmary  is  considered  equal  to  anjr  in  the  kingdom ;  and  great  credit  is  due  to 
Sheffield  for  the  excellence  of  the  schools  which  it  maintauis  for  the  education  of  the  lower 
orders.  It  supports  also  many  public  charities ;  has  a  literary  society,  a  mechanics'  insti- 
tute, and  a  library. 

Bomsley  produces  wire,  nails,  and  other  articles,  but  derives  its  chief  importance  fVom  the 
linen  manutiicture.  Rotherham  has  a  gieat  foundery  for  cannon.  The  first  iron  bridge  was 
constructed  here  at  the  works  of  Messrs.  Walker ;  and  they  have  since'  executed  those  of 
Sunderland,  Staines,  and  Yarm.  Rotherham,  being  in  a  fine  country,  has  also  a  great  com 
and  cattle  market. 

The  superb  seats  which  adorn  Yorkshire  are  so  many,  that  to  enumerate  even  the  most 
distinguished  can  with  difficulty  suit  our  limits.  Castle  Howard  is  a  magnificent  pile,  noted 
for  its  classical  collection  of  sculpture  and  painting.  Duncombe  Park  is  admired  for  the 
noble  view  obtained  from  the  terrace  in  front,  and  for  the  mins  of  Rivaulx  Abbey,  situated 
in  a  beautiful  vale  at  a  little  distance ;  Studley  Royal,  an  almost  unrivalled  specimen  of  an 
ornamental  park,  encloses  within  its  precincts,  Fountain's  Abbey,  one  of  the  grandest  of 
monastic  remains,  covering  several  acres.  Wentworth  House  is  generally  considered  the 
noblest  mansion  in  the  north.  The  princiiml  front  extends  upwards  of  600  feet,  forming  a 
centre  and  two  wings,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  fine  Cormthian  portico. 

Lancashire,  situated  beyond  the  hilly  border  of  York  West  Ridmg,  forms  the  capital  or 
central  seat  of  manu&cture  for  Britain,  and  even  for  the  world.  Its  soil  and  climate  are 
un&vourable ;  the  upland  tracts  being  rocky  and  barren,  and  the  coast  too  low  and  flat,  while 
the  moisture  from  the  Atlantic  is  injurious  to  the  growth  of  the  finer  kinds  of  grain.  But 
coal  traverses  in  large  beds  the  south  and  south-eastern  parts  of  tlie  county ;  and  being  con- 
veyed by  short  canal  lines  to  all  tlie  great  towns,  affords  cheap  and  abundant  fuel  for  the 
steam-engines  and  other  grand  manutiicturing  apparatus.  Canal  navigation,  which  origi- 
nated in  Loncashire,  has  been  carried  to  a  greater  extent  there  than  in  any  other  part  of  tiie 
kingdom.  Besides  those  smaller  canals  which  connect  all  the  great  thriving  towns,  it  bus 
the  Lancaster  Canal  running  north  and  south  through  nearly  its  whole  extent,  and  into 
Westmoreland  as  fiir  as  Kendal ;  and  the  still  more  important  line  of  the  Leeds  and  Liver- 
pool Canal ;  while,  in  tlie  southern  border,  the  Grand  Trunk  connects  it  with  London  and 
the  whole  centre  of  England.  A  most  important  additional  communication  has  recently 
been  opened  by  the  railway,  elsewhere  described,  by  which  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  so 
&r  as  respects  personal  conveyance,  are  brought  almo^>t  into  contact. 

Manchester,  the  centre  of  British  industry,  and  the  manu&cturing  capital  of  the  empire, 
is  favourably  situated  on  the  Irwell ;  though  this  stream,  navigable  for  barges,  scarcely  makes 
any  figure  beside  the  vast  artificial  lines  formed  fVom  itS  watere.  Although  the  cotton  manu- 
faeture  is  now  widely  difflised  throughout  EJngland,  Manchester  continues  the  centre  of  the 
'toade ;  receiving  and  distributing  the  raw  material,  collecting  the  produce  worked  up  in 
tiumerous  towns  and  villages,  and  transmitting  it  to  the  various  markets.  From  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  she  has  advanced  with  amazing  and  accelerated  rapidity ;  and  the  systeni  of 
inland  aavigation  having  afforded  copious  channels  by  which  the  material  can  be  introduced 
and  the  manufactured  article  exported,  every  obstacle  to  the  absorption  of  the  whole  into 
thit;  ce»tre  was  removed.  Its  manufiicture  embraces  the  finer  muslins  and  other  delicate 
bbrica,  with  the  plain  and  usefiil  forms  of  dimities,  fustians,  velveteens,  checks,  eliirtiiig* 


Part  ID. 

ed  stufis;  ahallooiu, 
,ble  share  of  tho  cot- 
1  nearly  in  the  same 
resent  the  greatest 
wns,  which  carry  on 
liaa  great  iron  found- 

:ry  take  the  place  of 
inly  to  the  great  iron 
It  early  derived  im- 
r  degree  of  greatness 
an,  snuilers,  scissors, 
Tho  art  of  plathi 
wn  tl.e  copper;  an 
Sold  knep  many  hun- 
;ht  gtiiiicos,  contain- 
Uirough  a  multitude 
Sheffield  commenced 
ithin  a  few  miles  of 
es  having  been  con- 
fly  modern,  and  well 
)  smoke  of  the  forges 
xtensive  pile  of  build- 
reat  credit  is  due  to 
ducation  of  the  lower 
fj  a  mechanics'  insti* 

r  importance  from  tho 
i  first  iron  bridge  was 
:e'  executed  those  of 
has  also  a  great  com 

eraie  even  the  most 
lagnificent  pile,  noted 
k  is  admired  for  the 
aulx  Abbey,  situated 
ailed  specimen  of  an 
3  of  the  grandest  of 
erally  considered  the 
600  feet,  forming  a 
ico. 

forms  the  capital  or 
soil  and  climate  are 
n  low  and  flat,  while 
kinds  of  grain.  But 
mty ;  and  being  con- 
ibundant  fliel  for  the 
igation,  which  origi- 
iny  other  part  of  the 
hriving  towns,  it  has 
lole  extent,  and  into 
he  Leeds  and  Liver- 
it  with  London  and 
ication  has  recent'y 
and  Manchester,  so 

.pital  of  the  empire, 
rges,  scarcely  makes 
gh  the  cotton  manu- 
ea  the  centre  of  the 
)duce  worked  up  is 
From  the  middle 
;and  the  system  oi 
oil  can  be  introduced 
in  of  the  whole  into 
I  and  other  delicate 
IS,  checks,  eliirthiga 


Book  L 


ENGLAND. 


;rv''a<i 


387 


ginirhams,  diapers,  cambric  muslins,  figured  moftlins,  C4ilic«4a  for  printing,  and  various  fluey 
guods.    Tiie  diflerent  cotton  fabrics  generally  denominated  Manchester  goods,  are  not  aU 
manufactured  within  the  town  itself,  but  in  the  neighbouring  towns  and  districts ;  and,  after 
being  bleached,  and  some  of  them  printed,  are  sent  in  a  finished  state  to  Manchester  to  be 
sold ;  the  chief  market  daw  being  Tuesdays  and  Saturdays.    Thus  Marseilles  (|uiltings, 
car  brie  muslins,  calicoes  for  printing,  bed  quilts  and  counterpanes,  checks,  fiistiana,  and 
Fhirtings,  are  brought  in  ih>m  tne  surrounding  towns  and  villages.    A  vast  deal  dtnxn  is 
also  spun  for  exportation.    Manchester  has  extensive^^establishments  ibr  «rintinff  and  ^ing; 
also,  for  constructing  and  keepinj^  in  repair  steam-engines,  os  well  as  ouer  machines 
employed  in  manufacture.    Even  iron  founderies  are  necessary  to  Bupi>ly  the  materials. 
Other  important  branches  have  recently  been  added.    Manchester  now  rivals  Macclesfield 
and  Norwich  in  the  manu&cture  of  silks,  and  Nottingham  in  that  of  lace.    In  1882,  there 
were  at  work  in  the  townships  of  Manchester  and  Solford,  96  cotton  mills,  16  silk,  4  wodlen 
and  worsted,  and  2  flax  mills.    The  number  employed  in  cotton  factories  amounted  to 
20,585;  of  whom,  5361  were  male  and  7035  female  adulta;  4286  mole  and  8006  female 
children.    The  wages  paid  to  them  per  month  were  40,833/.,  making  about  9*.  9d.  of  ave* 
rage  weekly  earnings  to  each  individual.    There  were  7174  mule  spinners,  earning  16,1061. 
per  month,  averaging  10s.  Qd.  each  per  week ;  1407  spinners  of  a  higher  class,  eaminff 
649H.  per  month,  or  11.  Sa.  id,  each  per  week.    Pieccrs'  scavengors  ^44,  earning  82^71. 
per  month,  each  weekly  5«.  6d.    In  the  power  looms,  women  receive  6».  to  12«. ;  men,  18*. 
to  16v.  lOd. ;  dressers,  28«.  to  30«.  per  week.    Manchester  is  not  an  elegit  town ;  some 
parts  of  its  interior  are  narrow,  crowded,  fhll  of  warehouses  and  fac*  ries  in  huge  masseSw 
Tho  entrances,  however,  have  been  made  handsome ;  and,  in  the  c  trtmities  of  the  town, 
streets  of  elegant  houses  have  been  built  for  the  accommodation  of  the  opulent  merchants. 
It  has  one  handsome  Gothic  collegiate  church  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  several  more 
modern,  that  are  creditable  to  the  taste  of  the  town,  as  the  Exchange,  which  includes  a 
news-room  and  a  good  library ;  the  Infirmary  (which  in  one  year  received  above  12,000 
patients) ;  the  Town  Hall,  which  contains  one  of  the  most  splendid  public  rooms  in  Europe; 
and  the  Royal  Institution  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Fine  Arts.    The  prison  Called  the  New 
Bailey  is  an  immense  structure, — the  inmates  of  which  arc  classed  and  provided  with 
employment  to  a  considerable  extent     Manchester  is  remarkable  for  its  charitable  institu- 
tions ;  hospitals  of  diflerent  kinds ;  and  schools  for  the  education  of  the  poor.    Cheetham's 
Hospital,  maintaining  eighty  poor  children,  has  a  library  of  18,000  or  20,000  volumes,  con> 
taining  rare  and  valuable  works.    In  1781,  a  literary  and  philosophical  society  was  formed 
at  Manchester,  and  produced  several  valuable  volumes  of  Transactions,  enrichM  by  the  cm- 
tributions  of  Percival,  Ferriar,  Dolton,  Henry,  and  other  eminent  gentlemen  there  resident. 
In  1774,  tlie  population  of  the  whole  parish  was  41,000;  the  amount  of  142,000  for  1831  bv 
no  means  comprehends  all  that  may  be  considered  Manchester.    The  large  towns  and  vil- 
lages which  have  sprung  up  withm  its  parish  form  really  its  suburbs,  and  raise  the  enture 
population  to  270,000.    Of  these,  the  most  important  are  Salford,  immediately  contiguous, 
and  now  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  borough ;  and  Chorlton  Row,  which  in  1801  contains  675 
inhalltants;  in  1831,  20,565. 

Huge  towns,  resembling  cities,  devoted  to  the  cotton  rnonufiicture,  are  found  in  every 
direction  round  Manchester.  To  the  north  are  Blackburn  and  Bolton ;  the  former  chiefly 
employed  in  the  branch  of  printed  calicoes,  which  are  supposed  to  be  produced  to  the  annual 
value  of  2,000,000/.  A  great  advantage  is  derived  finm  the  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal 
passing  close  by  it.  Bolton  is  a  town  anciently  of  some  strength,  but  now  supported  entirely 
by  industry.  Some  of  the  greatest  improvements  in  the  cotton  manufiicture,  have  been 
made  by  Arkwright  and  Crompton,  residents  in  this  place.  Preston,  a  flourishing  seat  of 
manufacture,  elects  two  members  on  a  basis  of  almost  universal  suffrage.  Wigon  is  a  large 
town,  which  adds  to  those  of  cotton  and  linen  some  manuflictures  of  brass  and  pewter. 
Bury,  very  near  Manchester,  besides  extensive  cotton  works,  has  some  of  woollen.  Oldhun' 
was  early  a  place  of  some  consequence,  carrying  on  a  large  &bric  of  hats ;  but  the  intro*: 
duction  of  the  cotton  manufacture  has  caused  it  to  make  an  astonishing  moeteea,  so  that  in 
thirty  years  it  has  nearly  trebled  its  population,  and  the  parish,  including  Pilkington,  Cromp-' 
ton,  and  other  towns,  contains  67,500  inhabitants.  There  are  here  now  65  cotton  mills  and 
140  steam-engines,  almost  all  erected  during  the  present  century. 

Some  large  towns  employed  in  other  manu&ctures  than  those  of  cotton  lie  da  the  borders 
of  Lancashire.  Rochdale,  near  the  western  point  of  Yorkshire,  and  in  character  a  York- 
shire town,  has  for  its  staple  woollen  stufis  and  flannels,  of  which  8000  pieces  are  made 
weekly ;  fifty-seven  steam-engines  are  employed  here,  and  about  84,000  l:e.  of  cotton  yam 
spun  in  tho  week,  Warrington,  en  t.hG  Meiaey,  which  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  ei^ty 
tons  firom  Liverpool,  in  Henry  VIIL's  time  was  superior  to  Manchester;  but  it  is  now  left 
for  behind.  Its  staples  of  sailcloth  and  coarse  linens  have  been  exchanged  for  cottcm,  to 
which  it  adds  glass  and  pins.  Prescot  is  noted  for  the  making  of  watch-wheels,  sprini^ 
chains,  &c.  several  of  which  have  been  invented  and  improved  by  its  workmen.  Near  it^ 
atdt.  Helen's,  is  a  great  manufactory  of  plate  gloss,  employing  800  persons.     -     r.  f  ti^     • 


388 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  m. 


'    .V' 


Liverpool,  the  commercial  capital  of  Lancaahire,  is,  if  poasiblo,  a  still  (frander  object,  and 
far  surpassing  indeed  every  other  seaport,  with  the  exception  of  the  metropolis.  Ijfothing 
can  bo  more  remarkable  tlian  the  contrast  of  its  present  state  with  its  humble  origin.  In 
the  sixteenth  century,  it  is  described  as  a  small  place  with  only  a  cliapel,  having  no  parish 
church  withm  four  miles.  It  had  Uien  188  inhabitants,  and  two  or  throe  ships,  whose  agtpre- 
gate  tonnage  was  QSH  tons ;  and  in  a  petition  to  Elizabeth,  about  the  year  1578,  it  is  styled, 
"  her  mi^esty's  poor  decayed  town ;"  it  continued  gradually  to  increase  during  the  seven* 
eenth  century,  till,  in  1700,  it  was  constitutea  a  parish,  and  had  6000  inhabitants. 
Since  that  time  it  has  advanced  with  rapid  and  accelerated  steps ;  in  1730,  it  had  12,000; 
in  1760, 26,000;  in  1800,  60,000  inhabitanto;  but  the  most  rapid  growth  has  been  between 
1811  and  1821,  when  it  rose  from  04,876  to  141,487.  The  increase  to  165,000  in  1881 
appears  less  rapid ;  but  in  &ct,  the  population  during  tliis  period  has  overflowed  into  the 
adjacent  villages,  and  swelled  them  into  largo  towns ;  Toxtcth-park  increased  firom  2069  in 
1801,  to  24,067  in  1831 ;  West  Derby,  Kirkdole,  Everton,  form  m  fhct  the  suburbs  of  Liver, 
pool,  and,  added  to  it,  make  an  amount  of  203,000.  There  must  always  have  been  a  consi- 
derable  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey ;  but  this  estuary,  in  its  natural  navi^ticn,  could 
never  come  in  competition  with  the  Humber  or  the  Severn.  When,  however,  its  disadvan- 
taffes  as  a  seaptirt  were  partly  removed,  by  the  formation  of  docks, — and,  much  more,  wlicn 
it  became  tlie  basis  of  a  canal  system  reacliing  eastward  to  the  German  Ocean,  and  soutli- 
word  to  the  Thames, — Liverpool  could  communicate  with  on  immense  interior  circle.  It 
derived  benefit,  above  all,  from  tlie  cotton  manufacture  established,  on  such  an  extensive 
scale,  in  the  country  immediately  Irahind ;  the  materials  of  which  were  brought  to  Liverpool 
from  the  opposite  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  finished  fabric  thence  exported,  partly  to  the 
same  quarter.  At  the  same  time  Liverpool  imported,  for  a  groat  part  of  England  at  least, 
articles  of  consumption  from  America  and  the  West  Indies.  It  found  also  a  most  extensive 
employment  in  bringing  grain  and  provisions  firom  Ireland,  and  returning  salt,  coals,  and  pot> 
tery.  The  merchants  of  Liverpool,  meanwhile,  were  most  active  in  improving  these  cir- 
cumstances, particularly  by  the  construction  of  that  immense  line  of  docks,  which  M.  Dupin 
has  described  with  such  admiration.  A  dock,  or  space  enclosed  all  round,  and  fed  with 
sluices,  in  which  the  vessels  while  they  receive  or  discharge  their  cargoes  are  kept  regu- 
brly  afloat,  without  being  exposed  to  swell,  tide,  or  current,  is  an  obvious  improvement  upon 
the  best  natural  harbour.  The  expense,  however,  is  great ;  and  it  was  not  till  1710  that 
Liverpool  began  the  first  dock  in  Britain,  called  the  Old  Dock,  which  has  recently  been  filled 
up.  Twenty  yean  were  employed  in  its  completion ;  and  a  still  longer  time  in  that  of  the 
next,  or  the  Salthouse  Dock.  The  othera  were,  however,  constructed  on  a  more  extensive 
scale,  and  with  greater  rapidity : — George's  (II.)  Dock ;  the  King's  Dock,  for  Greenland 
ships  and  tobacco ;  the  Queen's  Dock,  directly  for  tho  Baltic  and  North  American  trade. 
On  a  still  larger  scale  have  been  constructed  the  Prince  Regent  Dock,  opened  in  1821,  and 
the  Clarence  Dock,  in  1880.  The  Brunswick  Dock,  for  the  accommodation  of  vessels  with 
cargoes  of  timber,  nearly  completes  the  present  plan,  when  the  whole  area  of  water  in  the 
docks  will  exceed  00  acres.  In  1832,  tliere  belonged  to  Uiis  port  853  registered  vessels,  of 
the  burthen  of  166,028  tons.  The  customs  paid  at  the  port  amounted,  in  1765,  to  269,000/. ; 
in  1810,  to  2,675,000/. ;  and  in  1832  they  had  risen  to  3,926,062/.  The  following  are  the 
leading  articles  of  import  in  the  year  1830 :— 792,350  bags  of  cotton,  510,000  hides,  42,000 
hogsheods  of  sugar,  8000  hogsheads  of  tobacco,  300,500  barrels  of  flour,  7800  casks  and 
7300  barrels  and  bags  of  coffee,  27,000  casks  of  palm  oil,  000  seroons  and  1430  chests  of 
indigo,  12,000  puncheons  of  rum,  31,200  bogs  of  rice,  22,500  barrels  of  American  ashes, 
42,^  barrels  of  tar,  51,000  barrels  of  turpentine,  6200  tons  of  logwood,  56.'}0  logs  of  maho- 
ffony.  The  dock  duties,  which  in  1800  were  only  23,379/.,  amounted,  in  1832,  to  170,000/. 
In  1832,  the  ships  entered  inwar  vj  were  10,266,  tonnage  1,361,000;  outwards,  8717  ships, 
tonnage  1,218,645.  Of  this,  610,000  tons  were  from  foreign  parts,  chiefly  the  United  States 
and  Sitish  America,  the  rest  coasters,  of  which  386,000  wore  from  Ireland.  The  value  of 
agricultural  produce  from  that  country  amounted  to  4,444,000/. 

Liverpool  has  numerous  lines  of  packets  to  all  the  principal  foreign  ports.  Every  month 
four  sail  to  New- York,  two  to  Philadelphia,  one  to  Boston,  two  respectively  to  Rio  Janeiro, 
(jienoa  and  Leghorn,  and  to  Lisbon ;  one  every  three  weeks  to  Oporto.  The  New- York 
packets  ore  first-rate  vessels  containing  splendid  accommodations  for  passengera,  and  the 
value  of  goods  conveyed  in  one  of  them  has  been  known  to  exceed  140,000/.  Trading  ves- 
sels also  are  continually  sailing  to  the  above  and  to  all  other  commercial  places  throughout 
the  world.  An  almost  daily  communication  is  maintained  by  steam  packets  with  Dublin, 
Belfast,  Glasgow,  Whitehaven,  and  all  ports  of  any  consequence  in  Ireland,  and  on  the 
western  coast  of  England.  The  solid  construction  of  its  docks;  the  powerful  iron  gates  by 
which  they  are  enclosed  ;  the  long  covered  wayo  wiiefe  the  goods  may  be  landed  withou* 
injury  fhm  the  inclemency  of  the  weatlier ;  tlie  immense  magazines,  some  rising  to  the 
height  of  12  or  IS  stories, — all  denote  a  gigantic  industry  and  a  magnificence  which  spares 
no  sacrifice  to  attain  objects  of  public  utili^.  The  inhabitants  of  Liverpool  have  generally 
shown  the  same  spirit  in  their  other  arrangements  as  in  those  connected  with  trade.    The 


Pakt  m. 

11  ifrandor  object,  and 

metropolis.    Ijfothing 

■  huiDDle  origin.    In 

pel,  havinff  no  parish 

)e  ships,  whose  agffre< 

ear  1578,  it  is  styled, 

Else  during  the  seven- 

od  5000  inhabitants. 

>  1730,  it  had  12,000; 

vUi  has  been  between 

se  to  165,000  in  1881 

IS  overflowed  into  the 

ncreased  firom  2069  in 

the  suburbs  of  Liver* 

lys  have  been  a  consi- 

ural  navigation,  could 

However,  its  disadvan- 

nd,  much  more,  wlicn 

lan  Ocean,  and  soutli- 

80  interior  circle.    It 

on  such  an  extensive 

Q  brought  to  Liverpool 

sxportcd,  partly  to  the 

t  of  England  at  least, 

also  a  most  extensive 

n^  suit,  coals,  and  pot- 

nnproving  Uiese  cir- 

ocks,  which  M.  Dupin 

[  round,  and  fed  with 

:argoe8  are  kept  regu- 

3U8  improvement  upon 

was  not  till  1710  that 

OS  recently  been  filled 

er  time  in  that  of  the 

on  a  more  extensive 

Dock,  for  Greenland 

brth  American  trade. 

opened  in  1821,  and 

lation  of  vessels  with 

area  of  water  in  the 

registered  vessels,  of 

in  1765,  to  269,0001.; 

The  following  are  the 

J10,000  hides,  42,000 

our,  7800  casks  and 

and  1480  chests  of 

of  American  ashes, 

d,  5650  logs  of  maho- 

in  1832,  to  170,000/. 

lutwards,  8717  ships, 

fly  the  United  States 

land.    The  value  of 

ports.  Every  month 
ively  to  Rio  Janeiro, 
The  New-York 
passengers,  and  the 
,000/.  Trading  ves- 
A  places  throughout 
acKcts  with  Dublin, 
Ireland,  and  on  the 
verful  iron  gates  by 
'  be  landed  withou. 
_^some  rising  to  the 
kence  which  spares 

riol  have  generally 
with  trade.    The 


GooK  L 


ENGL, 


&<?t) 


.1  7/'i'l  ti  'l!: 


O 


TowaHall,  LKrupool 


iownis  well  lighte4  ^'^  S*^    "^^  publiQ  bul.'t.:iig  have  an  elegant  and  classical  character, 

aimoflt  peculiar  to  Liverpool.  The  Town- 
Hall  (Jg.  164),  is  a  fine  Grecian  edifice, 
ornamented  with  a  superb  cupola  and  ap- 
propriato  statues.  The  Exchange  forms 
behind  it  an  elegant  square,  in  the  midst  of 
which  is  a  sculptural  composition  by  West- 
macott,  representing  Nelson  and  his  victo- 
ries. The  new  edifice  erected  for  a  market 
ii^  perhaps,  the  most  spacious  and  commo- 
dious of  any  employed  in  the  kingdom  for 
that  purpose.  There  are  also  several  ele- 
gant modem  churches,  one  formed  of  cast- 
iron.  The  finest  view  of  Liverpool  is 
obtained  from  the  sea,  where  the  vast  height 
and  extent  of  the  exterior  dock  wall,  the  forest  of  masts  above,  and  the  town  behind,  make 
a  most  imposing  appearance.  The  charitable  institutions  are  administered  on  a  great  scale, 
and  wiUi  activity.  Foremost  stands  the  Blind  Asylum,  the  first  established  in  England,  which 
receives  inmates  finm  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  infirmary  is  in  a  very  spacious  and 
airv  8ituatu>n;  and,  among  the  other  institutions  common  to  great  towns,  the  Strangers' 
Friends'  Society  distinguishes  itself  by  its  generous  exertions.  The  English  mercantile 
towns  generally  diow  a  zeal  to  combine  intellectual  pursuits  with  those  of  wei^th ;  but 
none,  perhaps  so  successfiilly  as  Liverpool,— one  of  whose  merchants,  while  carrying  on  an 
extensive  business,  produced  works  which  rank  him  among  the  most  classical  Enelish 
writers.  Although  this  example  be  single,  it  is  connected  with  a  general  spirit,  \vakh 
displays  itself  in  the  liberal  procedure  of  several  individuals ;  in  the  Lyceum  and  the 
Atheiueum;  two  public  libraries  and  literary  institutions,  supported  by  subscription;  and  in 
a  botanic  garden,  which  ranks  as  the  first  that  was  formed,  and  at  least  the  third  as  to 
eminence,  in  the  kingdom.  Both  the  Athenieum  and  the  botanic  garden  owe  their  founda- 
tion to  the  public  spirit  and  the  munificent  example  of  Mr.  mtscoe,  who  had  also  the 
magnanimitv  to  exert  his  powerful  talents  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  ia  a  town  long 
devoted  to  that  traffic. 
Lancaster,  the  county  town,  is  handsomely  built  of  a  beautiful  firee^tone;  the  Town-hall 
,^-  and  some  other  buildings  are  handsome; 

***      -J      *  but  the  castle  0^.  1&.)  forms  one  of 

the  gnindest  monuments  of  the  feudal 
age.  Its  vast  extent;  its  commanding 
Bite;  the  greatness  of  all  its  features, 
even  now,  when  three  of  its  seven  towers 
are  fallen  into  ruin ;  produce  the  most 
powerful  impression.  It  has  been  con- 
verted into  a  well-arranged  prison  for 
the  county.  Lancaster,  uiough  its  river, 
the  Lune,  is  not  navigable  6a  vessels  of 
more  than  250  tons,  possesses  73  sail. 
It  builds  some  ships,  makes  sailcloth, 
and  manufactures,  upon  a  small  scale, 
some  cotton  fabrics.  About  a  mile  flrom 
it,  the  Lancaster  Canal  is  carried  over  the  Lime  by  a  very  noble  aqueduct  bridge. 

The  counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  or  the  country  of  the  Lakes,  form  a  bold 
and  peculiar  region,  presentmg  a  striking  contrast  to  those  recently  surveyed ;  being  enriched 
neither  by  natural  wealth,  nor  by  human  industry.  Wide  ranges  of  high  and  rocky  moun- 
tains, enclosing  long  lakes  and  narrow  vales,  afford  scanty  space  for  the  plough.  A  great 
proportion  of  these  fells  and  moors  is  absolutely  barren ;  in  the  more  fiivoiired  spots  the  her- 
bage is  often  scanty ;  and  even  the  arable  tracts  are,  in  general,  fit  only  for  the  coarser 
grain  of  oats.  But  the  multitude  of  mountains  crowded  together,  their  bold,  perpendicular, 
and  oflen  projecting  forms;  the  pleasing  though  not  extensive  lakes,  and  soft  pastoral 
valleys,  which  they  enclose,  render  this  the  most  beautifiil  country  of  England,  and  Uie 
fiivourite  resort  of  all  the  admirers  of  the  picturesque  and  sublime. 

Three  divisions  are  distinctly  seen  in  these  counties,  reaching  from  north  to  south.  I.  A 
plain  eastwu^  of  the  mountains,  through  which  the  high  road  runs  by  Kendal  and  Carlisle 
to  London.  It,  The  mountaiuB  and  lakes,  occupying  the  larger  portion  of  their  surfiuse. 
m.  A  sea-coast,  containing  some  harbours  of  importance. 

The  first  part  consists  of  a  plain,  which,  though  narrow,  is  in  many  places  fertile ;  and 
contains  some  large  towns.  In  the  northern  part  is  "  merry  Carlisle,"  long  distingiiished  in 
the  border  annals,  and  the  scene  of  interesting  events  in  the  contest  of  1745.  Carlisle  being 
a  military  post  of  the  first  consequence,  its  castle  and  walls  were  considered  a  model  of 

aa* 


Ltooaitcr  CaiUe. 


880 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  IH 


Btrengtli,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  middle  affea;  the  cathedral  ia  an  ancient  edifice,  still 
nearly  entire,  in  the  heavy  Saxon  style.  Carlisle  has  of  late  he^pin  to  carry  on  some  nianu> 
fiusture,  chiefly  cotton ;  also  woollen,  linen,  and  a  few  minor  articles.  A  capal  connects  it 
with  the  Solway,  and  enables  it  to  employ  some  shipping.    Eastward  flrom  Carlisle  ia  the 

Cmt  debateable  line ;  and  near  Brampton  is  Na worth  C^Ue,  that  powerful  station  where 
rd  William  Howard  undertook  to  bridle  the  license  of  the  border.  Yet,  however  strong, 
it  forms  rather  a  dark  border  keep,  than  a  display  of  feudal  grandeur.  Lord  Howard  s 
apartments,  which,  with  their  books,  fbmiture,  and  armour,  remain  almost  undisturbed,  am 
separated  by  ibur  strong  doors  from  the  rest  of  the  castle ;  and  secret  passages  lead  to  every 
part,  and  to  the  dungeons  beneath.  Farther  south  is  Kendal,  the  chief  town  of  Westmore- 
land ;  a  considerable  place,  with  an  old  manufactory  of  woollens  bearing  its  name,  and 
some  of  cotton  and  leather.  Burton  and  Eirby  Lonsdale  are  small  neat  towns  cs  the  border 
of  Lancashire. 
The  second  division  comprises  the  country  of  the  Lakes,  forming  the  peculiar  character- 
istic of  the  country,  and  chiefly  distin- 
guished by  its  scenery.  Ullswater,  (£r. 
166.)  divided  into  three  reaches.  The 
mountains  are  numerous,  steep  and  loftv, 
not  broken  or  impending,  but  of  a  bold 
and  swelling  form.  The  two  highest  in 
the  region  are  Helvellyn,  and  the  square 
rocky  mass  of  Stone  Cross  Pike,  rearing 
their  almost  perpendicular  forms  to  an 
amazing  height  above  the  wooded  hills 
which  cluster  round  them.  Opposite 
rises  the  immense  precipitous  steep  of 
Place  Fell ;  and  the  whole  produces  a 
•cene ofsolemn and  simple  grandeur.  At  Patterdale,  though  the  features  be  grand, the 
"^  beautiful   predominates.     From   the 

meadows  bordering  the  lake,  the  nu- 
merous  glens  branching,  off,  with  the 
scattered  abodes  of  the  shepherds  and 
dalesmen,  present  one  of  the  sweetest 
of  alpme  pastoral  scenes.  Keswick  or 
Derwentwater  (Jigr.  167.)  is  of  equal 
nondeur,  but  a  quite  different  aspect. 
The  moimtains  preserve  no  regular 
form,  but  are  broken,  shattered,  im- 
pending, shooting  into  a  thounmd  fim- 
tastic  shapes ;  and  though  they  do  not 
produce  the  same  grand  unity  of  efibct,  astonish  by  a  continual  change  of  scenery.    In 

the  wooded  cliffi  and  water&ll  of  Lodore  (Jig.  168.), 
and  on  the  rocks  of  Borrowdale,  nature  seems  to  have 
sported  her  wildest  fancies.  Yet  exquisite  beauty  is 
here  mingled  with  horrors,  particularly  in  the  views  of 
the  lake  m>m  the  south,  with  Skiddaw  behind;  and  in 
a  lovely  rural  vale,  which  runs  along  its  northern  bor- 
der, and  is  seen  to  peculiar  advantage  fhun  the  road  to 


Ulbwaler. 


KMwiek  Lako 


LodoraWaiaiiUL  WladeroMra  Uk*.  '  ,   , 

AmUesido.  Windermere  (Jv- 169.),  is  of  much  wider  extent ;  not  shut  in  by  moantauiout 
cli^  but  bordered  by  wooded  and  ornamented  hills.  Arouud  its  northern  banks,  however 
is  ranged  an  amphitheatre  of  very  high  mountains,  which,  with  their  varied  summits,  form 
a  sublime  background  to  all  its  landscapes.  These  ore  generally  grand,  open,  diflusive,  and 
extended.    The  other  lakes,  Coniston,  Grasmere,  Buttermere,  Ciomack,  Wastdale,  ^iiner 


Past  m 

I  ancient  edifice,  still 
carry  on  ■ome  menu- 
A  cap«l  connects  it 
flrom  Cttrlisle  is  tho 
rerfbl  station  whero 
Ifet,  however  strong, 
[ir.  Lord  Howard^) 
MMt  undisturbed,  aru 
usages  lead  to  every 
town  of  Westmore- 
mting  its  name,  and 
towns  cs  the  border 

peculiar  character- 

,  and  chiefly  distin* 

ry.    Ullswater,  Mr. 

hreo  reaches.    The 

rous,  steep  and  lofty, 

tiding,  but  of  a  bold 

The  two  highest  in 

illyn,  and  the  square 

Cross  Pike,  rearing 

licular  forms  to  an 

re  the  wooded  hills 

1   them.     Opposite 

precipitous  steep  of 

3  whole  produces  a 

tures  be  grand,  the 

inates.     Prom    the 

g  the  lake,  the  nu> 

tiching.oir,  with  the 

f  the  shepherds  and 

one  of  the  sweetest 

scenes.    Keswick  or 

f.  167.)  is  of  equal 

ite  different  aspect. 

reserve  no  regular 

ken,  shattered,  im- 

into  a  thousand  fim- 

thougfa  they  do  not 

ge  (rf^  scenery.    In 

Lodore  (Jig.  168.), 

■me  seems  to  have 

exquisite  beauty  is 

rly  in  the  views  of 

aw  behind;  and  in 

:  its  northern  bor- 

:e  fixun  the  rood  to 


by  moantamous 
banks,  however 
ed  summits,  form 
len,  diffusive,  and 
Wastdale,  Enner 


DooK  I. 


ENGLAND 


m 


dale,  have  attracti(<ns  for  the  admirers  of  nature.  In  this  district,  the  only  places  to  which 
the  name  of  towns  could  be  given  are  Keswick  on  Derwentwater,  and  Ambleside  on  Win- 
dermere ;  and  even  these  are  only  large  villages,  supported  by  the  resort  of  travellers,  and 
by  some  persons  of  distinction  who  are  inducra  to  reside  there  by  the  beauty  of  the  neigh* 
bourhood. 

The  third  division  consists  of  the  sea-coast  The  most  considerable  port  is  Whitehaven, 
which  has  become  flourishing  in  consequence  of  the  immense  coal  mines  found  and  worked 
in  its  immediate  vicinity,  ^me  of  them  have  a  depth  of  320  yards,  si'.pposed  to  be  greater 
than  any  other  in  the  world ;  and  some  extend  several  miles  beneath  the  sea.  The  total 
quantity  worked  is  estimated  at  100,000  chaldrons,  chiefly  exported  to  Ireland :  besides  which, 
WhitehavGn  lias  pushed  its  trade  to  Africa,  America,  and  the  West  Indies ;  and  carries  on 
much  ship-building. 

'  SuBSECT.  5.— Western  Counties.  ,       ,     ,;;• 

Tho  western  counties  form  the  last  division  of  England  Proper,  comprising  the  counties 
south  of  the  Mersey,  which  form  the  western  boundary  of  England.  This  extensive  line 
has  scarcely  any  character  which  can  be  said  generally  to  apply  to  it  We  mention  Cheshire, 
Shropihire,  Hereford,  and  MonmotUh,  as  bordering  on  Wales,  and  the  lost  three  partaking 
somewhat  of  its  rude  and  romantic  character;  Worcester,  Oloucestcr,  and  Somerset,  occu- 
pying tho  fine  valley  of  the  Severn, — a  region  filled  with  commerce  and  cultivation,  and 
containing  several  mreat  cities;  lastly,  Cornwall  and  Devon,  the  extreme  corner  of  Blngland, 
but  marked  b^  a  mud  climate,  rich  mines,  and  a  surface  agreeably  diversified. 

The  soil  ot  Cheshire  is  generally  fit  for  all  the  purposes  of  agriculture,  particularly  in  the 
valley  of  tho  Dee :  but  the  dairy  is  tho  branch  pursued  witli  peculiar  success ;  and  it  pro- 
duces the  cheese  which,  bearing  the  name  of  the  country,  equals  in  richness,  tliough  not  in 
delicacy,  any  other  in  Britain.  There  are  valuable  mines  of  coal,  and  some  of  iron ;  but 
the  mineral  substance  of  which  Cheshire  chiefly  boasts  is  salt  The  pits  were  discovered 
about  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  at  Northwich,  Middlewich,  and  Nantwich,  and  have  proved 
of  the  highest  importance  to  the  nation,  at  once  for  internal  consumption,  for  the  curing  of 
fish,  and  for  exportation. 

Ch'3stor  is,  perhaps,  the  city  in  Britain  which  bears  the  most  venerable  character  of 
antiquity.  Tho  very  name  implies  a  Roman  camp,  the  form  of  which  is  still  preserved  in 
Uie  direction  of  its  principal  streets.  The  effect  is  heightened  by  the  mouldering  red  stone, 
of  V  hich  its  most  ancient  edifices  are  built  The  principal  streets  have  a  very  peculiar 
stru'fture.  The  lower  story,  which  has  been  hollowed  out  of  the  rock,  consists  of  shops, 
above  which  is  a  paved  way  covered  by  the  projecting  upper  story ;  but  the  middle  part  of 
the  houFi  appears  thus  retired  fix)m  the  open  street  behind  this  species  of  arcade.  The 
omngement  is  neither  very  elegant  nor  very  convenient  The  castle  of  Chester  presents 
a  very  complete  specimen  of  early  military  architecture ;  connected  with  it  is  a  range  of 
handsome  Grecian  buildings,  containing  the  barracks,  county  hall,  and  county  gaol.  The 
cathedral  displays  considerable  grandeur,  and  has  a  very  elegant  chapter-house.  The  im- 
{HTOvements  on  the  Deo  enable  vessels  of  300  tons  to  come  up  to  Chester,  which  has  62 
vessels,  of  above  4000  tons ;  yet  its  trade  with  Ireland  has  been  transferred  to  Liverpool. 

Of  the  other  towns,  the  most  remarkable  are  those  near  which  tho  salt  mines  are  situated, 
particularly  Northwich.  There  are  fourteen  pits  of  rock  salt  and  between  thirty  and  forty  of 
wine  salt  The  rock  salt  is  hard  and  brown ;  the  pits,  after  being  dug  to  a  certain  depth, 
are  e:  cavated  horizontally,  leaving  a  portion  of  the  salt  for  a  roof.  They  thus  form  apart- 
ments, often  of  more  than  an  acre  in  extent;  and  the  reflection  of  lights  from  the  mineral, 
like  that  of  numberless  precious  stones,  produces  a  magical  effect  Stockport  and  Maccles- 
field have  flourished  greatly  in  consequence  of  the  introductkm  from  Lancashire  of  the 
cotton  manufacture,  to  which  Macclesfield  adds  some  branches  of  that  of  silk. 

Among  tho  seats  are  Eaton  Hall,  a  magnificent  Gothic  edifice,  which  Earl  Grosvenor  baa 
erected  at  an  expence,  it  is  said,  of  4OO,(W0/. 

Shropshire,  or  Salop,  consists  chiefly  of  a  wide  plain  watered  b^  the  Severn.  On  its 
eastern  border  it  shares  to  a  great  extent  in  the  mineral  wealth  of  Staffordshire,  coal  and 
iron.  These  are  carried  on  in  a  remarkable  manner  at  Colebrook ;  a  deep-wooded  vale  on 
the  Severn,  here  traversed  by  the  first  iron  bridge  erected  in  th6  kingdom.  This  county  is 
also  interesting  to  the  student  of  English  historv;  many  spots  havm?  been  the  scenes  of 
remarkable  events,  on  which  die  destinies  of  the  kingdom  have  depended. 

Shrewsbury,  the  capital,  is  particularly  rich  in  memorable  recollections.  Being  the  strong- 
est fortress  on  the  western  marches,  it  became  a  rendezvous  of  the  royal  army,  both  for 
overawing  the  Welsh,  and  for  northern  exneHitions:  many  of  the  streets  are  narrow,  wind- 
ing, and  irregular,  and  the  old  and  new  buildings  too  closely  intermingled ;  only  a  small 
part  of  the  castle  remains ;  St  Mary's  church  is  elegant  and  entire.  The  flree  school, 
ibanded  by  Edward  VI.  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  has  produced  several  emment  teachera  and 
pupila.  Shrewsbury  is  praised  for  its  house  of  industry,  and  for  the  arrangement  of  its 
county  gaoL  "   'i'  ,  ..   .  >  ■■  ...i  .■■.u.i:*i'„.p>v-ii.  ..   ■  


m 


nESCIUPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III, 


Ludlow,  an  anoiont  town,  wiis  flroquontly  the  residence  of  royalty,  and  the  refpilar  Btatioii 
of  thoM  powerful  oillcers  lliu  liordii  Prosidonta  of  the  Marchea.  The  coatle,  placed  on  « 
>\oodo«i  rock  overhanging  tliu  Teme,  woa  coniidemd  one  of  the  atrongest  places  in  the  king* 
dotn.  In  its  vicinity  occurred  many  of  Uio  most  distinguished  events  in  the  contest  between 
tho  houHca  of  York  and  lAncoater.  It  wut*  allurwardii  diitiniiittlod ;  yet  romainod  a  splendid 
private  mansion,  in  which  Milton's  "  Comus'*  was  first  pertbrmed,  and  where  Butler  wrote  a 
part  of  his  "  Hudibras."  It  is  now  entirely  roofless  and  covered  with  ivy,  but  still  adorns 
the  town,  which  is  well  built  and  pleasantly  situated. 

Hurefonl  and  Monmouth,  two  demi-VVelsli  counties,  fill  tlie  interval  fVoin  Shropshire  south- 
wards to  the  Bristol  Channel.  Being  traversed  by  the  Wye,  tlio  moot  picturesque  of  tlio 
English  rivers,  they  vio  in  beauty  witli  almost  any  part  of  tne  kingdom.  The  chief  industry 
is  in  tho  rearing  ot  firuit,  and  the  whole  country  is  as  it  wore  covered  with  orchards:  hence 
Hereford  draws  its  staple  production  of  cider  and  perry,  in  peculiar  abundance  and  iwrfuction. 
The  crop  is  precarious ;  but  in  a  good  year  tho  produce  of  an  acre  will  bo  iVom  eighteen  to 
.MA  twonty-tbur  hogiilieads,  sometimes  of  such  fine  quality,  that  it  will 

sell  from  tho  press  at  20/.  a  hogshead.  The  western  district  of 
Hereford  produces  also  a  large  quantity  of  hops,  and  has  one  of 
the  finest  brotxis  of  cattio  in  the  kingdom,  both  for  draught  and  feed- 
ing. Tho  breed  of  sheep,  called  nyoland  (Jig.  170.),  besides  the 
excellence  of  tlieir  flesh,  l)ear  the  very  finest  wool  in  the  kingdom. 
Monmouth  is  not  so  fertile:  its  chief  wealth  is  mineral,  cool  neing 
most  abundant ;  and  iron  works  are  established  to  such  an  extent, 
Rirtlud  Mmp.  iJjjj  jjjgy  ijjyg  jjgg^  known  to  produce  a  thousand  tons  in  the  week. 

Of  the  towns,  Hereford  bean  venerable  marks  of  antiquity,  particularly  its  cathedral,  not- 
l-yj  .^^^miit,         .^^sk      witlwt*nding  the  tall  of  its  principal 

'^'^^^  i«i*^Kfc.  iny/^Y,  RoM,  once  the  residence  of 
Mr.  Kyrle,  celebrated  by  Pope  as 
"  the  Man  of  Ross,"  is  a  beautifiil 
village,  considered  as  a  sort  of  centre 
of  the  picturesque  scenes  of  tho  Wye. 
The  towns  of  Monmouthshire  are 
small.  The  capital  has  a  limited 
trade  along  tho  Wye;  but  its  situa- 
tion, in  a  delightftil  country,  has 
attracted  the  neighbouring  gentry. 
There  are  still  remains  of  its  once 
powerfiil  castle,  and  of  a  Benedictine 
priory.  A  few  miles  from  Monmouth 
IS  Tintem  Abbey  ^fig.  171.),  the  moat 
Tintem  Abbay.  picturesque,  prhaps,  of  all  the  Englirii 

monasUe  remaini.  This  ariiet,  not  merely  ftom  its  extent  and  beauty,  although  these  bo 
great:  but  flom  ita  rooflesa  and  ruined  state,  whence  the  walls,  both  within  and  without, 
172  .JUDl^  *"  overgrown  with  luxuriant  ivy,  and  de- 

^,jmttm  caying  art  and  nature  are  blended  together. 

In  another  direction  is  Ragland  castle,  the 
seat  of  the  dukes  of  Beaufort  (fig.  178.), 
and  considered  one  of  the  strongest  of  the 
ancient  fortresses ;  but,  after  the  gallant  de- 
fence made  by  the  marquess  of  Worcester 
for  Charles  I.,  "Cromwell,"  says  Gilpiii, 
"laid  his  iron  hand  upon  it,  and  shattered  it 
to  ruins;  to  which  it  owes  its  present  pic- 
turesque form."  Chepstow,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Wye,  is  a  neat  town,  and  carries  on 
'{'  ''       Ruhad  Cudb  '  '     "oroo  t«we-    It  is  chiefly  interesling,  how- 

tK>  m«.»  ..^b:^.  ^r   II  .k      •  u.   /.^  ever,  firom  the  remains  of  its  caatle,  one  of 

the  moat  atrAmg  of  all  Ae  mighty  fortresses  of  Wales.    Five  or  six  large  towers  still  re- 
mam,  with  the  outer  walls  of  a  magnificent  chapel. 

Woreester  and  Gloucester  occupy  tho  lower  valley  of  the  Severn,  which  there  becomes  a 
river  of  the  first  magnitude.  This  valley  is  broad,  smooth,  and  fertile,  yet  nowhere  degene- 
rates  mto  a  dead  unvaried  level.  Worcester  has,  on  the  west,  the  Malvern  Hills,  some  of 
whose  summits  rise  to  the  height  of  nearly  1500  feet  Gloucestershire,  again,  has  to  the 
east  the  Cotswold  Hills,  more  nigged,  though  not  so  elevated:  while  to  th«  ««» -re  the 
nigged  remains  of  the  Forest  of  Bean.  Worcestershire  has,  besides,  the  valley  oif  the  Lower 
Avon  and  of  Evwham,  filmed  for  their  beauty  and  fortuity.  The  vales  of  these  fine  counties 
•ure  fitted  for  produce  of  every  description,— grain,  fraits,  pasturage,  with  some  preference  of 
the  two  latter.    Gloucester  is  particularly  distinguished  for  its  dairies,  which  oroduce  that 


Part  III, 

id  the  reifular  ttatioii 
I  coatle,  pliicoil  on  a 
9Ht  places  in  Uio  kinf^^ 
I  the  contest  between 
,  remained  a  splendid 
where  Butler  wrote  a 
1  ivy,  but  still  adorm 

Irom  Shropshire  south- 

9t  picturesque  of  tlie 

I.   The  chief  industry 

vith  orchards:  hence 

idanco  and  |)crfoction. 

1  bo  from  cifrhtcon  to 

10  quality,  that  it  will 

Q  western  district  of 

hops,  and  has  one  of 

for  draught  and  feed> 

fig.  170.),  besides  the 

wool  in  the  kingdom. 

is  mineral,  coolDeing 

ted  to  such  an  extent, 

Bond  tons  in  the  week. 

arly  its  cathedral,  not- 

0  iall  of  its  principal 

nee  the  residence  of 

Icbrated  by  Pope  as 

loss,"  is  a  beautiflil 

-cd  OS  a  sort  of  centre 

le  scenes  of  the  Wye. 

f  Monmouthshire  are 

Lpital    has   a  limited 

Wye;  but  iti  situa- 

ffhtKil    country,    has 

lei^hbouring   gentry. 

remains  of  its  once 

and  of  a  Benedictuie 

niles  from  Monmouth 

'(Jig.  171.),themort 

aps,  ofalltheEnglidi 

ty,  although  these  bo 

within  and  without, 

ixuriant  ivy,  and  de- 

ire  blended  together. 

lagland  castle,  the 

Jeaufort  (Jig.  173.), 

ie  strongest  of  the 

afler  the  gallant  de- 

rquess  of  Worcester 

iwell,"  says  Gilpiii, 

n  it,  and  shattereid  it 

ves  its  present  pic< 

etow,  at  the  mouth 

town,  and  carries  on 

fly  interesting,  how- 

of  its  castle,  one  of 

ge  towers  still  re- 

ich  there  becomes  a 
et  nowhere  degene- 
vem  Hills,  some  of 

i,  again,  has  to  the 
to  the  west  are  the 
ralley  of  the  Lower 

these  fine  counties 
some  preference  of 
vhich  oroduce  thai 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


I 


Woiowlw  CiUiedral 


rich  cheese  well  Lnown  under  its  name.  The  best,  or  double  Gloucester,  is  produced  in  the 
vale  of  Berkeley  situated  along  the  lowest  part  of  the  course  of  the  Severn.  Both  countie* 
liave  flourishing  manu&otures,  though  not  on  the  vast  scale  of  the  northern  districts. 
Gloucester,  'r.  p<irtioular,  has  a  verv  extensive  fhbric  of  fine  woollens,  carried  on  through 
numberless  villages,  in  what  are  called  "  the  Bottoms,"  a  range  of  territory  along  the  \ower 
part  (if  the  Cotswold  Hills.    Its  scarlet  and  bluo  woollens  are  in  particular  repute. 

Worcester  is  a  considerable  and  very  handsome  city,  the  principal  streets  being  spocious 
and  regular,  with  many  good  houses,  and  presenting  a  general  air  of  neatness  and  comfort. 
It  ia  of  high  antiquity,  Uie  cathedral  Oi(g.  173.)  having  been  founded  in  the  7th  century, 

though  the  present  structure  was  almost  en- 
tirely erected  in  the  18th  and  14th  centuries. 
It  is  of  great  extent,  simple  and  august, 
without  the  rich  ornament  which  distin- 
guishes some  others.  It  contains  the  tomb 
of  King  John,  one  of  the  most  ancient  in 
England ;  also  that  of  Prince  Arthur.  Wor^ 
cester  is  chieflv  noted  in  history  for  the 
great  battle  in  wnich  Cromwell  totally  routed 
the  Scots  army,  and  compelled  Charles  II. 
to  quit  England  as  a  fugitive.  The  city  haa 
lost  its  woollen  manufacture;  but  has  still 
one  of  porcelain,  the  finest  in  the  king- 
dom. Fifteen  different  materials  are  usea, 
chiefly  white  granite,  and  steatite  from  Corn- 
wall ;  and  every  piece  passes  through  twenty-three  hands  berore  it  is  brought  to  perfection. 
Gloves  are  also  made ;  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  up  and  down  the  Severn. 

Kidderminster  is  large  and  flourishing,  in  consequence  of  a  very  extensive  manufactory 
of  carpets.  Droitwich  is  noted  for  its  salt  springs.  They  are  covered  with  a  deep  stratum 
of  gypsum :  and  for  a  long  time  the  salt  was  made  only  from  the  brine  which  penetrated  this 
bed;  but,  about  a  century  ago,  it  was  bored  through,  when  the  brine  rushed  up  in  vast  quan- 
tities, and  a  large  salt  river  was  found  to  flow  beneath.  Thus  the  salt  can  now  be  procured 
in  any  quantity,  and  supplies  a  great  part  of  England, 

Gloucester  is  also  an  ancient  and  fine  city,  though  not  quite  so  large  as  Worcester.  It 
bears,  in  the  arrangement  of  its  streets,  the  marks  of  having  been  a  ^man  station.  It  was 
formerly  also,  a  place  of  great  strength.  The  manner  in  which  it  fi-equently  baffled  the 
utmost  efforts  of  Charles  I,  was  one  of  the  circumstances  which  contributed  most  to  the 
downfall  of  the  royal  cause.  The  most  conspicuous  feature  at  present  is  the  cathedral, 
built  in  the  Saxon  and  Norman  styles,  between  the  11th  and  13th  centuries.  The  beautifiil 
lightness  of  its  tower ;  its  east  wmdow,  said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  kingdom ;  and  its  whis- 
pering^ gallery ;  attract  peculiar  notice.  The  gaol,  built  at  an  expense  of  40,0007.,  afforded 
one  of  me  first  applications  of  the  beneficent  principles  of  Howard.  Pins  are  the  chief 
manufiicture  of  Gloucester ;  and,  small  as  the  article  is,  the  sale  is  so  great  as  to  render  the 
amount  it  returns  considerable.  Its  trade  has  been  much  obstructed  by  the  bad  navigation 
of  the  Severn;  but  since  the  parallel  luie  of  the  Berkeley  Canal  has  just  been  completed,  by 
which  large  ships  can  come  up  fVom  the  Channel,  Gloucester  is  pkiced  almost  on  a  footing 
with  Bristol 

Cheltenham,  by  the  fame  of  its  waters,  and  its  attractions  as  a  place  of  fashionable  resorl; 
has  become  a  greater  and  more  crowded  place  than  Gloucester,  The  waters  are  at  once 
saline  and  chalybeate ;  and,  being  thus  both  tonic  and  aperient,  are  efficacious  in  indiges- 
tion, biliary  afifections,  and  similar  disorders,  Cheltenham  now  ranks  second  only  to  Bath, 
both  as  a  resort  for  invalids  and  a  gay  rendezvous  of  the  fiishionable  world. 

There  are  other  interesting  towns  in  Gloucestershire.  Tewkesbury  has  in  close  vicinity 
the  "  Bloody  Meadow,"  on  which  was  fought  the  great  battle  which  finally  crushed  the  for- 
tunes of  the  house  of  Lancaster.  Placed  at  the  junction  of  the  Severn  and  Avon,  it  is  a 
venerable  old  town,  containing  the  Abbey  church  a  remnant  of  that  grand  monastery,  of 
which  the  superior,  bemg  a  mitred  abbot,  sat  in  the  House  of  Peers,  Cu-encester,  a  town  of 
great  historical  name,  covers  only  part  of  its  ancient  site,  but  contains  one  of  the  finest  parochial 
churches  in  the  kingdom.  Stroud  is  the  centre  of  the  woollen  manufacture  carri^l  on,  not 
m  itself,  but  in  the  surroundmg  valleys,  and  raising  the  population  of  the  parish  to  42,000. 
Bristol  we  shall  consider  as  belonging  to  Somerset. 

Of  the  seats  the  most  mteresting  is  Hagley,  the  grounds  of  which  Lord  Ly  ttelton  adorned 
with  classic  taste.  Near  it  ia  the  interesting  spot  of  the  Lea«owes,  embellished  by  Shea-' 
stone  with  oil  the  taste  of  a  poet  Berkeley  Castle  is  a  grand  castellated  edifice,  almost  at 
old  as  the  Conquest,  and  the  scene  of  Edward  IL's  death ;  retaining  still  its  antique  cha> 
racter, 

Somerset  has  vales  almost  aa  extensive  oa  those  of  Gloucester,  yet  it  is  creased  by  long 
ranges  of  those  rugged  hills  which  pervade  all  the  extreme  west  of  England,    The  moat 
Vol,  L  2  Z 


w 


004 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PastIII 


easterly  arc  tho  Mendip  Hills,  rich  in  mineral  stores ;  ftrther  west  are  the  Quantock  Hills, 
while  on  tho  borders  of  Devon  lies  Exmoor  Forest,  the  most  elevated  of  all  these  tracts — its 
highest  point  Dunkerry  Beacon,  being  1668  feet  high.  The  prevailing  husbandry  is  pas- 
turage, chioflv  of  rich  natural  grass ;  and,  besides  a  number  of  cattle  sent  to  the  London 
markets,  the  dairy  is  a  great  branch  of  industry.  Chedder  cheese  is  considered  equal  to  any 
in  England ;  and  a  great  quantity  of  t.  hat  is  called  Gloucester  is  produced  in  Somerset 
The  orchards  are  extensive,  ana  cider  and  perry  nearly  as  abundant  as  in  the  counties  on 
the  Severn.  The  Mendip  Hills  yield  excellent  coal,  lead  of  fine  quality,  and  calamine.  The 
manufactures  are  considerable,  both  WMllon  and  linen ;  the  former  chiefly  of  the  finer  sorts ; 
the  latter,  mostly  dowlas,  tickens,  and  sail-cloth. 

Bristol,  since  we  have  attached  it  to  Somerset,  must  hold  the  first  place.  This  city 
ranked  long  as  second  to  the  metropolis  in  commercial  importance ;  but  in  the  course  of  the 
last  century,  it  has  remained  nearly  stationary  in  extent  and  population,  though  not  in  wealth. 
In  1736,  it  had  80,000  inhabitants;  in  1621,  87,771 ;  but  in  1831,  with  its  suburbs,  104,886. 
It  has  still  a  very  extcnHivo  trade,  chiefly  with  Wales,  Ireland,  and  the  West  Indies.  Nor 
does  its  spirit  seem  abated ;  since,  in  1800,  it  completed,  ot  an  expense  of  60,0001.,  a  series 
of  extensive  improvements,  by  wliich  tlie  rivers  Avon  and  Frome  were  spread  out  into  vast 
basins,  for  the  commodious  reception  of  vessels.  The  manufactures  of  Bristol  are  very  con- 
siderable ;  its  glass-works  are  twenty  in  number ;  its  brass  founderies  the  most  extensive 
in  the  kingdom ;  to  which  it  adds  shot,  pottery,  &c.  In  1832  there  belonged  to  it  206  ships, 
of  the  burthen  of  46,567  tons.  The  amount  of  customs,  in  1831,  was  1,168,0782.,  chiefly 
from  duties  on  West  India  produce ;  and  there  entered  its  port  2547  vessels,  of  the  bur- 
then of  625,000  tons.  It  has  still  the  remains  of  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and  the  beau- 
tiful church  of  St  Mary  Redcliflfc,  witli  many  interesting  monuments.  The  old  interior  of 
Bristol  is  ill-built  and  inconvenient ;  but  tiie  merchants  in  the  new  quarters  of  the  city  hare 
reared  some  handsome  streets  and  squares.  Bristol  has  wells,  considered  very  efiicacious, 
especially  in  consumptive  complaints.  Visiters  chiefly  resort  to  the  beautiful  village  of  Clif- 
ton, about  a  mile  distant,  amid  the  romantic  rocks  of  St.  Vincent  Bristol  stands  conspicu- 
ous for  its  beneficent  institutions,  in  which  those  for  education  stand  prominent.  Chat- 
terton,  Southey,  and  Coleridge  were  natives  of  Bristol. 

The  name  of  Bath  (^g.  174.)  implies  the  circumstance  to  which  from  the  earliest  ages  it 
has  owed  its  importance.    The  Romans  mode  it  one  of  their  principal  stations,  and  built 


BaUi. 


splendid  baths,  of  which  the  remains  have  been  discovered.  Near  the  middle  of  the  las; 
century,  it  became  very  distinguished  as  a  scene  of  fashionable  residence,  and  continued 
to  increase  till  recently,  when  its  attraction  was  shared  by  Cheltenham  and  some  newer 
places  of  resort  It  became  the  most  beautiful,  we  may  nearly  say  tiie  only  beautiiul,  city 
in  England.  The  houses,  built  of  a  fine  fi-eestone,  while  those  of  almost  all  the  othtr  great 
towns  are  of  brick,  have  a  decidedly  superior  aspect;  and  several  of  tiie  streets,  'a  Great 
Pulteney  Street  the  Crescent  the  Parades,  &c.,  being  not  only  composed  of  fine  houses,  but 
fcrmed  en  a  regular  plan,  may  vie  with  the  finest  in  Europe.  The  city,  moreover,  rising  by 
s  gentle  ascent  from  the  Avon,  large  portions  of  it  may  often  be  seen  at  once  in  the  most 
advantageous  points  of  view.  The  piimp-rocm,  the  sssembly-rooin,  and  every  structure 
raised  for  the  sick  or  the  gay,  are  unequalled  in  splendour.  Bath  has  a  Gothic  cathedral 
one  of  the  latest  built  and  on  a  small  scale,  but  the  most  highly  ornamented  in  the  king- 
dom ;  the  chief  beauty  is  in  the  west  firtmt 


PastIII 

the  Quuttock  Hills, 
fall  these  tracts — ita 
\g  husbandry  is  pas- 
)  sent  to  the  London 
isidered  equal  to  any 
)duced  in  Somerset 
as  in  the  counties  on 
,  and  calamine.  The 
ifly  of  the  finer  sorts ; 

8t  place.  This  city 
t  in  the  course  of  the 
though  not  in  wealth, 
ito  suburbs,  104,886. 
B  West  Indies.  Nor 
I  of  60,0001.,  a  series 
spread  out  into  vast 
Bristol  are  very  con- 
>  the  most  extensive 
Dnged  to  it  296  ships, 
I  1,168,978/.,  chiefly 
r  vessels,  of  the  bur- 
cdral,  and  the  beau- 
The  old  interior  of 
■ters  of  the  city  have 
ered  very  efficacious, 
utiful  village  of  Clif- 
istol  stands  conspicu* 
d  prominent.    Chat* 

m  the  earliest  ages  it 
il  stations,  and  built 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


SOS 


I  middle  of  the  las; 

nee,  and  continued 

and  some  newer 

lonly  beautiml,  city 

]all  the  othu:  great 

streets,  •«  Great 

1  of  fine  houi9es,but 

noreover,  rising  by 

once  in  the  most 

every  structure 

.  Gothic  cathedral 

lented  in  the  king- 


Other  venertble  and  interesting  cities  are  found  in  Somersetshire.    Wells  is  chiefly 
distinguished  by  a  oathednl  (Jg.  176.),  which  ranks  with  the  finest  in  England.    The 
175       y^  western  firont,  built  in  the  18th  century, 

is  one  of  the  most  splendid  specimens 
existing  of  the  light  and  highly  rmn,. 
mented  Gothic.  In  the  interior,  a  chapel 
dedicated  to  the  Virgin  is  much  admired; 
the  rest  is  Saxon,  aiul  heavy.  About  two 
miles  distant  is  Wookey  Hole,  a  natural 
cavern ;  the  aperture,  at  first,  merely  al- 
lows  one  man  to  pass ;  but  it  soon  opens 
into  a  succession  of  large  apartments, 
filled  with  spars,  concretions,  petrifkc- 
w«lb  Cathadnl.  tions  of  the  moat  fantastic  forms.    A  sub- 

terraneous river  prevents  fiirther  advance.  Glastonbury  contains  the  small  remains  of  the 
most  extensive  monastery  in  the  kingdom ;  which,  with  its  various  gardens  and  offices, 
covered  sixty  acres,  supported  600  monks,  and  enjoyed  a  revenue  of  25,000/.  Even  the 
church  attached  to  it  rivalled  the  greatest  of  tlie  English  cathedrals.  Bridgewatcr  and 
Taunton  are  towns  of  note  in  history,  which  carr^  on  some  trade  and  manufactures.  Wel- 
lington gives  a  title  to  the  greatest  commander  ot  the  age,  in  whose  honour  a  pillar  is  there 
erected.    Frome  is  a  large  and  flourishing  town,  employed  in  the  woollen  manufacture. 

Devonshire  is  traversM  by  ridges  of  hills,  low,  broad  and  flat,  which,  seen  from  a  height, 
appear  often  as  one  uninterrupted  plain ;  but  on  minuter  inspection  are  found  separated  by 
deep  valleys  called  coombs,  walled  in  by  the  steep  sides  of  the  hills.  This  structure  pro- 
duces many  sequestered  and  romantic  sites ;  it  renders,  however,  many  of  the  roads  steep  and 
circuitous,  and  in  some  places  scarcely  passable.  The  forest  of  Dartmoor,  an  extensive  dis* 
trict  on  the  west  of  the  county,  is  of  a  character  peculiarly  rugged,  broken  into  fantastic 
summits,  and  the  valleys  chiefly  under  wood  or  lying  waste.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Vale 
of  Exeter,  and  what  are  called  the  Hams,  in  the  southern  districts,  are  distinguished  for 
fertility,  which  is  rather  heightened  than  injured  by  the  moderate  inequalities  of  Uie  surface. 
Grain,  cattle,  sheep,  potatoes,  excellent  cider,  are  raised  according  to  the  situation,  and  are 
all  generally  good.  The  cattle  are  of  a  very  superior  breed,  both  for  feeding  and  draught 
Devonshire  does  not  rank  high  as  a  manufacturing  county ;  yet  woollens  are  made  to  some 
extent  in  Exeter  and  several  other  places.  Fishmg  is  carried  on  with  spirit  and  success, 
both  in  the  sea  and  in  the  rivers ;  of  which  last  the  Exe  and  the  Tamar  are  the  principal. 
The  Western  Canal,  joining  the  two  channels,  passes  chiefly  through  Devonshire. 

Exeter,  the  capital,  is  an  ancient  and  pleasantly  situated  town,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Exe.  In  consequence  of  its  advantages  for  education  and  society,  many  of  the  gentry  from 
different  parts  of  the  county  have  made  it  their  residence.  Its  manufacture  and  export  of 
serges  and  kerseys  have  declined,  but  are  still  considerable ;  the  East  India  Company  takin|; 
them  to  the  annual  value  of  400,000/.  The  cathedral  holds  a  high  rank  among  ecclesiasti- 
cal antiquities.  Some  part  of  it  is  traced  to  the  ninth  century ;  but  the  greater  proportion 
belongs  to  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth.  The  painted  east  window,  and  the  bell  of 
12,500  lbs.  weight  the  gift  of  Bishop  Courtenay,  are  particularly  noticed.  Some  modern 
embellishments  have  been  added. 

Plymouth  is  the  most  important  of  the  towns  of  Devonshire,  and  one  of  the  great  naval 
arsenals  of  Britain.  He  main  and  central  dep6ts  lie  at  Portsmouth  and  on  the  Thames ; 
but  it  is  important  that  the  fleets  should  have  this  exterior  station,  where  they  may  rendez- 
vous, and  receive  their  final  equipment  and  supplies  before  leaving  the  Channel ;  where 
also,  when  exhausted,  they  may  put  in  and  refit  The  Plym  and  the  Tamar,  at  their  junc- 
tion, form  an  estuarv  of  nearly  two  miles  hrooA,  composing  a  harbour,  or  rather  a  series  of 
harbours,  capable  of"^  containing  2000  vessels  in  a  state  of  perfect  security.  In  that  of  Ha- 
moaze,  on  the  Tamar,  100  sail  of  Uie  line  may  be  safely  moored.  Catwater,  the  port  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Plym;  and  Sutton  Pool,  immediately  adjoining  the  town;  are  both  excellent  and 
extensive.  Plymouth  Bay  forms  also  an  excellent  roadstead,  though  exposed  to  the  heavy 
■well  which  came  in  fhxn  the  Atlantic.    To  remedy  this,  government  undertook  that  stu- 

*'. '  t     • ' 

•■r.r(  I 


pcndouB  work  Uie  Breakwater,  a  mole  formed  by  immense  stones  heaped  npon  eaeli  o&e 
Ktetching  acrass  the  entrance,  and  at  a  certain  distance  fixm  either  shore  (jlg.  176.}.  Tbv 


sse 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


Mtimaled  expenie  wu  1,170,0001. ;  end  the  quantity  of  itone,  3,000,000  Urn*.  It  hu  com< 
pletely  aniwerad  expectation ;  and,  in  proportion  oa  it  hM  advanced,  haa  rendered  the 
roadstead  mora  aecure.  Aa  the  approach  waa  also  rendered  dangeroua  by  the  Eddystone 
rocka,  a  liffht-houae  haa,  after  much  difficulty  and  aevoral  UMucceaaful  trials,  been  erected 
there  by  Mr.  Bmeaton,  aitffluiently  firm  to  withstand  the  fiirioua  aaaaalts  of  the  Atlantic 
wavea  to  which  it  ia  expoaed.  Plymouth  is  now  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts- 
Plymouth  and  Plynwuth  dock,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tamar,  recently  called  Devonport,  and 
raued  *o  tlie  dignity  of  a  aeparate  borough.  The  dock-yard  ia  moat  wperb;  8000  yards  in 
length  vid  fVom  KXX)  to  1600  in  breadUi.  All  the  eatabliahmenta  connected  with  it,  the 
ropery  smithy,  aaw-pita,  mast-houses,  as  also  the  viotuallinff  departments,  aro  on  the  moat 
extensive  scoJe,  yet  conducted  in  the  most  regular  order.  Plymouth  ia  not,  on  the  whole, 
a  well-built  town :  but  it  containa  some  handsome  edifices ;  aa  the  govqmment-houso ;  the 
theatre,  chiefly  of  cast-iron ;  the  public  library,  &o.  The  charitable  institutions  are  nu- 
merous. 

Barnstaple  ia  a  sort  of  capital  of  North  Devon,  aituated  on  a  rich  plain,  and  retaining  a 
few  manufocturos.  Dartmouth  carries  on  some  foreign  trade ;  while  between  it  and  Teign- 
mouth  is  Torbay,  where,  sheltered  from  the  heavy  galea  that  blow  up  the  Chann?l,  the 
British  fleet  can  ride  safely  at  anchor. 

Cornwall  is  a  peninsula  of  a  triangrular  form,  bounded  by  Devon,  and  the  sea.  The  hills 
form  a  bleak  central  ridge,  terminating  in  the  rugged  and  obtuse  point  called  the  Land's 
End.  But  some  of  the  narrow  valleys  wear  the  aspect  of  smiling  fertility.  In  some  se- 
cluded spots  the  climate  is  so  (renial,  that  the  myrtle  and  other  shrubs  peculiar  to  the  south 
of  Europie  flourish  in  tlie  open  air.  Cornwall  has  from  the  earliest  ages  been  renowned  for  its 
mineral  products.  These  are  principally  tin  and  copper;  it  also  yields  some  lead.  These 
metals  occur  in  the  granite  chain,  extending  eastward  as  far  as  Dartmoor  in  Devon ;  but  at 
mesent  the  principtu  mining  district  is  that  between  the  Land's  End  and  St  Austel. 
The  most  celebrated  are  the  tin  mines  of  Palgooth,*  about  two  miles  west  of  that  town :  in 
these  there  are  no  fewer  than  fifty  shafts,  of  which  twenty  or  thirty  are  constantly  in  use. 
The  principal  vein  of  ore,  which  is  about  six  feet  thick,  runs  from  east  to  west,  and  dips  to 
the  north  with  an  inclination  of  about  six  feet  in  a  fathom.  The  ore  is  of  the  vitreous 
kind,  but  rarely  found  in  crystals;  the  colour  for  the  most  port  grayish-brown;  the  country 
of  tlie  ore  is  a  gray  killas.  The  water  is  carried  away.  Steam  power  has  been  substituted 
for  that  of  horses  in  moving  the  machinery  employed  for  raising,  washing,  and  stamping  the 
ore ;  after  which  last  operation  it  is  carried  to  tne  smelting-house.  Tin  cannot  be  sold  until 
it  is  assayed  and  stamped  witli  the  duchy  seal ;  for  which  purpose  meetings  are  usually  held 
four  times  a  year.  The  annual  produce  is  estimated  at  20,000  or  25,000  blocks,  each  block 
weighing  from  2|  to  3|  cwt,  and  valued  on  the  average  at  ten  guineas.  Orain  tin,  which 
is  obtained  ftom  stream  ore,  is  deemed  superior  in  value  to  the  common  metal,  and  has  been 
procured  to  the  amount  of  2000  or  2400  blocks  annually.  The  annual  produce  of  copper 
is  about  13,000  tons,  estimated  at  1,300,0002.  The  lead  mines  are  not  much  worked.  The 
tinners  are  in  many  respects  a  distinct  body  of  men ;  they  have  a  court  and  parliament  of 
their  own.  The  stannary  laws,  by  which  the  mines  and  the  operations  connected  with 
them  are  regulated,  do  not  appear  to  have  undergone  any  change  since  the  reign  of 
Charles  H.    The  mines  give  employment  to  about  16,000  men. 

The  pilchard  fishenr  affords  another  source  of  wealth  to  Cornwall.  The  pilchards  appear 
annually  in  vast  shoals  about  the  middle  of  July ;  and  are  taken  in  Urge  nets  of  a  peculiar 
form,  called  seatu,  each  sean  managed  by  three  boats,  containing  eighteen  men.  After  lying 
salted  in  store  for  six  weeks,  the  fish  are  packed  in  hogsheacu,  so  closely  that  the  whole 
contents,  when  turned  out,  appear  in  a  compact  state.  Tka,  oil  expressed  ftvm  them  is  so 
considerable  in  quantity  as  to  have  become  an  article  of  trade.  The  quantity  annually 
exported  ftom  the  Cornish  coast  may  be  worth  50,000/.  including  the  i?ceiptB  for  oil.  The 
number  of  perstna  employed  in  this  fishery  is  about  5000. 

The  towns  of  Cornwall  are  small.  Launceston,  situated  on  ti.e  Tomor,  extends  up  the 
side  of  a  hill,  on  t';e  summit  of  which  are  the  remains  of  a  small  fortress  called  Cattle  Ter- 
rible, where  a  vigorous  stand  was  made  to  sustain  the  sinking  fortunes  of  Charles  I.  Tmro 
is  a  neat  thriving  town,  the  trade  of  which  consists  in  a  considerable  export  of  tin.  Penzance, 
near  the  Land's  tSnd,  fiiom  the  mild  salubrity  of  its  air,  has  been  found  highly  beneficial  to 
persons  of  delicate  constitutions,  particularly  of  a  consumptive  tendency ;  and  those  who 
take  up  their  residence  at  Penzance,  are  agreeably  surprised  by  the  lovely  scenery  in  its 
neighbourhood.  Falmouth,  the  westernmost  of  the  fine  harbours  on  the  Channel,  is  the  prin- 
cipal packet  station  for  Lisbon,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  West  Indies. 

SmaKOT  6. — Waki. 

Wales  is  a  territory  which,  though  united  to  Enjglond  by  ^irly  conquest,  still  retains  the 
title  of  a  aeparate  principality,  and  possesses  a  natronal  aspect    The  verdant  and  extensive 


*  Or.  Maton'i  Obtenrationi  oa  Uw  Wettern  Countlef. 


Part  If! 

W  tunt.  It  hu  com* 
kI,  hu  rendered  the 
Dus  by  the  Eddyatone 
il  triali,  been  erected 
iiultB  of  the  Atlantic 
nearly  equal  part»— 
ailed  Devonport,  and 
iperb;  8000  yarda  in 
onnected  with  it,  the 
enta,  are  on  the  most 
ia  not,  on  the  whole, 
tvQrnment-houae ;  the 
)  inatitutiona  are  nu- 

(lain,  and  retaining  a 
etween  it  and  Teign* 
up  the  Chann?l,  the 

d  the  tea.  The  hills 
>int  called  the  Land's 
srtility.  In  wme  se- 
I  peculiar  to  the  south 
been  renowned  for  its 
ia  aome  lead.  These 
floor  in  Devon ;  but  at 
End  and  St  Austel. 
west  of  that  town :  in 
are  conatantlv  in  use. 
it  to  west,  and  dips  to 
ore  is  of  the  vitreous 
h-brown ;  the  countrv 
r  haa  been  aubatituted 
ling,  and  stamping  the 
in  cannot  be  sold  until 
tinffs  are  usually  held 
00  Dlocks,  each  block 
Orain  Hn,  which 
metal,  and  has  been 
lal  produce  of  copper 
much  worked.  The 
irt  and  parliament  of 
uons  connected  with 
since  the  reign  of 

The  pilchards  appear 
ge  nets  of  a  peculiar 
een  men.  After  lying 
oeely  that  the  whole 
Bed  from  them  is  so 
quantity  annually 
9ceipt8  for  oil.    The 

nar,  extends  up  the 
called  Castle  Ter- 
of  Charles  I.  Tmio 
irtoftin.  Penzance, 
highly  beneficial  to 
>cy;  and  those  who 
ovely  scenerv  in  its 
Channel,  ia  the  prin- 


t,  still  retauistlia 
idant  and  extensive 


Boca  L 


ENGLAND. 


307 


plaint)  of  western  England  here  give  place  to  the  lofty  mountain,  the  deep  valley,  the  mat* 
ing  torrent,  and  the  frightflil  precipice.  Walea  haa  rivers  and  torrents  without  numbe* 
which  roll  through  ita  mountain  valleys,  and  whose  banks,  adorned  with  verdure  and  culti- 
vation, corobino  in  tlie  most  striking  manner  with  the  lofty  and  varied  lummita  which  tower 
above  them.  The  loftiest  mountains  are  in  North  Wales;  its  valleys  are  deeper  and 
narrower ;  and  it  presents  more  strikingly  all  the  characteristic  featuroR  of  Welsh  scenery. 
In  South  Wales,  on  the  contrary,  the  valleys  are  broader,  more  fertile,  and  fliUor  of  towna 
and  villagea ;  they  often  even  expand  into  wide  plains,  still  encircled  by  a  mountain  bound- 
ory.  Agriculture,  in  such  a  country,  laboura  under  many  disadvantages,  and  is  carried  on 
too  oilon  upon  the  old  svstom  of  iniiold  and  outfield.  Manufkotures  arc  nearly  confined  to 
the  article  of  flannel,  which  haa  always  been  a  fiibric  of  the  Welah,  in  which  they  still  excel 
their  Yorkshire  rivals.  It  is  to  mining,  however,  that  the  industry  of  Wales  has  been  chiefly 
attracted,  by  the  proAision  of  mineral  wealth  which  nature  haa  lodged  in  the  bowels  of  ita 
mountains.  The  lead  of  Flint,  Caernarvon,  and  other  counties  of  North  Wales,  the  copper 
of  Anglesey,  and  above  all,  the  iron  of  Glamorgan  and  other  counties  in  the  British  Channel, 
are  objects  of  extensive  importance.  Coal  ia  found  almost  eierywhere,  and  ia  employed 
either  for  domestic  purposes,  or  in  ftising  and  refining  the  metallic  ores. 

The  Welsh  are  a  Celtic  race,  the  deauciidonts  of  the  ancient  Britons,  who,  in  these  moun- 
tain recesses,  sought  refuge  IVom  the  dcHtroying  sword  of  the  Saxons,  which  so  completely 
digpoHsossed  tlicm  of  the  low  country  of  England.  They  could  not  resist  tiio  overwhelming 
power  of  Edward  I.,  who  annexed  Wales  to  the  EngliHh  crown.  In  order  to  hold  it  in  kuI^ 
joction,  however,  he  was  obliged  to  construct,  not  only  on  its  frontier,  but  in  its  interior, 
castles  of  immense  extent  and  strength.  Yet  they  did  not  prevent  formidable  insurrections, 
in  one  of  which  Owen  Glendower  maintained  himself  for  years  aa  an  independent  prince. 
Witliin  the  last  300  years,  tlie  Welsh  have  been  as  peaceable  aa  any  other  subjects  of  the 
empire.  They  have  retained,  of  their  feudal  habits,  onlv  venial  fliilings.  Among  these  is 
national  pride,  through  which  the  genuine  Cambrian  holds  his  country  and  his  nation  supe- 
rior to  all  others ;  and  regards  the  Sa»na  or  Saxon  aa  a  lower  race  of  vesterday.  With  this 
ia  connected,  in  a  high  degree,  the  pride  of  pedigree ;  even  the  humblest  Welshman  tracing 
bis  origin  fiir  above  any  lowland  genealogy.  Strong  ties  of  firiendship  subsist  between  the 
landowners  and  their  totianta :  manifested,  on  one  side,  by  indulgence  and  protecting  kind- 
ness ;  on  the  other,  by  a  profound  veneration  for  the  representatives  of  the  ancient  chiefs  of 
their  race.  The  Welsh  have  many  superstitions,  mixed  with  much  genuine  religious  feeling. 
They  are  hardy,  active,  lively,  hospitable,  kind-hearted ;  only  a  little  hot  and  quarrelsome. 
Their  English  neighbours  complain  that  they  have  not  yet  attained  that  pitch  of  industry 
and  cleanliness  in  which  the  former  place  their  pride. 

North  Wales  compriaes  the  counties  of  Caernarvon,  Merioneth,  Montgomery,  Denbigh, 
and  Flint,  with  the  island  of  Anglesey.  The  characteristic  feature  of  this  division  consista 
in  the  very  elevated  chains  of  mountains  which  cross  it  from  north  to  south,  facing  the  Irish 
.  Channel.      The  chief  is  Snowdon  (Jiff. 

'■''  177,)  which  raises  ita  head  to  the  height 

of  3700  feet;  yet  it  is  only  the  most  ele- 
vated of  a  crowd  of  summits,  many  of 
which  rear  their  peaks  almost  as  high. 
They  cover  a  great  part  of  the  county  of 
Caernarvon,  at  the  northern  part  of  which 
they  present  to  the  Bay  of  Beaumaris  the 
lofty  steepofPenmonmawr,  whose  broken 
fragments  threaten  to  bury  him  who 
travels  the  difiicult  path  which  has  been 
formed  along  ita  almost  perpendicular 
aides.  Merioneth  is  chiefly  covered  with 
inferior,  but  lofty  and  rugged  mountains, 
till  towards  the  southern  extremity,  they  tower  into  Coder  Idris,  the  second  summit  of 
Wales.  It  is  everywhere  steep,  craggy,  and  precipitous.  Lastly,  in  the  heart  of  Montgomery, 
towers  the  huge  mass  of  Plinlimmon,  with  a  crowd  of  attendant  mountains. 

The  vales  which  intervene  between  these  heights  diversiiy  bleak  and  barren  regions, 
otherwise  calculated  to  inspire  only  impressions  of  dreary  sublimity.  The  most  extensive 
is  that  of  Clwyd,  in  the  county  of  Denbigh,  where  the  mountain  chains  g^ually  sink.  It 
is  about  twenty  miles  in  length,  and  four  or  five  in  average  breadth ;  and  presents  a  more 
brilliant  picture  of  fertility,  Heightened,  doubtless,  by  contrast,  than  almost  any  other  spot 
in  the  island.  The  narrower  vales,  however,  present  more  of  picturesque  beauty,  particu- 
larly that  of  Llangolen,  where  the  Doe,  winding  through  cultivated  and  paaioral  scenes, 
overhung  by  high  rocks  and  cliffi,  {nresents  at  every  step  a  varying  landscape.  The  island 
of  Anglesey  is  generally  level,  and  its  scenery  presents  few  striking  features,  except  the 
rocks  of  its  western  shore.  It  has  happened,  fortunately  for  the  unprovement  of  this  formi- 
dable range  of  territory,  that  it  lies  on  the  highway  firom  London  towards  Dublin ;  and  witii 
Vou  I.  34 


Boowdoa. 


80f 


DE8CK<PTIVR  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pant  in. 


tha  view   ''  fkcUiUtin;     v 
178 


■irae  betwwi   the  l<Jii|dafiM,  govvrniiMnt,  at  the  national 
nt  roads  in  tii''         ^  " 


*   ?»^^S^^"^^ 


'/•iM :  among  the  principal  ftatiirei  ol 
wtiirh  11^  th«  iron   iuapeuion-bridm, 


OMiMrvoa  Ctitk. 


formed  «croa«  the  arm  or  the  aea,  called 
the  Menni  CI  nel.  The  chief  contm 
of  the  flannel  man  itkoture  ia  in  Mont- 
gomery and  Merioneth.  The  lead  minoa 
of  Holywell  and  the  copper  mines  of 
Aogleanjr  poeaeaa  an  importance  acarce- 
\j  mfeiu     to  thoao  of  Bouth  Wales. 

Caernarvon  ia  a  handsome,  well-built 
town.  Ita  chief  ornament  ia  the  castle, 
a  Btately  edifice  (Jg.  178.),  built  by  Ed- 
ward  I.  to  curb  tlie  spirit  of  the  newly 
subdued  Welsh.  It  enclosne  an  area  of 
two  aorea  and  a  half;  the  towers  are  of  stupendous  magnitude,  and  crowned  by  light  and 
beautiAil  turrets.  To  (he  south  of  Caernarvon  is  the  steep  ascent  of  Snowdon,  whence  a 
view  of  aatonishing  extent  ia  commanded ;  though  only  to  be  seen  in  those  fortnnato  days 

when  the  veil  of  mist,  which  usually 
wraps  it,  has  been  dissipated.  On 
its  declivity  ia  the  wild  and  rocky 
lake  of  Llanbioris,  with  the  ruined 
castle  of  Dolbodem  overhanging  its 
banka.  Nearly  at  the  opposite  ex- 
tremity of  the  county  ia  Conway; 
a  poor  town,  but  contaming  the  walls 
of^  a  still  more  mafrnificcnt  castle 
C%.  170).  nlso  erected  by  Edward 
1  The  interior  is  in  a  state  of  total 
ruin ;  but  the  view,  fVom  a  little  dis- 
tance, of  itJ  eight  mighty  towers, 
ranging  along  the  summit  of  a  lofty 
rocK,  which  overlooks  the  Bay  of 
Beaumi'iv  presents  an  image  of 
CoBwv  Cmii»  grandrir  which  scarcely  any  other 

CBAtellated  structure  in  the  kingdom  can  rival.    About  midway  between  those  two  castled 
Bites  ia  Bangor,  a  pleasant  little  town,  on  the  hij^  road  to  Holyhead  and  Dublin.   Here,  and 

at  Penryn,  is  a  great  shipment  of  slates,  brought 
flrom  the  steep  sides  of  the  neighbouring  mountains. 
Merioneth  nas  a  few  large  villages,  each  enclosed 
by  a  circuit  of  lofty  and  almost  inaccessible  mountains. 
dala  ia  supported  by  a  small  manufiicture  of  knit 
gloves  and  stockings,  and  by  the  vicinity  of  the  largest 
of  the  little  lakes  of  Wales,  which  haa  clear  water 
and  abounds  in  fish.  DolgcUy,  about  midway  between 
Snowdon  and  Cader  Idris  (Jig.  180.),  is  seated  in  the 
very  heart  of  all  the  grandest  scenery  of  Wales.  On 
the  coast,  the  castle  of  Harlech,  built  also  by  Edwa' 
bears  marks  of  great  streni'th. 
Montgomery,  though  its  centre  is  occupied  by  the  "hu^  P1L>1  inmon,"  whence  bninc'  " 
ahoot  out  in  every  direction,  is  yet,  on  the  whole,  of  a  milder  aspect  The  town  of  K 
gomery  is  smaii,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  crowned  with  the  ruins  ot  a 
once  ncble  castle.  Welshpool  is  an  ill-built stragglingtown,  but  has  a  great  market  for  flan- 
nels ;  and  communicates  by  a  canal  with  Chester  and  flllesmere.  Near  Montgomery  is  Powis 
Castle,  which  dates  firom  the  twelfth  century,  and  was  long  one  of  the  proudest  fortresses  in 
Wales:  it  is  still  a  supek'o  r   ;^.em  seat 

In  proceeding  to  Denbigh  -j.  '  F!int  we  come  to  broader  valleys,  and  hills  gradually  dimin* 
ishing  down  to  the  level  plki:.  '  ^'  stem  Tlngland.  Denbigh,  a  pleasant,  ancient  little 
town,  is  crowned  by  a  castn ,  «^>!i  ^  oa  a  h' ,;.>  rock,  locking  down  to  the  vale  of  Clwyd,  pro- 
verbial for  its  smiling  fertilit; ,  i>  *ie  '  Muoy  of  the  Dee,  is  Wrexham,  noted  for  its  fairs,  in 
which  Welsh  flannel  is  the  tupi'^  i  ;im«)dity.  But  |.^;■  ?hjef  ornament  of  Denbigh  is  Llan- 
gollen Vale,  on  the  upper  Dcy,  v/heii  th  i  mixture  of  : ulture  and  wildness  produc**  'he  most 
striking  variety  of  scenery.  Among  its  leadinj^  features  are  the  ruined  castle  of  Dinas  Bian, 
lit  of  one  of  the  principal  hills :  and  the  remains  of  the  Abbey  d 


Ctder  Idrii. 


crowning  the  steep  summit 

Valle  Cfucis.  This  lost  is  situated  in  a  valley  connected  with  that  of  Llangollen,  enclosed 
by  lofty  mountains  verdant  to  the  summit,  and  sprinkled  with  trees.  The  edifice  has  been 
in  the  simplest  style  of  Saxon  architecture ;  but  the  situation  renders  it  one  of  the  moft 


P 


Pa»t  in. 

nt,  at  tha  natiomi 

Hrinoipal  ftatiirai  ol 

■tupenaion-bridffe, 

m  orlhe  sea,  called 

The  ohiof  contra 

ilkcture  i«  in  Mont- 

!th.  The  load  minei 

10  copper  minoa  of 

tmpcNrtance  scarce- 

.f  South  Wales. 

andaome,  well-built 

ament  is  the  castle, 

.  178.),  built  by  Ed- 

spirit  of  the  newly 

encloses  an  area  of 

owncil  by  liofht  and 

Snowdon,  whence  a 

those  fortunate  days 

mist,  which  usually 

len  dissipated.    On 

iie  wild  and  rocky 

ia,  with  the  ruined 

em  overhongfing  its 

at  the  oppoeite  ex< 

sount^  ia  Conway; 

containing  the  walls 

magnificent  castle 

erected  by  Edward 

ia  in  a  stato  of  total 

iw,  fh>in  a  little  dis- 

;ht  mighty  towers, 

le  summit  of  a  lofty 

Tlooks  the  Bay  of 

lents  an  image  of 

scarcely  any  other 

in  those  two  castled 

Dublin.    Here,  and 

of  slates,  brought 

muring  mountains. 

tges,  each  enclosed 

cessibltt  mountains. 

anufiicture  of  knit 

cinity  of  the  largest 

ch  has  clear  water 

lit  midway  between 

9.),  is  seated  in  the 

lery  of  Wales.   On 

lilt  also  by  Edwa* 

"  whence  branc'  ■' 
'he  town  of  A' 
vith  the  ruins  ot  a 
at  market  for  flan- 
ntcomery  is  Powis 
mdest  fortresses  in 

s  gradually  dimin- 
ant,  ancient  little 
'aleofClwyd,  pro- 
ted  for  its  fairs,  in 
Denbigh  is  Llon- 
produc*"  'he  most 
leof  Dinas  Bian, 
!  of  the  Abbey  of 
ngollen,  enclosed 
e  edifice  has  been 
t  one  of  the  mort 


Poor  L 


.,111,       WALEa 


906 


> 


Uo\ftmA. 


pictureaquo  spota  in  England.  Chirk  haa  near  it  a  caatle,  one  v>r  the  moat  perfect  of  tb« 
many  with  which  Waloa  ia  oilomed.  Near  it  alau  is  the  fine  aiiucduct  of  1  nt-v-('yailte,  1^ 
which  Mr.  Telford  haa  conducted  the  Elleamere  Canal  over  ttu  <  f^.  resting  un  1^  piera, 
lUOT  fbet  in  length,  and  ISM  foot  above  tho  level  of  ttw  river. 

Flint  ia  rich  in  lead  and  other  mineral  stores.  The  county  tnw  n  of  Flint,  and  ita  castle, 
hwo  entire!)  loat  the  importance  they  poaaesaed  when  they  wnr<  *he  priaun  of  iMchard  II.; 
aiL'l  Uia  glory  of  Caerwya,  tlie  ancient  aoone  of  muaical  and  puctical  cunteat,  haa  entirely 
paaa«)d  awav.  Holywell,  beaiiloa  ita  extensive  lead  mine,  carries  on  works  in  brass  ana 
copDor,  and  even  aome  cotton  fkbrics.  Here  the  sacred  well  of  tit.  Wintri  t;,  from  which 
it  derivea  ita  name,  ia  beneficially  applied  to  tho  purpoaea  of  induatry.  Tin;  lead  mine  of 
Llan-y«Pander  ia  the  moat  extensive  in  the  kingdom,  a!nd  employs  four  vast  stoam-enginus  in 
clearing  oflT  the  water.  Mold  ia  a  pretty  large  town,  in  the  centre  of  a  rich  plain  of  tlie 
nroe  name.,    Bt.  Asaph  attractii  no'  xe  liy  ita  neat  cathedral. 

The  Island  of  Anglesey  is  ,     or.>  Iv  a  naked  and  gloomy  flat    It  was  anciently  the  cen- 
tral seat  of  druidical  aup'     *.  i. .    a'Vl  attested  by  the  cronUechi,  or  larffo,  fiat,  stone  tablea 
supported  by  rude  p<ll"-i,  '.hi<ju  uro  i  lure  numerous  here  tlian  in  anv  oUior  part  of  Britain. 
Its  importance  haa  re 'icl  alim'M  entuely  upon  its  copper  mines,  but  of  late  thoy  have  become 
\f{l  unproductive,  and  tho  annual  amount  is  onlv 

fh>m  750  to  950  tons.  Beaumaris,  the  capital, 
ia  a  neat  little  town.  Much  more  importance 
attaches  to  Holvhead,  now  the  main  point  of 
communication  between  England  and  Ireland. 
To  render  it  such,  government  has  constructed 
a  noble  road  from  London  across  tlic  most  rugged 

Eart  of  North  Wales,  and  also  made  an  admira- 
le  harbour,  Tho  neighbouring  coast  ia  very 
bold,  and  the  promontory,  called  the  Head  (Jig. 
181.),  consists  of  immense  maaaea  of  precipitous 
rocks,  hollowed  into  deep  caverns.  The  town  itaf  If  has  been  rapidly  extended  and  improved. 
South  Wales  comprises  the  counties  of  Radnor,  Cardigan,  Brecluiock,  Caermarthcn,  Pem- 
broke, and  Glamorgan.  It  presents  scenery  equally  romantic  with  that  of  North  Wales, 
mingled  with  a  greater  degree  of  softness  and  cultivation ;  and  ita  agricultural  and  mining 
pro^ctB  are  of  considerablv  gi  eater  value. 
Radnor  ia  composed  of  bleak  rangea  of  mountains,  in  some  parta  almost  impassable;  the 

Sealer  part  is  only  fitted  to  afibrd  pasture  ftr  sheep,  tho  wool  of  which  ia  valuable.  New 
bdnor,  once  a  fortified  city,  is  dwindled  into  a  village. 

Cardigan  includes  some  of  the  boldest  features  of  Welsh  scenery.  The  domain  of  Hafod, 
in  particular,  haa  been  covered  with  extensive  plantations,  so  happily  dispoaed  aa  to  render 
it  almost  a  scene  of  enchantment  At  a  few  miles'  distance  ia  "the  Devil's  Bridge;"  an 
arch  thrown  over  a  deep  and  narrow  rocky  chasm,  overgrown  with  wood,  at  tlie  bottom  of 
which  rolls  the  Myna'ch,  after  rushing  down  three  lofty  cascades ;  forming  altogether  the 
(Himdest  scene  of  the  kind  in  the  kingdom.  The  lead  mines  of  Cardiganahire  are  extensive, 
though  the  want  of  fuel  has  caused  the  working  of  many  of  them  to  tie  discontinued.  Car- 
digan ia  a  small  old  town,  which  carries  on  a  considerable  coasting  trade,  having  nearly  300 
Bimdl  vessels  belonging  to  it  There  ia  great  resort  to  Aberystwith,  an  agreeable  bathing 
place ;  ita  trade  also  is  considerable. 

Brecon,  or  Brecknock,  is  mountainoua  and  rugged,  but  has  some  fertile  lands  in  the  vallcya 
of  the  Uske  and  the  Wye.  Brecon,  an  ancient  town  on  the  Uske,  amid  lofty  mountains,  has 
t!  .  remains  of  a  co&tle,  wh:.  '\  was  once  strong,  and  held  by  Buckingham,  the  favourite  and 
.    "warda  thr  a  of  Richard  HI. 

^uennartheii  mcludea  an  ample  proportion  of  bleak  and  barren  hills,  intermixed  with 
large  fertile  valleys.  There  are  abundance  of  coal,  and  some  iron  works  on  the  Glamorgan 
border.  "The  capitid,  situated  on  the  Towoy,  which  admita  to  it  vessels  of  300  tons,  is  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  and  best  built  towns  m  Wales. 

Pembroke  consists  of  a  peninsula  branching  out  between  the  Irish  and  British  channels , 
it  presents  merely  an  undulating  surface,  rising  at  most  to  elevations  of  200  or  300  feet. 
Its  breed  of  cattle  is  in  high  repute,  and  its  indented  coasts  contain  some  of  the  finest  har- 
bours in  Britain.  Two  Roman  roads  cross  this  ''ounty,  which  is  also  rich  in  druidical  and 
feudal  monuments.  The  ancient  ci^  of  Pemktjke  ih  strikingly  situated  on  an  almost  in- 
sulated neck  of  land  on  the  bay  of  Milfoil  Haven,  the  highest  part  of  which  presents  the 
nst  remains  of  ita  castle,  one  of  the  moat  ma^ificent  structures  of  Wales  or  England. 
The  town  containa  some  ancient  churches.  The  large  bay  composing  Milford  Haven 
forms  the  most  capacious  and  secure  harbour  in  Britain.  Hence  government  have  oeen 
induedd,  at  the  new  towns  of  Milfbrd  and  Habefitone,  at  iia  northern  shore,  to  form  dock- 
yards aiid  establish  packets  for  tibe  south  of  Ireland.  St  David's,  the  ecclesiastical  capital 
of  South  Wde%  ia  now  only  a  large  dirty  vUlage,  adorned,  however  with  venerable  ancient 
Wucturea. -"  ■■  ^:>.  ■■■'     .••■>•«■•'<       ■     ^>  :,,:.....    :;.'■.<  v.    ,.■.■:  ■     u  i-\f^-.j 


400 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Glamorgan  is  tlie  flnoit  county  in  Soutli  Wales,  and,  as  to  wealth,  Buoerior  to  any  oilier 
in  Die  principality.  Ita  coast,  along  the  Uristol  Channel,  and  for  some  miles  inland,  is  level, 
and  fertile  in  the  extreme.  Thence  the  ground  rises  into  hills  of  continually  increasing 
elevation,  till,  on  tlie  frontier,  thev  rise  to  the  height  of  upwards  of  2000  feet,  and  unite 
with  tho  Brecon  chains.  From  those  heights  descend  numerous  streams,  which,  in  their 
progress  to  tlie  sea,  produce  all  tlie  varieties  of  ravines,  wooded  vales,  falls,  and  cataracts ; 
which,  with  tho  beauty  of  the  plains  below,  and  the  fine  views  over  the  Bristol  Channel, 
render  Glamorgan  equal  in  picturesque  beauty  to  any  other  county  in  Wales.  The  crops 
of  every  description  of  grain  are  ample;  and  tliere  are  good  breeds  both  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
But  these  objects  are  trifling,  when  compared  with  the  mineral  treasures  of  Glamorgan. 
It  forms  tho  centre  of  a  vast  neld  of  coal  and  iron,  fVom  which  branches  extend  into  the 
neighbouring  countiea  Since  it  was  found  that  iron  could  be  smelted  with  coke,  the  work 
in^  of  this  metal  iias  prodigiously  increased,  and  the  town  of  Merthyr  Tydvil,  near  which 
it  is  most  abundant,  has  grown  from  a  mere  village  to  be  the  most  populous  place  in  Wales. 
In  consequence  also  of  tlio  abundance  of  fuel,  the  copper  ore  dug  out  in  Anglesey,  Cornwall, 
and  Ireland,  is  brought  hither  to  bo  smelted  and  refined.  The  plating  of  iron  with  tin  is 
also  an  extensive  occupation.  The  iron  is  reduced  by  rollers  to  tho  requisite  thinness,  and 
is  then  cut  by  scissors  into  plates,  which  aflerwards  require  little  more  than  simple  immer- 
sion into  the  smelted  tin.  The  coni,  besides  its  essential  use  in  these  various  works,  is  in 
itself  a  most  extensive  object  of  exjiortation,  amounting  in  some  years  to  300,(K)0  tons.  The 
rivers  of  Glamorgan  are  very  imperfectly  navigable;  but  this  defect  has  been  supplied  by 
industry.  From  Neath,  Cardif}^  and  Swansea,  canals  reach  far  into  tlio  interior ;  and  their 
benefits  being  extended  by  railways,  a  channel  has  been  opened  for  conveying  to  the  sea  the 
produce  even  of  tho  most  interior  mines.  Cardiff  ranks  as  the  county  town,  but  is  now  much 
Burpasscd  by  others.  Yet  it  carries  on  a  considerable  trade ;  liaving  a  commodious  harbour, 
and  being  connectec?  by  a  canal  with  the  interior  works  at  Merthyr  Tydvil.  It  is  now  much 
surpassed  by  Swansea,  which  has  risen  to  its  present  importance  by  immense  works  in  iron 
ana  copper,  and  by  the  exportation  of  c(a1  ;  which  is  furnished  in  such  abundance,  that  a 
large  vessel  may  enter  at  one  tide  and  go  out  loaded  at  the  next    Its  pleasant  situation  on 

a  fine  bay  has  also  made  it  an  extensive  re- 
sort for  sea-bathing,  and  led  to  tlic  erection 
of  many  elegant  buildings.  Swansea  lias 
thus  risen  into  a  sort  of  capital  of  South 
Wales ;  yet  it  is  not  so  large  as  Merthyr 
Tydvil  has  been  rendered  by  the  extensive 
iron  works  in  and  round  it  There  are  near 
it  seventeen  furnaces,  in  one  of  which  11,000 
t  "^^B  of  pig  iron  and  12,0(X)  tons  of  bar  iron 
are  produced  annually.  Caerphilly,  a  thriv- 
ing little  town,  with  some  manufactures, 
deserves  notice  chiefly  from  the  remains  of 
J  its  immense  castle  (fig'  182.),  which  pre- 
sent a  most  stupendous  scene  of  ruins.  It 
is  stated  to  have  been  a  mile  and  a  quarter 
in  circumference,  and  capable  of  contain- 
ing a  garrison  of  20,000  men.  Llandaff,  the  only  nominal  city  in  the  county,  is  only  a  vil- 
lage, the  seat  of  the  least  richly  endowed  bishopric  in  Wales.  The  cathedral,  however,  ia 
a  fine  ruin. 

The  small  islands  attached  to  England  are  unimportant  Man,  thirty  miles  in  length  by 
twelve  in  breadth,  is  nearly  equidistant  from  each  of  tlie  three  kingdoms.  It  comprises  a 
coiwiderable  extent  of  level  territory ;  but  rises  in  the  interior  into  high  mountains,  among 
which  Snowfell,  nearly  2000  feet  high,  stands  conspicuous.  Mon  ranked  long  as  an  inde- 
pendent sovereignty,  held  by  the  Earls  of  Derby,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  gollant  (lefence 
made  by  the  countess  of  that  name  for  Charles  I.  It  descended  aflerwards  to  tiie  Duke  of 
Athol,  from  whom  the  sovereignty  was  purchased,  in  1765,  by  the  British  government  with 
a  view  to  the  prevention  of  smuggling,  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  fi-ee  trade.  The  natives 
are  a  Celtic  race.  Castletown,  the  capital,  is  the  neatest  town  in  the  island ;  and  in  its 
centre.  Castle  Rushen,  the  ancieut  palace  of  the  kings  of  Man,  rears  its  gloomy  and  majestic 
brow.  Douglas,  however,  as  being  the  spot  in  which  the  whole  trade  circulates,  is  now  tS 
superior  importance,  and  has  attracted  a  great  number  of  English  settlers. 

The  Scilly  isles,  situated  at  some  distance  from  the  western  extremity  of  Cornwall,  are 
tenanted  by  2000  poor  inhabitants,  who  raise  a  little  grain,  but  depend  chiefly  upon  fishing, 

nilotncrp.  ttnA  thn  rnnlriniT  of  \ro\n 

icTsey,  Guernsey,  and  Alderney,  with  Sark,  form  a  group  naturally  French,  and  originally 
part  of  the  patrimony  of  the  Norman  kings,  which  the  naval  superiority  of  England  has 
enabled  her  to  retain.  They  enjoy  certain  privileges  and  immunities,  founded  on  this  dis- 
tuiction.  as  laid  down  by  Coke,  that,  "  though  parcel  of  tlie  dominion  of  Uie  crovm  of  £ng< 


CuiphiUr  CmiIs. 


Part  III. 

niperior  to  any  other 
[nilos  inland,  is  level, 
)ntinually  incroiuing 
iOUO  feet,  and  unite 
ams,  which,  in  their 

falls,  and  cataracts; 
the  Bristol  Channel, 
{  Wales.  Tlie  crops 
I  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
iBuroB  of  Glamorgan, 
lies  extend  into  the 
with  coke,  the  work 
•  Tydvil,  near  which 
ilous  place  in  Wales. 
Anglesey,  Cornwall, 

of  iron  with  tin  is 
tquiflito  thinness,  and 

tlian  simple  immer- 
5  various  works,  is  in 
»  300,000  tons.  The 
108  been  supplied  by 
10  interior ;  and  their 
iveying  to  the  sea  the 
)wn,  but  is  now  much 
commodious  harbour, 
'dvil.  It  is  now  much 
imense  works  in  iron 
ich  abundance,  that  a 

Jdeusant  situation  on 
e  it  an  extensive  re- 
nd led  to  tlio  erection 
Idings.     Swansea  lias 
•t  or  capital  of  South 
so  large  as  Merthyr 
[ered  by  tlie  extensive 
nd  it.   There  are  near 
in  one  of  which  11,000 
1,000  tons  of  bar  iron 
Caerphilly,  a  thriv- 
some  manufactures, 
from  the  remains  of 
fig.  182.),  which  pre- 
18  scene  of  ruins.    It 
a  mile  and  a  quarter 
.  capable  of  contain- 
county,  is  only  a  vil- 
lathedrol,  however,  is 

ty  miles  in  length  by 
ifoms.  It  comprises  a 
i;h  mountains,  among 
Iced  long  as  an  inde- 
Ihe  gallant  defence 
wards  to  the  Duke  of 
ish  government,  with 
le  trade.  The  natives 
16  island ;  and  in  its 
gloomy  and  majestic 
circulates,  is  now  of 
Brs. 

nity  of  Cornwall,  ore 
chiefly  upon  fishingi 

•rench,  and  originally 
ority  of  England  hu 
founded  on  this  dis- 
if  the  crotrn  of  Eng- 


RookI. 


SCOTLAND 


401 


land,  they  are  not,  nor  ever  were,  parcel  of  the  realm  of  England."  The  climate  u  mild 
and  agreeable,  and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  Jersey,  the  finest  of  the  group,  is  so  abundant 
in  orchards,  that  cider  forms  the  chief  object  of  exportation.  St.  Holier,  the  capital  of  Jeney, 
is  a  handsome  town.  1 


I 


CHAPTER  in. 

KOTLAND 


ftlull  of  Galloway. 


■::■  1 

The  place  which  Scotland  holds  as  part  of  Oroat  Britain,  has  already  been  exhibited  in 
the  introduction  to  the  chapter  on  England.  We  shall  now  describe  in  detail  this  import- 
ant, though  secondary,  member  of  the  empire. 

Sect.  I. — Geographical  Outline, 
Scotland  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  England,  firom  tvhich  it  is  separated  by  a  line  drawn 
along  the  Tweed,  the  Cheviot  Hills,  and  thence  to  the  Solway  Frith.    On  every  other  side 

it  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic,  the  Northern 
and  the  German  oceans.  The  'cngUi  of 
Scotland,  from  the  Mull  of  Galloway 
(Jig.  183.),  in  about  54°  40'  to  Dunnet 
Head,  Caithness,  in  58°  40',  is  280  miles. 
The  greatest  breadth,  from  Buchan-Ness  to 
a  point  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Inverness  is 
180  miles.  This  breadth  varies  little  in  the 
interval  between  the  friths  of  Forth  and 
Moray ;  but  to  the  south  of  the  former,  the 
average  breadth  scarcely  exceeds  100,  and 
to  the  north  of  the  Moray  Frith,  40  or  50 
miles.  The  entire  extent  of  Scotland  is 
20,600  square  miles. 
Scotland,  in  its  general  outline,  consists  of 
vWO  great  and  perfectly  distinct  parts :  the  Lowlands  and  the  Highlands.  The  former  com- 
prehends all  Scotland  south  of  the  frilhs  of  Forth  and  Clyde;  for  the  pastoral  hills  of  the 
southern  and  western  borders,  less  elevated  than  the  northern  mountains,  and  inhabited  by 
a  different  race,  are  not  considered  as  forming  any  tie  between  these  and  the  Highlands 
properly  so  called.  Immediately  north  of  the  Clyde,  the  highland  ranges  begin  to  tower  in 
endless  succession ;  but  on  the  cast  coast,  the  Lowlands  extend  beyond  the  Forth  and  north- 
ward through  the  counties  of  Fife,  Forfar,  Kincardine,  and  ^herdecn ;  though  these  last  are 
closely  encroached  upon  by  the  mountain  territory.  The  lowland  district  also  extends 
round  the  northern  promontory  of  Aberdeen,  and  along  the  borders  of  the  Murray  or  Moray 
Frith,  which  contain  as  level  tracts  of  territory,  and  enjoy  as  mild  a  climate,  as  any  part 
of  Scotland.  This  level  tract  docs  not  comprehend  quite  the  half  of  the  country ;  even  the 
Lothians,  and  still  more  the  western  provinces,  are  hemmed  in  by  low  ridges  of  bleak  table- 
lands, covered,  in  a  great  measure,  with  heath  and  moss.  The  arable  lands  are  almost 
solely  comprised  in  broad  flat  valleys,  chiefly  along  the  friths,  called  slratlia  or  corses. 
Several  of  these  are  much  famed  for  fertility,  a  blessing  but  partially  bestowed  even  on  th» 
beat  districts  of  Scotland. 

The  Highlands,  which  comprise  the  whole  west  and  centre  of  northern  Scotland,  form  a 
region  of  very  bleak  and  rugged  aspect.  A  chain  of  long  and  lofty  ridg'^  extends  from 
south-west  to  north-east,  not  reaching,  however,  the  German  Ocean  or  the  Moray  Frith,  but 
leaving  between  them  the  level  interval  of  the  northern  lowland.  These  mountains  usually 
dip,  almost  perpendicularly,  into  the  lakes  and  seas  on  which  they  border ;  and  even  the  in- 
terior valleys  are  on  so  high  a  level,  that  in  this  climate  they  admit  only  in  scattered  patches 
the  culture  of  the  coarser  kinds  of  grain,  particularly  oats  and  bigg.  These  mountains,  par- 
ticularly the  great  Grampian  barrier,  which  extends  across  from  Ben  Lomond  to  Blair-Athol, 
lock  in  closely  with  each  other,  and  can  be  entered  only  by  formidable  and  easily  defended 
passes.  The  consequence  has  been,  tliat  they  have  preserved  within  their  recesses  a  primi- 
tive people,  who,  in  dress,  language,  and  the  whole  train  of  their  social  ideas,  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  Lowlanders,  and  nave  retained  antique  and  striking  characteristics,  both 
physical  and  moral,  that  are  obliterated  in  almost  every  other  part  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Isles  comprise  the  third  part  of  Scotland.  On  the  east,  indeed,  and  even  on  groat 
part  of  the  south-west  coast,  only  a  few  bold  and  naked  rocks  rise  perpendicularly  from  the 
Ocean.  But  the  western  highlands  aro  bordered  by  the  Hebrides,  an  extensive  range  of 
large  islands,  some  of  which  are  separated  from  the  continent  by  such  narrow  channels,  that 
they  may  almost  be  considered  as  forming  part  of  it  Again,  the  northern  extremity  of 
Scotland  is  pro.onged  by  the  two  ranges  of  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands,  in  a  continu- 
ous line  with  eac':  other,  but  at  some  distance.  These  islands  are  rocky  and  bare,  exposed 
Vol.1.  H*  a\ 


MAP  OP  SCOTLAND. 


Pio.  184 


V 


i 


liiraBK 


|,-..^i«i 


M        3»        \» 
Eii(lish  ^U« 


Lomttnto  WmI 


'^liW^.tjt, 


'r'9Fv^^'i'^^'y"-T''nw^mj^Pjwf?ffrt^^ 


Fio.  184 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


4(KI 


Roiiiil(ltlii>« 


Jf^^  Klnn»ir<l«  Hd. 


•ton  Inn 


=  AAroath 


bnh 


•  hll  Rock 


hotV»«h 


^ 

/ 


'"Ko 


■•o»<; 


■•"        ".ID  yMP 


Eniluh  MUa 


JC I 


to  excessive  moisture  and  the  perpetual  storms  of  the  Atlantic.  The  population  rtnan,  in 
language  and  features,  the  marks  of  a  Scandinavian  origin ;  dating  from  the  peh«a  when 
the  piratical  rovers  of  the  north  made  extensive  inroads  on  the  western  states  of  Europe. 

Among  the  Scottish  mountains,  the  most  considerable  are  the  Grampians,  a  name  which 
is  given  very  generally  to  all  those  which  cover  the  surface  of  the  Highlands,  but  applied 
more  particularly  to  the  chain  running  across  the  counties  of  Perth  and  Argyle,  and  com- 
prising  Ren  Lomond,  Ben  Ledi,  Ben  More,  Ben  Lawers,  and  oUiers  of  that  elevated  ridge 
which  directly  face  the  low  country  of  Stirling  and  Perth.  Several  of  these  mountains 
exceed  the  altitude  of  4000  feet  Ben  Nevis  rises  to  the  height  of  4315  feet  On 
the  borders  of  Inverness  and  Ross-shire,  Ben  Wy  vis,  and  some  others,  are  of  nearly  equal 
elevation.  The  south  of  Scotland  is  also  very  hilly ;  but  its  heights  are  seldom  more  than 
2000  feet,  green  and  pastoral.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  boundan^chainof  the  Cheviot, 
celebrated  in  the  annals  of  early  feud,  hunting,  and  border  warfkre.  The  Lowthers,  a  steep 
high  ridge,  including  valuable  lead  mines ;  the  pastoral  hills  of  Ettrick  and  Yarrow ;  and 
Crilfel  and  Cairnsmuir,  in  Galloway,  form  important  objects :  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Pent- 
land  and  Lammermuor  border  the  Lothians. 

The  rivers  of  Scotland  are  not  so  much  distinguished  for  their  length  or  magnitude,  as 
for  the  pastoral  scenery  through  which  they  wind  meir  early  course,  and  for  the  magnificent 
estuaries  which  they  form  at  their  junction  with  the  sea. 

The  Forth  rises  near  the  foot  of  Ben  Lomond,  flows  east  towards  Stirling,  near  which  it 
is  swelled  by  the  larger  stream  of  the  Teith  ;  whence,  after  many  windings  through  tiie 
beautiful  plam  overlooked  by  Stirling  castle,  it  opens  into  the  great  frith  on  which  the  capi* 
tal  of  Scotland  is  situated. 


Reference*  to  the  Map  of  Scodand. 


NORTH  PAET. 

1.  Dunnct 
S.  Caniieibr 

3.  Freswick 

4.  Wick 

5.  Ulbater 

6.  Entkar 

7.  Thuno 
S.  Brachry 
9.  Biralhr 

10.  Farr  Kirk 

11.  Riviegill 

12.  Tongue 

n.  Incli  Keanloch 
M.  I.ncli  Eriboll 

15.  r.radejr 

16.  Drutnaciay 

17.  Bcourie 

18.  Culetreme 

19.  Inver  Battaily 
n.  Loch  Navor 
SI.  Loch  Baden 
K.  Achnahoe 

33.  Lntheron 
H.  Betrydale 
95.  Ilelmadala 
S6.  Clyne 
27.  Achinttan 
S8.  Dalmot 
30.  Lairt 
30.  Tulloch 
ai.  Luch  Slim 

32.  Aisynt 

33.  Sloir 

34.  Dorney 

35.  Cannahouliih 

36.  Ullupool 

37.  Porlinlick 

38.  Bra 

39.  Golspie 

40.  Dornoch 
41.Tarbat 
43.  Cromarty 

43.  Tain 

44.  InTemordon 

45.  Kincardina 

46.  Kildrlmore 

47.  Ben  Wyvia 

48.  Lochbroom 

49.  Loch  Puir 

50.  Tinafldins 

51.  Melveg 
iS3.  Erridara 

53.  Gairloch 

54.  Loch  Maree 

55.  Loch  Fannich 

56.  Loch  Luichard 

57.  Killeam 

58.  Forlrnie 
M.  Port  Oeona 
WW.  nmm 

61.  Porrea 
63.  Plgin 

63.  Rothea 

64.  Pochnben 
6,1.  Cullen 

66.  Mamoch 
«7.  Portioy 


68.  BnnfT 
60.  TurreflT 

70.  Aberdour 

71.  Fraaenburgh 
73.  SirichoD 

73.  Peterhead 

74.  Cruden 

75.  Ellon 

76.  Rolhie 

77.  Meldrum 

78.  Cuaalmond 

79.  Kinnethmoot 

80.  Achindore 

81.  Huntley 
83.  Kinnacoil 

83.  Aberlour 

84.  Grantown 
SS.  Edemkilki 

86.  Dymer 

87.  Cairmichyle 

88.  Invemeia 
80.  Darea 

00.  Obriachan 

01.  Kilmuir 
03.  Beauly 

03.  Mncrich 

04.  Kdnacrow 

95.  Atladale 
00.  Toriidon 
97.  Vonebane 

96.  Applecrota 
09.  Killilan 

100.  Ghm  Shiel 

101.  Aifarie 
103.  Dundrnian 

103.  Loch  Neea 

104.  Rellaloin 
lO.'S.  Aherardei 
lOH,  Aviemora 
107,  Kincardine 
1U8.  Abemetby 

109.  Achenraw 

110.  Strathdon 

111.  Towie 
113.  Cluny 

113.  Kintore 

114.  Inverury 

115.  Foveran 

116.  Fintrar 

117.  Old  Aberdeen 

118.  New  Aberdeen 
110,  Stonehaven 

130.  Ternan 

131.  Birae 
193.  Balmoral 

133.  Braamar 

134.  !nck 

135.  Invemahaven 

137.  Fort  Auniitni 

138.  Loch  Garry 
ISO.  Loch  Lochy 

130.  Clunea 

131.  Loch  Arkeg 
1.13.  Knaary  , 
133.  Ruddrech 
13L  Loch  Morrey 


135.  Araaaig 

136.  Sminoaary 

137.  Loch  Shed 

138.  Cromer 

139.  Birane 

140.  Ben  Nevia 
Ml.  Fort  William 
143.  Aberarder 

143.  Loch  Laagan 

144.  Dalwhinnie 

145.  Eiriih 

146.  Clachoy 

147.  Clova 

148.  Mcnnuir 

149.  Craigour 

150.  Glenbervie 

151.  Bervie 

153,  Montroio 
153  Brechin 

154,  Lunan 

155,  Oalhlaw 

156,  Glenitla 

157,  Moulin 

158,  Blair-Athol 
150.  Dalnacardoch 

160.  Shecballion 

161,  Loch  Rannoch 
163,  Loch  Ericht 

163,  Loch  Treag 

164,  Kinlochmore 

165,  Corriherich 

166,  Aryhoujan 

167,  Scarnadale 

168,  Langall 
160,  Lidileadalo 

170.  Kinlochalina 

171.  Morven 

ITS,  Ardnamurchan 

SOUTH  PART, 
1.  Appin 
3.  Ardchattaa 

3,  Glencoe 

4,  Loch  Elive 

5,  King'a  Houae 

6,  Fingar 

7,  Ben  Lawera 
a  Killin 

0.  Loch  Tay 

10,  Kenmore 

11.  Aberfiildy 
13,  Amubrie 

13,  Dunkeld 

14,  Blairgowrie 

15,  Cupar-Angua 

16,  Meigla 

17,  Arbroath 

18,  Muirdrum 
10,  Dundee 
fill.  Kilmen; 
Si.  Cupar 

S3.  Newburgb 
S3.  Perth 
34.  Crieff 
S.'S.  Comrie 
S6.  Loch  Earn 
27.  Crsf  gan 


38,  Loch  Voil 

39.  Loch  Lochart 

30,  Olenurcbay 

31,  CIndick 
33.Kilmore, 

33,  Ardmaddy 

34,  Craigniah 

35,  Kilmartin 

36,  Inverary 

37,  Btrachur 

38,  Kilmoriah 

39,  Ben  Lomond 

40,  Lock  Katrine 

41,  Loch  Lubnaig 
43,  Dciune 

43.  Williamitown 

44.  Muchart 
4.5,  Forteviot 
40,  Kinruii 

47,  Falkland 

48,  Bt,  Androw'a 

49,  Anatrulher 

50,  Ijevcn 

51,  Kinghorn 
S3,  Dnnr«rmline 

53.  Clackmannan 

54.  Airth 
5.5.  Stirling 

56.  Dumblane 

57.  Milton 

58.  Campiie 

59.  Loch  Lomond 
fiO.  Tarbat 

61.  Kilmodan 
OS,  Gilphead 

63.  Acbahoiah 

64.  Carnmore 

65.  Killarraw 

66.  Kilchenzie 
07,  Southend 

68,  Campbellton 

69,  Suddale 

70,  Gc:— 

71,  SklpneH 
73,  Ruban 

73.  Groenock 

74.  Kilbirnie 

75.  Dumbarton 

76.  Paiiley 

77.  Renfrew 

78.  Glangow 

79.  Bothwcll 

80.  Airdrie 

81.  Whitburn 
83.  Falkirk 

83.  Linlithgow 

84.  Borrowatown- 

neia 

85.  Edinburgh 

xrt..  Mainmtll 

87,  Muiaelburgh 

88,  Haddington 

89,  North  Berwick 

00.  Dunbar 

01.  Bcaleraw 
OS,  Bunkis 
93.  Duow 


94.  Paxton 
05.Ecclea 

96.  Gordon 

97.  Channelktrk 

08,  Lauder 

09,  Middletnn 
JOO.  Linton 
101,  Peeblea 
lOS.  Camwath 

103,  Lanark 

104,  Hamilton 
va.  Eagleaham 
1(16.  Siewarton 

107.  Dairy 

108.  Irvine 
100.  Ayr 

110.  Mauchlina 

111.  Kilmarnock 
113.  Btrathaven 
113.  Doualaa 
IH.Crawfordjohn 

115.  Crawrord 

116.  Culter  Fell 

117.  Galashiela 
lia  Meliota 
110.  Selkirk 
ISO.  Kelao 
131.  Yetholma 
133.  Huwnam 

133,  Southdean 

134,  Jedburirh 

135,  Hawicit 

136,  Bedrord  Green 

137,  Kirkpatrick 

138,  Sanquhar 

139,  Kirkconnel 

130,  Ochiltree 

131,  Dalrympla 
133,  Girvan 

133.  Ballintrae 

134.  Balloch 

135.  Garry 

136.  Minihive 

137.  Dunacore 

138.  Pennont 

139.  Lnchmaben 

140.  Weaterkirk 

141.  Langholm 
143,  Gretna  Green 

143,  Annan 

144,  Dumrriea 

145,  Caerlavorock 

146.  Douglaa 

147.  IJrr 

148.  Loeh  Ken 
140.  Newton  Stew- 
art 

150.  Craighach 

151.  New  Luce 
133.  Stranraer 

153.  Portpalrick 

154.  Maidenkir 
1.55.  Ardwell 

156,  Olenluce 

157,  Mochrum 
138,  Whitehom 
159,  Wigton 


160.  Laurieatoa 

leii^.iiiissd''"'"- 


Riverf. 
_  „arer  Wal 
b  thurao  Wi 


ter 


0  Oikel 
d  Orrin 
e  Nairn 

f  Findbofo 
g  Spey 
h  DoveiM 

1  fion 
J  Dee 

mEarn 
n  Furth 
o  Tweed 
p  Annan> 
q  Niih 
r  Ken 
a  Ayr 
t  Clyde 

SKYE  ISLE. 
'.Dig 

3,  Totnacrach 

4,  Snizort 

5,  Stein 
e,Roag 

7,  Biacadato 

8,  Drumah 

0,  Gillan 

10.  BroadTord 

11.  Kyle 

,  MULL  ISLE. 

1.  Kilniniao 
S.  Tobermoria 

3.  Keallan 

4.  Area 

5.  Achnaeriig 

6.  Cambua 

7.  Moy 

8.  Fidden 

JURA  ISLE. 
1.  LeaghaU 
3.  Lagg 

ISLAY  ISLE. 
l.Sanaig 
8,  Kikshomin 

3.  Bolaha 

4.  Aikaig 

5.  Bowmora 
n,  Klldalton 
7.  Kintra 

ARRAN  IBLB 
1,  Orari 
S,  Corria 


.  Kilbride 
.KUmi 


lonr 


IM 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PARrllT 


The  Clyde  rises  on  the  borders  of  Dumfries-shire ;  flows  for  a  considerable  space  through 
a  wild  pastoral  valley ;  and  descends,  by  a  succession  of  most  picturesque  cascades,  into  the 
lower  reffion  of  Lanarkshire.  After  passing  through  a  tract  wnich  may  be  denominated  the 
jrarden  ot  Scotland,  it  enters  Glasgow,  becomes  a  broad  stream,  and  expands  into  a  winding 
frith,  not  so  broad  as  the  Forth,  but  the  scene  of  a  much  more  active  trade. 

The  Tweed  rises  irom  the  same  chain  as  the  Clyde,  and  running  eastward,  waters  the 
most  beautiful  and  classic  of  the  pastoral  districts  of  Scotland,  in  whose  verse  Tweed  is  the 
favourite  name.  Of  simile  fame  are  its  tributaries,  the  Yarrow,  the  Gala,  the  Teviot; 
swelled  by  yrhone  waters  it  forms,  on  reaching  Berwick,  a  capacious  harbour. 

The  Tay  rises  in  the  central  Highlands,  descends  into  the  lowlands  of  Perthshire,  and 
after  winding  beautifully  round  the  city  of  Perth,  expands  into  the  Frith  of  Tay,  and  forma 
tlie  ha^bour  of  Dundee. 

The  Spey  has  a  longer  course  than  any  other ;  but,  rising  in  the  midst  of  the  Perthshire 
highlands,  and  rolling  northward  through  the  wild  recesses  of  Athol  and  Braemar,  its  line  is 
comparatively  obscure.  The  other  rivers  of  Scotland  are  of  subordinate  rank ;  Uie  Dee  of 
Aberdeen,  the  Esk  of  Montrose,  the  Nith  and  Annan  of  Dumfries,  the  Ayr  and  Irvine 
of  Ayr. 

Lochs  form  a  characteristic  feature  of  Scotland ;  many  of  them  are  long  arms  of  the  sea, 
running  up  into  the  heart  of  the  mountains.  Among  these.  Loch  Lomond  is  pre-eminent. 
The  traveller  admires  its  vast  expanse,  its  gay  and  numerous  islands,  its  wooded  promon- 
tories and  bays,  and  the  high  mountain  barrier  at  its  head.  Loch  Katrine,  in  a  smaller 
compass,  presents  a  singular  combination  of  romantic  beauty.  Loch  Tay,  enclosed  by  the 
lOftiest  of  the  Grampians,  presents  alpine  scenery  on  the  grandest  scale ;  while  at  Inverary, 
Loch  Fyne  unites  the  pomp  of  art  with  that  of  nature.  The  long  chain  of  Lochs  Linnhe, 
Lochy,  and  Ness,  stretching  diagonally  across  Scotland,  comprises  much  fine  scenery, 
and  has  aflbrded  facilities  for  makmg  a  navigable  communication  between  the  German  and 
Atlantic  oceans. 

Sect.  H. — Natural  Geography. 

This  section  will  contain  Geology  only,  as  the  Botany  and  Zoology  of  Scotland  were  de- 
scribed along  with  that  of  Great  Britain  in  general,  unaer  the  head  of  England. 

SuBSEOT.  1. — Geology  of  Scotland. 

Scotland  may  be  divided  geologically  into  the  following  great  districts : — 1.  Southern ;  2. 
Middle ;  3.  Northern ;  4.  Insular. 

(1.)  Southern  division.  This  division  includes  that  part  of  the  country  bounded  on  the 
south  by  the  northern  ihjntier  of  England ;  and  on  the  north  and  west,  by  the  comparatively 
flat  country  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde.  It  is  traversed  from  St.  Abb's  Head  on  tiie 
east  coast  to  Portpatrick  on  the  west  coast  by  a  high  land,  named  the  great  southern  high 
land  of  Scotland,  in  which  are  situated  the  highest  mountains  in  this  division  of  Scotland. 
This  lofty  range  sends  out  branches  in  different  directions,  many  of  which  reach  Uie  sea^ 
coast,  while  oUiers  termmate  in  the  lower  and  flatter  parts  of  the  country  that  lies  around 
them.  Although  abundantly  supplied  with  rivers,  the  southern  division  contains  but  few 
lakes,  in  this  respect  formmg  a  striking  contrast  with  the  middle  and  northern  divisions. 
The  mountainous  regions  are  composed  of  transition  rocks,  while  the  lower  and  flatter  con- 
sist principally  of  secondary  and  alluvial  formations. 

I.  Transition  rocks.  The  predominating  rocks  of  the  Neptunian  class  are  greywacke, 
with  subordmate  beds  of  clay  slate,  flinty  slate,  and  transition  limestone ;  the  Plutonian 
species  are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  serpentine,  and  trap ;  by  far  the  most  abundant  rock 
is  the  greywacke,  in  which  the  principal  lead-mines  in  Scotland,  those  of  Leadhills  and 
Wanlockhead,  are  situated.  They  have  been  worked  from  an  early  period,  and  during  a 
long  course  of  years  have  yielded  to  the  proprietors  a  very  rich  return.  Of  late  years, 
owing  to  the  disturbed  state  of  the  world,  their  prosperity  has  been  interrupted.  Copper 
ores  have  been  raised  in  Galloway,  but  not  in  considerable  quantity ;  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  sulphuret  of  antimony,  formerly  mined  at  Glendinning  in  Dumfries-shire. 

II.  Secondary  rocks.  Scotland  is  distinguished  from  England  by  the  smaller  number  of 
its  secondary  formations,  and  their  more  limited  die  tribution ;  the  southern  division  contains 
a  greater  proportion  than  the  middle  or  northern ;  and  hence  approaches  more  nearly  to 
England  in  a  general  geognostic  point  of  view.  The  following  secondaiy  formations  have 
been  observed : — 1.  Old  r^  sandstone.  2.  Mountain  limestone.  3.  Coal  rormation.  4.  New 
red  sandstone.    5.  Various  trap  and  porphyry  rocks. 

1.  Old  red  sandstone  This  formation  skirts  the  transition  chains  of  mountains  lying 
immediately  upon  th<i  greywacke,  &c.  It  is  well  fixposfld  in  the  Pentlasds,  the  upper  part 
of  the  river  d':,trict  of  the  river  Clyde,  in  the  course  of  tlie  river  Tweed,  iu  various  points 
m  Dumfiries-shire,  &c.  In  the  districts  where  it  occurs,  it  is  frequently  quarried  as  a 
building-stone. 

2.  mountain  limestone.    The  beds  of  lunestone  in  the  lower  part  of  the  coal  formatioD 


Boos  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


409 


cts:— 1.  Southern;  2. 


if  the  coal  formation 


in  the  neiehbourhocd  of  Edinburgh,  and  the  beds  of  limestone  upon  which  the  coal  formatior. 
rests  in  omer  quarters,  as  in  Dumfries-ehire,  belong  to  the  mountain  limestone. 

8.  Coal  formation.  This  important  deposit  occupies  considerabjo  portions  of  Ea?t,  Mid, 
and  West  Lothian,  and  extends  westward  to  Glasgow.  It  forms  extensive  tracts  in  Ayr- 
shire ;  in  DumfrioB-shire ;  and  in  BerAvickshire.  Ttie  coal  mines  in  the  Lothians  and  around 
Glasgow  are  the  most  productive  in  Scotland.  The  annual  quantity  of  cool  brought  into 
Glasgow  is  661,049  tons ;  of  which  124,000  are  exported.  It  may  also  be  noticed,  as  con- 
nected with  coal,  that  in  Glasgow,  during  twenty-four  hours  in  the  winter  months,  the  gas 
company  make  upwards  of  600,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  fh>m  coal ;  and  during  the  same  period 
in  the  sununer  montlis,  about  120,000.  The  pipes  extend  to  more  than  fOO  miles  through 
streets.  The  great  iron-works  at  Carron  are  supplied  with  the  ore  iVom  which  the  iron  is 
obtained,  from  the  coalfields  of  this  and  the  middle  division  of  Scotland.  The  ore  or  stone, 
which  is  an  argillaceous  carbonate  of  iron,  occurs  in  beds  and  embedded  masses,  and  princi- 
pally in  the  slate  of  the  coal  deposit.  The  admirable  building-stone  around  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow  is  a  sandstone  which  occurs  in  beds  in  the  coal  formation. 

4.  New  red  tandtttme.  This  formation  in  the  regular  succession  rests  upon  the  coal 
formation,  in  which  position  it  is  to  be  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cannoby  in  Dumfiries- 
shire. 

6.  Trap  and  porphyry  rochs.  These  ignigenous  masses  occur  in  many  parts :  thev 
abound,  wr  instance,  all  around  Edinburgh ;  forming  part  of  the  Calton  Hill,  Castle  Hill, 
Salisbury  Craigs,  Arthur  Seat,  the  Pentlands,  &c. :  the  beautiful  conical  hill  named  North 
Berwick  Law,  the  Bass  Rock,  the  Isle  of  May,  Traprain  Law,  are  also  formed  of  trap  and 
porphyry  rocks.  Renfrewshire  and  Ayrshire  also  abound  in  splendid  and  interesting  displays 
of  trap  and  porphyry.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  these  rocks  are  used  as  building-stones, 
and  the  greenstone  of  the  trap  series  affords  an  admirable  material  for  road-making.  The 
splendid  causeways  and  roads  around  Edinburgh  are  of  greenstone. 

in.  Alluvial  rocks.  In  various  parts  of  the  country  there  occur  deposits  of  old  alluvium, 
or  what  is  called  diluvium ;  and  everywhere  the  modem  alluvium,  or  that  daily  fbrming 
meets  the  eye. 

(2.)  Middle  division.  This  division  of  Scotland  is  bounded  to  the  south  by  the  southern 
divbion ;  on  the  north  by  the  Moray  Frith  aud  the  great  chain  of  lakes  extending  fi'om 
Inverness  to  Fort  William  and  the  Linnhe  Lc!r;h.  It  is  traversed  in  a  north  and  south- 
westerly direction  by  the  Grampian  range  of  inountains,  which  extends  fh)m  the  Mull  of 
Cantyre  to  Stonehaven  in  Kincardineshire,  and  to  the  rocky  northern  coasts  of  Aberdeen- 
shire and  Banf&hire.  The  country  in  general  falls  rapidly  to  the  west  of  this  great  moun- 
tain range,  and  comparatively  gently  to  the  eastward  of  it :  hence  the  western  acclivity  is 
steep  and  short,  the  eastern  gentle  and  long.  On  the  eastern  acclivity  and  the  low  lands 
connected  with  it  are  situated  tho  Sidloy,  Ochil,  and  Carapsie  hills,  forming  a  pretty  conti- 
nuous range ;  and  Kellie  Law,  Largo  Law,  the  Lomonds,  and  the  Saline  Hills  in  Fifeshire, 
forming  a  less  continuous  and  lower  range  of  hills.  Water  is  abundantly  distributed  over 
this  district,  in  the  form  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  springs.  Lakes,  which  ore  so  rare  in  the 
southern  division,  are  here  abundantly  distributed,  and  exhibit  many  beautiful  and  splendid 
scenes.  Of  these  lakes  the  most  considerable  are  the  following :  Loch  Lomond,  Loch  Tay, 
Loch  Ness,  and  Loch  Awo.  The  rocks  are  more  varied  in  this  than  in  the  southern  divi- 
sion ;  magnificent  displays  of  primitive,  transition,  and  secondary  formations  present  them- 
selves to  our  attention. 

I.  Primitive  and  transition  rocks.  The  Neptunian  kinds  are  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate, 
clay  slate,  talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  quartz  rock,  grey wacke,  limestone :  the  Plutonian  rocks 
are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  trap,  and  serpentine.  The  Neptunian  rocks  generally  range 
from  north-east  to  south-west ;  most  frequently  dip  under  an  angle  of  about  45° ;  and  are 
variously  upheaved,  broken,  and  disturbed  by  the  Plutonian  rocks.  They  are  principally 
confined  to  the  Grampian  high  Iind  and  its  branches.  The  most  remarkable  granite  and 
syenite  districts  are  Cairngorm,  Benachie,  Aberdeen,  Peterhead,  Ben  Cruachan;  and  Ben 
Nevis  conjoins  along  with  its  slaty  Neptunian  strata,  granite,  syenite,  and  porphyry.  In 
some  quarters  the  limestone  is  raised  as  marble,  as  in  Glen  Tilt ;  but  more  frequently  it  is 
burnt  into  quicklime.  The  clay  slate  quarries  of  Luss,  on  the  banks  of  Loch  Lomond ;  those 
of  Balachulish,  in  Argyleshire ;  and  the  slate  quarries  in  the  interior  of  Aberdeenshire,  are 
of  considerable  extent,  and  employ  many  workmen.  There  were  formerly  lead-mmes  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Tyndrum,  where  the  lead  glance,  or  sulphuret  of  lead,  was  disposed  in 
veuis  in  quartz  rock  and  mica  slate. 

II.  Secondary  rocks.  These  ore,  old  red  sandstone,  mountain  limestone,  coal  formation, 
and  new  red  sandstone,  and  probably  the  lias  formation:  these  strata  are  variously  inter- 
mingled with  trap  and  porphyry  rocks. 

1.  Old  red  sandstone.  This  rock,  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  as  in  the  vicinity  of 
Stonehaven  and  near  Blair-Gowrie,  exhibits  magnificent  clifli  of  conglomerate.  It  forms 
the  principal  rock  in  the  great  tract  of  country  included  between  lines  drawn  from  Stone- 
•wven  by  Blair-Gowrie,  Comrie,  Callcnder,  Dumbarton,  Stirling,  Kinross,  Dundee,  Arbroath, 


Y 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pABTin. 


:■  -'mi 

•      ;'j ;"»  '.■ 

:^  ■■m 


^v.i 


Montroee,  and  Borvie,  It  appears  again  noar  Invemoaa,  and  on  the  banks  of  Loch  Nosa, 
In  many  localities  there  are  extensive  quarries,  tlie  sandstone  being  used  as  a  building-stone, 
and  as  a  pavoment»stone.  The  Kinguddio  sandstone  and  the  Arbroath  pavement'Stone,  from 
old  red  sandstone  localities,  are  well  known. 

2.  Coal  formation.  The  coal  formation  in  the  middle  division  of  Scotland  has  not  been  met 
with  &rther  north  than  Fifcshire.  The  counties  of  Fife,  Clackmannan,  and  Stirling,  abound 
m  coal ;  of  tliose  counties,  Fife  is  tliat  which  contains  the  greatest  fields  of  this  valuable 
mineral. 

3.  New  red  sandstone  occurs  apparently  in  some  points  on  tho  east  coast,  and  also  on  the 
north  coast  between  Cullen  and  tlio  Cromarty  Frith. 

4.  Zit'as  formation.  Near  to  BonflT  there  are  beds  of  clay,  which,  iVom  the  organic  re- 
mains contained  in  them,  may  turn  out  to  belong  to  this  formation. 

6.  Plutonian  rocka.  These  are  various  traps,  as  greenstone,  amygdaloid,  trap  tuffa,  and 
basalt;  and  porphyries,  having  a  basis  of  claystone  or  clinkstone.  Tho  famous  headland  the 
Red  Head,  on  tne  east  coast,  exhibits  a  fine  display  of  Plutonian  rocks,  connected  with  tho 
red  sandstone.  Bervie  Head  and  the  vicinity  are  interesting  from  their  porphyry  rocks. 
Tho  trap  rocks  of  Montrose  are  famous  on  account  of  the  agates  they  afford.  Kinnoul  Hill, 
at  Perth,  is  composed  of  amygdaloid,  tufTa,  and  other  rocks  of  the  trap  series,  and  abounds 
in  agates.  The  Ochil  Hills  are  principally  composed  of  trap  and  porphyry ;  and  trap  rocks 
abound  in  the  Campsie  range.  The  Fifcshire  hills,  viz.  Kellie  Law,  Loreo  Law,  the  cones 
of  the  Lomond,  and  tlie  SaUne  Hills,  are  of  trap.  These  various  traps  and  porphyries  have, 
as  is  generally  the  o^isc,  broken  and  changed  more  or  less  tlie  Neptunian  strata  with  which 
they  are  intermingled. 

ni.  Alluvial  rocka.  These  have  the  same  general  characters  as  those  met  with  in  the 
southern  division.  In  a  few  districts,  however,  as  near  to  Peterhead,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
Banff,  there  are  numerous  chalk  flinla.  Those,  by  some,  are  considered  as  alluvial,  and 
foreign  to  Scotland ;  while  others  are  of  opinion  that  tliey  are  remains  of  the  chalk  forma- 
tion, formerly  distributed  in  some  of  the  tracts  where  the  flints  are  found. 

(3.)  Northern  division.  This  division  is  bounde<l  on  the  south  by  the  chain  of  lakes 
which  forms  the  northern  limit  of  the  middle  division,  and  on  the  north,  the  east,  and  the 
west,  by  the  ocean.  The  high  land  ranges  throughout  its  wliole  length,  from  south-west  to 
north-east  The  western  acclivity  is  steep  and  short ;  tlie  eastern  comparatively  gently 
inclined  and  long.  Rivers,  springs,  and  lakes  are  numerous.  The  whole  of  this  division, 
nearly,  is  composed  of  primitive  and  transition  rocks,  the  secondary  occurring  principally 
along  the  east  coast  and  a  small  extent  of  '\e  north-west  coast 

I.  Primitive  and  tramition  rocka.  The  Neptunian  species  are  disposed  in  strata  that 
oilen  range  from  south-west  to  north-east  arc  of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  quartz  rock, 
talc  slate,  limestone,  and  greywacke.  The  Plutonian  rocks  are  less  abundant  than  in  the 
middle  and  southern  divisions  of  Scotland ;  and  are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  and  trap. 
The  only  mines  are  those  at  Stiontion,  where  the  ore  is  lead  glance,  or  sulphuret  of  lead, 
in  v«ins  traversing  gneiss.  The  mineral  in  which  the  Strontian  earth  was  first  found 
occurs  in  these  mines,  along  with  other  curious  minerals,  of  which  tlie  cross-etone  is  the 
most  interesiir?. 

n.  Secondary  rocka.  The  formations  of  this  class  are  both  Neptunian  and  Plutonian. 
The  Neptunian  are  old  red  sandstone,  new  red  sandstone,  lias,  and  oolite ;  the  Plutonian,  trap 
and  porphyry. 

1.  Old  red  aandatone.  Much  of  the  county  of  Caithness,  and  some  tracts  on  the  east 
coast  and  a  few  points  on  the  west  ore  composed  of  tliis  formation. 

2.  New  red  sandatone.  The  county  of  Caithness  affords  examples  of  this  deposit  which 
is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  beds  of  fossil  Jishes  it  contains. 

3.  Lias  and  oolite.  This  formation  occurs  on  the  east  coast  of  Sutherland.  The  coal 
mines  at  Brora  are  situated  in  this  deposit ;  the  coal  is,  however,  of  indifferent  quality. 

4.  The  Plutonian  rocks  are  not  frequent  <uid  consist  principally  of  trap  and  porphyry. 
IIL  Alluvial  rocks.    These  exhibit  the  same  characters  as  in  tlie  middle  and  southern 

divisiona 

(4.)  Inaular  division.  This  may  be  subdivided  in  the  followuig  manner: — 1.  Forth 
Islands ;  2.  Clyde  Islands ;  3.  Hebrides ;  4.  Orkneys ;  5.  Shellands. 

(1.)  Forth  Islands.  The  Bell  Rock  is  of  a  red  sandstone,  having  the  same  characters  as 
that  on  the  neighbouring  coast  at  Arbroath.  The  other  islands  are  principally  composed  of 
trap  rocks,  occasionally  associated  with  clinkstone  porphyry,  and  rocks  of  tlie  coal  formation. 
(2.)  Clyde  Islands  and  the  Cumbrays  are  composed  of  secondary  rocks ;  the  Neptunian  rocka 
are  cliiefly  old  red  sandstone,  which  is  traversed  and  overpaid  by  different  kindsof  trap  rocks, 
of  which  there  are  magnificent  displays  in  these  island  j.  The  southern  part  of  Bute  is 
r.lmost  entirely  composed  of  rocks  of  igneous  origin,  belonging  to  the  trap  series;  the  mid- 
dle, of  old  red  sandstone ;  the  northern  of  clay  Blate,  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  and  trap.  Arran 
affords  highly  iUustrative  examples  of  Neptunian  and  Pli  tonian  rocks  of  the  primitive  wai 


>^. 


Book  I. 


■.'*( 


SCOTLAND. 


40T 


coast,  and  also  on  the 
from  the  organic  re- 


anner:— 1.  Forth 


transition  classes,  viz.  clay  slate,  mica  slate,  grey  wacke,  as  Neptunian  deposits ;  and  granite, 
as  a  Plutonian  rock.  The  junctions  of  the  granite,  of  which  tncre  are  two  formations,  wiUi 
each  other  and  with  the  Neptunian  slates,  are  most  instructive.  Reposing  on  these  rocks  is 
a  deposit  of  the  old  red  sandstone,  on  which  rests  the  coal  formation ;  and  the  whole  are 
covered,  more  or  loss  completely,  with  new  red  sandstone.  These  Neptunian  secondary 
rocks  are  traversed  in  all  directions  by  Plutonian  rocks  of  the  porphyry  and  trap  series, 
affording  an  admirable  study  to  the  geologist.  Alluvial  deposits  occur  all  round  the  coast, 
and  covering,  more  or  less  deeply,  the  bottom  and  sides  of  valleys.  Both  old  and  now  allu- 
vium are  met  with  in  Arran.  The  Craig  of  Ailso,  which  is  900  feet  high,  is  composed  of 
secondary  syenite,  in  several  cliffs  disposed  m  magnificent  columns,  and  traversed  by  veins 
of  secondary  greenstone,  &c. 

(3.)  Tho  Ilebridos  or  Western  Islands  form  two  groups ;  the  one,  ranging  immediately 
along  the  coast,  the  Inner  Hebrides ;  tho  other,  lying  beyond,  to  the  westward,  the  Outer 
Helmdea, 

Inner  Hebridea,  Oigha,  Islo,  Jura,  Colonsay,  Oronsay,  Scirba,  and  the  Slate  Isles,  are 
principally  composed  of  Neptunian  primitive  and  transition  strata,  having  frequently  a  north* 
east  and  south-west  direction;  and  variouflly  disposed,  from  tlie  slightly  inclined  to  the  ver- 
tical position.  The  rocks  are  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  hornblende 
slate,  clay  slate,  limestone,  and  greywacke.  These  are  traversed  by,  and  intermingled  with, 
Plutonian  rocks  of  tlie  trap  and  porphyry  series.  The  clay  slate  is  extensively  quarried  in 
the  isle  of  Eisdale,  one  of  the  Slate  Islands.  In  hla  there  is  a  great  deposit  of  limestone, 
in  which  formerly  lead-mines  were  worked.  lona,  Tiree,  and  CoH  are  principally  composed 
of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  hornblende  rock,  with  occasional  intermixtures  of  granite 
ana  syenite,  and  all  traversed,  more  or  less  frequently,  by  veins  of  trap  rock.  Mull,  with 
the  exception  of  two  or  three  points,  which  are  composed  of  j^ranite,  gneiss,  and  mica  slate, 
is  composed  of  secondery  trap  and  porphyry  rocks,  with  occasional  intermixtures  of  lias  lime- 
stones, and  lias  coals.  The  usual  alluvial  deposits  appear  in  different  parts  of  the  island. 
Slqffa,  which  is  composed  of  basalt,  amygdaloid,  and  trap  tuffa,  has  been  long  celebrated  on 
account  of  its  splendid  columnar  basaltic  cave,  the  Fingal's  Cave  of  travellers.  Eigff  is 
principally  composed  of  trap  rocks,  occasionally  intermmgled  with  lias  limestones.  The 
Scure  Egg  is  a  remarkable  columnar  ridge  of  pitchstone  porphyry,  presenting  the  most 
splendid  display  of  the  natural  columnar  structure  to  be  met  with  aiwwhere  in  the  British 
islands.  Canna  is  entirely  composed  of  secondary  trap  rocks ;  and  Rum,  a  wild,  rugged, 
and  hilly  island,  besides  red  sandstone,  which  forms  a  prominent  constituent  part,  also  con- 
tains many  varieties  of  trap,  some  of  which  are  remarkable  from  their  containing  agates, 
bloodstone,  opal,  &c.  Skye,  the  largest  of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  exhibits  great  variety  of 
scenery  and  of  geological  arrangement.  The  southern  part  of  the  island  is  composed  of 
primitive  and  transition  rocks,  principally  of  the  Neptunian  series ;  namely,  mica  slate,  clay 
slate,  chlorite  slate,  hornblende  rock,  quartz  rock,  greywacke,  and  limestone.  The  middle 
part  ailbrds  magnificent  displays  of  Plutonian  rocks,  as  syenite,  porphyry  and  trap,  which 
are  frequently  observed  intermixed  with  lias  limestone,  which  in  many  places  is  seen  con- 
verted into  marble  through  the  agency  of  those  ignigenous  rocks :  the  northern  division  of 
the  island  is  principally  composed  of  various  trap  rocks,  oflen  abounding  in  zeolite  and  other 
curious  minerals,  and  mtermingled  with  lias  limestone  and  coal.  The  alluvium  here  exhibits 
its  usual  characters.  Rasay.  The  southern  and  middle  parts  of  this  island  are  of  secondary 
fomiation,  principally  of  old  red  sandstone  and  lias  sandstone ;  the  northern  extremity  is  of 
primitive  rocks,  principally  gneiss.  J2ona.  This  island,  which  appears  formerly  to  have 
been  a  pai-t  of  Rasay,  is  entirely  of  primitive  formation,  the  prevailmg  rock  being  gneiss, 
with  subordinate  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  hornblende  rock,  &c.,  traversed  by  splendid  veins 
of  granite. 

Outer  Hebrides.  This  group,  which  lies  in  a  north-east  and  south-west  direction,  con- 
sists of  the  following  islands ;  viz.  Lewis,  Harris,  North  Uist,  South  Uist,  and  Barra,  The 
whole  range  of  islands  is  nearly  of  primitive  formation,  and  the  predominating  rocks,  which 
are  gneiss  and  mica  slate,  range  generally  from  north-east  to  south-west  The  following 
rocks,  which  are  generally  subordinate  to  those  just  mentioned,  viz.  quartz  rock,  clay  slate, 
chlorite  slate,  hornblende  rock  of  various  kinds,  limestone  (?),  serpentine,  with  masses  and 
veins  of  granite,  syenite,  and  porphyry,  present  many  interesting  phenomena. 

(4.)  Orkney  Islands.  This  group  of  islands  is  distinguished  from  all  others  that  lie  around 
the  coasts  of  Scotland,  by  the  uniformity  of  its  structure  and  composition.  With  the  excep- 
tk>n  of  a  small  extent  of  transition  rocks  near  Stromness  in  the  island  of  Pomona,  the  largest 
of  the  Orkneys,  that  island  and  all  the  others  are  composed  of  the  old  red  sandstone,  with 
aome  rare  appearance  of  secondary  trap. 

(5.)  Shetland  Islands.  This  very  interesting  group  of  islands  exhibits  great  variety  m 
lis  geognostical  structure  and  composition.  Mainland.  With  the  exception  of  a  band  of 
old  red  sandstone  extending  from  the  line  of  Sumburgh  Head  to  Rovey  Head,  on  the  east 
coast  the  whole  of  this  island  is  formed  of  primitive  rocks.    The  Neptunian  strata  aie 


406 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaatIU 


n 


i 


Sieiaa,  with  ■ubordinate  mica  slate,  olay  alate,  quarts  rook,  limeatone,  and  hornblende  rocka; 
e  Plutonian  rocks,  which  fl-cquenUy  alter  and  upraise  the  Neptunian  strata,  are  granite, 
syenite,  porphyry,  greenstone,  and  epidotic  syenite.  Yell  is  almost  entirely  composed  of 
gneiss,  variously  interseotod  by  veins  of  ffranite.  Unut  is  composed  of  gpeiss,  mica  slate, 
talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  limestone,  wliich  are  variously  intermixed  with  serpentine  and 
diallage  rocks.  Ilermonoss,  the  most  northern  point  of  the  British  dominions  in  Europe,  ia 
oompMod  of  gneiss ;  while  the  Land's  End  of  Cornwall,  the  most  south-westerly  cape  of 
Britain,  is  formed  of  granite.  Unst  and  tho  neighbouring  island  of  Fetlar  abound  in  chxvr 
mate  of  iron.  Ilydrato  of  magnesia,  grcnatitc,  precious  gamot,  and  other  beautiful  minerals, 
occur  in  this  island.  Fetlar  is  composed  of  serpentine  as  the  predominating  rock,  with 
diallago  rock,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  auartz  rock.  WhaUeyia  composed  of 
gneiss.  Breiiay,  Nose,  and  Mouea  are  composed  or  old  red  sandstone.  Batra  aivd  Houee 
are  composed  of  gneiss  and  mica  slate,  with  subordinate  limestone;  Papa  Stour  is  a  mass  of 
porphyry.  In  Foula  tho  predominating  rock  is  old  red  sandstone ;  at  one  point  there  ia  a 
limited  display  of  primitive  rocks  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  clay  slate. 

Sect.  III. — Hittoricdl  Survey. 
To  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  Scotland  was  not  known  as  a  distinct  country.  Albion, 
or  Britain,  was  viewed  as  one  region,  parcelled  out  among  a  multitude  of  dilforent  triben, 
Agricola  first  penetrated  into  that  part  of  Britain,  which  we  now  call  Scotland.  He  easily 
over-ran  the  low  country,  but  encountered  tho  most  obstinate  resistance  when  he  approached 
the  Caledonians,  who  appear  then  to  have  held  all  the  northern  districts.  An  obstinate 
battle,  the  precise  place  of  which  has  never  been  ascertained,  was  fought  at  the  foot  of  the 
Grampians.  All  the  rude  valour  of  Caledonia  could  not  match  the  skill  of  Agricola  and  the 
discipline  of  the  Roman  legions.  The  whole  open  country  was  abandoned  to  the  invaders, 
whose  progress,  however,  was  stayed  by  what  they  termed  the  Caledonian  forest,  under 
which  tney  seem  to  have  vaguely  comprehended  the  vast  pine  woods  of  Glenmore,  and  the 
steep  barrier  of  the  Grampians.  Their  military  occupation,  however,  id  attested  by  the  form- 
ation of  numerous  camps,  of  which  that  of 
Ardoch,  {iig,  185),  ten  miles  north  of  Stir- 
ling, is  the  most  extensive  and  complete. 
The  Romans  endeavoured  to  resist  the  in- 
cursions of  the  natives,  by  rearing  at  different 
periods,  two  walls,  ( ae  between  the  FV>rth 
and  Clyde,  and  the  other  south  of  the  low 
cot'ntry  of  Scotland,  between  the  Solway 
and  the  Tyne.  The  northern  tribes,  how- 
ever, continued  their  inroads,  now  chiefly 
under  the  name  of  Picts,  who  seem  clearly 
to  have  been  the  same  people  with  the 
Caledonians.  In  the  fifth  century  Britain 
was  abandoned  by  the  Romans,  and  over-run 
by  the  Saxons,  who  occupied  the  eastern 
part  of  the  south  of  Scotland,  as  far  as  the 
Forth. 

The  western  part  was  formed  into  the 
kingdom  of  Strathcluyd.    It  flourished  for 
about  300  years,  and  was  rendered  illustrious 
by  the  name  and  exploits  of  Arthur  and  his 
^  , .    ^    ,.  .         ,     .      ,  knights,  whose  power  from  508  to  542,  is 

represented  by  teadition  as  having  been  predominant  over  the  south  of  Scotland  and  the  north 
of  England.  The  capital  and  bulwark  of  this  kingdom  was  Alcluyd,  called  afterwards  Dun 
Briton  and  Dumbarton,  seated  on  an  insulated  precipitous  reck  at  the  mouth  of  the  Clyde. 
The  Strathcluyd  Britons,  closely  pressed  by  their  Saxon  neighbours,  endeavoured  to  defend 
themselves  by  a  lengthened /o»«c,  of  which  the  traces  have  been  supposed  to  remain  in  tho 
Cab^U  or  Picts-work  Ditch,  dravra  across  the  counties  of  Selkirk  and  Roxburgh.  Such 
feeble  defences  could  not  support  a  sinking  monarchy;  in  757,  Alcluyd  was  taken  by  the 
Saxone,  and  the  kingdom  subverted. 

The  Scots,  before  this  time,  had  come  firom  Ireland,  their  origmal  seat,  which,  in  the  fourth 
century,  was  often  called  Scotland.  Even  before  the  departure  of  the  Romans,  the  Scots, 
jomed  with  the  Picts,  are  mentioned  as  the  ravagers  of  defenceless  Britain.  They  appear  at 
one  time  to  have  been  driven  back  into  Ireland ;  but  in  503  they  again  landed  in  Cantyre, 
and  during  the  next  four  centuries,  spread  gradually  over  the  kingdom.  At  length  under  tho 
victorious  reign  of  Kenneth,  which  commenced  in  836,  they  wrested  the  sceptre  from  Wred 
the  Pictish  king,  and  established  .supreme  sway  over  the  wliole  of  that  countoy,  which,  firom 
them,  was  ever  afterwards  called  Scotland. 


Camp  at  Ardooh. 


PaatIII 

tnd  hornblende  rocki ; 
m  strata,  are  granite, 
entirely  compoBod  of 
of  ipeiu,  mica  alate, 
1  with  serpentine  and 
minions  in  Europe,  ia 
)uth-westerly  cape  of 
atlar  abound  in  chro- 
ler  beautiful  minerals, 
ominatingf  rock,  wiUi 
alsey  is  composed  of 
e.  Barra  aiul  Hmue 
ipa  Stour  is  a  mass  of 
it  one  point  there  is  a 
ly  slate. 


inct  country.    Albion, 

ido  of  different  tribe«. 

Scotland.    Ho  easily 

0  when  he  approached 

istricts.    An  obstinate 

iiffht  at  the  foot  of  tiie 

ill  of  Agricola  and  the 

loned  to  the  invaders, 

ledonian  forest,  under 

of  Glenmore,  and  Uie 

d  attested  by  the  form- 

mps,  of  which  that  d 

n  miles  north  of  Stir- 

:en8ive  and  complete. 

)ured  to  resist  the  in* 

I,  by  rearing  at  different 

le  between  the  TotHi 

ther  south  of  the  low 

between  the  Solway 

northern  tribes,  how- 

inroads,  now  chiefly 

ts,  who  seem  clearly 

ime  people  with  Uie 

iflh  century  Britain 

Romans,  and  over-run 

jccupied  the  eastern 

Gotland,  as  fitr  as  the 

was  formed  into  the 
It  flourished  for 
08  rendered  illustrious 
>its  of  Arthur  and  his 
from  508  to  542,  is 
Gotland  and  the  north 
lied  afterwards  Dun 
mouth  of  the  Clyde, 
ideavoured  to  defend 
ised  to  remain  in  the 
td  Roxburgh.  Such 
was  taken  by  the 

,  which,  in  the  fourth 
Romans,  the  Scots, 

[tin.  They  appear  at 
landed  in  Cantyre, 
At  length  under  the 

I  sceptre  from  Wred 

iounUr,  which,  from 


Book  1. 


SCOTLAND. 


400 


The  Scoto-Saxon  era,  aa  Mr.  Chalmers  calls  it,  is  memorable  rathor  fbr  an  imensiblo 
shange,  than  fbr  any  sudden  revolution.  After  the  subversion  of  the  kingdom  c^  Strath- 
cluyd,  by  the  Saxons,  that  i>eoplo  had  colonized  and  filled  the  whole  south ;  and  tlie  Scottlidi 
kings,  thougli  of  Celtic  origin,  having  establislied  themselves  in  this  more  fertile  part  of  their 
territories,  soon  began  to  imbibe  the  spirit  of  its  occupants.  From  this  or  other  causes  the 
whole  lowlands  of  Scotland  is  in  language  and  manners  Teutonic,  and  the  Ghiol  or  Celt! 
were  again  confined  within  their  mountain  boundary. 

An  era  of  disputed  succession  arose  out  of  the  contendinfj;  claims  of  Bruce  and  Baliol, 
after  the  death  of  Margaret  of  Norway.  Edward  I.,  availing  himself  of  this  dissension, 
lucceeded  in  mtroducmg  himself  under  the  character  of  an  arbiter,  and  having  established 
Baliol  on  the  throne  by  an  armed  intcrforonco,  sought  to  rule  Scotland  as  a  vassal  kingdom. 
The  result  was  a  struggle,  calamitous  to  Scotland,  but  which,  however,  placed  in  a  con> 
ipicuous  light  the  energy  and  heroism  of  the  nation,  and  brought  forward  the  names  of 
Wallace  and  Bruce,  ever  afterwards  the  foremost  in  her  annals.  The  result  was  glorious ; 
the  concentrated  force  of  the  English  w  as  finally  defeated  in  a  pitched  battle  at  Bannock- 
burn  ;  they  were  compelled  to  ronounc  >  their  ambitious  pretensions,  and  allow  the  kingdom 
to  be  governed  by  its  native  princes. 

Under  the  turbulent  and  unfortunate  sway  of  the  Stuarts,  Scotland  continued  for  several 
centuries  without  any  prommcnt  revolution,  though  with  a  continual  tendency  to  internal 
commotion.  This  dynasty,  from  their  connexion  with  the  French  and  English  courts,  had 
acquired  the  idea  of  more  polished  manners,  and  habits  of  greater  subordination  as  due  from 
the  nobles.  Such  views  were  ill  suited  to  the  power  and  temper  of  a  Douglas,  and  many 
other  powerful  chieftains,  through  whoso  resistance  the  attempts  of  the  monarchs  were 
followed  with  disaster,  and  often  with  violent  death.  Tiie  introduction  of  the  reformed 
religion  especially,  in  open  opposition  to  the  court,  which  granted  only  a  reluctant  and  pre- 
carious toleration,  was  unfavourable  to  tho  crown,  and  fatal  to  a  princess  whose  beauty  and 
misfortunes  have  rendered  her  an  object  of  enthusiasm  to  the  gay  and  chivalric  part  of  the 
Scottish  nation. 

The  union  of  the  crowns,  by  the  accession  of  James  VI.  in  1603,  to  the  English  throne, 
produced  a  great  change,  in  itself  flattering  to  Scotland,  whose  race  of  princes  now  held 
Bway  over  all  the  three  kingdoms.  The  struggle  between  presbytery  and  prelacy  gave  rise 
to  a  conflict  which  still  powerfully  influences  the  temper  and  character  of  the  Scots.  The 
effi)rts  of  the  presbyterians,  acting  under  the  bond  of  their  League  and  Covenant,  first 
enabled  the  English  parliament  to  rear  its  head,  and  had  a  great  effect  in  turning  the  scale 
of  contest  against  the  crown.  The  Scots  revolted,  however,  at  the  excesses  of  the  inde- 
pendents, and  endeavoured  to  rear  again,  on  a  covenanted  basis,  the  fallen  crown  of  the 
Stuarts.  These  brave  but  unsuccessful  efforts  were  ill  requited  by  an  embittered  persecu- 
tion against  all  the  adherents  of  presbytery,  till  the  Revolution  finally  fixed  that  system  as 
the  established  religion  of  Scotland. 

The  union  of  the  kingdoms,  in  1707,  placed  Scotland  in  that  political  position  which  she 
has  ever  since  maintained ;  and,  by  allaying  internal  contest,  and  opening  a  free  trade  with 
the  sister  kingdom,  this  union  has  produced  results  highly  beneficial,  although  the  devoted 
attachment  of  her  mountain  tribes  to  the  exiled  Stuarts  repeatedly  impelled  them  to  attempt 
to  replace  that  house  on  the  throne ;  attempts  which,  at  one  critical  moment,  spread  alarm 
into  the  heurt  of  England. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Cbnatitution. 

The  political  system  of  Scotland  being  now  almost  completely  incorporated  witii  that  of 
England,  little  is  to  be  added  to  the  statements  given  under  the  head  of  the  sister  kingdom. 
A  few  peculiarities,  however,  may  be  deserving  of  notice. 

The  representation  allowed  to  Scotland  at  the  union  was  somewhat  scanty.  It  consisted, 
for  Uie  House  of  Commons,  of  forty-five  members,  fifteen  from  the  boroughs,  and  thirty  firam 
the  counties.  The  members  were  elected,  not  by  the  burgesses,  but  by  the  magistrates, 
who  themselves  were  appointed  chiefly  by  their  predecessors  in  office ;  thus  constituting 
close  boroughs,  in  which  a  party  having  once  obtained  a  majority  might  keep  it  in  perpetuum. 
In  county  elections,  the  right  of  voting  was  attached  to  the  possession  of  lands  held  im- 
mediately of  the  crown,  and  of  the  valued  rent  of  400?.  Scots.  But  the  feudal  superiority 
which  entitled  to  vote  was  separable  from  the  actual  possession  of  the  property.  The  original 
proprietor,  who,  perhaps,  had  a  number  of  these  votes  on  his  estate,  might  either  sell  or 
aistribute  them  among  his  friends,  so  as  to  multiply  his  own  elective  influence.  The  free- 
holders of  Scotland  amounted  to  not  quite  3000,  of  whom  a  certain  number,  for  the  reason 
stated,  had  no  actual  property  in  land.  The  peers  of  Scotland  are  represented  by  sixteen 
of  their  number,  elected  at  the  commencement  of  each  parliament    mere  are,  besides, 


upwards  of  twenty  who  are  British  peers,  and  sit  in  their  personal  right. 
Vol.  L 


SB 


4^0 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaktIH 


By  the  Roform  liill  of  183*2,  Uio  powor  of  rctuminff  mombors  to  tho  Houie  of  Coiunumi 
b  voatod  in  tho  following  citios  and  burghi  :— 


Edinburgh  . 
Glouow . . . 
Abarilaen  . . 
]>*)il«y  .... 
Duniloa  , . . . 
Oronnock  . . 


Membtn 
9 

a 

1 


.     Perth. 

'   '    leith,  i'nrlohollo,  MiiiM>lbiir( 1 

KIrkwnll,  Wick,  Durnorh,  Dlnnwill,  Tnin,  Cromarty 1 

Fnrtriwn,  liiveriieH,  Nairn,  Korrci 1 

Elfin,  CulU'ii   ilniiir,  Iiiviirnry,  KInlnrn,  Peterheail 1 

Invvrlivrvli-,  Mnntriim,  Arlirontli,  llrechlii,  Pcirflir 1 

Ciipnr,  Bt.  Ahilrow'a,  Aiiitrutliur  Knaiurniiil  Woatur,  Orall,  Kllronny,  Pltt«nwa«n  1 

Dyisrt,  Klrkiilily,  KInRliorn,  lliiriitliilanil 1 

InvorktiltliiiiR,  Diinft>rmlliiv,  KlnrtiM,  Quoennflirry,  UiilroM,  Rtirling  1 

RiMilVuw,  KiilliBrilon,  Diimbarlon,  Kllmarnnck,  I^>rt  (llaigow 1 

]laililliiRt<»>,  Duiibnr,  Nnrth  llorwick,  LaiiilKr,  joilburih 1 

.    MiilliliKnw.  Lnimrk.  Cnlklrk,  Alrilrli>,  llnnillton 1 

Ayr,  Irvine,  (,'am|ibfllllnn,  Invorary,  Obnn 1 

nunifViiiii,  Sanqiialiar,  Annnn,  Lnclimnbfln,  Kirkcudbright 1 

WIgtnn,  Now  Galloway,  Stranraer,  Whlthnrn 1 

in 

These  mombcrs  are  returned  by  tho  inhabits  ntn  payin^c  rent  to  the  value  of  10/.  and  upwardu 
The  counties  continue  each  to  elect  a  member,  except  that  only  one  in  conjunction  iR  ro 
turned  by  Elf^in  and  Nairn,  one  by  Roes  and  Cromarty,  and  one  by  Clackmannan  and  Kin* 
rose.  The  power  of  voting,  too,  is  attached  to  the  possession  ot  actual  property  yielding 
10/.  of  yearly  rent. 

Tho  judicial  administration  of  Scotland  has  always  continued  distinct  from  that  of  the 
sister  kinfrdom.  The  supreme  court,  or  Court  of  Session,  consisted  until  lately,  of  fiileen 
members,  sittinir  together,  and  deciding  in  all  civil  causes,  while  six  of  these  constituted  a 
Justiciary  Court  for  the  trial  of  criminal  cases.  Tho  trial  by  jury  was  employed  only  in  the 
Justiciary  Court,  and  in  revenue  questions,  which  are  tried  before  tho  Court  of  Exciiequer. 
But  the  supreme  court  is  now  divided  into  two  chambers,  one  of  six  and  the  other  of  seven 
members.  Trials  by  jury,  in  civil  cases,  have  been  introduced,  and  are  now  carr.'d  on,  like 
others,  under  the  direction  of  the  Court  of  Session.  The  Court  of  Exchequer,  \'..icii  con« 
aistcd  of  five  barons,  tho  Consistory  and  tho  Admiralty  Courts  have  been  abolished,  and  their 
jurisdiction  transferred  to  the  Court  of  Session. 

The  revenue  of  Scotland  has  been  hitherto  collected  separately  from  tliat  of  England, 
and  by  separate  boards  for  each  branch ;  but,  under  recent  regulations,  the  whole  has  been 
placed  under  tho  direction  of  boards  resident  in  liondon,  and  the  systems  have  been  in  a  great 
measiure  incorporated  together.    In  the  year  ending  6tli  January,  1881 — 


■ffi-  ''i  K.  .  -"i 


■4|vS'l 


The  Scottish  excise  was 
Customs  .        •        . 
Stamps         ... 
Assessed  taxes 
Post  office    .       -       - 


Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 


2,395,490 

l,a')7,000 

526,000 

292,000 

201,000 

4,771,490 


Scotland  has  always  ranked  as  a  poor  country ;  and,  for  a  long  time,  natural  obstacles  were 
enhanced  by  moral  impediments.  The  Scots  showed  an  aptitude  to  embark  in  all  scheraeu 
of  turbulence ;  but  indolence,  and  dislike  of  plain  hard  work,  might  be  recognized  as  a 
national  characteristic.  Since  the  age  arrived,  however,  when  industry  came  into  honour, 
and  when  improved  processes  were  studiously  applied  to  all  the  useful  arts,  the  Scots  have 
entered  with  peculiar  spirit  and  intelligence  into  this  new  career ;  and  in  its  prosecution 
liave  been  more  successnil,  in  some  respects,  than  their  southern  neighbours. 

The  agriculture  of  Scotland  has  to  contend  with  obstacles  which  must  be  manifest,  when 
we  look  at  its  rugged  aspect,  and  its  vast  hills  ond  morasses.  Forty  years  ago,  moreover, 
the  progress  of  Scotland  in  this  primary  art  was  generally  behind  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
empire.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  great  system  of  agricultural  improvement  was  adopted 
throughout  the  kingdom,  the  Scottish  farmers  not  only  shared  in  it,  but  carried  it  farther 
than  Uiose  of  England.  The  farmers  of  the  Lothians,  of  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  and  even  of 
the  dlatfict  on  the  Moray  Frith,  made  a  complete  reform  in  the  whole  train  of  agricultural 
operations.  They  brought  extensive  tracts  of  common  and  waste  under  cultivation,  reduced 
the  number  of  cattle  and  improved  the  breed,  cultivated  the  artificial  grasses,  dismissed 


WlTf^^W^W'^ 


PiiETin. 

10  IIouM  of  Conxnona 

Membtiii 
9 

a 

1 

t 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

I 

» 1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

::::::::::::::::::::} 

I 

1 

S3 

110  of  lOl.  and  upwards 
in  in  conjunction  iH  re- 
Clackmannan  and  Kin- 
ctual  property  yielding 

istinct  from  that  of  the 
until  lately,  of  fifteen 
c  of  those  conRtitutcd  a 
as  employed  only  in  the 
he  Court  of  Exchequer. 
:  and  the  other  of  seven 
ire  now  carr!  'd  on,  like 
Exchequer,  \'.ac\\  con- 
een  abolished,  and  their 

from  tliat  of  England, 
ns,  the  whole  has  been 
ms  have  been  in  a  great 
U— 

£ 

2,395,490 
,357,000 
520,000 
292,000 
201,000 

,771,490 


Book  L 


SCOTLAND. 


411 


I,  natural  obstacles  were 
I  embark  in  all  schemes 
Iht  be  recognized  as  a 
listry  came  into  honour, 
ful  arts,  the  Scots  have 
1  and  in  its  prosecution 
l[hbours. 

lust  be  manifest,  when 
years  ago,  moreover, 
.JiaX  of  the  rest  of  the 
Lrovement  was  adopted 
L  but  carried  it  farther 
tf  Gowrie,  and  even  of 
le  train  of  agricultural 
ler  cultivation,  reduced 
Iclal  grasses,  dismissed 


KupcrfUiouB  htndi,  and  adopted  the  um  of  machinery,  of  which  the  moat  important,  the 
lliruMJiing  machine,  waa  of  ScotUih  invention.  The  consequence  was,  that  conaiderablo 
tbrtiuioH  were  made  by  lucceisAil  fkrmers,  and  that  rents  were  in  almoat  every  instance 
troblud,  and  in  wmo  cases  raised  to  eight  or  ten  times  tlioir  former  amount  In  the  moun- 
tainous districts,  also,  a  now  system  was  introduced,  which  proved  more  profitable  to  the 
landlord.  Tho  numerous  littlo  tkrms  hitlierto  held  by  tenants  or  vassals,  woro  tlirown  into 
cxtcMiHivo  sheop-walks.  Considerable  depopulation,  m  tho  agricultural  districts,  was  the 
coiimMiucnco ;  a  groat  proportion  of  this  bravo  and  warm-hearted  race  were  forced  to  quit 
their  native  glens,  to  which  they  were  fondly  attached,  and  to  seek  support,  either  in  the 
great  manufkcturing  towns,  or  in  settlements  formed  on  tho  other  side  or  the  Atlantic. 

Tli'f  cultivated  lands  of  Scotland,  and  the  amount  of  its  produce,  after  all  these  improve- 
mcn.M,  are  still  limited.  Of  the  18,044,000  acres,  its  computed  extent  of  land,  only  5,043,000 
are  uiuier  regular  cultivation,  and  not  more  than  1,BOO,0(X)  under  grain.  Of  these  only 
140,(MM>  produce  wheat,  though  this  is  considered  the  most  profitable  rn  p,  and  is  raised  of 
gwA  (juulity,  whoro  tiio  soil  and  climato  admit  Oats,  a  hardy  plant,  ii  the  stai)le  produce 
of  (Scotland,  and  tho  food  of  its  rural  population:  it  covers  1,200,000  acr^s.  Barley  occupies 
280,(MM)  acres,  being  raised  chiefly  for  aistillation ;  but  in  tho  highei  districts  it  is  the  ruder 
gpccicH  called  bear  or  big,  Tho  chief  exportable  produce  consists  in  cattle  and  sheep,  which 
arc  8ont  in  numbers  to  the  English  markets.  Tho  sheep  are  not  equal  to  tlie  fine  English 
brui'ils,  hut  the  mutton  of  tho  Grampians  and  Cheviots  is  of  exquisite  flavour. 

'I'iio  manuf^cturiitg  industry  of  Scotland  has,  within  the  last  century,  advanced  with  pro- 
i'.if(iaiis  rtipiditv,  being  quite  equal,  compared  with  the  extent  and  population  of  tho  country, 
'x>  that  of  England.  Woollen,  the  grand  original  staple  of  England,  has  never  obtained  more 
than  a  very  partial  footing  in  Scotland.  Linen,  with  other  products  of  flax,  is  the  original 
staple  of  Scotland.  It  was  throughout  tho  country  a  household  manufacture,  and  for  house- 
hold use.  Flax,  in  almost  evorv  family,  was  diligently  spun  into  yam,  which  was  then  sent 
out  to  bo  woven  and  bleached.  The  coarser  kinds  of  linen  still  form  the  staple  of  the  eastern 
counties,  though  Dunfermline  excels  in  fine  sheeting  and  diaper.  The  linen  mode  in  Scot- 
land was  estimated,  in  1610,  at  26,457,000  yards,  value  1,205,000/.  The  increase  in  the 
manufacture  has  sinco  been  so  great,  that  in  1831,  Dundee  alone  exported  more  than 
67,0(K),(K)0  yards !  By  far  the  greater  proportion  of  tho  raw  material  is  imported,  very  little 
hemp  or  flax  being  p^rown  either  in  Scotland  or  England ;  almost  all  tho  former,  and  more 
than  half  the  latter,  is  brought  from  Russia,  the  rest  of  the  flax  ttom  Holland,  Flanders,  and 
Germany, 

Tho  cotton  manufacture,  though  of  comparatively  recent  introduction,  has,  in  Scotland, 
no  less  than  in  England,  risen  to  be  the  firat  in  point  of  magnitude.  Glasgow  and  Paisley 
produce  fabrics  carried  to  an  extreme  de^ee  of  fineness.  The  muslin  of  Paisley  is  one  of 
the  most  delicate  ikbrics  existing.  The  printing  of  cottons,  particularly  shawls,  is  also  carried 
on  to  a  greater  proportional  extent  in  Scotlanuthan  in  England.  The  total  quantity  of  cotton 
wool  spun  in  Scotland  in  1832,  amounted  to  24,500,000  lbs.  of  the  value  of  about  4,000,0002. 

Distillation  of  spirits  from  grain  has  been  long  a  characteristic  branch  of  Scottish  industry ; 
and  in  the  highland  districts,  the  quality  of  the  article  has  been  carried  to  very  great  per- 
fection. It  has  been  much  cramped  by  fiscal  restrictions,  which  have,  of  late,  been  almost 
entirely  abolished.  In  the  first  seven  years  of  the  present  century,  the  quantity  paying  duty 
averaged  2,000,000  gallons ;  it  then  gradually  approached  to  4,000,000 ;  but  in  1824,  upon 
the  reduction  of  the  duty,  it  suddenly  increased  to  above  5,000,000)  and  in  1830  it  rose  to 
6,070,000. 

Scotland  has  various  other  ordinary  manufactures,  and  generally  supplies  itself  with  all 
the  common  necessaries  of  life.  The  ale  of  Edinburgh  and  of  some  Scottish  towns  enjoys 
reputation  even  out  of  Scotland.  In  1829,  there  were  brewed  ui  Scotland  110,000  gallons 
of  strong  beer,  and  229,000  of  table  beer.  Glass  is  made  to  the  extent  of  nearly  double  the 
consumption  of  the  country ;  the  surplus  being  exported,  chiefly  to  Ireland.  Salt,  which 
does  not  exist  in  a  mineral  form,  is  largely  extracted  from  sea-water  by  boiling ;  and  though 
not  equal  in  quality  to  English  rock  salt,  nor  fit  for  use  in  the  fisheries,  its  cheapness  recom- 
mends it  for  common  culinary  purposes.  Candles,  scap,  starch,  leather,  paper,  are  produced 
in  quantity  sufficient  for  the  supply  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1829,  the  produce  was  5,731,000 
lbs.  tallow  candles;  12,721,000  lbs.  hard  soap,  and  2,332,000  lbs.  soft  soap;  812,000  lbs. 
starch;  6,002,000 lbs.  hides;  7,162,000 lbs.  paper. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Scotland  is  chiefly  of  an  humble  and  usefiil  description.  Its  moun- 
tains are  not  metalliferous.  In  Lanark  and  Dumfries  is  a  large  deposit  of  lead  mixed  with 
silver,  which,  together  with  some  smaller  mines  in  the  Hebrides,  is  supposed  to  yield  136,0001. 
in  the  former  metal,  and  10,0002.  in  the  latter.  Ironstone  occurs  extensively  in  the  upper 
coal  districts.  In  1825,  the  annual  production  of  pig  iron  in  Scotland  was  29,200  tons, 
which  is  not,  however,  sufficient  to  supply  the  founueries  at  Carron  and  elsewhere.  Those 
at  Carron  are  considerable,  the  casting  biemg  chiefly  of  ordnance,  grates,  and  culinary  ves- 
rIs.  Coal,  lime,  and  stone,  compose  Uie  solid  mineral  wealth  of  Scotland.  The  great  coal- 
field extends  in  a  diagonal  line  of  100  miles  along  the  friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth ;  beginning 


412 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAIMIY. 


Paut  ni 


'•i* 


^      fi 


i\i 


ffoml  (^utility,  thou((l)  nut  oqual  Ut 
Lima  iH  t\irniiiho(i  abumlantly,  bo 
■idoi  of  the  Forth ;  ffranitn,  in  Al 


■outh  of  Uio  former,  and  ending;  north  of  the  Inttor.    It  ia  immenat^ly  rich  in  coal  i)f  |)rotti 

'  til  thn  bflHt  Ktitfliah.     A  lar^e  ({uantity  ia  «xport«Ni  to  Iri'lmul. 
both  fur  biiiitlinif  and  inanum.     Froaatone,  chiofly  on  IwtJi 
Abordeonahiro ;  alatc,  in  the  Hebridoa  and  Argyloahiro,  alfbrd 
excellent  inatoriala  ror  buildinif. 

The  tlahrrioa  turm  a  conaidurablo  branch  of  induatry  in  Scotland ;  the  herrinff,  cod,  and 
haddock  abound  on  varioua  itarta  of  ita  ahorea.  The  Dutch  lonff  monnpoliaod  thi<  (front 
nortliorn  hnrrin^  bank;  and,  by  a  auporior  mode  of  cure,  obtainfMra  prolomnco  in  nil  mar- 
kota.  The  Britiah  ffovemment,  however,  haa  for  aome  time  ma«ln  groat  nxortionH  for  tlio 
promotion  of  tlio  Scottiah  flaheriea ;  and  there  liaa  been  a  wondortUl  incroaao  in  tho  (jtmntity 
caught,  and  n  correspond in(f  iinpmvninont  in  tho  procoaaoa  of  cure.  Tho  former,  wliich  in 
181ft  waa  only  KMMNK)  barroU,  had  ribim  in  IHIM)  to  330,()(N),  of  which  'i.M7,(NH)  wnro  i!X|Kirted. 
In  tho  Mutno  yoar,  63,ft00cwt  of  cod  wero  curod  in  a  driod  atato,  ami  r>4(M)cwt.  in  pickle; 
of  tho  forninr,  'J1),000  wero  exported.  Salmon,  taken  in  all  the  conHidornblo  rivers,  nn<l  kept 
fVoah  by  Iminff  ixtckod  in  ico,  chiefly  supplioa  tho  London  markot.  Tho  whaln  tlHliory  m 
Greenland  and  Davia'a  Btraita  hna  for  aomo  time  boon  proaocutod  by  Scotland  with  incroaaed 
activity.  In  the  nine  yeara  ending  in  1818,  aho  aont  at  an  average  only  4<)  ahipa :  in  1890, 
aho  aoni  47 ;  tho  produce  of  which  was  0613  tuns  of  oil.  Kelp  was  in  extensive  demand 
during  tho  lato  war;  but  the  repeal  of  tho  duty  on  oalt,  and  tho  reduction  of  tlio  duty  on 
barilla,  hnvo  ruinod  this  branch  ot  industry. 

Tho  rolativo  foreign  commerce  of  tho  principal  porta  of  Scotland  ia  exhibited  in  the  ful> 
Icwing  Table  :— 


Ahi'rtlren.  ... 

Rii'nrai 

niinduo 

Olmiiaw 

OranRnmouth 
arconoGk.... 


Tonniin 
tnll<ciO. 


4A,90O 

e.ioo 

aiMxio 

41,1(10 

»i,:ino 

30,9(10 


I'riiiluca  uf 

CuMlllDl 

inlWU. 


£ 

S9.400 

S,4(M 

08,000 

as.ono 

431,000 


Inv«rneM...> 

Irvine 

Leitli 

MniitroM.... 

P«rlh 

Poit  Olaigow 


m 


7,300 
13,300 
M,H0O 
96,3nO 
1A,100 

0,000 


Priiclure  at 

Jn  IH^ 

£ 

8,000 

4.40(1 

(l,H(JO 

44,4(10 

(1,000 

94«,(I00 


Commerce,  till  tho  union  of  tho  crowns,  and  even  of  tho  kingdoms,  could  scarcely  bo  con< 
Biderod  as  existing  in  Scotland ;  but  it  has  since  been  cultiviitocl  with  great  ardour  and  cnteN 
prise.  One  branch  of  commercial  intorcourso  is  that  with  hor  opulent  sister  kingdom.  In 
England  sho  finds  a  market  for  cattle,  hor  chief  agricultural  surplus ;  for  her  wool,  such  u 
it  is ;  for  hor  sail-cloth  and  other  coarse  fabrics  from  flax  ind  liemp ;  for  part  of  her  fine 
calicoes  and  muslins,  &c.  In  return,  she  receives  almost  all  tho  woollen  cloth,  and  n  greni 
part  of  tho  silk  consumed  by  her;  hardware  and  cutlery  of  ivory  kind ;  tea  and  other  Eiul 
India  goods ;  and  through  this  channel  a  part  of  all  tho  forei^  luxuries  which  she  requires. 
Tho  trade  with  Ireland  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  rAi;!mnge  of  coal  and  iron  for  oats  and 
cattle.  That  with  the  Baltic,  particularly  Russia,  is  very  active ;  the  eastern  part  of  the 
kingdom  deriving  thence  the  hemp  and  flax,  which  form  tho  material  of  her  staple  manu- 
fkcture ;  also  tiinoer,  iron,  and  the  other  bulky  and  usefUl  staples  of  that  trade.  Having 
few  articles  of  her  own  with  which  this  market  is  not  already  stocked,  the  payment  is  made 
chiefly  in  bullion  and  colonial  produce.  The  flourishing  trade  carried  on  fVom  the  west  coast 
with  America  and  the  West  Indies,  is  supported  by  the  export  of  cottons,  linen,  wearing; 
apparel,  and  other  commodities ;  and  by  the  import  of  cotton,  sugar,  rum,  and  tho  various 
luxuries  of  those  fertile  regions.  The  Mediterranean  trade  is  not  neglected ;  and  since  the 
opening  of  that  to  India,  Greenock  has  adventured  into  it  with  considerable  succesei. 

The  roads,  which  half  a  century  ago  were  almost  impassable,  are  now,  through  all  the 
Lowlands,  little  inferior  to  those  of  England.  Afler  the  rebellion  of  1745,  government  con- 
structed excellent  roads  into  the  heart  of  the  Highlands  as  far  as  Inverness ;  and  in  1803,  a 
body  of  commissioners  was  appointed  by  government,  for  improving  the  roods  of  the  north 
of  Scotland.  They  proceeded  upon  the  principle,  that  half  tne  expense  must  in  every  ctae 
be  defrayed  by  the  county  proprietors,  and  in  eighteen  years  good  roads  were  formed  into 
the  remotest  tracts  of  Inverness,  Skye,  Ross,  and  even  to  the  ferthest  point  of  Caithness. 

Artificial  navigation  meets  with  peculiar  obstructions  from  the  ruggedness  of  the  surface, 
and  hence  canals  have  never  become  very  numerous.  The  "Great  Canal,"  admits  vessels 
of  considerable  size  to  pass  from  the  Frith  of  Forth  to  that  of  Clyde,  and  thus  unite  the  Ger- 
man and  Atlantic  oceans.  Branches  to  Glasgow  and  to  the  fine  coal-field  at  Monkland  have 
been  advantageously  opened.  The  Union  Canal,  completed  at  an  e.xpense  of  nearly  400,000/,, 
coimects  the  Great  Canal,  near  its  eastern  point,  with  Edinburgh,  by  a  line  of  thirty  miles 
through  a  country  very  rich  in  coal  and  lime.  The  Caledonian  Canal,  uniting  the  chain  of 
lakes  which  crosses  Scotland  diagonally  through  the  counties  of  Inverness  and  Argyie, 

jtYlmavci    A«*An    aU.*^  /\4    raini*  f.%  naoa    fi^nm  tha   aoot  nnaat    intn  ihn    Atlontin     tirifKmit    ononnntRT' 

ing  the  perils  of  the  Pentland  Frith  and  Cape  Wrath.    It  was  finished  in  1822,  at  an 
expense  of  nearly  1,000,0001.  sterling,  entirely  definyed  by  govemment   The  gates  of  the 


Part  HI 

•ly  rich  in  coal  »)f  protti 
ity  i»  (txpnrtml  Id  in'latui. 
■oeiitono,  chiofly  on  Iwih 
Bi  and  Arifyloahiro,  atfbrd 

id ;  the  herrinff,  cml,  and 
;  monnpoiiMNl  tlio  Ktonl 

a  protornnco  in  nil  mar- 
n  (frcat  nxortiutiH  for  tlin 
1  incroam)  in  tho  (jimntity 
J,  Tho  tbrmor,  wliich  in 
h  IKIT.OOO  wore  oxix)rt«|. 
and  54(Nlcwt.  in  piolcie; 
Hidorablo  riven,  ami  kept 
t  Tho  whain  flHhrry  m 
'  Scotland  with  incrooMd 

only  40  ahipfl :  in  1890, 
rna  in  extensive  domand 
reduction  of  t)io  duty  on 

id  is  exhibited  in  the  fol- 


^^m* 

Pr<Hliii*of 
Cualdmi 
in  tH'.l». 

£ 

7,M0 

S,OflO 

13,300 

4.400 

M,8Q0 

(I.HIIO 

96,300 

44,4110 

16,100 

0,000 

0,iJOO 

948,000 

IB,  could  8carcely  bo  con- 
h  ffrcat  ardour  and  enter- 
ilont  sister  kin(fdoin.  In 
18 ;  for  her  wool,  such  u 
mp ;  for  part  of  her  fine 
x)ilen  cloth,  and  a  ^oat 
dnd  ;  tea  and  othtr  Eut 
iries  which  she  rcqiiirea. 
!oal  and  iron  for  oats  and 

the  eastern  part  of  the 
rial  of  her  staple  manu- 

of  that  trade.  Having 
ed,  the  payment  is  made 
sd  on  from  the  west  coast 
r  cottons,  linen,  wearing 
ar,  rum,  and  tho  various 
legflected ;  and  since  the 
iderable  success, 
e  now,  throuph  all  the 
■  1745,  government  con- 
vemess ;  and  in  1803,  a 

the  roods  of  the  north 
snse  must  in  every  case 

ruads  were  formed  into 
3t  point  of  Caithness, 
f  gedness  of  the  surface, 
t  Canal,"  admits  vessels 
,  and  thus  unite  the  Ger- 
■field  at  Monkland  have 
ense  of  nearly  400,000/.| 
tiy  a  line  of  thirty  mile* 
81,  uniting  the  chain  of 

Inverness  and  Argyle, 
(♦i#»  uriHiQiit  oncounter- 

indahecfitr  18^,  at  an 
lent   The  cates  of  the 


Book  T. 


SCOTLAND. 


418 


lockH  aro  of  iron;  tna  oxpenM  of  each  lock  wm  fKNNM.  Tlie  lucks  are  twonty-thrce  in  all, 
«i(fht  of  which,  luukina  down  tVom  Uich  llil,  where  it  opens  intti  tlie  western  sea,  aro  called 
by  sailors  the  "  stair  c*  Neptune."  Tho  canal  w  flfty  foot  brood ;  length  twonty-lwo  niilea, 
with  turty  miles  uf  lake  navigatiun. 

Srcrr.  VI. — Civil  mul  Social  SlaU. 
Of  the  population  of  Hcolland  an  estimate  wn  first  attempted  in  tho  year  17^5,  when  it 
was  computed  to  bo  1,205,U8().  The  reiturts  ot  the  clergy  fur  tho  "  Htatistical  Account," 
bfltwtxMi  17U2  and  17UM,  gave  1,020,41)*^ ;  which  was  raiscu  by  the  govcrnmont  uniiKii'riition 
of  IHtll  to  1,0(M>,()UU.  'nio  ceiutUM  of  iHll  gave  1,8(I0,(NN);  which  was  raised  by  that  of 
1821  to  V2,()U:i,4M).     In  IWil,  it  was  2,:Hi:),84'J. 

In  p<  1 1  lit  of  disposition,  the  Hcots  aro  a  grave,  serious,  and  reflecting  people;  but  Ixildr 
enterprising,  ainoitious,  and  imbued  with  a  dcop-rooted  dotennination  to  pursuu  tho  objccta 
of  their  dekire,  and  re\w\  tliuse  of  their  aversion.  Under  these  impulses,  they  i]uit,  without 
much  regret,  a  land  Which  affords  few  opportunities  of  distinction,  and  seek,  either  in  the 
nietro|)o!is  and  commercial  towns  of  England,  or  in  tiie  most  distant  transmarine  regions,  tiiat 
wealtli  and  ikme  which  they  eagerly  covet;  yet,  amid  this  distance  and  these  eager  pursuits, 
their  liopea  and  affections  remain  fixed  on  the  land  of  their  nativity ;  and  they  UHiiiilly  seek 
toipemi  the  evening  of  their  days  in  Scotland.  The  Scots  appear  naturnjiy  bravo;  a(|uality 
which  is  particularly  observable  among  tho  highland  tribeN,  and  by  which  thoy  rendered 
themselves  furmidable,  first  under  Montrose,  and  aflerwards  in  the  rebellion  against  tho  house 
of  Hanover.  Since  they  were  conciliated  by  tho  wise  mcasureH  of  Pitt,  thoy  have  crowded 
into  the  British  army,  and  funned  some  of  its  bravest  rngiincnts.  Among  the  lower  clatwcs, 
crimes  against  the  order  of  society  are  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence,  and  there  is  loss 
necessity  for  capital  punishment;  there  is  also  less  of  extreme  disHolutcncHs  among  the  higher 
ranks.  Among  the  Scottish  females,  in  particular,  tho  obligations  of  tho  marriugt;  tie  are 
much  more  seldom  disregnnled ;  and  if  the  other  sex  too  oflcn  abuse  the  license  which  public 
manners  aro  supposed  to  allow,  they  are  at  least  obliged  to  observe  some  outward  ap|)ear- 
ances.  Tho  prido  of  birth  is  still  prevalent,  particidarly  among  the  highland  clans ;  and  it 
ii  accompaniod  with  a  general  ambition  to  rise  above  their  original  station,  and  a  propensity, 
with  that  view,  to  spend  tlioir  m(xlerato  wealth  rather  in  outward  show  than  in  solid  com- 
fort Tho  sister  nations  accuse  the  Scots  as  selfish,  yet  Scotsmen  raised  to  power  have  not 
ihown  any  backwardness,  either  in  the  general  ofHces  of  humanity,  or  to  promote  the  pro*> 
perity  of  their  country  and  countrymen. 

To  their  religious  (luties  the  Scots  people  have  always  shown  an  exemplary  attention.  In 
catholic  times,  tho  Romish  church  in  Scotland  enjoyed  moro  influence,  and  had  acquired  a 
much  greater  proportion  of  the  national  wealth,  than  in  England.  But  they  entered  upon 
the  cause  of  reform  with  un  ardent  zeal,  which  lefl  behind  it  that  of  all  their  ncighlmura. 
After  a  desperate  struggle,  on  which,  for  nearly  a  century,  tho  political  destinies  of  the  king- 
dom depenaed,  they  obtained  their  favourite  form  of  presbytery,  the  most  remote  from  that 
pompous  ritual,  for  which  they  have  entertained  tho  most  rooted  abhorrence.  Tho  principle 
of  presbytery  consists  in  tho  complete  equality  of  all  its  clerical  members,  who  have  each  a 
separate  pariah,  of  which  they  perform  all  the  ecclesiastical  functions.  The  title  of  bishop, 
ao  long  connected  with  wealth  and  power,  has  been  rejected,  and  that  of  minister  Hubsti- 
tuted.  In  the  management  of  the  poor,  and  some  church  functions,  tho  minister  is  assisted 
by  a  body  of  lay  members  called  elders,  who  constitute  the  kirk  session.  The  government 
of  the  church  consists  in  presbyteries  formed  by  the  meeting  of  tho  ministers  of  a  certain 
district,  with  lay  members  from  each  session,  the  last  of  whom,  however,  attend  only  occa- 
sionally. A  synod  is  formed  by  the  union  of  several  presbyteries ;  and  the  General  Assent- 
My  is  composed  of  deputies,  partly  clerical  and  partly  lay,  from  each  presbytery  and  borough. 
They  meet  every  year,  and  an  appeal  lies  to  them  upon*  every  subject ;  but  tlie  laws  of  the 
thurch,  though  proposed  in  the  Assembly,  can  be  passed  only  by  a  majority  of  presbyteries, 
after  being  debated  in  each.  The  king  sends  a  Commissioner,  who  is  present  at  tlio  debates 
of  the  Assembly,  and  seems  even  to  claim  a  right  of  constituting  and  dissolving  it ;  but  this 
is  denied  by  the  church  itself,  which  acknowledges  no  human  head,  and  accounts  itself  and 
the  state  as  powers  entirely  independent. 

The  nobles  availed  themselves  of  the  downfall  of  the  catholic  establishment,  to  appro- 
priate nearly  the  whole  of  tho  immense  income  with  which  it  had  been  endowod.  They 
took  at  first  not  only  tlie  lands,  but  the  tithes ;  and  even  when  obliged  to  make  a  provision 
for  the  presbyterian  clergy  out  of  the  latter,  they  retained  part,  valud  oflen  at  a  very  low 
nte,  but  subject  to  be  called  upon  if  needed.  Thus  the  Scots  clergy  have  enjoyed  only 
Buch  incomes  as  enabled  them,  with  strict  economy,  to  maintain  their  place  m  the  middle 
nmk  of  society.  When  even  this  became  impossible  under  the  increased  expense  of  living, 
atunnpnfntions  were  "Tanted  out  of  the  (itnds-  or  valued  tithes '  and  where  these  weirs 
exhausted,  the  legislature  have  come  forward,  and  raised  the  lowest  stipend  to  1501.  a  year. 
No  body  of  clergy  have  maintained  a  fairer  character,  or  more  efficienUy  performed  theii 
important  duties,  than  tJiose  of  the  Scottish  church. 

35* 


414 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pamt in. 


i.m 


The  dissenters  from  the  Scottish  church  consist  chiefly  of  pei-sons  zealously  attached  tc 
presbytery,  and  who  have  seceded  because  they  considered  its  principles  as  not  maintained 
m  sufficient  purity  within  the  establishment.  Their  chief  complaint  is  against  the  system 
of  patronage  exercised  by  the  landed  interest,  who  present  generally  to  the  vacant  parishes. 
Two  great  bodies,  into  which  Uiey  were  formerly  divided  on  the  subject  of  the  burgher  oath, 
have,  since  tlie  abolition  of  that  test,  been  united  into  what  is  called  tlie  Associate  Synod. 
A  considerable  proportion,  especially  of  the  higher  ranks,  is  attached  to  episcopacy,  either 
as  it  was  established  in  Scotland  under  the  Stuarts,  or  as  it  now  exists  in  England ;  indeed, 
an  union  has  been  recently  formed  between  these  once  separate  branches.  None  of  the 
ether  sects,  independents,  baptists,  methodists,  &c.  are  numerous ;  and  the  Roman  catholics 
consist  chiefly  of  emigrants  tirom  Ireland,  though  their  form  of  religion  still  prevails  in  some 
of  the  remote  highland  districts. 

Literature,  soon  after  its  revival  in  Europe,  was  cultivated  in  Scotland  with  peculiar 
ardour.  Even  in  the  age  of  scliolastic  pursuits.  Duns  Scotus  and  Crichton  were  pre-emi- 
nently famed  throughout  the  Continent  When  the  sounder  taste  for  classical  knowledge 
followed,  Buchanan  acquired  the  reputation  of  writing  Latin  with  great  purity.  Letters 
were  almost  entirely  suppressed  during  the  subsequent  perio<l,  marked  by  a  conflict  between 
a  licentious  tyranny  and  an  austere  religious  party,  who  condemned  or  despised  the  exer- 
tions of  intellect  and  the  creations  of  fiincy ;  and  literature  lay  dormant  till  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  when  Scotland,  with  a  church  and  universities  alike  poorly  endowed,  produced 
as  illustrious  a  constellation  of  writers  as  had  been  called  forth  by  the  most  lavish  patronage 
in  the  great  European  capitals.  We  shall  only  mention,  in  history,  Robertson  and  Hume; 
in  moral  and  political  philosophy,  Hume,  Reid,  Smith,  Ferguson,  Kames,  Stewart,  Brown ; 
divinity,  Blair,  Campbell,  Macknight;  poetry,  Home,  Thomson,  Beattie,  Burns;  physical 
science,  Gregory,  Black,  Playfkir,  Leslie.  In  the  present  generation,  the  most  popular  of 
fictitious  writings,  and  one  of  the  most  able  periodical  works  known  in  modern  times,  have 
issued  from  the  Edinburgh  press. 

The  universities  of  Scotland  have  been  a  powerful  instrument  in  supporting  her  literary 
fame.  Though  not  richly  endowed,  the  fees  of  well-attended  classes  aflford  a  liberal  income, 
and  have  enabled  them  to  attract  the  most  learned  among  the  clergy ;  while,  in  England,  a 
wealthy  church  draws  eminent  scholars  from  the  universities.  The  students  live  generally 
in  the  towns,  without  any  check  on  their  private  conduct,  or  even  any  obligation  to  attend- 
ance, except  what  arises  from  the  dread  of  the  refusal  of  a  certiflcate  at  the  close.  The 
chief  exertion  of  the  professors  is  bestowed  on  their  lectures,  by  which  they  hope  to  attract 
students  to  thej  class  and  seminary.  The  more  diligent  combme  with  them  examinations 
and  exercises,  but  not  on  the  same  systematic  and  searching  plan  as  in  England ;  and  the 
degrees  are  conferred,  in  many  instances,  with  culpable  laxity.  A  much  greater  proportion 
of  the  people  receive  a  college  education  than  in  England.  The  church  exacts  an  attend- 
ance of  eight  years ;  four  for  languages  and  philosophy,  and  four  for  divinity :  the  faculty 
of  medicine  requires  also  several  years ;  and  the  gentry  and  higher  grades  of  the  middle 
ranks  in  general  consider  an  attendance  on  the  elementary  classes  as  an  essential  part  ot 
education. 

The  public  libraries  are  not  rich.  That  belonging  to  the  advocates  or  barristers  of  Edin- 
burgh contains  upwards  of  100,000  volumes,  among  which  there  are  ample  materials,  both 
printed  and  in  manuscript,  for  elucidating  the  national  history.  The  university  library  is 
half  as  large ;  and  those  of  Glasgow,  King's  College  Aberdeen,  and  St.  Andrew's,  are  highly 
respectable.    Each  of  these  universities  can  claim  a  copy  of  every  new  work. 

Scotland  has  a  native  music,  simple  and  pathetic,  expressive  of  rural  feelings  and  emotions, 
to  which  she  is  fondly  attached.  Golf  ana  foot-ball  are  the  only  amusements  that  can  be 
deemed  strictly  national.  Skating,  and  curling,  or  the  rolling  of  smooth  stones  upon  the 
ice,  are  also  pursued  with  great  ardour  during  the  season  that  admits  of  those  amusements. 
The  recreations  of  the  higher  ranks  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  England.  Dancing  is  prac- 
tised with  peculiar  ardour,  especially  by  the  Highlanders,  who  have  favourite  national  steps 
and  movements. 

The  Highlanders  retain  the  remnants  of  a  national  costume  peculiar  to  themselves ;  the 
tartan,  a  mixture  of  woollen  and  linen  cloth,  adorned  with  brilliant  stripes  variously  crossing 
each  other,  and  marking  the  distinctions  of  the  clans ;  the  kilt,  or  short  petticoat,  worn  by 
the  men,  the  hose  fastened  below  the  knee,  which  is  lefl  bare ;  and  the  bonnet,  which  in 
another  shape  is  also  still  worn  by  the  shepherds  of  the  border. 

In  regard  to  food,  the  Scots,  in  general,  are  temperate.  Even  the  rich  attach  less  unporl 
ance  than  their  southern  neighbours  to  the  gratifications  of  the  palate.  The  peasantry,  pre- 
viously to  the  rise  of  wages,  which  took  place  about  thirty  years  ago,  were  content  witii  the 
hardest  iiire.  Neither  wheaten  broad  nor  animal  food  formed  part  of  their  ordinary  diet 
Oatmeal,  not  accounted  in  the  south  of  England  an  article  of  food  for  human  beings,  was 
prepared  here  under  the  forms  of  cakes  or  porridge,  and  constituted  the  chief  means  of  sub- 
eistence.  To  this  was  occasionally  added  barley  broth,  with  j^eens  or  kail,  the  chief  pro- 
duce of  their  little  gardens.    The  Scots  have  some  dishes  which  they  cherLsii  with  national 


paut  hi. 

zealously  attached  tc 
lies  as  not  maintained 
s  against  the  system 
3  the  vacant  parishes. 
:t  of  the  burgher  oath, 
ttie  Associate  Synod, 

to  episcopacy,  either 
I  in  England ;  indeed, 
inches.    None  of  the 

the  Roman  catholics 
1  still  prevails  in  some 

otland  with  peculiar 
ichton  were  pre-emi- 
:  classical  knowledge 
rrcat  purity.  Letters 
by  a  conflict  between 
or  despised  the  excr- 
it  till  the  middle  of  the 
•ly  endowed,  produced 
most  lavish  patronage 
Robertson  and  Hume ; 
mes,  Stewart,  Brown ; 
attie.  Burns;  physical 
I,  the  most  popular  of 
in  modern  times,  have 

supporting  her  literary 

mord  a  liberal  income, 

;  while,  in  England,  a 

tudenta  live  generally 

y  obligation  to  attend- 

te  at  the  close.    The 

ih  they  hope  to  attract 

th  them  examinations 

in  England ;  and  the 

jch  greater  proportion 

urch  exacts  an  attend- 

divinity:  the  faculty 

grades  of  the  middle 

an  essential  partot 

or  barristers  of  Edin- 

ample  materials,  botii 

university  library  is 

Andrew's,  are  highly 

w  work. 

feelings  and  emotions, 
lUsements  that  can  be 
looth  stones  upon  the 
of  those  amusements. 
Dancing  is  prac- 
.vourite  national  steps 


Rook  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


iV 


ni. 


IT  to  themselves ;  the 

pes  variously  crossing 

wt  petticoat,  worn  by 

the  bonnet,  which  in 

ch  attach  less  import 
The  peasantry,  pre- 
vere  content  with  the 
if  their  ordinary  diet 
ir  human  beings,  was 
chief  means  of  sub- 
_  kail,  tlie  chief  pro- 
cheri^  with  national 


enthusiasm,  and  among  which  the  haggis  holds  the  foremoat  place.  This  is  a  mixture  of 
oatmeal,  fat,  liver,  ana  onion,  boiled  up  m  the  bag  which  composed  the  stomach  of  the  ani- 
mal. They  have,  moreover,  hotch-potch,  and  other  soups,  the  merit  of  which  has  been 
acknowledged  by  English  palates. 

Sect.  VIL — Local  Geography. 

The  following  is  a  tablo  of  the  extent,  population,  and  rental  in  the  different  counties  of 
Scotland,  derived  from  agricultural  reports  and  parliamentary  returns : — 


Counllei. 


Aberdeen 

Argyle 

Ayr 

Banff 

Berwick 

Bute 

Calthneu 

ClockmannBn....... 

OuDiliarton 

Dumflrtei 

Edinburgh 

Elgin 

Fife 

Forfbr 

Haddington 

Inverness 

Kincardine  

Kinross 

Kirkcudbright 

Lanark 

Linlithgow 

Nairn 

Orkney  and  Shetland 

Peebles  

Perth 

Renfrew 

Ron  and  Cromarty. . 

Roxburgh 

Selkirk 

Btirlins 

Sutherland 

Wigton 


MUei. 


1,000 
8,139 

],03g 

645 

lei 

687 

48 

338 

1,393 

354 

473 

467 


373 

4,U54 

380 

72 

831) 

043 

130 

195 

1,380 

319 

3,588 

225 

3,885 

715 

363 

489 

1,754 

45U 


under  Cul* 
tintlon. 


451,000 
870,000 

335,000 

133,000 
137,000 
39,000 
03,000 
33,000 
54,000 
333,000 

145,000 

131,000 

309,000 

360,000 

139,000 

344.000 

93,000 

37,000 

168,000 

371,000 

57,000 
37,000 
46,000 
34,000 
580,000 

73,000 
170,000 

306,000 

10,000 
105,000 
63,000 

101,000 


Rental  In 
1811. 


HflUMt 

iiiasi. 


£ 

301,000 
207,000 

369,000 

85,000 
380,000 
30,000 
33,000 
39,000 
63,000 
364,000 

713,000 

66,000 

378,000 

336,000 

313,000 
172,000 
88,000 
34,000 
193,000 

616,000 

01.000 
13,000 
30,000 
60,000 
513,000 

334,00r 
111,000 

343,000 

41,000 

307,000 

88,000 

131,000 


37,579 
10,059 

17,843 

8,071 
5,803 
3,305 
5,319 
3,145 
3,536 
13,348 

19,077 

8,668 

18,944 

10,813 

6,830 
17,055 

5,894 


6,441 

47,016 

3,308 

9,176 

1,750 

86,718 

10,490 
13,638 

6,587 

1,081 

8,084 
4,654 

5,819 


tionin 
1831. 


177,651 
101,435 

145,055 

48,604 
34,048 
14,151 
34,539 
14,729 
33,311 
73,770 

319,598 

34,831 

188,839 

139,600 

36,145 
!t4,797 
31,431 
9,073 
40,599 

316,810 

33,391 

0,354 

58,339 

10.578 

143,894 

133,443 

74,830 

43,663 

6,883 
73,031 
35,518 

36,318 


Tnna,  wilh  FepuUlion  is  1831. 


3,633 

11,666 

136,303 

5,580 

6,130 


Aberdeen...  58,019 

Campbellton  9,473 

(Ayr 7,600 

Mrvine 5,800 

Banff 3,711 

Dunse 3,469 

Rothesay  . . .  4,819 

Thurso 4,679 

Clackmannan    4,300 
Dumbarton 
Duinft  ies  • . 
(  Kdlnburgh 
j  Dalkeith.. 

Elgin 

( Cupar 6,493 

JKirkaldy...  5,034 

i  Dundee ....  45,355 

)  Forfar 7,949 

Haddington .  5,883 

InvcrnciiS . . .  15,334 

Rervio 1,137 

Kinross 8,917 

Kirkcudbright!  3,511 

j  Glasgow  . . .  303,436 

1^ Lanark ....  7,678 

Linlithgow  .  4,874 

Nairn 3,886 

Kirkwall  . . .  3,065 

Peebles 3,750 

Perth 30,016 

Paisley....  57,466 
Port  Glasgow  5,193 

Dingwall  . .  3,134 

Cromarty..  3,901 

Kelso 4,939 

Hawick....  4,970 

Selkirk 3,833 

Stirling 8,340 

Dornoch ....  SKA 

)  Wigton ....  9,337 

\  Portpatrick  3,339 


Peterhead . . .  6,098 
Inverary ....  3,133 
Kilmarnock .  18,093 

Cullen 1,503 

Lauder 3,063 

Wick 9.850 

Alloa 6,379 

Sanquhar...    3,368 

Leith 35,8,'S3 

Musselburgh     8,961 

Forres 3,895 

St.  Andrew's  5,631 
Dunfcrnilinu  17,068 
Montrose  . . .  13,055 
Arbroath....  6,660 
Dunbar 4,735 


Hamilton 


Lerwick  . . 

Dumblane. 
Greenock.. 
Renfrew  . . 
Tain 


0,503 


2,750 

3,338 

27,571 

8,133 

3,078 


Jedburgh ....    5,647 


Falkirk..  < 
Stranraer  , 


12,743 
3,331 


In  treatmg  of  Scotland  in  detail,  we  shall  divide  it  into  three  constituent  parts : — 1.  The 
Lowland  counties ;  2.  The  Highland  counties ;  '6.  The  Islands. 

SuBSEOT.  1. — The  Lowland  Counties. 

The  whole  of  the  south  of  Scotland,  though  diversified  by  elevated  ranges  of  hills,  is 
always  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Lowltmds.  It  presents,  however,  three  districts  of 
opposite  character : — 1.  The  agricultural  counties  along  the  German  Ocean  and  the  Frith 
of  Forth ;  2.  The  southern  pastoral  counties ;  3.  The  manufacturing  counties  of  the  west 

The  agricultural  district  of  southern  Scotland  consists  of  the  counties  of  Berwick  (for- 
merly the  Merse),  of  Haddington,  Edinburgh,  and  Linlithgow  (fully  as  familiar  under  the 
appellations  of  East,  Mid,  and  West  Lothian),  and  of  Stirling,  which  touches  westward  on 
the  highland  bof;ndary.  Even  of  this  range,  the  cultivated  part  is  closely  hemmed  in  by 
Lammermoor,  a  low,  broad,  moorish  ridge,  which  fills  all  the  eastern  interior,  and  has  even 
a  consiaerable  extent  along  the  shore  of  the  German  Ocean. 

The  cultivated  part  of  Berwickshire  consists  of  the  Merse,  extending  chiefly  along  the 
Tweed,  and  reaching  to  the  sea.  Above  it  is  Lauderdale,  or  the  Valley  of  the  Lauder, 
which  is  fitted  chiefly  for  grazing,  and  touches  closely  on  the  heaths  of  Lammermoor.  Ber- 
wick-upon-Tweed, tliough  its  .harbour  be  indifferent,  is  the  chief  channel  for  exporting  the 
valuable  produce  of  the  Merse,  to  the  annual  amount,  it  is  mid,  of  80,000  bolls  of  grain. 
The  Birong  wall  and  deep  ditch,  which  once  defended  Berwick,  still  remain,  though  neglected ; 
*ud  large  barracks  have  been  erected.  Greenlaw,  the  seat  of  coun^  business,  and  Lauder, 
tlie  only  borough,  are  but  small  places  in  the  upper  district  Dunse,  in  the  agricultural  tract* 


41€ 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


<m 


is  the  most  thriving.  Coldstream,  a  large  village  on  the  Tweed,  is  noted  as  the  scene  of 
Monk's  retirement  In  the  western  part  of  Berwickshire  is  Dryburgh  Abbey,  a  fine  old 
Gothic  edifice,  in  which  rest  the  remains  of  Scott. 

Haddingtonshire,  or  East  Lothian,  runs  along  the  Frith  of  Forth,  between  which  and  the 
range  of  Lammermoor  extends  a  plain  about  twenty  miles  in  length  and  twelve  in  breadth, 
perhaps  the  largest  in  Scotland,  and  all  under  high  cultivation.  Edinburgh  is  chiefly  supplied 
with  wheat  from  the  market  at  Haddington,  which  is  considered  one  of  the  first  in  the 
country.  The  towns  are  of  secondary  importance.  Haddington  is  supported  only  by  the 
market  and  by  its  court  for  legal  proceedings.  Dunbar  has  a  little  trade  and  fishery.  Its 
castle,  the  rums  of  which  extend  over  a  promontory  of  broken  rocks,  stretching  out  into  the 
sea,  forms  a  truly  grand  object  The  Bass, "  that  sea  rock  immense,"  whiph  rises  to  the  height 
of  400  feet  forms  a  perpendicular  precipice,  on  which  build  crowds  of  that  rare  species  of  sea- 
fowl  called  Solan  goose.  Their  young,  whose  down  is  of  some  value,  are  taken  by  tlie 
perilous  exertions  of  fishermen,  suspended  by  ropes  from  the  top  of  the  cliflT.  There  are  still 
some  remains  of  the  fortified  prison  which  was  m  ancient  times  reserved  for  state  offenders, 
and  in  which  some  of  the  most  eminent  covenanters  were  confined  for  several  years.  On 
the  shore  immediately  opposite,  crowning  a  perpendicular  cliff,  appears  Tantallon,  a  strong 
castle  of  the  Douglases,  now  in  a  ruinous  state.  Prestonpans,  a  long  dirty  village,  has  some 
manufactures  of  salt  and  vitriol. 

Mid  Lothian,  or  Edinburghshire,  is  penetrated  by  a  branch  of  the  Lammermoor,  and  by 
the  long  range  of  the  Pentlands:  and,  at  the  distance  of  a  few  rciles  south  from  Edinburgh, 
a  general  high  level  begins,  which  is  fiivourablc  only  to  the  production  of  oats  and  barley. 
There  are  no  manufactures  of  any  consequence,  the  county  bieing  entirely  supported  by  the 
metropolis  and  its  appendages. 

Edinlmrgh,  the  capital  of  Scotland  (Jig.  188.),  is  a  city  of  no  very  high  antiquity.  THe 
Castle  Hill,  indeed,  whose  rocky  and  precipitous  sides  support  on  the  summit  a  level  Bpr<'e 

188 


Edinburgh. 

of  some  extent,  accessible  only  by  a  narrow  ridge  at  one  point,  must  always  have  been  of 
importance  in  r.  nrilitary  age.  It  is  named  in  tne  Pictish  annals  under  the  title  of  Castrura 
Puellanim,  which  is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  the  custom  of  placing  the  princesses 
and  ladies  of  rank  'o  be  educated  there,  as  in  a  place  of  security.  In  the  tenth  century, 
mention  is  first  made  of  the  town  or'  Edin ;  but  David  I.,  in  the  twelHh  century,  founded 
the  abbey  and  palace  of  Holyrood ;  and,  under  the  sway  of  the  Stuarts,  Edinburgh  became 
the  capital  of  Scotland.  Edinburgh  is  built  upon  three  ridges,  running  from  east  to  west, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  deep  ravines.  The  Old  Town,  whicn,.till  the  lost  half 
century,  formed  the  whole  of  Edinburgh,  is  situated  on  the  middle  ridge,  extending  nearly 
a  mile  of  gradual  descent  from  the  Castle  to  the  palace  of  Holyrood.  To  secure  the  protec- 
tion afforded  by  this  site,  the  houses  were  crowded  into  the  very  smallest  possible  space, 
they  are  raised  six  or  seven  stories  on  the  side  facing  the  street,  which  from  the  acclivity 
of  the  ground,  gives  to  that  facing  the  ravine  a  heigiit  of  ten  or  even  fourteen  stories.  From 
this  central  street,  there  descend  on  each  side  closes  or  lanes  about  six  feet  broad,  and 
sloping  very  abruptly.  The  Cowgate,  a  poor  street,  inhabited  by  small  tradesmen,  extends 
along  the  bottom  of  the  ravine,  and  terminates  in  a  spacious  Orass-market,  completing  old 
Edinburgh.  Altliough  it  contains  many  excellent  houses,  it  is  now  occupied  only  by  the  infe- 
rior orders  of  tradesmen,  who  occupy  spacious  apartments  at  very  low  reuts.  The  wealthy 
citizens  have  migrated  to  two  towns,  built  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  Old  Town;  one  on 
the  south  side,  or  St  Leonard's  Hill,  occupied  by  citizens  of  the  middle  class,  those  con- 
nected with  the  university,  or  such  as  are  fond  of  retirement;  the  other,  called  properly  the 
New  Town,  is  on  the  north ;  and  comprises  the  residence  of  almost  all  the  opulent  and 
ftshionable  classes.  Being  built  on  a  regul.ir  plan,  and  of  fine  freestyne,  it  forms  one  of  the 
most  elegant  towns  in  Britain. 

The  beauty  of  Edinburgh  is  enhanced  by  its  situation ;  being  overlooked  on  one  side  by  the 
eminence  of  the  Castle,  and  its  ancient  towers,  and  on  the  other  by  a  range  of  bold  hills,  the 
highest  of  which  is  called  Arthur's  Seat  The  lowest,  the  Citllon  Hill,  round  which  walks 
•'♦"easy  nccess  have  been  formed,  commands  a  fine  view  of  Edinburgh,  the  Frith  of  Fortii, 


Part  III. 

noted  as  the  scene  of 
mrgh  Abbey,  a  fine  old 

between  which  and  the 
and  twelve  in  breadth, 
burgh  is  chiefly  supplied 
one  of  the  first  in  the 
8  supported  only  by  the 
trade  and  fishery.  Its 
I,  stretching  out  into  the 
Arhich  rises  to  the  height 
*  that  rare  species  of  sea- 
ralue,  are  taken  by  tiie 
the  cliff.  There  are  still 
jrved  for  state  offenders, 
I  for  several  years.  On 
lears  Tantallon,  a  strong 
J  dirty  village,  has  some 

e  Lammermoor,  and  by 
IS  south  from  Edinburgh, 
!tion  of  oats  and  barley, 
mtirely  supported  by  the 

ry  high  antiquity.  T^e 
the  summit  a  level  sprite 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND 


417 


ist  always  have  been  of 
ider  the  title  of  Castrura 
)f  placing  the  princesses 

In  the  tenth  century, 
twelfth  century,  founded 
larts,  Edinburgh  became 
ming  from  east  to  west, 
»rhich,.till  the  last  half 
ridge,  extending  nearly 
,  To  secure  the  protec- 
smallest  possible  space, 
hich  from  the  acclivity 

fourteen  stories.  From 
bout  six  feet  broad,  and 
mall  tradesmen,  extends 
•market,  completing  old 
ccupied  only  by  the  infe- 
)w  rents.    The  wealthy 

the  Old  Town;  one  on 
middle  class,  those  con- 
ther,  called  properly  the 
Dst  all  the  opulent  and 
h.me,  it  fonns  one  of  the 

ooked  on  one  side  by  the 
1  range  of  bold  hills,  tne 
flill,  round  which  walks 
r<Th,  the  Frith  of  Fortli, 


and  its  surrounding  shores.  The  general  effect,  rather  than  that  of  any  particular  edifices, 
constitutes  the  merit  of  Edinburgh.  Of  antique  structures,  there  isnotlnng  very  fine,  except 
the  large  hospital  for  boys,  erected  from  the  funds  bequeathed  by  George  Heriot,  the  celc- 
rated  goldsmith.  The  great  cathedral  of  St.  Giles  has  been  admired  almost  solely  for  its 
spire,  and  Holyrood  Palace,  a  comparatively  modern  structure,  for  its  little  ancient  chapel. 
The  former  has  been  now  externally  rebuilt  on  a  very  handsome  plan,  and  the  latter  has 
undergone  a  thorough  repair.  Four  miles  south,  in  a  very  commanding  situation,  are  the 
remains  of  Queen  Mary's  pleasant  country  palace  of  Craigmillar.  The  Register  Ofiicc,  the 
new  College,  and  new  High  School  are  elegant  structures ;  but  the  National  Monument,  on 
the  Calton  Hill,  be^n  on  the  model  of  the  Parthenon,  is  stopped  for  want  of  funds. 

The  inhabitants  m  1801,  including  Leith,  were  82,560 ;  in  1831,  they  had  increased  to 
162,156.  The  principal  support  is  derived  fircm  the  law ;  the  professors  of  the  university, 
and  private  lecturers,  &c.  constitute  a  considerable  number;  and  genteel  families  are 
attracted  from  every  part  of  Scotland  by  the  opportunities  of  education  and  agreeable 
society.  Edinburgh  is  a  city  eminently  scientific  and  literary,  and  has  even  become  known 
under  the  appellation  of  the  "  modern  Athens."  Connected  with  these  pursuits,  an  extensive 
trade  in  printing  and  publishing  books  is  carried  on  by  some  enterprising  individuals.  There 
are  few  manufactures,  with  the  above  exception.  A  great  quantity  of  ale  is  brewed,  which 
lias  attained  to  a  high  reputation;  and  there  are  in  the  neighbourhood  some  considerable 
distilleries.  Shawls  are  manufactured  equal  to  any  in  the  empire.  There  are  extensive 
l)anking  establishments,  both  public  and  private,  and  considerable  fortunes  have  been  made 
in  that  branch  of  commerce. 

The  University  of  Edinburgh,  founded  in  1581,  has  risen  to  great  fiime,  both  as  an  institu- 
tion for  teaching,  and  a  nursery  for  eminent  men.  The  medical  school,  in  particular,  attracts 
students  from  all  the  three  kingdoms.  The  annual  number  of  students  at  the  University 
exceeds  2000.  They  are  lodged  in  the  town,  and  are  not  subject  to  any  personal  discipline, 
except  that  of  attendance  on  the  lectures.  Edinburgh  has  its  Royal  Society  for  physical  and 
literary  research.:^,  '  Antiquarian  and  Horticultural  Societies,  an  Institution  for  the  promo- 
tion of  the  Fine  Arts,  and  an  Academy  for  Painting. 

Leith  is  the  port  of  Edinburgh,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  import  trade  for  the  supply  of 
that  capital  and  all  the  interior  country,  for  which  purpose  she  carries  on  a  constant  inter- 
course with  London  and  other  ports  on  the  eastern  coast.  Her  intercourse  with  the  Baltic 
is  very  extensive ;  and  that  with  the  West  Indies  considerable.  The  harbour  of  Leith  is 
not  good ;  but  large  sums  have  been  expended  in  the  conttruction  of  an  extensive  range  of 
docks  for  the  accommodation  of  its  shipping ;  and  of  a  pier  stretching  far  into  the  sea,  so  as 
to  enable  vessels  to  enter  at  all  times  of  the  tide,  with  a  breakwater  opposite.  The  roads, 
at  the  distance  of  about  a  mile,  afford  excellent  anchorage.  Leith,  origmally  a  collection  of 
dirty  lanes,  is  now  everywhere  skirted  by  excellent  streets,  and  ranges  of  villas,  erected  by 
the  opulent  inhabitants  for  their  private  residence.  In  1832  there  entered  its  port  334 
vessels,  tonnage  46,200. 

Besides  these  great  towns.  Mid  Lothian  contains  only  some  large  pleasant  villages.  Porto- 
bello  is  the  principal  bathing  place  of  Edinburgh.  Musselburgh  has  a  good  turf  which  has 
supplanted  Leith  sands  for  the  annua^.  Edinburgh  races.  The' valley  of  the  Esk  contains 
the  finest  scenery  in  the  Lothians.  Roslin  chapel,  though  not  on  an  extensive  scale,  exhi- 
bits some  exquisite  specimens  of  Gothic  sculpture;  and  tlie  ruins  of  the  castle  bear  marks 
of  great  strength.  All  the  south  and  west  of  this  county  consists  of  wild,  hilly,  and  pastoral 
scenery,  in  the  heart  of  which  is  a  pleasingly  retired  spot,  chosen  by  Ramsay  as  the  scne 
of  his  Gentle  Shepherd. 

Linlithgow  or  West  Lothiar.  consists,  in  its  upper  part,  of  a  bleak  table-land;  in  its 
lower,  of  an  extensive,  fertile,  and  highly  cultivated  plain.  It  abounds  with  coal,  freestone, 
lime,  and  marl.    The  Union  Canal  passes  through  this  county.     The  towns  are  small; 

-Q-  but  Linlithyow  still  retains  somewhat 

"  of  the  aspect  of  grandeur  suited  to  a 

once  royal  residence.  The  palace, 
{Jig.  189.)  situated  on  a  hill  behind 
the  town,  and  overlooking  a  beautiful 
little  lake,  forms  one  of  the  grandest 
ancient  edifices  in  the  kingdom.  There 
is  also  a  Gothic  church  of  some  beauty. 
Stirling,  an  extensive  and  beautiful 
county,  tne  link  between  the  High- 
lands and  Lowlands,  extends  for  thirty - 
five  miles  alon^  the  Forth.  It  encloses  sevcFal  of  the  richest  cartes  in  Scotland :  but  the 
greater  part  is  nilly  and  pastoral,  while  many  of  the  lower  grounds  consist  of  fine  meadowy 
aiomed  by  the  beautifiil  meanderings  of  the  Forth.  It  even  encroaches  on  the  Highlands, 
since  its  western  extremity  includes  Ben  Lomond.  This  county  is  traversed  by  the  cele 
brated  Roman  wall  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  -usually  ascribed  to  Antoninus,  though 
Vol,.  I.  ar. 


Linlilbiow  Palace. 


418 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


m 


;  '!>■  i: 


Btitling  Caitle. 


fVom  tho  account  of  Tacitus,  it  would  appear  to  have  been  first  tbrmed  by  A^ricola.  It 
Beems  to  have  reached  from  near  Dumbarton  to  Carridcn,  rather  more  than  thirty-six  miles. 
Stirling  is  also  crossed  by  llio  great  canal  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde. 

The  town  of  Stirling  can  bmst  a  situation  as  noble  and  commanding  as  any  in  Scotland. 
Tho  view  from  its  castle,  which  includes  entire  the  principal  range  of  the  urampiiins,  the 
meadows  or  links  through  which  tho  Forth  winds,  and  a  part  of  thirteen  counties,  is  gener- 
ally considered  the  finest  in  the  country.  The  main  street,  like  that  of  Fidinbui^h,  descends 
gradually  down  the  ridge  of  the  hill  on  which  the  castle  stands  {Jig.  190.).    This  fortress, 

in  feudal  times,  was  accounted  one  of  the  bulwarks 
of  tho  kingdom ;  and  Stirling  wo^  the  frenuent 
seat  of  royaltv,  and  the  scene  of  many  of  tho 
most  memorable  and  tragic  events  in  Sc  i,tish  his- 
tory. The  town  owes  its  present  limited  pros- 
perity chiefljr  to  its  carpet  manufacture  and  other 
branches  of  industry.  Falkirk  is  a  larger  town, 
situated  in  a  broad  and  beautiful  carse,  through 
which  the  Forth  flows.  Tho  three  great  annual 
trysts  exhibit  an  imniense  show  of  highland  cattle 
and  sheep  brought  up  for  the  su))ply  of  the  south- 
ern districts.  Near  Falkirk  is  Carron,  accounted 
only  a  village,  but  the  seat  of  the  greatest  iron- 
works in  Scotland,  in  which,  during  war,  2000  men 
were  employed.  It  particularly  excels  in  grates,  and  in  that  species  of  artillery  first  cast 
here,  and  hence  denominated  carronodes.  Grangemouth,  at  the  connecting  point  of  tho 
great  canal  with  the  Frith  of  Forth,  derives  from  this  situation  a  considerable  trade. 

The  next  district,  including  the  counties  of  Roxburgh,  Selkirk,  Peebles,  Dumfries,  and 
part  of  Lanark,  may  most  properly  bear  tlie  appellation  of  pastoral  Scotland.  It  is  covered 
with  long  ranges  of^^hills,  from  one  to  two  thousand  feet  high,  clothed  with  pasturage  to  their 
Bum.nita.  This  is  tho  region  of  Scottish  poetry.  It  was  amid  these  scenes  that  Thomson 
and  Scott  caught  that  inspiration  which  has  rendered  their  poetry  the  delight  of  their  country. 
The  chief  occupation  in  this  tract  is  sheep-farming. 

The  towns  in  this  tract  are  generally  small  and  agreeable.  Kelso  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  in  Scotland,  being  surrounded  by  ornamented  villas  and  extensive  woods.  The 
abbey  is  not  without  grandeur ;  and  the  ruma  of  the  castle  of  Roxburgh  are  striking.  The 
village  of  Melrose  is  only  distinguished  by  its  abbey  {fig.  191.),  founded  by  David  L ,  in  the 
191  ,m  1  twelflh  century,  and  tlie  finest  edifice 

ever  elected  in  the  south  of  Scotland. 
The  profusion  of  the  ornaments,  and 
the  beauty  of  the  sculptures,  which 
remain  nearly  entire,  have  rendered 
it  the  study  of  the  painter  and  the 
theme  of  the  poet.  Selkirk  and  Pee- 
bles, capitals  of  their  respective  little 
counties,  are  only  pleasant  villages, 
bordering  on  the  great  pastoral  voles 
of  Ettrick  and  Yarrow.  Dumfries,  a 
well-built,  gay-looking  city,  is  a  sort 
Meirow  Abbey.  gf  southern  Scottish  capital,  and  it 

has  been  so  distinguished  from  an  early  period ;  but  no  traces  remain  either  of  the  castle, 
or  of  the  mona.'rtCTy  in  which  Cummmg  fell  by  the  hand  of  Bruce.  The  town  carries  on 
some  trade  by  the  Nith,  which  admits  vessels  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  tons,  and  it  has 
two  great  annual  markets  for  the  cattle  from  tlie  west ;  but  it  is  chiefly  supported  by  the 
gentry  who  make  it  their  residence.  Annan  is  agreeably  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
of  that  name.  A  small  spot,  filmed  in  the  annals  of  gallantry,  is  Gretna  Green,  close  on 
the  English  border ;  whither  fly  many  a  fond  matrimonial  pair,  to  escape  the  jealousy  of 
parents  and  guardians.  On  the  bleak  northern  boundary  is  Wanlockhead ;  and  nearly  con- 
tiguous to  it  Leodhills,  ui  Lanarkshire.  Wanlockhead  yields  annually  lead  to  the  amount 
of  about  15,000  bars,  of  nine  stones  each ;  and  Leadhills  about  18,000. 

Seats.  The  Duke  of  Buccleugh  has 
numerous  seats  in  the  district,  of  which 
the  chief  is  Drumlanrig  (Castle  (Jiff.  192.), 
a  magnificent  edifice,  on  the  Nith,  and 
surrounded  by  extensive  parks  and  planta- 
tions, Amono'  many  others  round  Kelso,  w 
Flours,  the  splendid  seat  of  the  Roxburffh 
family.  Abbotsford,  from  the  many  addi- 
tions made  by  its  illustrious  proprietor,  has 
DramiHnrif  Ciutle.  bccome  a  striking  and  picturesque  ooject 


^ii!^1J{\; 


~^»  ::A^>  "eS^^b9f 


Part  III. 

formed  by  Atfricola.  It 
are  than  thirty-six  miles. 
Ilyde. 

iding  08  any  in  Scotland, 
re  of  the  GmnipianB,  the 
iiteen  counties,  is  genor- 
it  of  Edinburgh,  dpscends 
Hg.  190.).  This  n)rtre88, 
mted  one  of  the  bulwarks 
lirling  woa  tlie  fre(juent 
)  scene  of  many  ot  tho 
ric  events  in  Sc  i-tish  his- 
its  present  limited  proe- 
Bt  manufacture  and  other 
'alkirk  is  a  larger  town, 
beautiful  carte,  through 
Tho  three  great  annual 
le  show  of  highland  cattle 
r  the  supply  of  the  south- 
drk  is  Carron,  accounted 
seat  of  the  greatest  iron- 
ich,  during  war,  2000  men 
scies  of  artillery  first  cast 
I  connecting  point  of  tho 
lonsidcrablc  trade. 
k,  Peebles,  Dumfries,  and 
il  Scotland.  It  is  covered 
led  with  pasturage  to  their 
ese  scenes  that  Thomson 
de  delight  of  their  country. 

Kelso  is  one  of  tho  most 

id  extensive  woods.    The 

iburgh  are  striking.    The 

bunded  by  David  I.,  in  the 

tury,  and  tlie  finest  edifice 

d  in  the  south  of  Scotland. 

ion  of  the  ornaments,  and 

of  the  sculptures,  which 

rly  entire,  have  rendered 

of  the  painter  and  the 

poet.   Selkirk  and  Pee- 

of  their  respective  little 

only  pleasant  villages, 

_  the  great  pastoral  vales 

ind  Yarrow.    Dumfries,  a 

ray-looking  city,  is  a  sort 

Scottish  capital,  and  it 

(lain  either  of  the  castle. 

The  town  carries  on 

twenty  tons,  and  it  has 

chiefly  supported  by  the 

at  the  mouth  of  tiie  river 

Gretna  Green,  close  on 

_  escape  the  jealousy  of 

Dckhead ;  and  nearly  con* 

ually  lead  to  the  amount 

000. 

Duke  of  Buccleugh  has 
in  the  district,  of  which 
nlanrig  Castle  C^^.  192.). 
!dificfi,  on  the  Nith,  and 
.tensive  parks  and  planta- 
n  nv  others  round  Kelso,  w 
ididsoatof  the  Ro.xburffh 
Ford,  from  the  many  addi- 
1  illustrious  proprietor,  has 
ig  and  picturesque  ooject 


BooE  L 


SCOTLAND. 


419 


a 


The  three  counties  of  Ayr,  Wigton,  and  Galloway  compose  what  is  called  the  West  of 
Scotland.  They  are  chiefly  under  pasture,  and  tito  cultivators  are  mainly  occupied  in  the 
rearing  of  cattle.  The  range  of  mountains  which  separates  Ayr  and  Galloway  is  almost 
as  elevated  as  any  in  Scotland ;  but  tiie  upland  country  of  the  latter  is,  in  general,  diversi- 
fied only  with  steep  rocky  eminences  of  two  or  three  hundred  feet  high.  In  Ayr,  too,  though 
tiio  southern  district  ot  Carrick  bo  very  mountainous,  the  middle  one  of  Kyle  has  a  level 
cuiiut ;  while  Cunningham,  tiic  most  nortiierly,  consists  almost  entirely  of  a  fertile  plain, 
lldtli  counties,  Irom  tho  boundary  line  of  mountains,  are  watered  by  fine  rivers ;  in  one,  the 
Ayr,  tho  Doon,  and  tho  Irvine ;  m  the  other,  the  Deo  and  the  Creo.  The  Ayrshire  breed  of 
liorHcs,  called  also  the  Clydesdale,  is  highly  esteemed ;  and  generally  supplies  the  markets 
in  tlio  ea«t  of  Hcotland ;  but  the  little  active  breed  called  galloways  are  now  become  scorce. 
Tiin  kino  of  Ayrsiiiro  arc  valued  chiefly  for  tiie  dairy.  The  Galloway  bullock  produces 
beef  of  a  peculiar  excellence.  The  northern  division  of  Ayr  participates  to  a  certain  extent 
in  tho  flourishing  manufactures  of  Lanarkshire.  It  has  immense  beds  of  valuable  coal,  which 
not  oiily  serve  lor  the  supply  of  tho  inhabitants,  but  are  exported  to  Ireland  in  such  quanti- 
ties as  to  form  the  chief  trade  of  this  county.  To  facilitate  the  transport,  the  Duke  of  Port- 
land has  formed  u  fine  harbour  at  Troon,  and  has  connected  it  by  a  raU-road  wilJi  Kilmar- 
nock. 

Ayr,  at  the  point  where  the  rivers  Doon  and  Ayr  fall  united  into  the  sea,  forms  a  sort  of 
capital  for  tho  gentry  of  a  considerable  part  of  Scotland.  It  was  the  principal  scene  of  some 
groat  historical  events  in  the  time  of  Wallace  and  Bruce ;  and  was  carefiilly  fortified  by 
Oliver  Cromwell;  but  the  bar  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  harbour  has  been  unfavourable  to  its 
progress.  It  exports,  however,  chiefly  to  Ireland,  a  considerable  quantity  of  coal,  brought 
by  railways.  The  town  is  irregularly  built,  but  has  one  handsome  principal  street.  Its 
theatre,  its  academy,  and  some  charitable  institutions,  are  on  a  greater  scale  than  the  size 
of  the  town  might  lead  us  to  expect.  The  ports  of  Troon,  Saltcoats,  and  Ardrossan  send 
largo  quantities  of  coal  to  Ireland ;  whence  they  receive  grain  for  the  supply  of  the  great 
interior  towns.  Saltcoats,  which  has  sprung  up  within  the  last  century,  is  also  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  salt;  and  Ardrossan  is  now  a  watering-place  of  increasing  resort 
Largs,  the  celebrated  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Haco,  the  last  Danish  invader,  attracts  many 
visiters  by  the  extreme  beauty  of  its  situation.  In  the  interior  of  Ayrshire  is  Kilmarnock, 
its  largest  and  most  thriving  town.  Tlie  manufacture  of  vorious  woollen  stufls,  and  fabrics 
of  leather;  and  latterly  branches  of  the  cotton  weaving  from  Glasgow,  place  it  .high  in  the 
list  of  Scottish  manufacturing  towns. 

Galloway  is  almost  entirely  a  rural  district.  Its  capitals,  Wigton  and  Kirkcudbright,  are 
pleasant  country  towns,  and  the  latter,  having  a 'good  harbour,  has,  of  late,  considerably 
increased.  Portpatrick,  the  nearest  point  of  Great  Britain  to  the  Irish  coast,  is  the  main 
channel  of  communication  between  Scotland  and  Ireland ;  for  which  purpose  an  improved 
harbour  has  lately  been  constructed,  and  regular  packet-boats  are  established. 

The  counties  of  Lanark  and  Renfrew  constitute  the  valley  of  the  Clyde,  the  grand  thea- 
tre of  Scottish  commerce  and  industry.  Lanarkshire,  or  Clydesdale,  is  divided  into  three 
regions,  of  widely  different  character ;  the  upper  valley  is  altogether  a  rude  pastoral  region 
Bolow  Tinto,  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  assume  a  softer  and  gayer  character,  exhibiting  a  smc- 
ccssion  of  gardens  and  orchards.  Below  Hamilton  comes  the  flat  district  around  Glasgow, 
which  supplies  that  city  with  inexhaustible  stores  of  excellent  coal. 

Glasgow  is  tlio  commercial  capital  of  Scotland,  and  in  population  ranks  as  the  third 
town  in  tho  island.  Tradition  ascribes  its  origin  and  erectbn  into  a  bishopric  to  St. 
Mango,  in  the  year  560.  Its  rapid  rise  commenced  with  the  union,  which  opened  to  it  tho 
trade  with  America  and  the  West  Indies,  hitherto  monopolised  by  the  English  ports.  In  1718, 
for  tho  first  time,  a  vessel  from  the  Clyde  sailed  across  the  Atlantic.  By  the  middle  of  tho 
century,  the  merchants  of  Glasgow  imported  more  than  lialf  the  entire  amount  of  tobacco 
which  camo  into  Great  Britain ;  and  to  them  the  French  &rmers-general  chiefly  looked  for 
tlieir  supply  of  tliis  important  article. 

Their  intercourse  also  with  the  West  Indies,  which  had  hitherto  been  very  limited,  was 
now  carried  on  to  a  vast  extent.  A  still  greater  source  of  wealth  was  opened  at  home. 
Glasgow  had,  in  the  course  of  the  century,  become  a  great  manufacturing  city,  employing 
her  indue.*ry  on  tho  old  staple  of  linen  of  the  finer  descriptions,  as  cambrics,  lawns,  gauzes ; 
also  in  the  makin,';^  '>f  stockings  and  of  shoes  for  exportation ;  but  its  product  in  these 
branches  never  exceeded  400.000Z.  But  when  cotton  was  extensively  introduced  into 
Britoin,  Glasgow  devoted  herself  entirely  to  this  new  manufacture.  She  beca.ne  the  rival 
of  Manchester ;  and,  if  circumstances  did  not  allow  her  to  obtain  so  great  a  share  of  the 
manufacture,  she  produced  some  finer  fabrics,  and  was  as  prompt  in  availing  herself  of 
every  improved  process ;  iniinense  fortunes  were  realized,  and  an  annua'  value  of  nearly 
4,000,000/.  sterling  produced.  Glasgow  was  one  of  the  first  places  which  adopted  the  in- 
vention of  power  looms,  and  she  has  now  10,000  of  these,  and  32.000  workeo  by  the  hand. 
In  1830,  the  number  of  persons  receiving  parochial  aid  was  only  fiOOO,  not  quite  one-fortieth 
I»art  of  tho  inhabitants,  and  the  sum  expended  on  the  poor  was  only  17,237J.,  although 


130 


DESCRIPnVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartITT. 


Glasgow  is  now  the  largest  town  in  Great  Britain,  London  and  Manchester  excepted.  The 
harbour  is  at  the  Broomielaw,  where  there  is  an  extensive  quay  along  the  Clyde ;  but  so 

S-eat  are  the  obstructions  to  its  navigation,  that  Glasgow  depends  chiefly  lor  imports  on 
reenock  and  Liverpool.  In  1832  there  entered  its  port  only  79  vessels,  of  8154  tons.  Glas- 
gow is  a  handsome  and  well-built  town.  Its  original  streets  of  Argyle  ond  Trongate  art 
broad  and  spacious ;  and  several  handsome  squares  have  been  built  within  the  limits  of  the 
city ;  but  the  fashionable  residences  are  now  almost  exclusively  in  the  west,  where,  along  a 
range  of  somewhat  elevated  ground,  t.  number  of  elegant  and  spacious  streets  have  been 
erected.    Gorbals,  Calton,  Bridgeton,  Hutchesontown,  Tradeston,  and  Anderston,  are  the 

principal  suburbs,  and  ibrm  tlie  manufacturing  part 
of  the  city.  The  public  edifices  deserve  admiration. 
The  cathedral  (fig.  193.),  one  of  the  finest  m  Scot- 
land,  is  a  massive  structure,  with  a  wooded  hill  ad- 
joining, on  the  top  of  which  a  monument  has  been 
erected  to  the  memory  of  John  Knox.  The  modem 
edifices  are  also  handsome ;  the  Lunatic  Asylum,  this 
Assembly-rooms,  the  Infirmary,  the  Roman  Catholic 
chapel,  the  new  Exchange  Reading-rooms,  &c.  de- 
servo  mention.  The  bridewell  is  esteemed  the  most 
perfect  in  Scotland,  both  in  point  of  construction  and 
tJinmow  Cutbedrai.  management.    Glasgow  is  not  a  mere  commercial 

town ;  its  university,  founded  in  1450  by  Bishop  TurnbuU,  has  been  adorned  by  a  long  suc- 
cession of  illustrious  teachers,  of  whom  Simson,  Hutcheson,  Reid,  Smith,  Millar,  are  suffi- 
cient to  ensure  its  celebrity.  It  is  at  present  attended  by  1400  students,  and  its  name  stands 
as  high  as  at  any  former  period.  The  library  contains  30,000  volumes.  The  Museum  be- 
queathed by  the  late  Dr.  Hui>''>r,  is  rich  in  anatomical  preparations,  shells,  insects,  fossils,  as 
well  as  in  coins  and  medals.  An  elegant  Grecian  edifice  has  been  erected  for  its  reception. 
Auxiliary  to  the  University  is  the  Andersonian  Institution,  founded  with  the  view  of  com- 
municatmg  to  the  commercial  classes  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  physical  science ; 
for  which  purpose  it  has  been  found  highly  efficacious.  The  intellectual  spirit  of  the  ciu- 
zens  is  also  proved  by  three  libraries,  and  a  botanic  garden,  all  supported  by  public  sub- 
Gcription. 

Paisley,  tJiough  in  Renfrewshire,  may  be  considered  next,  in  order  to  connect  together  the 
great  .seats  of  manufacture.  This  town  anciently  derived  its  distinction  from  its  ecclesias- 
tical character.  The  abbey  founded  in  1160,  was  in  a  great  measure  demolished  at  the 
pwiod  of  the  Reformation.  Several  of  the  windows,  however,  still  afford  fine  specimens  ot 
the  ornamented  Gothic ;  and  the  nave  was  left  so  far  entire,  that  it  has  hince  served  as  a  place 
of  worship.  Paisley  was  a  small  town  until  the  middle  of  the  last  centuir,  when  it  con- 
tained little  more  than  4000  inhabitants.  Soon  after,  its  manufactures,  whicn  were  already 
begun,  made  most  rapid  advances.  Down  to  the  year  1783,  they  consisted  chiefly  of  linen, 
fine  thread,  gau2.es,  both  of  linen  and  silk,  and  other  delicate  and  elegant  fabrics.  On  the 
introduction  of  cotton,  the  manufacturers  of  Paisley,  like  those  of  Glasgow,  cultivated  this 
branch  almost  exclusively,  pr^rerring  its  most  elegant  species.  Muslin,  the  finest  of  all  tlie 
productions  of  the  loom,  became  the  staple  of  Paisley.  In  1805,  there  were  20,500  persona 
employed  in  weaving  muslin,  the  entire  produce  of  whose  labours  was  rated  at  1,250,000/. 
Since  that  time,  the  population  having  increased  one-half,  *he  productive  industiy  has  not, 
probably,  advanced  in  a  less  proportion.  By  the  improved  navigatio.^  of  the  Cart  and  a  canal, 
this  town  has  communication  with  the  Clyde,  and  the  canal  fromGlas^~w  likewise,  destined 
for  Ardrossan,  has  been  carried  as  far  as  Paisley.  The  county  gaol  and  Di;:''»"'ell  form  one 
of  the  finest  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  kingdom ;  the  town-hall  and  several  of  the  churches 
are  very  handsome.  The  operative  weavers  of  Paisley  are  equal  in  intelligence  to  any  class 
of  the  some  rank  elsewhere ;  and  this  spirit  has  led  to  the  formation  among  them  of  a  num- 
ber of  book  societies,  reading  rooms,  and  subscription  libraries. 

Greenock  is  entirely  a  commercial  and  maritime  station ;  it  is  the  only  great  western  port 
of  Scotland,  but  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  vessels  belong  to  Glasgow.  The  prin- 
cipal trade  consists  in  importing  the  produce  of  the  West  Indies,  to  which  is  added  a  very 
extensive  herring  fishery,  and  a  share  of  the  cod  fisheries  of  Newfoundland  and  Cape  Breton. 
The  sum  of  90,000/.  has  hcen  lately  expended  in  the  improvement  of  the  harbour,  which 
can  now  contain  500  sail,  and  a  handsome  custom-house  has  been  built  by  government  In 
1832  Uiere  entered  this  port  282  vessels,  tonnage  78,131.  Greenock  is  not  an  elegant  town; 
but  the  hills  behind  it  command  a  noble  view  of  the  river,  and  of  the  mountains  of  Argyle 
on  the  opposite  coast 

Port  Glasgow,  about  three  miles  higher  than  Greenock,  and  a  much  smaller  port,  continues 
Subservient  to  Glasgow,  receiving  bucIi  vessels  belonging  to  that  city  as  are  too  bulky  to 
ascend  the  Clyde ;  in  this  capacity,  its  trade  is  very  considerable.  Here  was  built  the  first 
dock  in  Scotland,  in  front  of  which  a  spacious  quay  extends  along  the  Clyde,  for  the  accom- 
piudation  of  those  vessels  which  do  not  require  to  enter  the  basin.    Renfrew,  tlie  capital  of 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


42\ 


laller  port,  continues 


Bothwell  Cutle. 


the  county,  is  an  old  town,  which  has  not  shared  in  the  prosperity  of  its  noightnurb.    Tho 
jihabitants,  however,  receive  a  little  employment  from  the  manufacturers  of  Glasgow. 

The  banks  of  the  Clyde  above  Glasgow,  whose  vicinity  forms  only  a  small  part,  however 
unportant,  of  the  extensive  county  of  Lanark,  are  still  to  be  surveyed.  First  occurs  Both- 
well  {fig.  194.),  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  Douglases.  Here  Edward  L  placed  tlie 
-iQA  .^^    .ev^  chief  garrison,  which  wob  intended  to  hold  Scot- 

._-»«^ijE^«  "-*^''  land  in  subjection.  It  is  now  a  bold  and  striking 
ruin,  rising  above  the  river  banks.  A  little  above 
is  Bothwell  Bridge,  so  noted  as  the  disastrous 
scene  of  the  rout  of  the  covenanting  army.  Far- 
ther up  is  Hamilton,  a  pleasant  handsome  town  in 
a  fine  country :  it  is  supported  by  the  residence  of 
the  family  of  Hamilton,  and  by  a  branch  of  the 
cotton  manu&cturc.  From  Hamilton  the  road 
leads  through  a  range  of  orchards,  and  the  most 
beautiful  see. .( -y,  to  lanark.  This  town,  though 
bearing  the  u  .ne  of  the  county,  is  only  a  large 
straggling  village;  but  about  a  mile  distant  is 
New  Lafiark,  noted  for  the  extensive  cotton  manu- 
factory established  by  the  late  Mr.  Dale,  and  lately  conducted  by  Mr.  Owen.  Whatever 
may  be  thought  of  the  speculative  tenets  of  the  latter  gentleman,  the  attention  paid  to  the 
behaviour  and  comforts  of  those  employed  presented,  certainly,  in  many  respects,  a  model 
worthy  of  imitation.  But  Lanark  has  a  still  greater  attraction  in  the  falls  of  the  Clyde, 
Boniton,  Corra,  Stonehyres,  situated  above  and  below  it,  at  about  two  miles'  distance  from 
each  other.  Their  lieight  does  not  exceed  eighty  or  ninety  feet ;  but  the  mass  of  water, 
with  the  grandeur  of  the  rocky  walls  and  hanging  woods,  render  them  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  this  description  of  scenery. 

The  northern  Lowlands,  beyond  the  Forth,  form  a  belt  of  about  twenty  miles  in  breadth, 
reaching  the  shores  of  the  Moray  Frith.  The  coast  is  generally  level  and  fertile ;  but  a 
great  part  of  the  interior  is  bleak  and  moorish.  This  district  contains,  however,  several 
cities  and  seaports  of  considerable  magnitude  and  importance. 

Fife  was  formerly  distinguished  as  the  centre  of  Scottish  industry ;  and  one  of  its  cities 
forms  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  Scotland.  All  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  country  was 
carried  on  in  its  ports ;  and  less  than  two  centuries  ago  its  rental  amounted  to  a  tenth  part 
of  that  of  the  whole  kingdom.  Since  Scotland  has  ceased  to  be  agitated  by  war,  Edinburgh 
and  the  opposite  side  of  the  Forth  have  attracted  all  these  advantages ;  and  the  numerous 
seaports  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Forth,  have  dwindled  into  fishing  villages.  Fife  is,  in 
general,  a  level  country,  yet  diversified  by  a  few  hills  of  considerable  elevation,  as  the 
Lomond  Hills,  and  Largo  Law.  A  great  part  of  the  interior  is  bleak  and  unproductive;  and 
forming  is  less  advanced  than  in  the  Lothians ;  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  flax  is  carried 
on  chiefly  for  domestic  use,  unless  at  Dunfermline,  where  there  is  a  large  fabric  of  fine  sheet- 
ing and  diaper.  The  western  coast  abounds  in  coal,  and  in  fine  limestone,  which  is  exported 
to  a  very  great  extent.  The  county  town  is  Cupar,  a  place  of  moderate  size,  neat,  with 
some  stir  of  gaiety.    A  greater  interest  attaches  to  St.  Andrew's  firom  its  former  greatness, 

from  the  remarkable  scenes  there  acted,  and 
igg  AjIV  ^''^"^  ^^  splendid  edifices,  of  which  firag- 

ments  still  remain.    It  is  seated  on  a  bold 

coast,  facing  a  wide  bay  of  the  German 

Ocean;  and  has  two  fine,  broad,  parallel 

____^,^^__^  ^,™__  streets,  of  which  one  is  now  almost  deserted. 

^i MBt^^^^^K^^LhS^ISi  '^^^  castle  and  cathedral  (Jig.  195.)  have 

been  demolished ;  but  a  high  square  tower, 
and  a  gable  of  the  chapel  of  St.  Rule,  still 
attest  the  elegance  of  tlie  latter  structure. 
The  university  contains  a  school  of  theology 
and  philosophy,  but  has  no  classes  in  law 
or  medicine.  Founded  under  the  auspices 
of  Buchanan,  it  can  boast  many  eminent 
professors  and  pupils ;  though,  from  its  almost  insulated  situation,  it  does  not  attract  so  great 
a  concourse  as  Edinburgh.  Kirkaldy  has  some  foreign  trade,  and  a  considerable  linen  manu- 
facture. Dunfermline,  anciently  the  most  flourishing  town  in  Fife,  was  a  place  of  impor- 
tance, and  the  frequent  residence  of  royalty.  Malcolm  Canmore  founded  here  an  abbey, 
which  became  one  of  the  richest  and  most  e^  icious  in  the  kingdom ;  it  has  been  nearly 
demolished,  yet  its  ruins  evince  its  former  splendour ;  and  ;  irt  of  them  has  been  appropri- 
ated as  the  parish  church.  On  a  contiguous  spot,  the  tomb  of  Bruce  was  lately  discoverecl. 
Dimfermline  is  distinguished  by  an  extensive  manufiictory  of  damask,  diaper,  and  other  fire 
linen  cambrics,  which  employ  1500  looms,  and  yield  an  estimated  annual  produce  of  120,000/. 
Kinross,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  is  a  pleasant  little  town,  chiefiv 
VouL         *^  36  *^ 


81.  Andrew's  Calhedial. 


iSU 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  m 


4^  '■1 


notud  for  ita  situation  on  the  shoroi 
196 


Lochloven  Coillo. 


of  Lochleven.  This  is  a  little  lake,  of  considerable 
beauty,  having,  on  an  island  in  its  cen* 
tre,  a  castle,  (fig.  196.),  anciently  of 
groat  strength,  and  noted  in  history, 
even  before  it  acquired  the  romantic 
interest  derived  tVom  tiio  imprisonment 
of  Mary,  and  her  adventurous  escape. 
Only  a  square  turrcted  building  and 
one  of  the  walls  of  the  chapel  now  re* 
main.  On  another  island  are  the  traces 
of  a  very  ancient  and  considerable  priorv. 
Clackmannanshire  is  a  pleasant  little 
county,  with  a  considerable  extent  of 
fine  carse  land,  and  great  quantities  of 
coal  and  lime.  The  town  of  Clackmannan  is  distinguished  for  the  beauty  of  its  situation. 
Close  to  it  is  nn  ancient  tower,  built  by  Robert  the  Bruce.  Alloa,  two  miles  farther  down, 
Ls  a  thriving  little  place,  in  whose  vicinity  ore  mines  of  coal,  of  which  about  35,000  tons  are 
annually  exported. 

Forfar,  morfl  usually  termed  Angus,  is  of  somewhat  rough  aspect,  the  westein  border 
being  encroached  upon  by  lower  branches  of  the  Grampians,  while  the  Sidlaw  Hills,  a  range 
of  considerable  height,  traverse  the  centre.  Between  those  is  a  portion  of  the  great  valley 
of  Strathmore,  which  is  here  fertile  and  beautitiil,  as  is  also  the  plain  between  Sidlaw  and 
tlie  coast    Its  prosperity  depends  chiefly  upon  manufactures,  commerce,  and  fishery. 

Dundee,  the  largest  town  in  Forfarshire,  ranks  fourth  in  Scotland  as  to  population  and 
wealth.  It  was  ot  early  importance  and  strengtli,  deriving  its  origin  from  Malcolm  Canmore, 
and  it  obtained  a  fatal  celebrity  through  the  sieges,  by  Edward  I. ;  by  the  Marquis  of  Mon- 
trose; and  by  Monk,  who  gave  it  up  to  indiscriminate  pilloge.  Dundee,  however,  has  reco- 
vered firom  these  disasters,  and  is  become  one  of  the  most  flourishing  commercial  towns  in 
Scotland.  Her  staple  employment  consists  in  the  importation  of  flax  and  licmp,  and  work- 
ing them  into  coarse  linens,  sailcloth,  &c.  There  have  been  exported  in  one  year  100,713 
pieces  of  Osnaburg,  148,377  of  sheeting,  81,754  of  sailcloth,  with  bagging,  sacking,  dowlas, 
and  other  fabrics,  of  the  entire  value  of  about  1,500,000^.;  four-fif>.hs  of  which  were  made 
in  Dundee  itself.  Dundee  has  belonging  to  licr,  270  vessels  of  33,000  tons ;  and  in  a  single 
year  a  tonnage  of  212,000  has  entered  the  port.  The  harbour  has  been  greatly  enlarged  Dy 
wet  docks  and  other  additions;  and  a  railway  opens  a  communication  into  the  valley  of 
Strathmore.  The  population,  exceeding  45,000,  shows  a  remarkable  increase  since  1821 
when  it  was  only  30,500.  Dundee  is  agreeably  situated  on  an  eminence  above  the  Tay ; 
the  old  streets  are  narrow  and  steep,  but  new  and  handsome  ones  are  built  and  building  in 
every  direction ;  and  the  vicinity  i:;  adorned  with  elegant  villos.  There  is  an  academy, 
distinguished  by  the  scientific  attainments  of  some  of  its  teachers. 

Arbroath  carries  on  upon  a  smaller  scale,  the  same  branches  as  Dundee;  and  is  adorned 
with  the  ruins  of  a  magnificent  abbey.     Montrose  is  prettily  situated  at  the  mouth  of  a 

river,  bearing,  in  common  with  many 
1^  others,  the  name  of  Esk.    Its  trade 

and  industry  are  considerable ;  and  it 
has  a  safe  harbour.  A  number  of  the 
neighbouring  gentry  have  been  at- 
tracted by  its  agreeable  situation, 
which  renders  it  the  most  fashionable 
place  in  the  county.  Forfar,  the 
county  town,  situated  in  the  valley 
of  Strathmore,  is  chiefly  supported  by 
the  business  of  the  courts ;.  there  ia 
also  a  manufacture  of  brown  linens. 
The  village  of  Glammis  is  distinguished  by  the  magnificent  castle  (fig.  197.)  in  its  vicinity. 
Kincaraine  is  closely  hemmed  in  by  the  Grampians  on  the  west :  it  contains,  however,  in 

its  southern  district,  the  termination  of 
'■^  the  great  valley  of  Strathmore,  which  ia 

here  called  the  "  How  of  the  Meams ;" 
and  forms  a  tract  equally  fertile  and  de- 
lightful. The  northern  part  consists 
chiefly  of  mountains  and  moors  of  the 
most  bleak  and  dreary  aspect.  The  coast 
is  of  great  extent,  and  very  bold,  pre- 
senting in  many  parts  high  precipitous 
clifl[s,  covered  with  innumerable  flocks 
of  sea-birds;  on  one  of  these  are  the 
Dunnouar  Caitie.  extensive  remains  of  the  castle  of  Dun 


Olammit  Coaile. 


■Tj;j»--i',f-',f,  ififfi 


Rook  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


423 


nottar,  (Jig.  108.)i  considored  formerly  as  impregnable,  where  Uie  regalia  of  Uie  kinffdom 
were  at  oi><)  time  deposited.  Stonehaven,  tlio  county-town,  carri  sa  on  some  trade,  and  naa  a 
manufuctui'e  of  brown  linen. 

Abcnioon  is  a  large  and  important  northern  county.  It  has  .  .  ..y  considerable  line  of 
cooBt,  both  to  the  east  and  to  the  north,  and  extends,  with  increasing  breadth,  far  into  tho 
interior.  Thoro  it  forms  Mar,  or  Braemar,  a  highland  district,  one  of  the  most  elevated  in 
tho  king|lom,  some  of  the  mountains  risi.:g  to  above  40U0  feet,  and  containing  extensive 
forests  of  anciont  pines,  with  large  flocks  of  wild  deer,  in  tiie  deep  glens  or  valleys.  From 
tho  heigiils  of  Bniomar  descend  tho  Dee  and  the  Don,  the  first  of  which  forms  some  very 
picturesque  (alls  in  its  early  course.  Even  tho  Lowland  districts  are  in  general  bleak  and 
moorish,  adapted  only  to  the  cultivation  of  inferior  spcies  of  grain,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle. 
The  old  staple  fabric  of  knitting  worsted  stockings  has  been  greatly  injured  by  tho  cheap- 
neis  with  which  these  are  now  produced  elsewhere  by  the  aid  ot  machinery ;  but  other 
woollen  branches,  together  with  those  of  linen  and  cotton,  the  latter  to  a  considerable 
extent,  have  been  introduced.  The  beautiful  rock  crystals  called  cairngomu,  and  also  the 
topaz  and  the  beryl,  are  found  in  the  mountains  of  Braemar;  and  tho  fine  grai\ite  which 
abounds  near  Aberdeen,  yields  12,000  tons  to  be  annually  shipped  to  London  and  elsewii?<re. 
The  fishorios  also  constitute  a  leading  occupation.  That  of  salmon  in  the  Don  and  Dee,  and 
the  whalo-fisiiery,  are  extensive  branches ;  and  froi  ,i  the  German  Ocean,  haddocks,  cod,  ling, 
turbot,  and  shell-tish,  are  taken  in  great  quantities. 

Aberdeen,  "  the  Queen  of  the  North,"  and  the  largest  city  beyond  the  Forth,  is  situated 
between  the  Dee  and  the  Don.  Old  Aberdeen  is  situatod  near  the  Don,  whose  entrance  is 
obstructed  by  a  natural  bar,  which  renders  this  harbour  inadequate  for  thn  town.  The  mass 
of  population  has  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Dee,  the  narrow  entrance  of  which  opens  into 
a  bosm,  formin<^  an  excellent  harbour.  It  hp.d,  however,  a  bar  at  its  mouth,  liable  to  con- 
tinual increase  by  the  sand  blown  from  the  boach  which  extends  along  the  coast ;  a  mole  of 
1200  feet  in  length  has  been  carried  out  into  the  sea,  and  a  channel  has  been  formed,  by 
which  vessels  of  700  tons  may  enter.  New  Aberdeen  is  a  handsome  city,  especially  the 
principal  street,  composed  of  a  long  range  of  new  and  good  houses,  built  of^its  nno  granite. 
Its  commerce,  manufactures,  and  fishery  are  those  of  the  county,  ail  these  brandies  center- 
ing in  Aberdeen.  This  city  is  now  the  principal  ship-building  port  in  Scotland,  possessing, 
in  1832,  355  ships  of  41,671  tons  burden.  The  old  town  has  rather  the  aspect  of  a  village, 
if  we  except  the  detached  houses  of  the  professors  of  the  university,  and  a  range  of  villas, 
the  opulent  tenants  of  which  have  been  attracted  by  the  agreeable  situation.  It  is  adorned 
by  the  fine  old  edifice  of  King's  College,  from  which  rises  a  square  tower,  with  a  light  and  ele- 
gant crown.  This  seminary  was  founded  in  1494 ;  the  salaries  are  moderate,  but  the  bur- 
aaries  for  poor  schools  are  very  extensive.  Attached  to  it  is  a  library  of  considerable  value. 
Marischal  College,  founded  by  the  Earl  Maris<^,hal,  nearly  a  century  later,  is  situated  in  the 
heart  of  New  Aberdeen.  It  is  not  so  well  endowed  as  King's  College ;  but  has  an  excellent 
cabinet  of  natural  philosophy,  and  a  well-furnished  observatory. 

Peterhead,  an  improving  place,  much  frequented  for  sea-bathing  and  for  a  mineral  water 
in  its  vicinity,  has  two  natural  harbours.  It  sends  thirteen  ships  to  the  whale  fishery,  and 
canics  on  that  of  herrings  with  considerable  spirit.  To  the  south  is  a  range  of  precipitous 
cliffs,  called  the  BuUera  of  Buchan,  against  which  the  waves  dash  with  perpetual  fury. 

Three  counties,  Banff,  Moray  or  Elgin,  and  Nairn,  occupy  the  southern  shore  of  tho  Moray 
Frith.  The  ir.terior  districts  border  on  the  lofliest  highlands ;  but  the  coast,  only  divorsifiecl 
by  gentle  hills,  constitutes  the  ancient  pro^'ince  of  Moray,  which  the  early  Scottish  writers 
describe  ^vith  admiration  as  the  most  fruitful  part  of  Scotland,  and  as  enjoying  fifteen  days 
more  of  summer  than  any  other  district  Its  rivera  afford  ample  fisheries  of  salmon,  which 
is  exported  to  the  computed  annual  value  of  25,000/.  The  herring  fishery  also  is  prose- 
cuted with  considerable  success. 

Elgin  io  an  ancient  town,  situated  on  tho  Lossie,  and  has  a  tolerable  harbour ;  but  its  chief 
distinction  rests  on  its  cathedral,  which,  even  in  ruin,  may  dispute  with  Melrose  the  glory 
of  being  the  finest  Gothic  edifice  in  Scotland ;  in  1568  the  privy  council  ordered  its  leaden 
roof  to  be  taken  oflT  for  the  payment  uf  the  army,  and  from  tiiat  time  it  gradually  decayed. 
In  a  neighbouring  valley  are  also  the  remains  of  the  fine  priory  of  Pluscardme.  Banff  in  a 
somewhat  larger  and  more  thriving  place,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Deveron ;  carrying 
on  some  linen  manufactures  and  a  considerable  herring  fishery.  Nairn  is  a  neat  little 
county  town,  possessing  some  industry,  «.nd  frequented  for  sea-bathing. 


SuBSECT.  2. — The  mghland  Cortnties. 

The  Highlands  of  Scotland  comprise  somewhat  more  than  half  the  surfkce  of  the  kinf  • 
Aoca.  They  include  the  whole  region  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  except  the  lx;lt  on  tn » 
eastern  coast,  between  the  friths  of  Forth  and  Moray,  which  has  just  been  descril,ed.  Thi  i 
region  consists  altogether  of  continuous  ranges  of  lofty  mountains,  which  on  the  borden 


134 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


leave  between  them  some  of  the  fine  and  brood  valleys,  called  $lraths,  but  in  the  interior 
onljr  the  deep  and  often  rocky  intervals  called  glens.  They  are  peopled  by  a  loco  totally 
distinct  fVom  the  Lowlandi-rs.  These  mountaineers  wear  a  costume,  already  dcBcribod,  quite 
peculiar  to  themselves;  thny  speak  a  Coltic  dialect,  deep,  stronif,  and  f^uttiiral,  bcarinjj  no 
resemblance  to  the  Teutonic  speech  of  iho  Lowlaiids  ami  of  England.  They  have  over 
maintained  that  valour,  which,  under  Galj^acus,  set  bounds  to  the  career  of  Roman  conquest, 
and  proHorved  their  mountains  untouched  by  the  invader ;  and  they  hove  since  bi!en  con- 
vertCKl  from  formidable  foes  into  ffallant  defenders  of  the  rest  of  the  empire.  Down  to  the 
year  1745,  they  acted  in  clans,  lea  by  hereditary  chiefs,  to  whom  they  wore  entirely  devoted, 
and  who  exercised  over  them  a  paternal  I  X  absolute  sway.  The  spirit  of  clanship  led  them 
to  attach  themselves  strongly  to  tlie  hereditary  right  of  the  Stuarts,  of  which,  under  Mont- 
rose, they  pave  powerful  proofs,  which  had  nearly  turned  tlie  tide  of  war  in  its  favour. 
Afterwards,  in  1745,  they  suddenly  invaded  England ;  and,  in  the  absence  of  the  army  in 
Flanders,  struck  alarm  into  Uio  dynasty  of  Hanover.  The  issue  of  that  contest  broke 
entirely  the  independence  of  the  highland  chiefs.  A  number  were  either  brought  to  the 
8cafi()ld,  or  sent  into  exile ;  military  roads  were  made,  and  forts  erected  in  the  heart  of  their 
territory;  they  were  deprived  of  their  feudal  privileges;  even  the  national  dress  was  pro- 
hibited,  on  account  of  the  recollections  it  was  calculated  to  excite.  After  the  first  alarms, 
however,  had  subsided,  the  British  government  adopted  the  plan  of  conciliation.  Pitt  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  forming  the  highlandcrs  into  national  regiments,  allowing  even  a  limited 
use  of  the  appropriate  dress ;  and  they  have  since  ranked  with  the  bravest  and  most  distin- 
guished troops  in  the  British  army.  Out  of  tlie  forfeited  estates  and  otiier  funds  voted  by 
government,  vast  sums  have  been  expended  on  the  Caledonian  Canal,  roads,  bridges,  and 
other  great  works  for  the  improvement  of  this  rude  territory.  The  lairdt,  deprived  of  their 
absolute  power,  and  attracted  by  the  gaieties  and  luxuries  of  cities,  soon  accustomed  them- 
selves to  view  their  estates  only  as  "  material  capitals,  to  be  worked  according  to  the  great 
principles  of  political  economy."  The  multitude  of  little  spots,  divided  among  vassals,  in 
whose  numbers  they  placed  their  strength,  were  thrown  into  large  sheep-farms ;  and  the 
tenants  were  driven  out  to  seek  a  home  wherever  they  could  find  it.  Some  migrated  to  the 
lowland  cities,  and  a  great  proportion  went  to  America ;  yet,  in  consequence  of  the  advance 
of  commerce  and  fisheries,  even  the  highland  counties  augmented  their  population  during 
this  period,  though  not  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  Lowlands.  Between  1801  and  1821, 
it  increased  firom  434,000  to  512,000.  There  is  one  great  manufacture,  generally  diffiised 
throughout  this  region,  which  tends  rather  to  disturb  the  peace  than  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  community ;  this  is  whiskey,  which  the  people  prepare  in  small  stills  from  their  ftere, 
or  coarse  barley,  and  give  it  a  flavour  superior  to  any  other  spirit  made  in  England  or  Scot- 
land. 

The  Highlands  are  composed  of  two  great  districts, — the  west  and  the  north.  The  formal 
comprehends  the  shires  of  Dumbarton,  Argyle,  Bute,  and  part  of  Perth ;  the  latter  embraces 
the  counties  of  Inverness,  Ross,  Sutherland,  &c.  The  Hebrides,  or  Western  Isles,  belong 
to  the  counties  of  Bute,  Argyle,  Ross,  and  Inverness. 

Perth  is  a  noble  and  extensive  county,  forming  the  link,  as  it  were,  between  the  Lowlands 
and  Highlands ;  in  its  difl^erent  parts  uniting  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  one  with  tht 
grandeur  of  the  other.  The  former  qualities  are  conspicuous  in  tlie  carse  of  Gowrie ;  a 
broad  sloping  plain,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tay,  profusely  covered  with  orchards  and  cul- 
tivated fields.  The  upper  part  of  Stratheam,  also,  between  Perth  and  Criefl',  varied  with 
gentle  hills,  cultivated  valleys,  and  the  windings  of  two  great  rivers,  may  almost  be  called 
the  garden  of  Scotland.  As  we  proceed  to  the  north  and  west,  the  Grampians  gradually 
swell,  and  at  length  are  found  occupying  the  whole  interior  of  the  county,  in  a  line  fttim 
north-east  to  south-west,  and  comprehending  the  mighty  summits  of  Ben  Lawers,  Benmore, 
Bengloe,  Schehallion,  Bien  Voirlich,  Benledi,  Benvcnue ;  all  from  3000  to  upwards  of  4000 
feet  high.  Within  their  recesses  they  enclose  the  three  large  lochs,  Tay,  Earn,  and  Katrine. 
These  lakes,  varied  with  woods  and  verdure,  exhibit  in  many  parts  scenes  of  great  grandeur 
and  beauty.  In  the  lowlands  of  Perth,  agriculture  is  carried  to  great  perfection ;  the  high- 
land tracts,  on  the  contrary,  are  in  general  fit  only  for  pasturage.  They  are,  however, 
covered  with  the  remains  of  ancient  forests,  to  which  the  great  proprietors  have  been 
making  very  extensive  additions.  The  towns  of  Perthshire  participate  in  the  diflerent 
national  manufactures :  the  bleachfields  and  printfields  are  numerous ;  but  this  can  in  no 
view  be  generally  regarded  as  a  manufacturing  county. 

Perth  IS  well  built,  and,  as  to  situation,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  the  kingdom. 
The  view  of  it  from  the  north,  in  particular,  in  the  heart  of  a  finely  wooded  plain,  with  the 
Tay  winding  round  it,  and  the  Hill  of  Moncrieff"  rising  above,  is  almost  without  a  rival  in 
the  kingdom.  Perth  might,  for  a  long  time,  be  considered  the  capital  of  Scotland.  It  was 
the  fi"equent  residence  of  the  kings.  Parliaments  and  General  Asemblies  met  there  oftcner 
than  in  any  other  place ;  and,  in  Ihe  civil  contests,  the  possession  of  Perth  was  considered 
of  vital  importance  by  the  contendmg  parties.    At  present  it  has  declined  to  a  rank  cjecidedly 


Part  III. 

but  in  tho  interior 
1(1  by  a  raco  totally 
dy  ucBcribod,  quite 
uttnral,  boarini;  no 

They  have  over 
f  Roman  conqueBt, 
ve  Hinco  bi!cn  con< 
lire.  Down  to  the 
•0  entirely  devoted, 
clanship  led  them 
r'hich,  under  Mont- 
war  in  ita  favour, 
ce  of  the  army  in 
:hat  contest  broke 
her  brought  to  the 
>  tho  heart  of  their 
inal  dress  was  pro< 
:cr  the  first  alarms, 
illation.  Pitt  con* 
'ing  even  a  limited 
!st  and  most  distin- 
ler  funds  voted  by 
roads,  bridges,  and 
»,  deprived  of  their 
accustomed  them- 
ording  to  the  great 
among  vassals,  in 
eep-farms ;  and  the 
mo  migrated  to  the 
nee  of  the  advance 
■  population  during 
3en  1801  and  1821, 
,  generally  diffused 
[prove  the  conditioD 
lis  from  their  6ere, 

England  or  Scot- 

lorth.  Tho  formal 
the  latter  embracet 
stern  Isles,  belong 

veen  the  Lowlands 

tho  one  with  tht 

irse  of  Gowrie ;  t 

orchards  and  cul- 

Ticff,  varied  with 

y  almost  be  called 

impians  gradually 

nty,  in  a  line  from 

jawers,  Benmore, 

upwards  of  4000 

Earn,  and  Katrine. 

of  great  grandeur 

ibction;  the  high- 

hey  are,  however, 

ietors  have  been 

in  the  different 

jt  this  can  in  no 

in  the  kingdom. 
5d  plain,  with  the 
without  a  rival  in 
Scotland.  It  was 
met  there  ofloner 
h  was  considered 
I  a  raLx  decidedly 


lk)OK  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


Fall  ofBruar. 


orovincial ;  and  ita  commerce,  once  conBidera>'e,  has  been  almost  wholly  transferred  to 
Dundee.  It  has  linen  and  other  manufactures,  .  'hich  produce  an  annual  valuo  of  alxiut 
200,000/. ;  while  ita  advantageous  site,  and  the  exccJent  education  afforded  by  tlio  grammar 
ichool  and  academy,  attract  a  number  of  the  neighbouring  gentry,  and  render  it  gay  and 
fashionable. 

The  other  towns  of  Perthshire  are  small,  but  distinguished  for  tho  grand  and  picturesque 
Bcenery  amid  which  thev  are  situated.  Dunkeld,  in  this  respect,  is  generally  considered  tho 
pride  of  Scotland;  the  finely  wooded  and  rocky  hills  through  which  the  Tay  meanders,  with 

tho  valleys  and  glens  opening  on  every  side,  produce 
a  diversity  of  landscape  scarcely  equalled  elsewhere. 
Tho  late  Duke  of  Athol,  whose  spacious  (lotnaina 
cover  this  part  of  Perthshire,  was  most  active  in 
respect  to  plantations,  since  those  of  Dunkeld  alone 
cover  11,000  acres;  and  the  whole  number  of  treea 
planted  by  ihe  duke  amount  to  30,000,000.  A  route 
of  twenty  miles,  directly  north,  passing  opposite  to 
the  fine  mountain  village  of  Logierait,  and  through 
tho  bold  pass  of  KiUikrankie,  leads  to  Blair,  also  part 
of  the  Atnol  territory,  and  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
spots  in  Scotland.  Its  striking  features  consist  in  the 
lofly  mountain  Bcngloe,  the  glens  of  the  Tilt  and  the 
Garry,  ond  the  picturesque  rocky  falls  of  the  Bruar 
(Jiff.  199.).  Westward  is  Loch  Rannoch,  surrounded 
by  extensive  forests  of  fir,  and  overhung  by  Sche< 
hallion,  on  whose  lofly  summit  Dr.  Maskelyne  per- 
formed some  of  his  opierations  for  the  measurement 
of  the  earth.  Out  of  it  flows  the  Tumel,  n  rapid 
stream,  which  forms  some  romantic  cascades.  From 
the  Tumel,  a  military  road  leads  to  Lc<  h  Tay,  the  larj»est  of  the  lakes,  and  surrounded  by 
the  loftiest  mountains  of  Perthshire,  ilen  Lawers,  with  a  chain  of  attendant  mountains, 
overhangs  it  from  tho  north ;  while  Benmore  shuts  it  in  on  the  west ;  and  perhaps  there  ia 
no  lake  m  Britain  enclosed  by  so  grand  a  circuit.  The  sides  of  the  mountains  are  somewhat 
naked ;  but  the  grounds  of  Taymouth,  at  the  head  of  the  loch,  form  a  rich  foreground. 

Farther  south  is  the  vale  of  Strathearn,  at  one  end  of  which,  Crieff,  a  thrivini^  little  town, 
looks  up  '■.!  the  windings  of  tho  river,  and  the  vast  mountains  from  amid  which  it  issues. 
Loch  Eain,  a  small  Idee,  ia  bounded  on  the  south  by  grand  ranges  of  very  lofty  moun- 
tains. 

The  upper  valleys  of  the  Forth  and  the  Teith  have  some  very  remarkable  scenery.  On 
the  Allan,  i^  Dumblane;  a  pleasantly  situated  little  town,  with  the  remains  of'^a  fine 
cathedral ;  Callender,  overhung  by  Benledi,  is  chiefly  frequented  aa  the  key  of  Loch  Katrine, 
situated  about  ten  miles  to  the  westward,  and  approached  by  a  narrow  road  along  the  small 
lakes  of  Venachoir  and  Achray.  The  scenes  of  beauty  and  grandeur  which  adorn  the 
eastern  extremity  of  this  lake,  the  mighty  clif&  of  Benvenue,  the  wild  wooded  glen  of  the 
Trosachs,  and  the  beautiful  little  island  in  the  centre  of  the  scene,  have  obtained  celebrity 
from  the  muse  of  Scott.  Farther  south,  the  Forth,  rising  from  Ben  Lomond,  rolls  through 
a  pastoral  mountain  valley,  once  the  seat  of  the  power  and  the  scene  of  the  adventures  of 
the  outlaw  Macgregor.  It  forms  several  little  lakes,  of  which  Loch  Ard  is  the  largest  and 
most  beautiful. 

The  county  of  Inverness  is  purely  highland,  presenting  range  after  range  of  mountains, 
of  which  Ben  Nevis,  Cairngorm,  and  several  others,  are  the  most  elevated  in  the  Uni*^ed 
Kingdom.  The  intervals  between  them  are  filled  either  by  long  lakes,  or  by  narrow  glo  is, 
the  level  space  of  which  does  not  usually  exceed  a  mile  in  breadth.  The  principal  one, 
called  the  Great  Caledonian  Glen,  reaches  from  Inverness  in  an  oblique  direction  across  the 
kingdom,  filled  with  an  almost  unbroken  chaui  of  lakes, — Loch  Ness,  Loch  Oich,  Loch 
Lochy,  and  Loch  Linnhe ;  which  last  opens  by  the  Sound  of  Mull  into  the  western  sea ;  a 
continuity  which  facilitated  the  formation  of  the  Caledonian  Canal.  In  the  east,  the  district 
along  the  upper  course  of  the  Spey,  bearing  the  name  of  Strathspey,  comprises  an  unusual 
extent  of  level  land.  Only  about  a  fortieth  part  of  the  county  is  capable  of  cultivation ;  but 
that  fortieth,  composed  of  haugh  or  alluvial  land,  on  the  rivers,  or  the  lakes,  is  extremely 
fertile.  The  greatest  branch  of  industry  consists  in  the  rearing  of  black  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats.  Game  of  all  kinds  abounds,  and  there  are  still  considerable  remains  of  the  great 
Caledonian  forest,  composed  chiefly  of  fir. 

Inverness,  the  gay  capital  of  the  Highlands,  is  of  a  very  difTerent  character  from  that  of 

the  wild  region  over  which  it  holds  a  sort  of  dominion.    Seated  on  a  bay,  at  the  head  of  the 

Moray  Frith,  it  partakes  in  a  great  measure  of  the  mild  and  fertile  character  of  its  shores, 

and  stands  at  some  little  distance  from  the  awful  ranges  of  mountains  by  which  it  is  enclosed. 

Vol.  L  36*  3D 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IH. 


m} 


■  4iM 


FtU  or  Fran. 


Aflor  lufTuring  a  conaidoreble  doclino  Ouin  ita  ancient  importance,  it  hoa,  wittiin  tho  lut 
thirty  yoara,  nearly  tripled  itii  extent  and  pupulatiun.  In  ((oncral,  a  cunitiderablo  polislt 
of  maniicra  is  obitcrvablo ;  and  it  has  boon  ronmrkcd  that  tho  En^liiih  lunifuuizo  i»  i|)uken 
in  (ffORtor  purity  than  in  any  other  part  of  ScutiamI ;  a  circuniiitancn  whicli  iiaii  been 
ascribed  to  the  rcaidonco  of  Enf^litth  otticcrB  atlcr  tho  Itattle  of  Culloden.  InvcrncHa  liaa  a 
town  huuHV,  infirmary,  OMonibly-ruom.H,  and  theatre.  Manutiicturoa  of  hemp,  flux,  and  tartan 
have  been  catablisliod.  The  views,  botii  of  sea  and  hind,  in  its  vicinity,  arc  alntoet  un- 
rivalled. 
Iuvcmo8»4hiro  has  acorcoly  another  place  which  can  make  mucli  pretension  to  tlio  nam« 

even  of  a  villaifo.  Ben  Nevis,  usually  considered 
tho  loflicst  mountain  in  Scotland  and  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  is  4370  feot  above  tho  level  of 
tho  sea ;  the  view  fVom  tho  summit  is  very  exten- 
sive, embracing  a  great  portion  of  the  Ilobrldcs, 
To  the  east  of  lioch  Ness,  tho  rivulet  of  Fycrs  or 
Foyers  {fff.  iJOO.),  forms  tJie  greatest  waterfall  in 
Scotland;  tho  lower  or  principal  full  dcscemii 
from  a  height  of  212  feet;  but  tho  stream  is  not 
very  coi)ious. 

Argylo,  commonly  called  tho  Western  High- 
lands, IS  tt  wi<lo  and  irregular  territory,  stretch- 
ing into  long  promontories,  and  indontcd  by  deep 
arms  of  the  Kea,  so  as  to  form  a  coast  of  very 
groat  extent.  In  general  the  shore  is  bordered 
by  high  hilln,  and  the  interior  covered  with  ranges 
of  rugged  mountains.  Its  industry  is  almost  en- 
tirely pastoral ;  herds  of  black  cattle  and  vast 
flocks  of  sheop  are  fed  on  tho  sides  of  its  moun- 
tains. The  herring  of  tht)  west  coast,  and  especially  of  Loch  Fyno,  enjoys  a  high  reputa- 
tion. Tho  county  is  chiefly  tonantcd  by  (Campbells,  who  were  wont  to  rally  round  the  Mac- 
callummore,  a  designation  of  their  chief  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  with  all  the  ardour  of  kindred 
and  national  attachment. 

'01       .^        ,rfSS^  Dumbarton  is  mostly  a  part  of  the  same  district; 

yet  it  has  a  lowland  strip  extending  along  the  north- 
ern banks  of  the  Clyde.  In  the  western  part  are  the 
Great  Canal,  joining  the  Clyde  at  Dunglass;  and 
the  wall  of  Antonums,  called  by  tho  Scottish  vulgar 
"  Graham's  dike."  Tlie  approach  to  Dumbarton  af- 
fords one  of  tho  most  striking  prospects  in  Scotland; 
and  its  castle  (Jiff,  201.),  the  ancient  and  mighty 
hold  of  tho  Britons,  towering  on  the  summit  of  a 
perpendicular  rock,  still  maintains  its  importance  as 
a  fortress.  Dumbarton  has  a  large  manufactory  of 
crown  glass,  which  is  exported  to  foroign  parts ;  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  Leven  there  are  extensive  printfields. 

Loch  liOmond  (Jig.  202.)  is  celebrated  for  th>     xpanse  of  its  waters,  and  '  ,'ic  many  bcautifiil 

islands  with  which  is  stuiWed.  From  its  foot, 
bordered  by  cultivated  hills  and  ornamented 
villas,  to  its  mountain  head,  there  is  a  con- 
tinu(>d  transition  from  beauty  to  grandeur, 
and  at  the  central  point  of  Luss  they  are 
remarkably  mited.  The  numerous  and 
beautiful  islands,  and  the  long  wooded  pro- 
montories stretching  into  the  water,  with 
the  majestic  form  of  Ben  Lomond  in  the 
background,  protiuce  a  combination  of  land- 
scape which  perhaps  no  other  spot  in  Britain 
can  equal. 
On  turning  the  head  of  Loch  Long  at 
Arrochar,  the  view  opens  on  the  romanti'"  valley  of  Glencoe,  enclosed  between  two  ranges 
of  mountains  rising  almost  perpendicularly  to  an  amazing  height,  and  leaving  between  them 
only  a  narrow  vale,  through  which  a  rivulet  flows.  The  vale  of  Glenfinglas  is  then  passed, 
whose  high  sloping  sides  covered  with  innumerable  flocks  inspire  pleasing  pastoral  images, 
and  at  the  termination  of  which  finrthar?  the  grand  estuary  of  Loch  Pyne. 
Liverary,  the  capital  of  the  \  estem  Highlands,  is  situated  near  the  head  of  Loch  Fyne 


Dumbarton  Cullo. 


Loch  Lomond. 


paht  in. 

haa,  within  tho  lut 
I  coiiaidorablo  polialt 
i  languatfo  iit  spoiten 
[ICO  wiiicl)  iiaa  been 
len.  Invcrnoiw  hu  ^ 
lioinp,  flux,  and  tartan 
inity,  aro  alntoet  un« 

rotension  to  tlio  name 
vis,  UMually  conaiilorcd 
Scotland  and  in  the 
eot  above  tlio  lovcl  of 
Bumniit  is  very  exton- 
rtion  of  tho  IIcbrideB. 
ho  rivulet  of  Fyors  or 
0  Kroatest  waterfall  in 
rinciiwl  fall  dcscendi 
but  tho  stream  is  not 

d  tlic  Western  Ilijfh- 
jlar  territory,  Btretch- 
,  and  indented  by  deep 

form  a  coast  of  very 

tho  shore  is  bordered 
or  covered  with  ranges 

indujtry  is  almost  cn» 
black  cattle  and  vast 
the  sides  of  its  moun- 
,  enjoys  a  high  remita- 
i  rally  round  the  Mac- 

tho  ardour  of  kindred 

of  the  same  district; 

nding  along  the  north* 

3  western  part  are  the 

'de  at  Dunglass;  and 

■)y  tho  Scottish  vulgar 

jacli  to  Dumbarton  af- 

proHpects  in  Scotland; 

ancient  and  mighty 

on  tho  sununit  of  a 

;ains  its  importance  as 

large  manufactory  of 

to  foreign  parts;  and 

Ind  t  iio  many  beautifiil 
Vurt<lod.  From  its  foot, 
hills  and  ornamented 
head,  there  is  a  con- 
beauty  to  grandeur, 
lint  of  Lusa  they  aro 
The  numerous  and 
[the  long  wooded  pro- 
Into  the  water,  with 
[Ben  Lomond  in  the 
combination  of  land- 
other  spot  in  Britain 

of  Loch  Long  at 
etween  two  ranges 
iaving  between  them 
Inglas  is  then  passed, 
|ing  pastoral  imageii 

iheadofLochFyne 


DooK  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


437 


Its  cnviroM  aro  not  mountcinQm;  but 


Invertrr  Caille. 


ita  no^'j  caatlc  {fig.  20n.)i  aurroundod  by  wood- 
ed hilla  and  wide  lawns,  with  tne  lofly 
mountaina  which  ahut  in  tho  diatant  view, 
—  render  it  a  maifniflcent  and  d  ilij^htful  apot. 
Tho  town  ia  ainall  and  neat,  witliout  any 
employment,  except  tho  herrmi'  fiahory. 
About  ton  miloa  below  Inverary,  tno  Crinan 
Canal  Joina  Ix)ch  Fyne  to  tho  western  aoa, 
and  hoa  made  Lochgilphead  a  place  of  aome 
consequence. 

Tho  interior  and  tho  western  coast  of 
Argyleshiro  aro  in  many  respects  interest- 
ing. Parallel  to  I<och  Fyne,  at  the  distance  of 
ten  or  twelve  miles,  is  tho  long  lino  of  Loch 
Awe;  an  interior  lake,  over  whoso  head  towers  Ben  Cruachan,  the  loftiest  aummit  in  Argylo, 
Tlic  castle  of  Kilchum,  rising  on  one  of  tho  islands,  |>roiluces  a  highly  picturesque  ctlect. 
Dvyond  this.  Loch  Ktive,  a  narrow  arm  of  tho  aoa,  stretches  far  into  Die  interior.  Climbing 
iliu  high  mountaina  at  tho  head  of  Loch  Etive,  we  como  to  Glcncoo,  which  in  terrific 
mndeur  Rurpaaaos  jierhaps  every  other  spot  in  Great  Britain.  This  cfibct  ia  produced  by 
its  bold  and  broken  mountain  forma,  ita  spiry  rocks,  and  black  precipices ;  at  tho  bottom  of 
wliifli,  in  a  deep  chasm  or  ravine,  flows  the  rivulet  of  Coo.  This  stream  is  tho  Cona  of 
OsHJan,  believed  tho  favourite  haunt  of  that  celebrated  Caledonian  bard.  Tho  valo  has  also 
a  gloomy  recollection  attached  to  it,  from  the  massacre  of  1601.  Emerging  from  this  scene, 
the  traveller  is  cheered  with  tlio  gay  aspect  of  Loch  Leven,  which  presents  much  pleasing 
highland  scenery,  while  the  hills  round  the  ferry  of  Bulachulish  afllird  valuable  quarries  o? 
ilate.  From  Iklachulish,  along  the  broad  expanse  of  tho  Linnho  Loch  with  which  tho  great 
Caledonian  chain  terminates,  (Extends  Appin,  a  beautiful  district,  diveraiflcd  with  flno  woods, 
rich  pasturage,  and  more  culture  than  is  usual  in  Argyleshire.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the 
Linnlio  Locn  is  a  peninsular  district  called  Ardnamurchan,  separated  only  by  a  narrow 
■»und  from  the  Island  of  Mull.  The  district  of  Strontian  contains  lead-mines  of  some  value. 
Crossing  the  Linnhe,  and  passing  Liamore,  a  lon^,  level,  and  fertile  island,  wo  And  Lome, 
leparated  by  Loch  Creran  from  Appin,  to  which  it  is  even  superior  in  beauty  and  fertility. 
Near  the  opening  of  Loch  Etivo  into  the  sea,  tradition  places  Beregonium,  the  reported 
capital  of  tho  Picta  in  the  third  century ;  and  near  it  is  found  Dunstaffhago  (fig.  204.),  once 

tlu  I  '".of  Scottish  regal  pomp, 
low  a  ruin,  crowning  a  clifl* along 
the  western  sea.  The  long  pen- 
insula of  Cantyre  stretches  far 
out  into  the  sea,  being  visible 
from  the  Irish  coast  of  Antrim. 
The  Macdonalds,  lords  of  the 
Isles,  long  held  away  over  it, 
till  they  were  driven  out  by  the 
earls  of  Argyle.  Campbelltown, 
""""»''''•»•*'""•■  near  ite  southern  extremity,  is 

a  thriving  port,  now  the  largest  on  this  cooat,  and  serving  in  particular  as  a  general  ren- 
dezvous for  the  herring  fishery. 

The  three  extreme  counties,  Ross,  Cromarty,  and  Sutherland,  form  the  most  remote  and 
northerly  portion  of  the  Highlands,  and,  Caithness  excepted,  of  all  the  mainland.  The  south- 
eastern border  of  the  friths  of  Moray,  Cromarty,  and  Dornoch  contains  some  fine  land,  and 
several  thriving  towns ;  the  rest  is  a  continued  range  of  rock,  mountain,  heath,  forest,  and 
loch,  similar  to  Inverness,  but  still  wilder.  The  lochs  which  indent  the  western  coant  ore 
large  and  numerous,  particularly  Loch  Carron,  Jjoch  Terridon,  and  Loch  Broom ;  and  they 
have  generally  grand  mountain  boundaries.  Cape  Wrath,  the  north-western  point  of  Sco^ 
land,  is  a  lofly  pyramidal  rock,  standing  in  front  of  a  vast  range  of  broken  cliffs,  and  breasting 

the  whole  wide  expanse  of  the  ocean.  On 
the  northern  coast  is  Loch  Eribol,  a  wide 
inlet,  bordered  by  limestone  rocks,  per- 
forated by  caves  of  great  extent  and  re- 
markable form.  Sutherland  presents  numer- 
ous Duns,  or  ancient  forts  of  peculiar  struc- 
ture, of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  Dun 
Domadilla^(/j§'.  205.),  situated  on  the  loflv 
sides  of  Ben  Hope,  not  far  from  Loch 
Eribol. 

Cromarty,  the  capital  of  the  little  county 
si  the  same  name,  stands  at  the  foot  of  ibi 


Dun  Doroadilla. 


128 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paiit  III 


'X'   •'I 


¥M4 


own  flrith ;  while  Din^^wall,  the  county  town  of  Ross,  is  situated  at  the  head.  Cromnrty  is  « 
considerable  fishing  station.  On  tlio  south  side  of  the  Dornoch  Frith  is  Tain,  and  on  tho 
north  is  Dornoch,  an  ancient  town,  of  wIiobo  cathedral  some  part  still  remains. 

Caithness  forms  tho  north-eastern  angle  of  Scotland :  it  is  scarcely  a  highland  county,  only 
the  Paps  of  Caithness  rising  to  tho  character  of  mountains.  Its  surface  is  moist,  blonk,  and 
bore,  filled  with  little  lakes,  and  covered  with  extensive  moors.  The  chief  branch  of  industry 
is  tho  herring  fishery.  Kelp  is  also  made  fVom  the  sea-weed  thrown  on  its  shores.  Thurw), 
the  county  town,  is  an  improving  place,  in  tho  midst  of  a  cultivated  country.  Its  bav  ultnrds 
a  safb  roadstead,  peculiarly  valiiable  for  ships,  which,  in  rounding  the  north  of  acutla:  j, 
must  pass  through  tho  Pentland  Fritli,  rendered  dangerous  by  its  violent  and  rapid  ctirronts, 
Wick,  tho  grand  rendezvous  of  tho  herring  fishery,  owes  to  tliis  advantage  a  very  mpid 
increase.  The  nortli-eastern  point  of  Caithness  and  of  Scotland  bears  the  fiunuiar  appelliition 
of  John  o'Grodt's  liouse;  though  there  is  not  the  vestige  of  a  house  to  correspond  tu  this 
title,  which  is  founded  on  a  mere  traditionary  story. 

SuBSEOT.  3. — Scottish  Islandt, 

The  islands  appendent  on  Scotland,  form  ono  of  its  most  conspicuous  fbaturcs.  Tiiough 
neither  rich  nor  fertile  in  proportion  to  tlioir  extent,  thov  exhibit  a  great  variety  of  bold  and 
striking  scenery,  and  are  peopled  by  a  race  whose  habits  of  life  and  forms  of  socinty  are 
peculiar  to  themselves.  They  may  bo  divided  into  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  tho  Clyde; 
tho  Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands;  and  the  Northern  Islands,  or  those  of  Orkney  and 
Shetland. 

The  islands  of  the  Clyde  are  chiefly  Bute  and  Arron,  with  tlie  smaller  ones  of  tho  Cum- 
brays  and  Ailsa.  Bute  is  of  beautiful  aspect,  with  a  climate  accounted  the  mildesc  in  Scot- 
land, and  for  that  reason  resorted  to  by  invalids ;  a  considerable  part  of  the  surface  is  arable 
and  well  cultivated.  Rothsay  is  a  pretty  town,  much  frequented  for  sea-batliing,  nnd  en- 
riched by  a  considorablo  herring  fishery.  Arran  presents  much  bold  alpine  scenery,  tiie 
central  mountain  of  Goatficld  rising  to  nearly  the  heigiit  of  3000  feet,  while  the  glen  of 
Sanox  at  its  base  has  the  highest  character  of  savage  and  romantic  grandeur.  Lamlanh,  the 
principal  town,  possesses  an  excellent  harbour.  Ailsa,  ofl"  the  Ayrshire  coast,  is  a  rock  900 
feet  high,  with  lofly  basaltic  clitfs,  formed  into  columns  several  hundred  feet  in  height. 

Tlie  Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands,  stretch  far  into  tho  Atlantic.  Their  general  aspect  is 
highland,  with  rude  rocks  and  mountains,  deep  and  dark  valleys,  large  expanses  of  peat-moss, 
hill  postures,  and  scanty  harvests ;  the  mountains  ascend  ratiier  in  single  peaks  than  in  lun^ 
ranges ;  nnd  tho  rocky  clifis  whicli  fticc  tho  sea  assume,  in  many  places,  columnar  forms  of 
peculiar  grandeur.  The  climate  is  moist ;  yet  milder  than  on  the  mainland.  The  oarlicBt 
mhabitants  seem  to  have  been  Celtic.  About  tho  eleventh  century,  they  were  conquered, 
together  with  Man,  by  Harold  Harfiiger,  nnd  were  governed  for  several  centuries  by  a  Nor- 
wegian dynasty,  after  which  tliey  owned  the  nominal  sovereignty  of  the  Scottish  kinffs,  but 
fell  really  under  the  sway  of  the  Mncdonalds,  lords  of  the  Isles.  Their  territory  incluilinp  a 
great  part  of  tho  west  coast  of  Scotland,  formed  a  considerable  power,  till  it  fell  partly  under 
5ie  dominion  of  tlie  Scottish  crown,  and  was  partly  divided  among  a  number  of  petty  chiefs, 
whose  feuds  (ieform  the  subsequent  pages  of  Hcbridean  history.  At  present  these  islands 
may  be  considered  as  retaining  moro  of  highland  habits  and  feelings,  than  any  part  of  the 
mamland. 

The  Hebrides  may  be  divided  into  two  main  ranges.  One  of  them  consists  of  tho  large 
islands  of  Islay,  Jura,  Mu'.l,  and  Skye,  with  several  minor  attendants,  which  are  nearly 
contiguous  to  the  west  coast,  and  separated  from  it  only  by  narrow  straits  and  sounds ;  tlie 
other  is  composed  of  North  and  South  Uist,  Harris,  Iicwis,  which  are  considerably  out  at 
sea,  and  are  classed,  witli  no  very  strict  propriety,  undei  tho  general  appellation  of  Long 
Island. 

Islay  contains  a  good  deal  of  level  and  fertile  territory,  which  induced  the  lords  of  the 
Isles  to  make  it  their  residence ;  good  crops  of  barley,  oats,  and  even  wheat,  are  raised ;  and 
the  black  cattle,  hich  form  the  main  export,  are  held  in  great  estimation.  Jura  is  separated 
from  Islay  only  ly  a  sound,  tlie  opposite  sides  of  which  correspond  so  exactly  os  to  suggest 
the  idea  of  their  having  been  disjoined  by  some  violent  shock ;  it  is  one  continued  tract  of 
brown  and  rocky  mountain  pasture ;  all  the  inhabitants,  if  collected,  would  scarcely  people 
a  large  village.  Scarba  consists  of  a  single  conical  mountain  broken  into  rocky  precipices, 
and  terming  a  striking  object.  Between  Jura  and  Scarba  is  the  perilous  strait  of  Corryvre- 
kon,  a  whirlpool  noted  fcr  shipwreck.  Colonsay  and  Oronsay  form  one  long  island,  tlie 
channel  between  them  being  passable  at  low  water.  The  former  has  a  verdant  appearance; 
at  Oromiay  are  the  remains  of  a  priory,  ranking  as  the  finest  in  the  Highlands  next  to  that 
of  lona^ 

Mull  is  a  large,  rough,  stormy  island,  with  winding  and  deeply  indented  shores,  separated 
by  a  long  narrow  sound  from  the  Ar^yleshire  coast  The  shores  are  almost  everywhere 
rocky  and  precipitous ;  tho  two  once  mighty  holds  of  Duart  and  Aros  crown  rocky  clifis  on  its 
eastern  shore.  The  great  keep  of  the  former,  with  its  walls  nine  feet  thick,  encloses  on  area 


Paut  III 

10  head.  Cromnrty  ia  t 
itii  is  Tain,  and  on  tlio 
\  rotnainB. 

a  highland  county,  only 
kce  IS  moist,  bioni{,  and 
chief  brancii  of  industry 
on  its  sltorcs.  Thurso, 
iountry.  Its  boy  uirnrds 
the  north  of  Scotia;  J, 
lent  and  rapid  curronts. 
advantage  a  very  rapid 
the  fUmiliar  appellation 
D  to  correspond  to  thia 


lous  fbaturcs.  Though 
rent  variety  of  bold  and 
nd  forms  of  socioty  are 
le  mouth  of  the  Clyde; 
those  of  Orkney  and 

laller  ones  of  the  Cum- 
:ed  the  mildest  in  Scot- 
of  the  surface  is  arable 
or  sea-batliinff,  and  en> 
lid  alpine  scenery,  the 
feet,  while  the  plen  of 
frandeur.  Laralnsli,  the 
lire  coast,  is  a  rock  OOC 
red  feet  in  height. 
Their  general  aspect  is 
>  expanses  of  peat-moss, 
bgle  peaks  than  in  lon^ 
icce,  columnar  forms  of 
lainland.  Tlie  oorlicet 
.  they  were  conquered, 
ral  centuries  by  a  Nor- 
the  Scottish  kin^;s,  but 
ir  territory  including  a 

till  it  fell  partly  imdcr 
number  of  petty  chiefs, 

present  these  islands 
I,  than  any  part  of  the 

consists  of  the  large 
nts,  which  arc  nearly 
iraits  and  sounds;  tlie 
re  considerably  out  at 
1  appellation  of  Long 

uced  the  lords  of  the 

wheat,  are  raised ;  and 

;ion.  Jura  is  separated 

exactly  as  to  suggest 

)ne  continued  tract  of 

would  scarcely  people 

into  rocky  precipices, 

)U8  strait  of  Corryvre- 

one  long  island,  tlie 

verdant  appearance; 

ighlands  next  to  that 

ted  shores,  separated 
B  almost  everywhere 
own  rocky  cliffs  on  its 
ick,  encloses  an  area 


Hook  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


4Sb 


loni. 


of  thir'y-six  feet  by  twelve.  Black  cattle,  black-faced  sheep,  celebrated  for  theii  delicate  mut 

on,  kelp,  and  herrings,  are  exported. 

Staffa,  a  large  rock,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  round,  and  encircled  by  cliffs,  which  nowhere 

oflfl  _^.  .„  ^   ■_  exceed  in  height  144  feet,  contains  the 

*vo        — r-  .^'--...v.  Cave  of  Fingal  (//?■. 206.)    Almost  all 

the  rocks  of  the  island  are  basaltic  and 
columnar;  but  here  they  are  arronged 
so  as  to  produce  the  most  singular  and 
magnificent  effect.  An  opening,  sixty- 
six  feet  high  and  forty-two  wide,  formed 
by  perpendicular  walls  terminated  by  an 
arch  at  the  top,  admits  into  a  natural 
hall,  more  than  two  hundred  feet  lon^, 
and  bounded  on  each  side  by  basaltic 
columns  rising  in  regular  symmetrical 
succession.  Two  other  caves,  the  Cor- 
riniBi'tCav..  morants'  Cave  and    the  Boat's  Cave, 

present  similar  scenes.    Of  the  columnar  rocks,  which  extend  over  a  great  part  of  the 
island,  many  are  bent  and  twisted  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
lona  ifg.  207),  a  small  island  near  Staffa,  excites  the  deepest  interest  by  the  venerable 

ruins  which  attest,  in  this  secluded 
corner,  the  early  existence  of  re- 
ligion and  learning,  at  a  time  when 
the  rest  of  the  kingdom  was  buried 
in  barbarism.  St.  Columba,  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century, 
founded  here  a  monastery,  and 
made  it  a  centre  whence  he  en- 
deavoured to  diffuse  the  light  of 
Christianity.  This  religious  estab- 
lishment was  enriched  and  extend- 
ed, and  a  nunnery  was  afterwards 
instituted  under  the  same  auspices. 
The  Culdees,  or  followers  of  Co- 
lumba, appear  to  have  rendered  very  great  services  to  Britain,  and  even  to  the  whole  North. 
Teachers  were  often  drawn  from  among  them  for  seminaries  in  England ;  and  they  under 
took  missionary  expeditions  to  Norway,  and  even  to  Russia.  They  taught,  in  a  grca 
measure,  the  principles  of  primitive  Christianity,  rejecting  both  the  vows  of  celibocy,  and 
the  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church.  lonn,  however,  at  length  became  Roman  catholiC; 
and  continued  to  flourish  till  the  Reformatio  i,  when  its  monks  were  dispersed,  and  its  edi- 
fices demolished.  The  cemetery  also  remains,  in  which,  according  to  tradition,  were  buried 
forty-eight  kings  of  Scotland,  ci|fht  of  Norway,  four  of  Ireland,  and  one  of  France.  Al- 
lowing the  scepticism  of  Dr.  Macculloch  as  to  this  magnificent  list,  it  appears  confirmed, 
from  the  ornaments  on  the  tombs,  that  many  of  the  West-Insular  ci  iefs  chose  this  as  a 
sacred  spot,  where  their  ashes  might  repose.  The  ruins  are  extensive.  The  cathedral  is 
164  feet  long  and  34  broad ;  and  near  it  is  a  chapel  sixty  feet  long.  The  style  of  architecture 
is  early  and  rude ;  and  the  sculptures,  though  pretty  numerous,  are,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
grotesque  in  design  and  execution. 

Skyc,  the  most  northerly  of  this  inner  chain,  is  the  largest  of  the  group.  Il^  is  forty- 
five  miles  long ;  but  its  shores  are  so  winding,  and  so  penetrated  by  lochs,  that  it  may  be 
said  to  form  a  cluster  of  peninsulas.  Ranges  of  rocky  mountains,  many  of  them  3000  feet 
high,  cover  almost  the  entire  surface,  and  the  high  rocks  with  which  it  is  everywhere 
bordered,  display  objects  of  striking  and  romantic  grandeur.  In  Strathaird,  near  the 
southern  point,  is  the  celebrated  spar  cave ;  it  is  about  250  feet  from  the  entrance  to  the 
extremity ;  but  a  great  part  of  the  passage  is  gloomy  and  rocky,  and  only  in  its  most  inte- 
rior part  do  the  stalactites  begin  to  branch  out  into  that  variety  of  intricate  and  brilliant 
ornaments  which  make  the  cave  so  beautiful.  The  great  body  of  the  island  is  a  hilly  moor- 
land, barren,  brown,  and  rugged ;  the  peaks  being  generally  from  500  to  1000  feet  high ; 
but  some  points  are  level  and  arable.  The  exportation  of  cattle,  with  that  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  kelp,  forms  the  chief  trade  of  the  island ;  large  quantities  of  herrings  are  also 
taken,  and  cured  by  fishermen,  who  carry  on  this  branch  of  commerce  on  a  small  scale.  The 
property  of  Skye  is  almost  shared  between  the  family  of  Lord  Macdonald  who  claims  descent 
firom  the  ancient  lords  of  the  Isles,  and  that  of  Macleod.  Duntulm,  the  almost  ruined  seat  of 
the  Macdonalds,  and  the  Mscleods'  castle  of  Dunvegan,  a  magnificent  pile,  founded  in  tho 
thirteenth  century,  are  on  the  north-west  coast.  On  the  east  is  Rasay,  masked  by  long 
lofly  cliffs  of  fine  sandstone,  which  have  on  their  tops  green  and  cultivated  farms.  To  tho 
south-west  is  Rum,  a  wild  aiid  rugged  mass  of  mountains,  surrounded  by  shores  scarcely 


:'.f  ^-E-^r"- 


43C 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III. 


accessible,  and  involved  in  almost  perpetual  tempest    On  the  east  of  Rum  ii  Egg  at  Eigg, 
which  contains  several  large  caves. 

Long  bland  is  the  general  name  ^iven  to  the  exterior  chain  of  the  Hebrides,  which  con- 
sists of  five  large  and  many  smaller  islands ;  so  closely  contiguous  that  the  whole  may  be 
considered  as  one  island.  It  is  a  strange  mixture  of  bogs,  rocks,  lochs,  and  sands;  its  pas< 
tures  are  chiefly  occupied  with  cattle  destined  for  the  markets  of  the  mainland ;  and  large 
quantities  of  kelp  are  produced,  which  yield  considerable  profit 

Lewis  is  the  largest  of  all  the  Hebrides,  being  upwards  of  eighty  miles  fi«m  north -eajgt 
to  south-west,  and,  at  some  points,  more  than  twenty  in  breadth.  Of  its  inhabitants,  those 
occupying  its  most  northern  point  called  the  Butt  of  Lewis,  appear  to  be  Danish,  the  rem- 
nant of  that  colony  who  once  ruled  the  island.  The  people  are  industrious  in  cultivating 
their  rude  soil,  and  in  the  fisheries  which  have  renderea  Stomoway,  the  capital  of  Lewis,  a 
place  Of  some  consideration.  Harris^  a  peninsula  on  the  southern  point  of  Lewis,  consists 
of  a  mass  of  rugged  rocks,  which  project  in  long  promontories  into  the  sea,  giving  to  the 
shore  a  very  picturesque  aspect  The  arable  patches  ore  small,  and  in  st<ch  inaccessible 
sites  that  thev  can  be  cultivated  only  by  the  spade.  Sheep  are  more  numerous  than  black 
cattle,  being  better  adapted  to  this  rugged  surrace.  North  and  South  Uist,  with  Benbecnlu, 
exhibit  the  general  aspect  of  Long  Island,  of  whose  length  they  compose  about  eighty 
miles.  The  cattle  are  small,  and  not  exported  in  very  large  quantities.  The  most  flourish- 
mg  branch  of  industry  is  kelp,  of  which  they  yield  annually  about  2500  tons.  Barra  is 
distinguished  for  the  industry  of  its  fishermen,  who  carry  their  cargoes  through  the  Crinan 
canal  to  the  Greenock  market  About  half  a  mile  from  the  southern  shore  is  Chisamil,  the 
castle  of  the  Macleans,  now  partly  in  ruin,  but  of  such  extent  as  to  have  been  capabln  of 
containing  500  men. 

St.  Kilda  is  the  remotest  point  of  the  Hebrides ;  small  and  solitary,  far  out  in  the  Atlantic, 
whose  waves  dash  continually  against  its  perpendicular  clifis.  It  is  about  three  miles  kong, 
girt  on  all  sides  by  a  wall  of  rock,  which  at  one  point  is  about  1800  feet  high ;  Conoxhon, 

the  loftiest  hill  on  the  island,  being  there 
Kg.  fiOft  Map  qfike  OHaug  uumA.  cut  down  perpendicularly  fh>m  the  summit 

to  the  base.  "  Dizzy  heights,  from  which 
the  eye  looks  down  over  jutting  crags ;  a 
boiling  sea  below,  without  a  boundary; 
dark  cliffs  beaten  by  a  foaming  surge,  and 
lost  in  the  gloom  of  involving  clouds ;  the 
mixed  contest  of  rocks,  ocean,  and  sky," 
are  the  scenes  which  characterise  SL 
Kilda.  On  the  top  of  the  rocks  is  a  green 
and  somewhat  fertile  surface,  on  which  are 
fed  sheep  of  the  Norwegian  breed,  with 
short  tails  and  coarse  wool,  but  whose  mut- 
ton is  delicious ;  there  are  a  few  cows,  and 
a  little  very  fine  bear  is  grown.  But  the 
&vourite  food  of  the  natives  is  drawn  from 
the  fiice  of  the  perpendicular  cliffs,  which 
in  fearful  and  dizzy  height  overhang  their 
shores.  Suspended  by  a  rope,  they  step 
from  point  to  point  and  take  the  eggs  or 
young  of  the  solan  goose,  puffin,  cormorant, 
petrel,  and  others  of  the  numerous  species 
which  breed  on  their  sides. 

The  Orkneys  form  a  group  of  about 
thirty  in  number;  but  Pomona  or  Main- 
land contains  nearly  as  much  ground  as  all 
the  rest  put  together.    Nothing  can  be 
more  irregular  than  their  form ;  the  deep 
sounds  by  which  they  are  penetrated,  and  the  narrow  straits  which  separate  them  from  each 
other,  cause  a  complete  intermixture  of  land  and  sea.    These  straits  are  rendered  dangerous 
oy  numerous  currents  and  eddies  fh)m  the  two  oceans  which  rush  in  fi-om  opposite  sides. 


Reference  to  the  Map  of  the  Orkney  Iiiande. 


NORTH  RON- 
ALDSHAY. 
1.  Holland. 

i  Stvii 

3.  Maykirk 

4  Cron  uid  Burn« 

i  Buty» 


WE8TRAY. 
1.  Nawark 
3.  Bpuonur 
3.  Pyrawall. 

ROWflAV. 
1.  Bavaaknai 
8.  Wealaide. 

I    8HAPINSHAT. 
1.  Wallnan 


3.  Kirkbuftei 
3.  Holland. 

POMONA  or 
MAINLAND. 

I.  at.  Andrew'i 

3.  Bandiida 

3.  Holm 

4.  Popior 
9.  GaJoip 


6.  Snbo 

7.  KickwaU 

8.  Firlh 

9.  Beaps 

10.  Wiak 

11.  Orphir 
13.  Chaairon 

13.  Tumtton 

14.  Rpndall 
U.  Woodwlek 


16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 

90 

si. 

S3. 


Bnrfai 
Biraa 
Maiwiek 
Kirknen 

MnjnMjMr 

Bandwiek 
BlromDeM. 

HOY 
.Uor 


S.  Bring 

3.  Afr 

4.  Bt.  Walbr. 

anTTTu  Tjnw. 

"XiiDSHAY. 
1.  Cara 
S.Kirk 

3.  Bmrksk 

4.  Brouf  li. 


■rrr   )[■■  .| irw«). -;■■.-/■■");*-'  -j 


Part  in. 

Rum  if  E^g  or  Eigg, 

Hebrides,  which  con- 

at  the  whole  may  be 

IS,  and  sands;  its  pa» 

mainland ;  and  large 

ailes  flrom  north -east 
its  inhabitants,  those 
>  be  Danish,  the  rcni- 
iiBtriouB  in  cultivating 
le  capital  of  LewJB,  a 
int  of  Lewis,  consists 
the  sea,  ghi'mg  to  the 
in  such  inaccessible 
numerous  than  black 
Uist,  with  Benbecuk, 
ompose  about  eighty 
).  The  most  flourish- 
2500  tons.  Barra  is 
s  through  the  Crinan 
shore  is  Chisamil,  the 
have  been  capabln  of 

ir  out  in  the  Atlantic, 

x>ut  three  miles  vong, 

feet  high;  Conoxhan, 

e  island,  being  there 

\oi\yr  firom  the  summit 

f  heights,  from  which 

Dver  jutting  crags ;  a 

ivithout  a  boundary; 

a  foaming  surge,  and 

involving  clouds ;  the 

ks,  ocean,  and  sky," 

ich  characterise  St 

f  the  rocks  is  a  green 

surface,  on  which  are 

rwogian  breed,  with 

wool,  but  whose  uiut- 

are  a  few  cows,  and 

is  grown.    But  the 

latives  is  drawn  from 

ndicular  clifls,  whicl; 

eight  overhang  their 

a  rope,  they  step 

nd  take  the  eggs  or 

ise,  puffin,  cormorant, 

le  numerous  spcciei 

sides. 

a  group  of  about 
it  Pomona  or  Main- 
B  much  ground  as  all 
Nothing  can  be 
;heir  form ;  the  deep 
rate  them  from  ejich 
J  rendered  dangerous 
from  opposite  sides, 


S.  Bring 

3.Afr 

4. 8t  Wilby. 

ar\j-rru  iinw. 

"Xloshay. 

1.  Can 
3.Kifk 

3.  Berwick 

4.  Biouili. 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


431 


P/g.  atO.    UapqflJke  SitOmi  Manii. 


llie  Pentland  Frith,  in  particular,  between  Orkney  and  the  Mainland,  is  a  most  formidable 
passage.  The  opposing  currents  keep  the  channel  in  a  state  of  perpetual  ebullition,  and  produce 
at  several  points,  violent  whirlpools.  Orkney  is  in  general  low,  bleak,  boggy,  and  bare ;  though 
its  western  islands  face  the  Atlantic  with  some  very  bold  and  rugged  cli&.  About  a  twelfth 
part  is  cultivated  in  i^  n.de  manner  with  the  plough;  a  somewhat  larger  portion  is  under 
regular  pasture ;  the  re&t  is  moor  and  waste.  The  cattle,  though  small,  are  of  a  good 
breed ;  and  about  50,000  sheep,  almost  in  a  wild  state,  roam  through  the  commons.  The 
fisheries  are  not  extensive ;  kelp  is  the  staple  commodity  for  export :  it  has  averaged  annu" 
ally  2500  tons,  employing  3000  men.  There  is  some  coarse  woollen,  and  of  late  there  has 
been  some  linen  manuf»;turo.  As  raoet  of  the  vessels  destined  for  Hudson's  Bay  and  the 
whale  fishery,  and  many  of  those  which,  from  the  east  coast,  sail  to  all  parts  of  the  world, 
pass  by  the  north  of  Scotland,  the  ports  of  the  Orkneys  are  frequented,  and  a  market  is 
afibrded  for  their  provisions. 

The  topographical  details  of  Orkney  do  not  possess  anv  peculiar  attraction.    Kirkwall, 
however,  bears  marks  of  the  periods  when  it  was  a  Danish  capital,  and  a  residence  of  the 

sovereign  Earls  of  Orkney.  There  is 
a  large  and  massive  cathedral,  in  some 
parts  very  elegantly  ornamented  ;  also 
ruins  of  a  king  s  palace,  an  earPs  castle, 
and  a  bishop^  palace.  The  town  has 
of  late  been  considerably  extended  and 
improved,  and  it  has  a  good  natural  har- 
bour. Stromness  has  one  of  the  best 
harbours  in  the  kingdom,  and  is  the 
favourite  resort  of  vessels  which  seek 
on  this  coast  for  shelter  and  refreshment 
Near  Stromness  is  that  remarkable 
remnant  of  antiquity  the  "standing 
stones  of  Steimis,"  tvhirh  in  magnitude 
and  singular  character  almost  rivals 
Stonehenge.  Shapiiuhay,  Stronsay, 
Rovirsay,  Eday,  Westray,  Papa,  and 
Sanday,  are  small  islands  stretching  to 
the  north-east  Bum  and  South  Ro- 
naldshay  are  towards  Caithness;  and 
to  the  west  the  long  island  of  Hoy, 
which  presents  a  series  of  bold  and 
rugged  promontories. 

The  Zetland  or  Shetland  islands, 
called  by  ttie  natives  Hialtland,  form 
one  of  the  extremities  of  Europe,  en- 
circled by  the  illimitable  exteiut  of 
the  Arctic  and  Atlantic  oceans.  Placed 
thus  far  north,  and  amid  so  wide  a 
waste  of  waters,  the  climate  of  Zet- 
land is  cold,  bleak,  swept  by  furious 
winds,  and  deluged  by  torrents  of  rain. 
The  surface  is  rugged,  without  being 
mountainous;  it  is  everywhere  pene- 
trated by  long  lagoons  with  flat  shores, 
called  voeSf  by  which  even  the  largest 
islands  are  so  mtersected,  that  there  is 
scarcely  a  spot  in  them  two  miles  distant  from  the  sea.  The  extensive  mosses,  and  thp 
trunks  of  trees  dug  out  of  them,  prove  that  a  vast  expanse  was  once  covered  witli  natural 
forests;  but  these  are  now  totally  eradicated,  and  the  violence  of  the  v:..ds  and  sea-spraj 
has  rendered  abortive  every  attempt  to  replace  them,  so  that  the  aspect  of  the  country  is 
now  completely  naked,  scarcely  producing  even  a  shrub.  The  coasts  are  peculiarly  steep, 
rocky,  and  bold,  the  rocks  being  hollowed  into  deep  caverns,  and  broken  into  precipices  and 
cliffs  of  the  most  vaiied  forms.  The  aspect  of  these  shores,  against  which  the  waves  of  the 
great  surrounding  ocean  dash  with  almost  perpetual  fury,  is  equally  grand  and  terrible.  The 


References  to  the  Map  of  the  Shetlajid  Island*. 


UNST. 
t  NorwicJc 
jL  Vmgarth 

)  WindEouM 


3.  Sandwick 

4.  Quexk. 

MAINLAND. 
l.Skw 


3.  Orbuara 

4.  Stennew 

a.  SalherbouM 
6.  Deal 
7  Broufh 


C  ,fU1>ll 

9.  Berfild 

10.  Melbr 

11.  Munklnre 
is.  Culiwick 
K.  Sandateng 


ji.  nraR 
1.1.  Dingwall 
Ifl.  Iierwick 

17.  St.  Paul'i 

18.  Marwick 
19  Bigtowa. 


SO.  Qucndal. 

BREBSAY 
1.  nnnlia 
S.  Su  Andnwi 


i 


489 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOailAPHY. 


Part  IR 


author  of  "  Tiie  Pirate"  draws  a  niost  lively  picture  of  these  "  deep  and  danj^roiM  boiui  oi 
the  north,  tlioir  precipices  and  liendland<9,  many  hundred  fbot  in  hoiglit — their  periluun 
■traits,  and  currents,  and  eddies — long  sunken  rep'  of  rock,  over  whicli  tlie  vivid  ocean 
foams  and  boils,— dark  caverns,  to  wnoso  extrenmies  neither  man  nor  skiff  has  over  von> 
turctl, — lonoly  and  oilen  uninha'bitcd  isies,  and  occasionally  the  ruins  of  ancient  northern  fliBt- 
nesBcs,  dimly  seen  by  the  feeble  light  of  the  arctic  winter."  The  danffors  of  tlie  navigation, 
however,  are  consiiioiubly  mitigated  by  the  spacious  and  commodious  havens,  formed  liy  the 
deep  bays  and  voe»,  or  by  tlr  «mnds  and  channels,  between  difl'orent  islands. 
'  Tlie  Shetland  Islands  cod  ..In  about  2(),U0()  acres  of  arablo  land,  and  nearly  as  many  of 
(food  muadow ;  but  this  com|>ri8C3  little  more  than  a  twentieth  part  of  the  surface,  all  the 
rest  consisting  of  watite  or  common,  on  which  tho  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  (•'.rued  oui, 
to  find  |Ni8turcs  as  Ixsst  they  may.  The  horses  are  of  a  very  small  size,  v»  lih  a  huge  mane, 
but  activo  and  hardy.  Tho  cows  are  equally  diminutive,  and  givo  very  little  milk,  but  both 
tho  milk  and  tho  ilesh  are  of  good  nuality.  Tiie  sheep  are  mobt  numerous  of  all,  beinjj 
reckoned  at  seventy  or  eighty  thousanu ;  tiiey  aro  stunted,  like  the  other  animals,  and  their 
wool  ia  very  scnntv ;  but  some  of  it  is  peculiarly  flne,  oiTording  the  material  of  alnioat  tho  only 
manufiicturo  of  Shetland,— that  of  knit  hosiery,  of  a  texture  close,  soft,  and  warm.  Tlio 
greatest  branch  of  Shetland  industry,  however,  is  tiie  cod  and  Viig  fisher>[,.  All  the  coostg 
aUmnd  with  tiieso  flsh ;  and,  witliin  tlio  lost  few  years,  a  particularly  rich  and  txtonsivo 
bank  has  been  discovered  to  tho  westward.  At  the  proper  season,  fleets  of  boats  iRs>uo  from 
all  tho  buys  and  voe»,  to  tho  haqfoT  deep  sca-fmhory,  which  is  carried  on,  not  without  peril, 
at  tho  distnncc  of  tVom  twenty  to  thirty  miles  from  the  coast.  The  nsiiermen  ni-o  supplied 
by  the  iniidlnnls  with  boatd  luul  implements,  on  condition  of  their  delivering  to  tliem  the  flsh 
at  a  stipulutod  rate;  and  as  tlicir  flirms  are  held  at  will,  they  aro  in  a  state  of  vassalage 
mioro  cuiiiploto,  perhaps,  than  any  other  class  in  the  United  Kingdom, 

Tho  ttuimis  of  Shetland  are  Norwegian.  These  islands,  according  to  tho  earliest  tradition, 
were  peopled  from  Norway.  In  tlie  nintli  century  they  were  conquered  by  Harold  Ilarb- 
gor,  or  tho  Fair-haired,  tho  most  powerful  and  formidable  of  all  the  sea-kings  of  tiie  north. 
Tho  Norwegian  sway  extended  for  several  centuries  over  all  tlie  Scottish  islands ;  but  in 
tlio  Shctlunds  it  was  undiif>puted,  till  tho  cession  of  them,  along  with  those  of  Orkney,  aa 
the  dowry  of  a  princess  of  Norway  married  to  James  III.,  in  tho  end  of  tlio  titleenth  century. 
Lerwick,  tho  capital,  is  a  tiiriving  village,   ill  and  irregularly  built,  but  improving, 

Tho  opposite  island  of  Bressay  forms  Bresaay 
Sound,  one  of  tho  finest  harbours  in  the 
world,  and  the  rendezvous  of  all  tho  vessels 
destined  for  the  nortii  and  the  whale  fishery 
Off  Bressay  is  tlie  Nobs  {Jiff,  210,},  a  small 
high  island,  with  a  flat  summit,  girt  on  all 
sides  by  perpendicular  walls  of  rock.  The 
communication  with  Bressay  itself  is  main* 
tained  by  strong  ropes  stretched  across,  along 
which  a  cradle  is  run,  in  wliicii  the  pas- 
senger is  seated.  The  promontories  of  Sum" 
burgh  and  Fitful  Head,  at  the  oouthorn  ex- 
tremity of  tho  Mainland,  aro  also  distin- 
guished by  the  boldness  of  thoir  aspect  and 
the  perils  witli  wiiich  thev  threaten  tho  ma- 
riner. The  number  of  the  Shetiands  has 
been  variously  estimated,  according  to  the  gradations  of  islets  and  rocks  included ;  but  only 
about  forty  are  inhabited.  Of  these,  Yell,  and  Unst.  stretchinfr  northwards  from  tho  Main- 
land, are  alone  of  any  magnitude.  The  lost,  thou^  n  the  most  northerly,  is  rather  the  most 
fertile  of  any,  and  distinguished  by  its  numerous  -aves.  Adjacent  to  Yell  is  Fetlar;  on  the 
east  of  the  Mainland  are  Whalsay  and  Bressay ;  to  the  west,  Burray,  Housa,  Frondray,  Papa 
Stour,  Muckle  and  Little  Rooe,  all  so  close  as  to  be  little  more  than  peninsulas.  Considera- 
bly out  at  sea,  Foula,  a  f-mall  rocky  islet,  faces  tlie  Atlantic,  with  high  cliflib  covered  with 
numberless  flocks  of  sca-tbwl. 


210 


Non  Holm,  Sh«(land. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

IRELAND. 

Ireland  is  a  flne  extensive  island,  situated  to  the  west  of  England,  and  forming  one  of 
the  three  grand  portions  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Sect.  1. — Oeneral  Outline  and  Aspect. 
Tho  greatest  dimension  of  Ireland  is  fironi  Cape  Clear,  in  51°  19',  to  Malin  Head,  in  66" 
23'  N  latitude ;  making  about  280  miles.    The  utmost  breadth,  if  reckoned  fVom  the  moti 


PabtITI 

nd  danf^foroita  rom  o( 
oigfht — thoir  nerilouM 
inch  Uio  viviu  ocean 
r  ikiif  lias  ovor  von* 
anoiont  northern  fhst* 
eraof  tlio  navigation, 
invon«,  formed  Dy  the 
slanda. 

nd  nearly  ob  ncany  of 
)f  the  Burfhop,  all  the 
Bheep  are  t>:riiod  out, 
!e,  vvilh  a  huge  mane, 
y  little  milk,  but  both 
amorous  of  all,  boinjj 
her  animals,  and  thoir 
iriol  of  aliiiost  tho  only 
wft,  and  warm.  Tho 
liery,.  All  Uio  coostj 
ly  rich  and  extensive 
3t8  of  boats  issue  from 
on,  not  without  peril, 
s^ermGn  sre  supplied 
'oring  to  thorn  the  flsh 
1  a  Btuto  of  vassalage 

3  tho  oarlicst  tradition, 
?Ted  by  Harold  Ilarfii. 
3ea-kin(|[B  of  iiio  north, 
xittish  islatidfl ;  but  in 
\\  Uioso  of  Orkney,  as 
f  tiio  fifteenth  century, 
built,  but  improving. 
'  BrcBsay  forms  Bressay 
inest  harbours  in  tho 
vous  of  all  tiio  vessela 
and  the  whale  fishery 
IRS  (Jiff.  210.),  a  small 
it  summit,  girt  on  oil 
r  walls  of  rock.    TTie 
Jressay  itself  is  main- 
stretched  across,  along 
in,  in  whici>  the  pas- 
promontories  of  Sum- 
il,  at  the  jouthorn  ox- 
and,  are  also  distin- 
ss  of  thoir  aspect  and 
they  threaten  tlie  ma- 
if  the  Shetiands  has 
ks  included;  but  only 
words  from  tlie  Main- 
ly, is  rather  the  most 
YellisFetlar;  on  the 
[ousa,  Frondray,  Papa 
eninsulas.  Considera- 
'h  clifis  covered  with 


Book  I. 


IJ.    IRELAND  .fif:^- 


488 


,  and  forming  one  of 


Malin  Head,  in  66" 
koned  from  the  mo« 


eaakv'iy  iwint  of  'he  county  &,  T^c  wn  (oupcslto  Bur  Islond)  to  Dunmore  Head  in  Kerry,  will 
DO  216  miles;  l)u  ;*;  Ib  nowiicr»  bo  broad  under  the  same  parallel  of  latitude.  Tho  island, 
according  to  Beaufort,  contains  mor^j  than  8(),0U0  English  square  miles,  or  nearly  20,000,000 
arreB;  but,  till  the  survey  bo  completed,  precision  on  this  subject  cannot  be  attained. 

Tho  Burihce  of  Ireland  cannot  on  the  whole  bo  called  mountainous ;  ita  central  districta 
cnrnposinff  one  vast  plain,  which  cmsseB  tho  kingdom  fVom  east  to  west.  It  is,  however, 
diversifleu  by  ranges  of  mountains,  superior  in  extent,  and.  with  tho  exception  of  those  of 
Wales,  equal  in  uiovation,  to  any  in  England.  Wicklow,  in  the  vicinity  of  Dublin,  may  be 
classed  as  an  alpine  region.  On  the  borderB  of  Leinster  and  Munster,  the  Slieve-Bloom, 
tiie  Knookmole  Down,  and  the  Oalties,  form  long  and  lofty  ranges,  commanding  an  exten« 
livt  view  over  tho  wide  plains  that  stretch  beneath  them.  All  these,  however,  are  much 
surpassed  by  the  extreme  south-west  county  of  Kerry,  wliich  presents  a  complete  ciiata  of 
loffy  and  rocky  summits.  The  moBt  elevated  are  those  which  enclose  tho  beautiful  and 
Anely  woo<led  lakes  uf  Killamey,  Mangerton  and  Macgillicuddy's  Reeks,  tho  last  of  which 
is  considerably  more  than  8000  feet  high.  At  the  opposite  or  north-eastern  extremity  of 
Ireland ,  Antrim  proBonts  to  the  Scottish  seas  a  barrier  of  rocky  cliffs,  less  lofty,  but  of  a 
vory  bold  and  peculiar  character ;  precipitous,  and  formed  into  long  columnar  rangea ;  a 
phenomenon  which  the  Oiant's  Causeway  exhibits  on  a  ^eater  scale  than  r>ny  other  spot  in 
the  known  world.  The  Moume  mountains,  a  lofty  granite  range  in  tho  south  of  the  county 
of  Down ;  those  of  Carlingford,  which  extend  into  the  county  of  Armagh;  with  considerable 
ranges  in  Tyrone,  Derry,  and  Donegal,  may  dispute  the  nre-cminenco  with  those  of  the 
souUi.  In  Connaught  ''loro  are  also  some  considerable  detached  mountains,  of  which  Croagh* 

C trick  in  Mayo  haa  ii.cn  reckoned  hy  some  to  exceed  even  Macgillicuddy's  Reeks ;  but  Ire* 
id  has  no  extended  table-lands,  like  those  which  cover  a  considerable  part  of  England. 
Tiio  most  elevatedpart  of  the  Bog  of  Allen,  in  that  central  point  where  the  rivers  divide, 
is  not  moro  than  270  feet  above  the  level  uf  the  sea. 

The  Shannon  is  without  a  rival  in  the  three  kingdoms.  It  rises  far  in  the  north,  finm 
Loagh  Allen  in  the  province  of  Connaught,  and  has  a  course  of  170  miles,  throughout  the 
whole  of  which  it  is  more  or  less  navigable,  the  only  obstruction  which  existed  having  been 
removed.  Below  Limerick  it  expands  into  an  estuary  about  sixty  miles  in  length,  by  which 
the  largest  vessels  liave  access  to  that  city.  The  Barrow  is  also  an  important  river,  which 
pjns  southward  through  the  greater  part  of  LeinBter,  receives  fVom  tlie  west  the  Nore  and 
the  Suiro,  and  finally  for^<«  the  harbour  of  Waterford.  The  Boyne,  so  celebrated  for  the 
victory  gained  on  its  bo  .kb;  tho  Foyle,  which,  after  passing  Londonderry,  forms  I/mgh 
Foyle ;  tiio  Bann,  wh'  .i  passes  through  Lough  Neagh,  and  aflbrds  a  flourshing  salmon 
fishery ;  and  the  Blac  twater,  which  terminates  in  the  bay  and  port  of  Youghal,  are  aloo  de- 
serving of  mention.  The  other  rivers  aro  ratlier  numerous  than  of  long  course ;  but  they 
almost  all  terminate  in  wide  estuaries  and  louffht,  which  diffuse  through  Ireland  the  moans 
of  water  communication,  and  afford  a  multiplicity  of  Bpocious  and  secure  harbours. 

Lakes  or  loughs  are  a  conspicuous  feature  in  Ireland,  where  this  last  name,  like  the 
similar  one  used  in  Scotland,  is  in  many  instances  applied  to  armc  of  the  sea.  Lough  Neagh 
is  tho  largest  lake  in  tlie  United  Kingdom,  covering  near!/  100,000  acres.  Its  banks  are 
flat,  tame,  and  in  many  places  marshy  and  inundated.  Lough  Erne,  also  in  Ulster,  is 
divided  into  two  reaches,  tne  united  length  of  which  is  about  thirty  miles,  while  its  circuit 
includes  a  groat  variety  of  rich  and  ornamented  scenery.  Lough  Foyle,  loujgh  Swilly,  and 
Belfast  Ijough,  are  properly  bays.  The  Shannon  forms  several  lakes,  of  which  Lough  lieo 
is  the  principal ;  and  the  whole  of  its  coureo  downwards  fVom  Limerick  resembles  more  a 
lough  or  bay  than  a  river.  Connaught  has  several  extensive  lakes.  That  of  Killarneyj  in 
the  douth,  is  famed,  not  for  its  extent,  but  for  the  singular  grandeur  and  beauty  of  ita 
shores.  A  fbller  description  of  this  n  nd  some  others  now  mentioned  will  be  found  under  the 
local  section. 

Sect.  IL — Natnral  Oeography. 

The  Botany  and  Zoology  of  Ireland,  having  been  treated  under  the  head  of  England,  thin 
section  will  lie  confined  to  Geology. 

SmaixT.  1.- -Oeology  of  Ireland.  | 

The  geology  of  this  mrt  of  the  empire  is  not  so  well  known  as  that  of  Great  Briifani. 
The  following  sketch  will  enable  our  readers  to  form  a  general  conception  of  the  geognos- 
tical  structure  of  those  parts  of  tho  island  which  have  been  already  surveyed;  viz.— 1,  North 
of  Ireland ;  2.  Connaught  coal  district;  3.  East  of  Ireland ;  4.  South,  and  part  of  the  wus^ 
of  Ireland. 

(1 =)  North  oflrtlsnd.  This  district,  limited  by  Dundalk  Bay  on  the  south-east,  and  by  Lough 
Foyle  on  the  nortli-west,  is  marked  by  three  distinct  systems  or  groups  of  mountains,  one  of 
which  occupies  the  more  southern  counties ,  while  the  more  northern  are  divided  between 
the  two  others. 

Ist  system.  The  Moume  mountaim. — ^The  Moume  mountains  form  a  well-defined 
Vot.  I  87  3  R 


.„--,  ■   .  .  ,.  ..  !,.  y     „-r-y:^,-  ^■,,,:^.-..;, 


-m 


MAP  OF  IRELAND. 


I'lo.  211 


(1'-^  '•'■>;  ■■' 


'•lii  V,  mimTUi  :,,-f  'J,,  ,     -i     ;;    .  ..,,,.^  ,;.  ^  :  ,^.,    r.j.  .,.,  .     .,>_.. 

-  -    .■■  ■•.  ^  '■  v.'         ■  ■...,>' 

Ik  9  lAWiMtWM    I    Itsia  Onmricb  1  • 


•  -.■r:'-*.fv.'^'  r  '•.-'►:''' 


;,j.«.,;i,,M  ''/'i^^KiM  '-ir'''- 


i1  »Tt^ 


WkiM  >(,''*    .uMi-iV^  ^i' 


'w^^:,\ 


IIookL 


nnh    IRELANR  :i,iimiQ 


4SA 


ffroup,  extending  from  Dundnun  Ba^  to  Corlinfffiird  Bay,  in  the  aouthern  extremity  at  Down. 
Slieve  Donard  ia  the  highect  aummit  of  thia  group,  and  riaea  about  2694  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  aea.  The  north-weat  uf  the  main  group^  the  Fathom  HUl,  Slieve  Oirken,  or  the 
^tewry  mountaina,  and  Slieve  OuUen,  are  aituated  in  the  aouth-eaat  of  Armagh }  and  th^ 
RavAnodale  and  Carliufffbrd  mountaina,  in  the  north  of  Louth,  may  be  conaiderM  aa  ita  ' 
pcndagea.  Granite,  which  ia  the  prevailing  rock  of  these  mountaina,  containa  beaut  i 
rock  crystala,  also  felspar  and  mica  cryatals,  topaz  and  boryL  To  the  north  of  the  Moume 
mountaina  Sliove  Croob,  compoaed  of  ayenite,  and  Slieve  Aniaky,  of  hornblende  rock,  form 
an  elevated  tract,  dependent  upon,  but  placed  at  aoroe  distance  ihim,  the  main  f^toap.  HarOf 
blende  rock,  greenatone,and  porphyry  are  aaid  to  be  abundant  on  the  akirta  of  tdia  gnnitedia* 
trict  The  Plutonian  granite  and  syenite  hilla  riae  through  atrata  of  tranaitir/n  rocka,  which 
are  greywacke,  greywacke  alate,  tranaition  clay  alate,  and  transition  limeatone.  The  Plu- 
tonian rocka  bear  bui  a  small  proportion  in  auperficial  extent  to  thoae  of  the  tranaition  class, 
tlie  latter  advancing  west  and  norUt  into  Cavan,  and  to  Belfhst  Lough  and  the  peninsula  of 
Arda.  The  points  of  tiie  coast  of  Scotland,  directly  opposite  the  peninsula  of  Arda,  present  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Portpatrick,  and  through  the  great  alpine  band  which  traveraea  the 
south  or  Scotland,  and  terminates  on  the  eaat  coast  of  St.  Abb'a  Head,  the  aame  tranaition 
rocks.  Hence  it  ia  probable  that  the  groat  aouthern  high  land  of  Scotland  waa  formerly 
joined  with  the  transition  hills  of  the  Moume  mountain  group  by  a  ridge  of  land  extending 
across  the  Channel  fVom  Scotland  to  Ireland.  In  this  district,  there  are  some  patches  of 
mountain  limestone  and  of  old  red  sandstone, 

2d  system.  Primitive  chain  of  Londonderry. — ^This  mountain  group  rises  at  tbediatance 
of  about  30  miles  to  the  north-north-west  of  the  external  chains  of  the  first  ayatem,  includinff 
tho  counties  of  Londonderry  and  Donegal.  One  of  the  highest  points  in  this  district  is  Sawelf, 
said  to  be  22o7  feet  above  tho  level  m  the  sea.  This  great  tract  of  country  ia  principally 
composed  of  mica  alate,  with  various  subordinate  beils,  as  limestone,  quartz,  &c.  On  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Roe,  these  mica  slate  hills  and  mountains  are  succeeded  by  a  nuige  of 
secondnry  hills  covered  by  a  neat  platform  of  secondary  trap,  and  forming  a  part  of  the 
third  system  of  hills,  afterwards  to  be  described.    These  newer  rocks  repose  upon  and  coiw 


Rrfereneei  to  the  Map  of  Inland. 


NORTH  PART.     AG.  Donathtdaa       117.  JiniMtown 


I.  Newtnntloni 
S.  HnllrcMtla 

3.  (;iiiii(h 

4.  Raiharkan 

8.  HillymaDir 

gnletaina 
atvaih 
.  niant'a  Soonea 

9.  Rallxkelly 

10.  Miiir 

1  Maim 

3.  ram 

4.  nuriifont 

5.  Oinakill 

8.  Rnihmullln 
7.  nottyhook 
B.  Dunvlfls 

9.  Cunvoir 

0.  giranoilaa 
31.  Rnphoe 
V-2.  l/ondondeny 
St.  Liffcml 
S4.  Sirahane 
S.').  Clad/ 
Sfl.  Maiiliera 
27.  Swattetagh 
!H.  Knilt 
Kl.  nionarm 

30.  Ballycorrr 

31.  Carrickrergui 
3%.  Cromlln 

33.  Antrim 

M.  RandsMtown 


ManRjriDore 
Cookulown 


%.^ 

37.  Frcderiekitown 
%.  Newton  Stewart 
30.  Benbell 
40.  Den  Btidf* 
n.  Anfrea 

44  Jnver 

45.  Tlanecal 

46.  Hallrminiioo 

47.  Qarrieon 

48.  Churchill 

49.  Canldr 
SO.Keth 
Sl.Omath 

SJ.  ■fniijrKawtvjr 

$4.  Blacknatnr 
niiniannon 
^iDiamllti 

P'.  Hel!^ 

50.  Holywood 


iiRr.". 


'£&io 


01.  Grar  Abbey 

0S|.  Porlarerrr 
"^iwnpatriek 
lljinchy 
iluborouih 
lundnim 
.athOiland 
ouihbriok- 
Jand 

OB.  Lorxan 

70.  Armeiih 

71.  Newtown  Ha- 

milton 
tMonnfihan 
Anther 
Cloiihej 
FiygM 
Town 
ronooth 
liniukea 
lallowhill 
Innlikillon 
nriaf 

indoek 

62.  glifo 
K..  Dunatra 
84.  Runro 
KV  Killala 
tn.  llatliKlon 

87.  Inver 

88.  CloK 
80.  BalFi 
90.PoxL._ 
01.  Swinerord 
03.  Balearra 

03.  Ballymate 

04.  Leitdm 


118.  Elphin 
lie.  Ca.rrhk  on 


oican 
-jLlFma 
Poxford 


^-.le-ll 


allinfmore 
■    rlel 


Cavan 
Drum 


ajifhadiraen 
aillh 


e9.Ballybar 

100.  Cattle  Dlineir 

101.  Jnneiboro 

102.  Newry  ._ 
109.  Narrow  Water 
104.  Kilkeel 
lOf.  Carlingrord 
lOA.  Dunddk 
107.  Lonth 
IU8.  Luntan 

100.  piojiiwr 
liO.  iiadmia 
111.  Nobbar 
113.Moynalty    ^ 

113.  Ballyborouih 

114.  BlradoiM 

lis.  BtllyJajneidu 


130.  Kiltory 
l.ii.  Clanan 
1.13.  Bunowen 

133.  Cone 

134.  Balllnrobe 
13.V  HollyiQnunt 

{36.  Kllmalnmore 
37.  RIenwell 
138.  DuDiEors 
130.  fllanamoddy 

140.  Ballintober 

141.  Roioommon 

142.  Tarmnnburry 
U3.  Loncford 

144.  Knnagh 

145.  Edftworthf 

tnwn 
148.  Jnhnatown 
147.  Mullinf  ar 
m.Clonmellon 
140.  Trim 
liSO.  Bummerbill 
I.M.  Navan 
!93.  gkrvae 
I.Vi.  Drogheda 
154.  Nant 
15S.Sworda 

BOtJTM  PART. 
1.  Kilkerran 
9.  Inveron 

3.  Sunna 

4.  Killameen 

5.  nalwry 
Q.  HoaJf  >rd 
7.  fieldarj 


8.  Athenry 
0.  Monivia 

10.  Tuam 

11.  Uantle  Blaekney 
IS.  Balllnaaloa 

13.  Balllnamors 

14.  Knoekrou|hr7 

15.  Ainlona 
18.  MayilowD 


n.MoataOranoiD* 
18.  Qallimore 
in.  Philipiiuwn 
SO.  Tyrrel't  PaH 
SI.Ballydcmot 

53.  Iiongwood 
23.  Cloneurry 
34.  Clone 
8S.  Maynooth 
SO.  Ralnath 
S7.  Rathcvole 
\l».  Publin 
30.  Killgnbbln 
30.  Innltketry 
HI.  Wicklnw 
33.  Diinard 
33.  BIcHington 
34.Naa( 
:».  Old  Kilcullon 

36.  KIMare 

37.  Pnrtarlingtnn 

38.  Mountmelick 

39.  Birr 

40.  Rangher 

41.  Eyre  Court 
49.  Porlunma 

43.  Aughrim 

44.  Loughrea 

45.  Carnamart 
40.  nort 
47  Killany 

48.  Kllirflnora 

49.  Inniilymon 

50.  Knnif 

51.  Clam 

ra!  Bearrlir 

54.  Klllaloe 

55.  Nenagh 

56.  Bui       " 

57.  Roaerea 
88.  RatMowny 
SO.  Ballynakill  , 

60.  Maryborough 

61.  Athy 
63.  Carfow 
63.  Stmtford 
64. " 

66.  

67.  Rathdium 

68.  Arklow 
6n.  nnn>» 

70.  Petna 

71.  Clonegall 

72.  Burrii 

?3.  Old  Leighlin 
4.  Kilkenny 
S.Grlingroid 


76.  Killenanl* 
77-  HurrialMigh 
78.  Toomevara 
re.  BilyerMbw 
80.  Newport 

83'.  Bildgelown 
Kl.  Six  Mile  Bridge 
84.  Parsdiie 
8.1  Oanderlagh 
86.  Kilrutb 

88'.  baJlybeigli 
80.  LUnaw 

00.  Millilreei 

01.  Ballylonifiwd 
92,  LlitoweU 
03.  Alibyreale 
94.  Glynn 

05.  Ardagh 

06.  Atknatnn 

97.  Kiddogh 

98.  Rrnrea 

90.  Patrick'a  WeU 

100.  Briift 
lOi.Cullan 
103.  TIpperary 
10.X  Cappugh 
lot.  Golden  Bridge 
105.Caihel 
ion.  Feihnrd 

107.  Ballypalrick 

108.  Knocktopbar 
^09.  Innlktioge 
1 10.  Thomaitoo 
ill.  Now  ttoai 
IJ^  ^ninorthy 


135.  Abbey  Odom* 
36  Tralee 
37.  Liapflg 
» ©ngW        ., 

39.  Cahlr 

40.  Agbart ■,;'•" 

41.  Granliagh 
43.  Milliown 

43.  Kenmara 

44.  Kijlarney 

45.  HiloRgb 

46.  Mill  Street 

47.  Maeronp 
4a  Cork 

40.  Fermoy 
SO.  Raionrmuck 
SI.Liimore 
:  S3.  Dungarran 
S3.2kgliil> 

■glM 


4.  Balunglan  12 

.V  RnihvTlla  19 

8.  Tinchely  19 


martin 


ll6.Wrezror_   ^ 

117.  Ilunenmuik 

118.  Ulntimlnei  . 

119.  Vrh<techureh 

150.  Waterlbrd 

151.  Kilroaeow 
133.  K  ilmaeConu* 

.  Cionmel 

.  Ballynamult 

.  Cahlr 

,  Ballyporeen 
rti.  Araglin 
iSSL  Ki!7.-.ith 
ira.  Rallyhonly 

130.  poneraile 

131.  Mallow 
133.  Liacarrol 

133.  Newmarket 

134.  Ca>  bland 


54.  YoagfMl 

36.  Carliliie  Fort 

57.  Paeaags  _ 

58.  Qamden  Foit 
30.  Kinaale 

na  looithannon 
61.  IncMgeelaeh 
63.  PunnMMtway' 

63.  Olangan 

64.  GarinWi 

65.  Bantry 

66.  Dunmanus 

67.  Baltimora 

68.  Sklbbereen 
160.  Map. 

17a  Tiamlengua    , 

Rivni.lft. 
a  Foyle,  R. 
b  Bann,  B. 

d  £(ewry  Canal 

? 


Slancy,  B. 


:  Blancy 

arrow,  t 

Jore,  R. 

lulre.  R. 

Ilackwater,  R 

joe.  R. 
mBBnaoq,E, 
n  Peak,  R.  _ 
o  Shannon, K. 
p  Carnamart,  R  ■ 
q  Mayno,  R. 
r  Suek,  R. 
a  Moy,  S;    _  , 
t  »Ml,R.^T 


436 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  10. 


ceal  the  mica  slate  in  the  eaatem  part  of  Deny,  but  the  mica  ilate  agam  emer^s  from 
beneath  thia  coveringf,  after  an  interval  of  p.bout  80  miles,  on  the  north-east  coast  ofAntrim, 
and  rises  into  hills,  which  break  down  abruptly  towards  the  coast  between  Tor  Point  and 
Cushenden  Bay.  The  mica  slate  rocks  on  this  part  of  the  Irish  coast  may  be  considered  a 
continuatian  ot  those  tliat  occur  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Scotland  at  the  Mull  of  Canty  re, 
ir,  on  a  more  general  view,  as  a  continuation  of  the  great  Grampian  range,  which  may,  in 
this  way,  be  said  to  extend  iVom  the  north-east  coast  of  Scotland  to  the  western  shores  of 
Ireland,  on  the  coasts  of  Donegal.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Tyrone,  which  intervene* 
between  the  transition  mountains  and  the  mica  slate  mountains,  a  coal  formation  occurs 
associated  with  that  kind  of  limestone  which  is  usually  feund  below  coal  in  Great  Britain. 
The  position  of  this  coalfield  oflers  another  analogy  with  Scotland,  where  the  space  between 
the  southern  and  northern  mountains  is  principally  occupied  by  rocks  of  the  coal  formation. 

Sd  system  of  mountains.  The  TVap  groujt. — This  group  mav  bo  described  as  separated 
into  two  chains,  bounding  on  the  east  ana  west  the  trough  or  valley  through  which  the  river 
Bann  fiows  from  Lough  Neagh  to  the  ocean.  The  eastern  chain  lies  in  the  county  of  An- 
trim, being  comprehended  between  the  valley  of  the  Bann  and  the  North  channel.  It  pr» 
■ents  an  abrupt  declivity  towards  the  sea,  falling  with  a  gentle  slope  vcwards  the  west,  in 
which  direction  the  beds  composing  its  mass  incline.  Knock-lead,  in  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  chain,  is  the  highest  summit :  it  rintes  1820  feet  above  the  ^evel  of  the  sea ;  but  the 
basis  of  this  hill  is  occupied  to  the  height  of  500  feet  by  primitive  mica  slate  rock,  leaving 
only  ^.320  feet  for  the  thickness  of  the  secondary  strata  peculiar  to  this  system.  Diris  Hill, 
near  the  southern  extremi^  of  the  chain,  is  wholly  composed  of  secondary  strata,  and 
attains  an  elevation  of  1475  feet.  The  western  part  of  the  cham  included  between  the 
Roe  and  the  Bann  forms  Uie  exact  counterpart  of  the  former ;  but  the  strata  here  dip  nearly 
in  a  contrary  direction,  viz.  towards  the  north-east;  the  fall  of  the  hills  being  gradually  in 
this  direction,  while  they  fh)nt  tlie  west  and  south  with  abrupt  and  precipitous  cliffi.  Crag- 
nashoack,  at  the  southern  extremity,  rises  1864  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  the  highest  sum- 
mit of  the  group.  The  geological  nature  of  this  third  system  is  very  different  fVom  that  of 
the  two  former ;  all  the  principal  formations  belonging  to  the  secondary  class  of  rocks. 
These  rocks  are  partly  Plutonian  and  partly  Neptunian.  The  Neptunian  rocks  are  gene- 
rally covered  with  an  enormous  mass  of  secondary  trap,  which  appears  to  attain  its  greatest 
thickness  on  the  north ;  the  trap  cap  of  Beny-Avenagh,  the  most  northern  summit  of  the 
western  chain,  measuring  more  than  900  feet :  the  average  depth  of  this  superimposed  mass 
may  therefore  be  estimated  at  545  feet,  and  its  superficid  extent  at  800  square  miles.  The 
trap  rocks  are  greenstone,  basalt,  amy^aloid,  wocke,  and  red  bole ;  occasionally  associated 
with  them,  forming  isolated  tracts,  as  in  the  Sondybrea  district,  there  are  porphyries  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  as  pitchstone  and  pearl-stone  porphyries.  The  amygdaloid  and  also  some  of 
the  other  rocks  of  this  series  contain  calc  spar  and  white  calcedony,  semiopal,  felspar,  and 
steatite,  or  serpentine.  The  basalt  contains  olivine.  Iron  pyrites  is  a  mineral  frequently 
disseminated  in  tlie  greenstone.  Wood  coal  occurs  in  seams  varying  from  two  inches  to 
four  or  five  feet  in  thickness,  alternating  with  trap  rocks,  near  Ballentoy ;  also  in  the  cliffii 
of  Fortnoffer  on  the  east  of  the  Giant's  Causeway,  at  Killymoris  near  we  centre  of  the  trap 
area,  and  at  Portmaoc,  and  other  places  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lough  Neagh. 

Veins  of  trap.  Trap  veins  exhibit  many  interesting  phenomena,  particularly  in  their  pas- 
sage through  chalk,  which  they  sometimes  convert  mto  a  kind  of  marble.  They  traverse 
not  only  the  Neptunian  strata,  as  chalk,  lias,  and  coal  formation,  but  also  trap  itself.  The 
most  interesting  and  splendid  displays  of  the  trap  rocks  occur  at  the  Giant's  Causeway  and 
Fairhead,  so  well  known  to  travellers ;  and  the  cliffi  of  Kenbaan  exhibit  very  interesting 
displays  of  the  commingling  of  the  trap  and  chalk. 

Underneath  and  sometimes  intermingled  with  this  vast  mass  of  trap  are  the  following 
Neptunian  formations : — Chaik,  which  is  frequently  very  compact,  aiA  sometimes,  as  where 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  Plutonian  rocks,  changed  into  a  granular  limestone  resem- 
blii»r  marble:  the  average  thickness  does  not  amount  to  more  than  2(X)  feei.  Underneath 
the  occurs  the  deposit  known  under  the  name  mulatto  stone,  the  green  sand  of  Eng- 

iifiL. :  rists,  lying  upon  tlie  lias  limestone.  Underneath  the  lias  occur  beds  of  red  and 
wrt-  ;i  { marl,  variegated  sandstone  with  gypsum,  and  from  these  issue  salt  mrinp. 
"  -  T  ■  i>  'M  formations,  which,  together  with  the  trap,  form  the  whole  mass  of  the  hills 
1.  ,.u,  '  lie  third  system,  cannot  be  estimated  as  possessing  a  less  average  thickness 
tiian  isoiL  800  to  1000  feet  The  whole  system  appears  at  the  north-eastern  and  south- 
western extremities  co  repose  upon  the  coat  formation  and  its  accompanying  rocks,  and 
these  on  the  transition  or  primitive  rocks.*  Ci~l  occurs  in  Tyrone,  at  Cml  Island  and  Dun- 
gannon,  and  in  Antrim,  near  Ballycastle.  Of  these,  the  collieries  at  Ballycastle,  which 
occupy  an  extent  of  not  less  than  one  English  mile  along  the  coast,  are  the  most  considerable. 
They  have  been  long  wrought,  and  were  once  in  a  mere  prosperous  state  than  at  preisest,  as 


*  Patchei  of  M  nd  imuUtnt  occur  on  tbe  eMt  coast  between  Ballygelly  and  Olenarm  Bay;  and  also  on  tkl 
tame  eoait  to  the  louthward  of  Qerron  Point. 


Past  10. 

gain  emer^B  fnim 
fit  coaat  ofAntrim, 
een  Tor  Point  and 
tay  be  considered  a 
B  Mull  of  Cantyre, 
ge,  which  may,  in 
western  shores  of 
which  intervene! 
il  formation  occurs 
tl  in  Great' Britain, 
the  space  between 
;he  coal  formation, 
sribed  as  separated 
igh  which  the  river 
the  county  of  An- 
1  channel.    It  pre- 
wards  the  west,  in 
northern  extremity 
»f  the  sea ;  but  the 
slate  rock,  leaving 
ystem.    Diris  Hill, 
londary  strata,  and 
luded  between  the 
uta  here  dip  nearly 
being  gradually  in 
pitous  cliifs.    Crag- 
IB  the  highest  sum- 
fierent  fVom  that  of 
lary  class  of  rocks, 
lion  rocka  are  gene> 
o  attain  its  greatest 
liern  summit  of  the 
superimposed  mass 
Isquare  miles.    The 
asionally  associated 
e  porphyries  of  dif* 
and  also  some  of 
aiopal,  felspar,  and 
mmeral  frequently 
rem  two  inches  to 
;  also  in  the  clif& 
e  centre  of  the  trap 
eagh. 

cularly  in  their  pas- 
le.  They  traverse 
_  trap  itself.  The 
int's  Causeway  and 
•it  very  interesting 

are  the  following 
nnetimes,  as  where 
r  limestone  resera- 
feei.  Underneath 
\rreen  sand  of  Eng- 
iir  beds  of  red  and 
issue  ialt  sprin^t. 

mass  of  the  hills 

average  thickness 
•eastern  and  south- 
ponying  rocks,  and 
)al  Island  and  Dun- 
Bollycastle,  which 

most  considerable. 

than  at  present,  as 

iBay;  and  alio  on  tk( 


Book  L 


ii»i 


IRELAND. 


'  ii\  n  tO'.'ili  1 


437 


they  used  formerly  to  send  from  10,000  to  16,000  tons  of  coal  to  the  market  yesrlyj  whoreofi 
now  the  quantity  exported  does  not  amount  to  more  than  1500  or  2000  tons.  The  cod  of 
these  districts  is  almobt  entirely  what  Berger  calls  slate  coal.  In  one  of  the  works,  how- 
over,  in  Coal  Island,  a  bed  of  cannel  coal,  six  feet  thick,  is  said  to  have  been  wrought 

The  most  remarkable  minerals  of  the  alluvial  kind  found  in  this  part  of  Irelana  are  the 
fossil  woods  of  Louffh  Neagh,  a  sheet  of  water  182  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  about 
nineteen  miles  six  nirlongs  long  fVom  N.  W.  to  8.  E.,  and  ibrty-flve  feet  deep  at  its  centre. 
The  wood  is  silicificd,  ana  in  some  specimens  one  extremity  will  be  petrified,  while  the  other 
remains  in  a  ligneous  state.  The  oak,  the  holly,  and  the  hazel  appear  to  have  been  the 
trees  thus  aifbcted.    It  occurs  in  alluvium  in  the  n'<ighbourhood  of  the  lake. 

(2.)  Connaught  Coal  District.  This  district  occupies  a  portion  of  the  counties  of  Ros- 
common, Sligot  and  Leitrira,  in  the  province  of  Connaught,  and  part  of  the  county  Cavan  in 
the  province  of  Ulster.  Lough  Allen,  situated  near  the  head  of  the  river  Shannon,  forms  a 
basin  in  the  centre  of  the  district 

A  range  of  primary  mountains,  varying  in  breadth  from  three  miles  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile, 
extends  fh>m  Foxford  in  the  county  of  Mayo,  to  Colooney  in  the  county  of  Sligo,  and  ter 
mmates  two  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Manor-Hamilton,  which  may  be  viewed  i>.s  the  base 
on  which  the  newer  formation  of  this  part  of  Ireland  rests.  This  range  of  couwtry  is  prin- 
cipally composed  of  mica  slate,  with  some  subordinate  rocks.  Benbo  Mountain,  near  Manor- 
mmilton,  1403  fbet  above  the  sea,  may  be  cited  as  exhibiting  an  interesting  display  of  the 
various  primitive  rocks.  The  summit,  and  about  800  feet  immediately  below  it  are  com- 
posed of  a  fine  granular  granite :  the  granite  is  covered  on  both  sides  of  the  mountain  with 
gneiss,  dipping  m  the  durection  of  its  declivity  at  an  onglo  of  S0°.  At  the  Inse  of  the 
mountain,  mica  slate,  with  garnets,  hornblende  rock  and  hornblende  slate,  are  seen.  Large 
blocks  of  beautiful  syenite,  also  of  serpentine  with  embedded  garnets,  were  found  in  a  stream 
at  the  bt  ^e  of  the  mountain  near  Lurganboy.  The  western  side  of  Benbo  is  traversed  by  a 
vein  of  copper  pyrites,  which  was  formerly  wrought  but  apparently  to  no  great  extent. 
Veins  of  iron  pyrites  also  occur  there. 

Resting  upon  these  old  rocks  in  many  places,  we  observe  the  first  or  old  red  sandstone 
formation.  A  tract  of  this  sandstone  extends  in  Roscommon  from  west  to  east  from  Derry- 
naslieve  to  Cashcarrigana,  and  in  greatest  breadtli  in  a  southerly  and  northerly  direction, 
&om  Leitrim  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Drumshambo.  Resting  upon  this  sandstone,  forming 
the  base  of  the  joal  district  <ind  encircling  it  is  the  mountain  or  carboniferous  limestone. 
This  limestone  exhibits  the  i><>ual  character  of  the  formations.  The  coal  formation  rests 
upon  the  limestone,  and  is  the  uppermost  or  newest  of  the  secondary  deposits  met  with  in 
this  part  of  Ireland.  The  external  aspect  of  this  coal  district  is  described  as  being  hilly 
and  dreary,  and  as  extending  :n  greatest  length  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  from  Down 
Mountain  to  Keddue,  about  sixteen  miles,  and  in  greatest  breadth  from  the  hills  above  Swad- 
linbar  to  Killargy,  sixteen  miles.  The  area  of  the  wliolc  coal  country  within  the  edge  of 
the  limestone  is  about  114,000  Irish  acres ;  exclusive  of  Slieve  Russel,  which  is  detached 
fixxn  the  great  district  by  the  limestone  valley  of  Swadlinbar.  The  rocks  which  form  the 
coral  series  in  the  Connaught  coal  district  are  similar  to  those  met  with  in  other  coalfields. 
Besides  coal,  which  is  the  black  bituminous  species,  the  formation  contains  sandstone  flag, 
slate  clay,  bituminous  slate,  clay  ironstone,  and  fire  clay.  Some  kinds  of  the  coal  afford  in 
the  100  parts,  71.42  carbon,  23.37  bitumen,  and  5.21  gray  ashes.  Iron-works.  The  beds 
of  clay  ironstone  that  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  Connaught  coal  district  appear,  at  an  early 
period,  to  have  attracted  the  attentbn  of  miners ;  and  works,  on  a  small  scale,  called 
Uoomeries,  were  carried  on  in  various  parts  of  the  adjoining  country,  as  long  as  any  wood 
remained  to  supply  them  with  charcoal,  but  they  have  since  been  given  up. 

(3.)  East  of  Ireland.  This  district  extends  nearly  100  miles  firom  north  to  south,  and 
between  sixty  and  ninety  miles  from  east  to  west  comprehending  about  a  third  part  of  the 
island.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Irish  Channel,  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  moun- 
tains which  confine  the  Suire  and  the  Shannon,  and  on  the  north  by  the  clay  slate  hills  of 
Louth  and  the  mountain  limestone  hills  of  Meath,  the  clay  slate  hills  of  Cavan  and  the 
mountain  limestone  of  Longford,  and  by  a  line  produced  from  thence  to  the  bay  of  Galway. 
In  the  landscape  of  Ireland  there  is  one  very  remarkable  feature,  which  cannot  fitil  to  strike 
every  observer :  in  traversing  most  porta  of  the  island,  we  meet  with  ranges  and  groups  of 
bold  mountainous  and  hilly  tracts,  in  some  degree  isolated,  while  the  interval  between  them 
is  generally  occupied  by  a  sur&ce  chat  appears  nearly  level,  when  viewed  on  the  great  scale, 
but  which  is  found,  on  a  nearer  view,  to  present  a  gently  waved  outline :  a  considerable 
expansion  of  the  plain  occupies  the  central  counties  of  Ireland,  and  extends  across  the  island 
from  Dublin  Bay  on  the  east  to  Galway  Bay  on  the  west ;  and  in  general,  where  a  similar 
plain  surftice  occnra,  the  immediately  subjacent  reck  is  mountain  limestone;  to  the  abund- 
ance of  vvhich  mineral,  next  to  the  mild  temperature  and  general  moisture  of  the  climate, 
tfae  soil  of  Ireland  is  probably  more  indebted  for  its  superior  fertility  than  to  any  other  cauae 
In  this  district  mountainous  and  hilly  tracts  arise  above  the  sur&ce  of  the  limestone  plain, 
on  the  east  the  south,  the  west  the  centre,  and  the  north.    The  eastern  chain  extends  from 

7* 


488 


DESPRIPTIVE  GEOORAPHV. 


Pabt  III 


the  north  tide  of  Dublm  B>y  to  the  confluenco  of  the  Barrow  with  the  Suire  on  the  Bouth. 
The  hiyheat  point  it  Lugnaquilla,  which  is  3070  feet  above  low-watoMnark  in  Dublin  Bay. 
It  conouta  olmoat  wholly  of  primitive  and  transition  rocka,  of  which  the  following  ipeciei 
occur:  s^nuiite,  mica  elate,  quarts  rock,  clay  slate,  greywacke,  trap  and  porphyrv.  Metolli* 
ferous  minerola  are  wanting  on  the  weit  aide  of  the  granite  chain,  but  abound  on  the  east 
■ide.  In  the  granite  and  mica  slate  districts  thero  are  veins  of  galena  or  lead  glance ;  of 
these  the  most  considerable  are  in  Olonntalur;  in  Uie  clay  slate  tract  eleven  diflerent 
metallic  substances  have  been  met  with,  viz.  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  tin,  tung- 
sten, manganese,  arsenic,  and  antimony. 

Native  gold  occurs  in  the  Ballinvalley  streams  at  Croghan  Kinshela :  and  in  1801,  regular 
mining  was  commenced,  but  did  not  lead  to  any  important  rooults ;  and  a<li  r  a  time  the  working 
was  given  up.  The  gold  of  Croghan  Kinshela  occurred  in  grains  and  masses  from  the  smallest 
■ize  to  lumps  of  oonsiderable  weight;  one  piece  weighed  twenty-two  ounces.  The  gold  was 
found  in  alluvium,  accompanied  with  other  metallic  substances,  as  magnetic  iron  ore,  iron 
glance,  red  iron  ore,  brown  iron  ore,  iron  pyrites,  tinstone,  wolfram,  gray  manganese  ore,  and 
nagments  of  quarts  and  chlorite.  In  some  flpecimena  tJie  (fold  was  observed  ramified  in  slen- 
der threads  through  the  wolfiram,  and  in  othera  incorporated  \-. .  li  iron  ochre :  fcome  of  the  gold 
was  oryrtallized  m  octahedrons,  and  also  in  the  elongated  gurnet  dodecniiedral  foim  Native 
gold  was  alw  found  in  Croghan  Moira  mine,  about  ^even  miles  distant  from  the  former 
mountain,  but  in  small  quantity. 

The  copper  minos  of  Cronbone  and  Tigrony,  in  this  district,  are  sLuated  in  clay  slate  and 
quartsose  clay  slate.  The  ores,  which  are  copper  pyrites  and  block  copper  ore,  are  asso- 
ciated with  iron  pvritcs,  and  rarely  with  galena ;  and  auriferous  silver  occurs  in  beds  in  the 
■laty  strata.  In  the  twelve  years  ending  in  1811,  the  produce  of  the  Jiines  was  10,342  tons 
13  cwt  o(  ore ;  yielding  1046  tons  10  cwt  of  copper.  The  mineral  waters  Howing  from 
the  mines  are  impregnated  with  blue  vitriol  or  sulphate  of  copper.  These  waters  are  re- 
ceived into  tanks,  in  which  tlie  muddy  particles  are  allowed  to  subside.  The  clear  waters 
are  then  passed  into  pits  filled  with  plate  and  scrap  iron,  which  occasions  a  precipitation  of 
the  copper. 

The  other  tracts  of  this  district  are  composed  of  secondary  rocks,  more  or  less  deeply 
covered  with  diluvial  and  alluvial  deposits  The  secondary  rocka  ttxe  old  red  sandttone, 
mountain  lime$tone,  (or  as  it  is  called  in  Ireland,  Irish  limestone,)  and  the  coal  formation. 
Of  these  formations  tlie  mountain  liraeatone  is  by  far  the  mhat  abundant ;  indeed,  with  the 
exception  of  the  counties  of  Derry  and  Antrim  in  the  north,  and  Wicklow  in  the  east,  there 
is  no  county  in  the  island  in  which  it  does  not  prevail  more  or  less.  The  coal  formation 
occurs  in  the  Leiiuler  coal  district.  The  sandstone,  slate,  ironstone,  clay,  and  cool,  which 
constitute  the  series,  alternate  with  each  other,  and  the  whole  rests  on  the  mountain  lime- 
stone, and  is  frequently  disposed  in  the  basin  shape.  The  coal  of  this  district  is  glance  coo/, 
the  blind  coal  of  miners,  the  anthracite  of  French  geologists,  tlie  Kilkenny  coal  of  some 
authors  (so  named  because  the  town  of  Kilkenny  is  situated  in  this  coalfield). 

The  most  interesting  alluvial  phenomena  are  those  exhib  cei  by  the  limestone  gravel,  the 
granite  blocks,  and  the  vast  peat  bogs.  The  great  limestone  field  abounds  in  hillocks  apd  ridges 
of  limestone  gravel.  Sometimes  these  ridges  appear  like  regular  mounds,  the  work  of  art, 
forming  a  continued  line  of  several  miles  in  extent  That  which  passes  by  Maryborough, 
in  the  Queen's  County,  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  this  kind ;  and  similar  mounds,  hillocxs, 
and  ridges  occur  also  in  the  counties  of  Meath,  Westmeath,  Kildare,  Carlow,  and  other  por- 
tions of  the  limestone  field,  in  which  the  limestone  gravel  and  sand  frequently  exhibit  a 
stratified  amusement,  the  alternate  beds  being  very  distinct  from  each  other.  The  in- 
equality of  surrace  thus  produced,  seems  to  have  occasioned  the  formation  of  those  extensive 
tracts  of  peat  bog  which  cover  so  considbi-able  a  portion  of  the  limestone  plain  of  Ireland.* 
The  natural  course  of  springs  and  streams  being  obstructed,  stagnant  lakes  and  pools  of 
water  were  formed ;  thus  promoting  the  growth  of  those  aquatic  reeds,  grasses,  and  rushes, 
which,  by  their  constant  increase  and  decay,  appear  to  compose  the  mass  of  the  bo^  of  Ire- 
land. In  this  manner  it  is  conceivable  that  shallow  lakes  may  in  process  of  time  have 
become  entirely  filled  with  peat ;  mi  that  peat  bo^  may  thus  have  gradually  acquired  a 
convexity  of  surfiice,  or  at  least  that  greater  declivity  by  which  their  borders  are  dis- 
tinguished. The  average  depth  of  these  bogs  is  comm(»ily  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five  feet, 
but  the  extreme  depth  observed  is  forty-seven  feet.  In  the  same  manner  we  may  conceive 
the  gradual  growth  of  peat  bog  to  have  successively  extended  from  the  higher  regions  to 
the  flanks,  and  thence  to  the  feet,  of  mountains.  That  fallen  forests  were  not  the  primary 
origin  of  these  paat  bogs  seems  evident  from  the  circumstance  that  two  and  even  three  suc- 
cessive growths  of  trees  have  been  observed  at  different  depths  m  a  section  of  the  same  bog. 
In  these  instances,  the  trees  lie  horizontally,  frequently  crossing  each  other,  and  either 
attached  to  their  roots  or  broken  ever ;  and  in  the  latter  cose  the  Btuuipe  usually  stand  erect 
where  they  grew.    The  prostration  of  trees,  however,  may  to  a  certam  extent  have  acted 


*Fest  U  sitimated  to  exteud  0T«r  •  tentb  of  tbe  wbol«  iiland. 


Bmk  I. 


. .'  li-U-  IRELAND      W.>fwW 


4ao 


u  an  auxiliary  m  promoting  the  growth  of  peat  bon ;  and  thla  prostration  appean  in  genenil 
to  have  taken  place  either  ih>ni  natural  decay,  or  m>ni  tr«ea  puMeaaing  little  hold  of  a  wet 
ipongy  aoi!  having  been  orortumed  by  atorma.  Thia  may  partly  acct^unt  fur  trees  of  all  agea 
being  found  in  the  boga  of  Ireland,  whether  theae  boga  be  aituatod  in  plaina,  or  form  the  im- 
mediate cover  of  high  mountain  tracta.  The  univenal  deatruction  of  the  forests  of  IreUnd 
arincipally  to  be  attributed  to  the  general  introduction  of  iron  furnaces,  aa  the  most  profit* 
I  nuNie  of  consuming  tlie  timber,  then  a  material  esteemed  of  little  value ;  and  hence  the 
almoat  toUl  neglect  of  copsing  those  trocU  in  which  the  woods  had  been  felled.  The  marl 
beds,  so  frequently  met  with  in  these  peat  boga,  are  curious  in  a  zoological  view,  from  their 
occasionally  containing  remains  of  that  splendid  animal  the  fossil  elk.  But  the  remains  of 
the  extinct  species  occur  also  in  the  crravol ;  and  the  late  Mr.  Edgoworth  observed  the  re< 
mains  of  the  rod  deer  in  the  aame  marl  as  that  which  contained  the  extinct  species. 

(4.)  South  of  Ireland.  Under  this  division  we  comprise  tlio  counties  of  Cork,  Kerry, 
Clare,  Waterford,  Tipperary,  and  part  of  Oalway. 

This  mountainous,  hilly,  and  diversified  region  is  chiefly  composed  of  chains  having 
generally  a  direction  from  east  to  ^--cst,  and  atuii:<ing  their  greatest  elevation  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Kerry,  where  Gurrano  Tual,  one  of  MacjjiHicuday's  Reeks,  near  Killamey  (the 
highest  land  in  Ireland),  is  3410  feet  above  the  sea.  Thti  rocks  in  this  elevated  county  are 
chiefly  of  the  transition  class:  they  decline  gradually  toM>anli>  tHn  north,  and  flnallv  pass 
under  the  old  red  sandstone  and  mountain  limestone  of  tho  midland  counties.  The  follow* 
ing  may  be  considered  a  general  estimate  of  the  geognostical  relatione  of  the  south  of 
Ireland : — 

Transition  roek$.  In  Kerry,  the  transition  strata  range  iVom  east  to  west,  and  dip  to  the 
north  and  south,  with  vertical  beds  in  the  axes  of  the  ranges :  the  strata,  as  they  diminish 
in  inclination  on  each  side,  form  a  succession  of  troughs.  The  rocks  are  chiefly  Neptunian, 
the  Plutonian  being  comparatively  rare.  The  Neptunian  are  either  simple  or  compound ; 
the  simple  are  clay  tlate,  quartt  rock,  homttone,  Lydian  Hone,  and  limestone :  the  com- 
pound are,  greywacke,  ^reywacke  slate,  sandstone.  The  Plutonian  rocks  ore  greenstone 
ind  porphyry.  Organic  remains  occur  in  the  limestone,  slate,  and  grevwacke,  but  more 
(tequentiy  and  abundantly  in  the  limestone  than  in  the  other  rocks.  In  Kenmare  these 
fossils  consist  of  a  few  bivalves,  and  some  crinoidal  remains;  and  these  also  are  most 
numerous  in  the  Mucruss  and  Killamey  limestones.  At  the  foot  of  the  Slievemeesh  range 
this  limestone  includes  asaphus  caudatus,  calamine  macrophthaln>a,  with  orthoceratites, 
ellipsolites  ovatus,  ammonites,  euomphalites,  tnrbinites,  neritites,  mclonites,  and  several 
ipocies  of  terebratula,  spirifer,  and  producta.  Near  Smerwick  harbour  similar  organic  re- 
mains are  abundant  in  slate  and  greywacke,  together  with  hysterolites,  and  many  genera  of 
polyparia. 

Transition  coal.  All  the  coal  of  the  province  of  Munster,  except  that  of  the  county  of 
Clare,  is  referable  to  the  transition  class.  At  Knockasartnet,  near  Killamey,  and  on  the 
north  of  Tralee,  there  are  three  beds  of  glance  coal,  alternating  with  strata  of  greywacke 
and  slate.  In  the  county  of  Cork  this  glance  coal  is  more  abundant,  particularly  near 
Kanturk,  extending  from  the  north  of  the  Blackwater  to  the  Allord.  The  ravines  of  the 
latter  river,  and  various  other  defiles,  expoae  clay  slate,  greywacke,  talc,  and  sandstone,  in 
nearly  vertical  strata  ranging  firom  west  to  east.  This  transition  tract  extends  to  the  river 
Shannon  on  the  north-west  As  the  strata  range  from  west  to  east,  in  a  series  <  '  parallel 
narrow  troughs,  they  exhibit  great  variety  of  inclination,  dipping  rapidly  either  to  the  north 
or  south,  and  becoming  horizontal  between  the  ridges.  The  glance  coal  is  raised  in  sufficient 
quantities  for  the  purpose  of  burning  the  limestone  of  the  adjacent  districts. 

The  coal  and  the  strata  with  which  it  is  accompanied  abound  with  impressions  of  equi- 
sf.te  and  calamites,  and  afford  some  traces  of  fucoides.  Beds  of  glance  coal  also  occur  in  the 
county  of  Limerick,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  S'.iannon,  north  of  Abbeyfeale,  and  at  Longhill ; 
and  on  the  right  Inink  of  the  river  at  Labbashaada.  The  transition  rocks  of  Kerry  and  Lime- 
rick extend  into  Cork  and  Waterford. 

Mines.  Copper  mines  occur  in  limestone  in  Ross  Island  in  the  lake  of  Killamey.  In  the 
county  of  Cork,  there  are  copper  mines  at  Allihies,  Aiidley,  and  Ballydehol;  and  others, 
producing  lead,  at  Doneen  and  Rinabelly.  The  mine  at  Allihies  is  one  of  the  richest  mines 
in  Ireland ;  it  was  discovered  in  1812,  and  yields  more  than  2000  tons  of  copper  ore  annually. 
The  ore  occurs  in  a  large  quartz  vein,  which  generally  intersects  tho  slaty  rocks  of  the 
country  from  north  to  south,  but  in  some  places  mns  parallel  to  the  strata.  It  is  remarked 
that  all  this  portion  of  the  county  of  Cork  indicates  a  very  general  diffusion  of  cupreous  par- 
ticles, so  much  so  that  in  the  year  1812,  there  existed  a  cupriferous  peat-bog  on  the  east  side 
of  Glandore  harbour,  forty  or  fifty  tons  of  the  dried  peat  producing  when  burnt  one  ton  of 
ashes,  containing  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  copper.  The  lead-mines  of  Doneen  and 
ninabellv  nro  in  glate. 

Coti/ormation  of  Clare,  The  transition  clay  slate  of  this  county  is  bordered  by  a  zone 
of  old  red  sandstone,  to  which  succeeds,  in  ascending  order  and  conformable  position,  the 
uaqntain  limestone  and  coal  formation,  both  of  which  occupy  flat  and  undukting  hills,  and 


UG 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  III 


Ji«  ■tnta  are  naulv  horizontal.  The  best  scctionr  are  M«n  in  the  oUf&  on  the  weit  cout, 
where  bituminotM  ihale,  tlutu  clay,  Mindatone,  am'  lanuatone  flag,  rest  upon  linieatone.  Ckwl, 
however,  m  uf  rare  t^xurreiico,  and  when  Luni',  ia  of  indifihrent  quality. 

Aa  in  every  other  part  of  Ireland,  the  diatr' jt  abounda  with  alluvial  dopoaita.  In  ronrd 
to  the  distribution  ot  the  older  of  theao,  ur  tlit  diluvium  in  the  aouth  of  Ireland,  it  ia  romarVed, 
— 1.  That  bouldera,  gravel,  and  aond,  derived  tlrom  tlie  transition  rocks,  are  diatributod  along 
the  bordom  and  aidea  of  the  mountains  in  Kerry.  2.  In  a  small  diatrict  of  Limerick  and 
Tippcrary,  situated  between  the  Oaulteea  and  Slieve-na-muck,  the  rolled  maaaca  conaist  not 
only  of  portions  of  contiguoua  rocks,  but  contain  also  porphyry,  which  is  not  to  bo  found  in 
titu  near  the  vicinity  ot^allis  HilL  8.  In  the  peninsula  ot  Nenville,  near  Galway,  tlio  aur- 
&C0  of  the  mm  itaiii  limoatone  is  strewed  ov^r  with  numerous  boulders  of  red  and  gray 
granite,  syoniu ,  greenstone,  and  sandstone,  which  must  apparently  have  been  conveyed  mm 
the  opposite  side  of  the  bay  of  Chdway. 

SiCT.  III. — lliilorical  Oeography. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Ireland,  from  which  tho  native  race  now  existing  has  sprung, 
appear,  by  the  language  still  spoken,  to  have  been  Celtic,  Tho  Romans,  in  occupying 
Britain,  could  not  fail  to  acquire  much  information  relative  to  leme,  Hibomia,  or  Ireland ; 
and  accordingly  we  find  that  the  map  of  that  country  by  Ptolemy  is  less  defective  than  the 
one  which  ho  gives  of  Scotland.  About  tho  fourth  century,  we  find  Ireland  bearing  the 
name  of  dcotlund,  from  the  leading  people  on  its  postorn  shore,  who  aflerwanla  poi-sing  into 
Argylc,  and  makin;?  thcmselvea  maaters  of  all  Caledonia,  communicated  to  it  "^  name  of 
ScoUand,  finally  withdrawn  from  tho  country  to  which  it  originally  bolonged. 

Tho  Danes,  during  the  height  of  their  power,  from  the  ninth  to  the  tweltlh  centuries, 
poeweased  almost  tho  whole  eastern  coamt  of  Ireland,  making  Dublin  their  capital.  Before 
this  time  Ireland  hod  been  converted  to  Christianity,  and  a  number  of  celebrated  monaateriei 
liad  been  founded,  tho  tenants  of  which  were  distinguished,  even  over  Europe,  for  their  piety 
and  learning. 

The  Engash  sway  commenced  in  1170.  Richard  Strongbow,  en  rl  of  Pembroke,  as  a  pri- 
vate individual,  formed  the  first  settlement;  but  Henry  II.  soon  assumed  the  title  of  "  lord  of 
Ireland."  The  rango  of  dominion  was  long  restricted  to  a  portion  of  the  kingdom  enclosed 
within  what  is  called  the  English  pale,  without  which  the  Irish  remained  still  under  the  rult 
of  their  native  chiellains.  Ilenry  VlII.  assumed  the  title  of  "  kmg  of  Ireland,"  but  without 
any  material  extension  of  his  authority  over  that  kingdom. 

The  Irish  massacre  was  a  dreadfiil  outrage,  to  which  attachment  to  popery  and  zeal  fot 
national  independence  united  in  impelling  a  proud  and  fierce  people.  Forty  thousand 
English  settlers  are  supposed  to  have  perished,  and  the  rest  were  driven  into  Dublin, 
Cromwell,  however,  afterwards  crossed  the  Channel,  and  mode  cruel  reprisals ;  he  took  the 
principal  fortified  towns,  and  reduced  Ireland  under  more  full  subjection  than  ever.  Yet 
the  disposition  of  the  people  remained  the  same ;  and  when  James  II.  was  driven  from  the 
English  throne,  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm  in  Ireland,  and  became  for  some  time  iti 
master.  The  battle  of  the  Boyne,  followed  next  year  by  that  of  Aughrim,  decided  the  &te 
uf  the  empire,  and  more  especially  of  Ireland,  which  then  felt  for  the  first  time  the  miseries 
of  a  conquered  country.  The  estates  of  many  principal  native  proprietors  were  confiscated; 
the  Catholics  were  deprived  of  all  political  privileges ;  they  were  rendered  incapable  of 
holding  any  ofiice  or  employment  in  the  state ;  they  were  debarred  even  irom  holding  land, 
from  devismg  property,  and  from  exercising  other  important  fiinctions  of  civil  society.  Under 
these  severities  they  pertinaciously  retain^  their  political  attachments  together  with  their 
religious  creed ;  and  a  continual  ferment  prevailed,  which  broke  out  from  time  to  time  into 
partial  rebellions. 

The  gradual  emancipation  of  Ireland  commenced  at  the  period  of  the  American  war.  Till 
that  era  England  had  denied  to  her  the  right  of  trading  directly  with  any  foreign  nation ;  and 
had  compelled  her  to  export  and  import  every  commodity  through  the  channel  of  Great 
Britam.  The  extremity,  however,  to  which  Britain  was  reduced  enabled  the  Irish  to  place 
themselves  in  a  formidable  attitude ;  and  by  forming  armed  associations,  and  adoptmg  other 
threatening  measures,  they  induced  parliament  to  ^nt  them  free  trade  with  all  nations. 
fVom  this  time  also  the  most  obnoxious  of  the  restrictions  on  the  Catholics  were  gradually 
repealed  or  fell  into  disuse ;  and  before  the  end  of  last  century,  they  had  obtained  almost 
every  political  privilege,  except  that  of  sitting  in  parliament,  and  of  holding  the  very  highest 
offices  of  state.  The  propriety  of  conceding  these  also  became  one  of  the  leading  questioni 
which  long  divided  the  public  mind. 

A  very  formidable  rebellion  broke  forth  in  spite  of  these  concessions.  The  French 
revolution,  which  caused  a  general  ferment  in  Europe,  was  intensely  felt  throughout 
Ireland.  A  society  was  formed  of  "United  Irishmen;"  and  secret  meetings  were  Jield, 
havinor  in  view  the  entire  separation  firom  England,  and  the  forruation  of  the  kingdom  into 
an  independent  republic.  The  vigilance  of  government,  and  the  failure  of  the  French  in 
their  atUtmots  to  land  a  force  of  any  magnitude,  prevented  matters  fnHD  coming  to  the  lost 


Booh  I. 


:f\r\n    Ireland.  «^»k?!im 


ui 


exuting  haa  Bprung, 


Rxtreiiiity  till  1708,  when  ft  violont  iiuurroction  aroae  in  fijur  of  the  countiot  neuoat 
Dublin.  The  rebels,  though  zealous  and  brave,  boing  without  discipline,  were  routed  in 
succoasivo  encounters  with  much  inferior  bodies  of  reifulars  and  militia ;  and  being  unsup- 

tortod  by  French  aid  were  completely  put  down  in  a  few  months.  The  exasperation, 
owevor,  produced  by  the  tragical  events  of  this  short  period  continued  long  to  rankle  in 
the  minds  of  the  Irish,  and  to  aggravate  the  evils  under  which  ttiev  laboured.  To  soothe 
this  irritation,  another  oxpediunt  was  employed,  which  inaterially  oflbcted  the  situation  of 
Ireland. 

The  difficult  and  reluctant  union  qf  the  two  kingdom*  was  effhcted  in  1600  bv  Mr.  Pitk. 
Ireland  gained  thus  considerable  commercial  advantages ;  and,  fh>m  the  example  of  Scot* 
land,  it  was  hoped  that  a  gradual  tranquillity  would  be  tlio  result  This  expectation  has  not 
yet  icon  fulfilled.  The  peasantry  of  the  south,  inflamed  bv  national  jealousy,  by  ruligioua 
ani'noeity,  and  by  the  severe  privations  under  which  thoy  labour,  have  continued,  if  not  in 
open  rebellion,  at  least  in  a  state  of  turbulence  constantly  tending  towards  it;  and  their  dis- 
contents have  been  increased  by  the  indiscreet  zeal  of  tlio  Protestant  party. 

The  bill  fur  Catholic  emancipation,  so  unexpectedly  introduced,  in  18!^  by  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  and  carried  atler  such  a  violent  ferment  of  parties,  has  made  a  remarkable 
change  in  the  political  constitution  of  Ireland.  The  political  disabilities  under  which  the 
Catholics  had  hitherto  laboured  have  been  finally  removed.  They  are  made  admissible  to 
the  highest  offices  of  state,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  lord  chancellor;  on  exclusion 
decided  upon,  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  dignity  of  that  office,  as  the  extensive  church 
patronage  attached  to  it.  Roman  Catholics  are  also  made  admissible  to  sit  in  both  houaet 
of  parliament,  and  to  every  other  political  privilege  enjoyed  by  their  fellow  countrymen. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Oeographij. 

The  political  evils  under  which  Ireland  labours  will  sufficiently  appear  from  the  forogoinff 
nrvey  of  her  history.  From  the  earliest  times  she  has  been  in  the  situation  of  a  i\  .quered 
country,  without  ever  becoming  reconciled  to  the  yoke,  or  assimilated  to  the  ruling  nation. 
Within  the  last  two  centuries,  her  devoted  adherence  to  a  religion  which  had  been  renounced 
by  her  rulurs,  has  had  a  most  fatal  tendency,  which  we  mav  however  hope  to  see  much  miti- 
gated by  the  healing  measures  that  have  now  been  adopted.  In  consequence,  also,  of 
repeated  scenes  of  reoellion  and  forfeiture,  by  much  the  greater  part  of  the  lands  are  in  the 
possession  of  English  and  Protestant  proprictora,  who,  having  no  natural  influence  over  the 
occupiers  of  their  estates,  hold  their  place  only  by  the  hated  tenure  of  dominion  and  law. 
Being  connected  with  the  country  by  no  natural  ties,  and  attracted  by  Uie  superior  brilliancy 
of  the  English  and  French  capitals,  most  of  them  quit  Ireland,  and  become  habitual  ah»entee$. 
Wiien  the  Scottish  Highlanders  arrayed  themselves  against  the  government,  they  acted 
under  the  influence  of  a  few  leading  chiefs,  whose  interests  and  passions  aflbrded  a  lever  by 
which  the  people  could  be  moved.  But  the  Irish  people,  deprived  of  any  such  guidance, 
chose  their  leaders  from  among  themselves,  or  from  those  who  courted  their  &vour  by  fos- 
tering all  their  national  propensities.  Secret  associations,  party  badges,  mysterious  names, 
have  exerted  an  influence  over  their  minds,  the  extent  and  nature  of  which  it  is  impossible 
to  calculate. 

Ireland,  like  Scotland,  has  been  united  to  England ;  yet  it  retains  somewhat  more  ot  .:hp 
aspect  of  a  separate  kingdom.  A  lord  lieutenant  still  displays  a  portion  of  the  state  u  .  \ 
exercises  some  of  the  functions  of  royalty.  He  has  not  only  a  household  establishment,  but 
a  chancellor,  a  secretary,  and  other  mmistera  of  state.  The  courts  of  justice,  and  the  dif- 
ferent orders  of  magistracy,  are  nearly  on  the  same  looting  as  in  England ;  yet  they  have 
not  the  reputation  of  exercising  their  functions  with  quite  the  same  dignity  and  in  partiality. 
The  violence  of  party  spirit  acts  upon  judges,  and  still  more  upon  juries ;  and  in  the  country, 
the  absence  of  great  proprietors,  and  the  want  of  any  middlmg  class,  rendev  it  difficult  to 
find  materials  for  a  respectable  and  effective  magistracy  Ireland  sent  to  the  Imperial  par- 
liament 100  membera  of  the  House  of  Commons,  of  whom  36  were  for  cities  and  boroughs, 
and  64  for  counties,  which  latter  sent  two  membera  each.  The  large  proportion  of  thia 
latter  class  was  expected  to  render  the  representation  more  respectable ;  but,  unfortunately, 
the  low  qualification  required,  amounting  only  to  40s.,  enabled  the  great  proprietora  to  split 
votes  among  their  numerous  little  tenantry  to  such  an  extent  as  almost  to  produce  universal 
mifihige.  The  very  system  of  letting  &nns  on  leases  for  lives,  which  confers  the  right  of 
voting,  extended  that  right  to  almost  every  tenant.  This  could  scarcely  be  said  tn  confer 
the  real  right  of  suflrage,  as  the  dependence  of  the  tenants  was  almost  always  such  as  to 
enable  the  landlord  to  dictate  their  vote ;  though  in  late  elections,  the  influence  of  the  priests 
was  in  several  counties  successfully  exerted.  To  remedy  these  evils,  the  same  act  which 
removed  the  disabilities  of  the  Catholics,  raised  the  qualification  of  freeholdera  in  Ireland 
from  40s.  to  1 1  •/.  a  year,  and  thus  reduced  them  tc  less  than  a  third  of  Uieir  former  number. 
Many  also  of  the  principal  boroughs,  as  Bel&st,  Wexford,  Cashel,  Sligo,  Dundalk,  Ennis- 
kSlen,  were  entirely  close,  the  membera  bemg  chosen  by  twelve  sel^elected  burgesses ; 
while,  in  others,  the  whole  ground  on  which  a  borough  stood  belonged  to  the  nearest  great 

Vol.  I.  3  F 


448 


DESCRIPTIVK  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  m. 


proprintor.  Tho  aonuHiuonoo  wan,  that  nn  olif^archy,  fbrmod  hv  tho  pomoiBoni  of  thoHO  vut 
propertioB  into  which  tho  grcntor  part  of  Iroland  in  divided,  liold  an  almost  titiliniitod  Bwav 
ovur  the  country.  Previous  to  tho  union,  Uio  influonco  of  tlio  throe  houses  of  Dorosforu, 
I'onsonby,  and  Foster  was  such,  that  Uio  aid  of  one,  and,  if  possible,  two  of  timin,  wus  noco» 
wry  for  carryiii};  on  the  measures  of  ffovornment  Tliat  influence,  howovor,  has  boon  on 
the  decline,  and  thoro  is  no  nrospoct  of  its  renewal. 

The  lU:ti)rm  Bill  gave  to  Ireland  only  Hvo  additional  members,  and  it  made  no  material 
chanjfo  in  the  roturninjir  boroughs ;  lut,  by  placing  the  election  in  the  hands  of  all  house, 
holdurs  paying  10/.  annually,  it  rendered  those  nominations  jpcn  which  had  formerly  boon 
made  by  tho  small  numlmr  of  individuals  composing  the  corporation. 

The  naval  and  military  force  of  the  empire  in  general  defends  Ireland.  There  is  a  com- 
mander of  tho  forces  nsident  in  Dublin ;  acting,  however,  imder  the  orders,  not  of  the  lord 
lieutenant,  btit  of  tho  British  commander-in-chief.  Tho  numl)or  of  regular  troops  stutionod 
at  ditfenMit  points  is  ahvavs  considcrairio. 

Tiio  revonuo  levied  in  Ireland  has  never  homo  the  same  proportion  to  her  natural  rcsourccg 
as  that  of  England.  The  rates  in  all  the  princiiwl  articles  of  consiim])tion  have  boon  lower. 
Tho  ta.x  on  hearths,  howovor,  was  found  very  opprc'HHJvo ;  as  it  recpiirod  incpiisitorial  visito, 
and  aflected  tho  lowest  of  tiio  |ieoplo.  This  and  all  tho  otiier  assessed  taxes  wore  so  irrogu- 
larly  leviotl,  that,  notwithstiinding  tho  discontent  (excited  by  them,  they  did  little  more  than 
cover  tho  expensos  of  collection.  For  this  reason,  by  a  motion  of  tl\e  chancellor  of  tho 
cxciieijuor,  they  were  ontirely  reniittetl.  In  1800  the  revenue  was  2,084,000/.  and  the  debt 
25,(i(t'J,000/.  At  the  union,  the  stipulation  was  made  that  Ireland  should  jKiy  two-seventeenths 
of  the  whole  expondituro  of  tho  empire ;  this  arrangement  has  led  to  a  continual  incroiiso 
bi)th  of  debt  and  revenue.  In  1811  the  former  amounted  to  77,;i8iJ,000/.,  and  the  latter  to 
S,90G,0(H)/.  In  18»0  the  reveiuic  was  ;),5'18,8'.!2/.,  and  in  1630  it  umoimted  to  4,4(K),0&3{. 
The  |>articult?iv  for  tlio  latter  year  wore : — 

Ounlnnw Xl,7J4,7n4     I     Stnmpi X470,9H(I 

KxciM l,IHIU„ril     I      I'oitaitc,  Ac Siltl,:n3 

Tho  public  expenditure  in  1830  was  as  tollows  :— 

Chnrxm  nf  flimloil  ilvbt rMTH,4.t4 

Civil  liHt,  &•; SHI.IHIO 

The  national  debt  of  Ireland  in  1817,  when  it  coased  to  form  a  separate  item  in  the  public 
accounts  in  consequence  of  the  consolidation  of  tho  British  and  Irish  cxchequon,  was 
134,002,760/. 

For  local  and  patriotic  objects  in  Ireland,  very  considerable  sums  arc  allowed  out  of  the 
public  revenue.    Of  those,  tor  tlio  year  1832,  tlicre  appear  the  following : — 


Army i^tHl.OT!) 

Miu^ollnruuiH 747,080 


eirhnolianit  Gdiicntlon jDO.flflO 

Protpvtiint  Charily  School .1,00(1 

t'lmiiilUng  tlixipiial 3».:il4 

Fnur  nthnr  Hnipllali ]0,(I4S 

lloiisoof  Imluilrv SI,1U9 

Kicliinoml  I.miiilic  Aaylum, 


llilierni*n  Marine  Sucioty. 


'iwo 


Fcniain  Orphnn  Hnuiio XI,P33 

Itiiiiinii  Cnthdilc  ( !ollogo S.ViSS 

Roynl  Diihlin  ^>clt<tv 5,300 

Ri'lfliKt  ArailoinirnI  Inatitutlnn t,,100 

Nniicnnforming  and  olhar  Mtniitpni 94,834 

Puhlic  VVorku 3:i,S64 

Dunmnro  Harbour 7,S00 


Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 


Ireland,  in  this  respect,  has  long  presented  a  painful  spectacle;  a  great  proportion  of  her 
people  being  involved  in  extreme  and  squalid  poverty.  Tho  Irish  do  not  want  enterprise,  or 
even  industry ;  but  various  causes  have  combined  to  degrade  them  in  the  scale  of  improve- 
mont  Among  these  the  conduct  long  held  by  B'itain  must  be  considered  as  prominent; 
tlius,  after  other  expedients  hod  proved  incfiectual,  it  was  prohibited  to  export  woollens  to 
foreign  countries.  Similar  measures  were  uken  with  regard  to  glass,  hops,  and  every 
branch  in  respect  to  which  any  rivalry  was  apprehended.  There  was  ono  article,  however, 
the  production  of  a  large  surplus  of  which  could  by  no  means  be  avoided.  Tl;is  was  black 
cattle  and  sheep ;  but  the  value  of  these  was  eiTcctually  cut  down  by  the  prohibition  to 
import  them  into  England,  tho  only  accessible  market.  Under  these  regulations,  all  tlic 
exertions  of  Ireland  to  better  her  condition  wore  cramped,  and  while  Britain  was  making 
the  most  rapid  advances,  Ireland  continued  in  the  same  state  of  depression.  However,  in 
consequence  of  her  spirited  cflbrts  at  tho  end  of  the  American  war,  and  of  the  embarrass- 
ments  of  the  British  government,  the  most  odious  and  pernicious  of  these  restrictions  were 
repealed.  Further  tulvantagcs  were  obtained  at  the  time  of  the  Union ;  and  at  present, 
every  exertion  is  making  to  place  the  two  countries  in  a  state  of  perfect  reciprocity.  The 
consequence  hoa  been,  that  in  the  course  of  forty  ycors,  Ireland  has  made  a  rapid  progress 
in  industry  and  commerce ;  yet  some  of  her  greatest  evils  are  so  deeply  seated,  tliat  they 
have  scarcely  yet  begun  to  give  way  to  the  influence  of  a  more  auspicious  system. 

Agriculture  has  been  long  in  a  backward  and  very  depressed  state.  The  farms  were,  for 
the  most  part,  small,  managed  by  the  farmer  himself  and  his  fkmily,  destitute  of  capital 
with  wretched  implements,  and  with  a  pertinacious  adherence  to  all  the  obsolete  practicei 
of  a  rude  ago.  The  best  soils  exhausted  a  great  portion  of  their  strength  in  throwing  up 
weeiis,  which  no  efieetive  measures  were  taken  to  extirpate.  Tho  system  also  of  infield  anu 


Part  m. 

tnaiioatiorB  of  those  vast 
Itiinnt  iiiiliniito<l  Dwav 
0  hniiHCH  of  Barosfunf, 
to  o(  tlimii,  WU8  iioco» 
howovor,  has  boon  on 

[1  it  mado  no  inntorlal 
ho  hondH  of  iili  house* 
ich  had  formerly  boon 

and,  Thoro  is  a  com- 
ordorB,  not  of  tho  loni 
tffulor  troopH  Htotionod 

0  Iter  natural  resource! 
|)tion  Imvo  boon  lower, 
'od  inquisitorial  visits, 
il  taxcH  wore  so  irrcgu- 
17  did  liltlo  moro  tlinn 

tho  chancellor  of  tho 
,084,00(W.  and  tho  debt 

1  pay  two-sevonlcentlw 
Lo  a  continual  incronso 
KK)/.,  imd  tlio  lattor  to 
mounted  to  4,4(H),053(. 

X47n,SHfl 

SilU,»79 

XTHi.am 

747,(180 

irnto  item  in  tho  public 
Irish  exchequers,  was 

are  allowed  out  of  the 

ing:— 

£1,833 

8.1188 

9,300 

Itinn 1,800 

MIniitpni 94,894 

»:i.M4 

i,m 


froat  proportion  of  her 

lot  want  enterprise,  or 

tho  Bcalo  of  iniprove- 

isidered  as  prominent; 

to  export  woollens  to 

hops,  and  every 

one  article,  however, 

ed.    This  was  black 

by  the  prohibition  to 

e  regulations,  all  the 

e  Britain  was  making 

ession.    However,  in 

md  of  the  eniborrass- 

ese  restrictions  were 

lion;  and  at  present, 

ct  reciprocity.    The 

nade  a  rapid  progress 

ply  seated,  tliat  they 

ous  system. 

The  farms  were,  for 

,  destitute  of  capital 

le  obsolete  practices 

ngth  in  throwing  up 

3m  also  of  infield  anu 


IiookI. 


IRELAND. 


4* 


outsold  WOK  strictly  adhered  to,  the  ground  being  heavily  cropped  u  long  oa  it  would  yield 
niiy  thing,  and  atlerwards  of  iiaceMity  allowed  two  or  throe  yoora  to  recruit  Although 
tlicBO  domots  still  exist  tn  a  considornblo  extent,  yet  in  all  parts  of  tho  country,  but  particu- 
larly  in  tho  east  and  north,  improved  practice!  and  implomenta  are  beginning  to  be  intro- 
tiiiced. 

The  Irish  tenures  are  long,  some  of  them  perpetual,  in  which  caso  they  may  bo  considered 
u  property,  tho  rent  being  a  moro  trifle ;  a  lease  of  thirty-one  years  and  three  lives  is  very 
common.  These  long  Inases  are  attended  with  scarcolv  any  of  tho  benefits  whicii  might 
bo  naturally  oxtiectedT  As  tho  fkmior  commenoea  usually  without  any  capital,  trusting  for 
tlio  piiymcnt  of  tho  first  year's  rent  to  the  produce  of  hia  farm,  he  almost  always  falls  more 
or  loss  into  arrear,  and  tlius  lies  at  the  mercy  of  hia  landlord.  This  would  bo  less  pernicious, 
wnro  it  tho  landlord  himself  with  whom  ho  hod  to  deal ;  but  tho  landlords  of  Ireland,  hold* 
ini?  usually  prnporties  of  immense  extent,  and  being  mostly  resident  out  of  tho  country, 
connot  or  will  not  undertake  tho  task  of  dealing  with  this  impoverished  multitude  of  small 
timants.  They  devolve  it  unon  tlie  intermediate  agents  and  middlemen.  The  latter,  a  c\iMi 
peculiar  to  Ireland,  take  u  largo  extent  of  ground,  whicii  they  let  out  in  smoll  portions  to 
tlic  roal  cultivator.  They  grant  leases,  indeed ;  but  as  tho  tenant,  from  the  circumstance! 
rIwvo  mentioned,  soon  comes  under  their  power,  they  and  tho  agents  treat  him  with  tho 
prcatoHt  harsimess,  exact  personal  services,  presents,  bribes ;  and  draw  from  tho  land  aa 
imirh  as  they  jKwsihly  can,  without  tho  least  regard  to  its  permanent  welfare.  This  system, 
while  it  crusiics  the  tonant,  is  not  less  injurious  to  tho  landlord,  into  whoso  coffers  there 
ollcn  passes  lesii  than  one-half  of  tho  sum  imid  by  tho  tenant.  The  only  use  to  which  the 
latter  turns  his  long  lease  is  to  divide  and  subdivide  tho  lands  among  his  children,  till  the 
eharo  of  each  aAbnIs  only  the  most  miserable  aliment,  and  an  overgrown  pojiulation  is  fixed 
upon  tho  fiirm.  An  attempt  to  let  land  on  a  different  Iboting  can  only  be  cfTected  by  the 
ejection  of  more  than  half  its  existing  occupants,  who  in  that  cose  are  apt  to  fly  to  violent 
and  ruvengetbl  courses,  so  that  oven  a  partial  endeavour  to  introduce  such  improvement! 
liaH  been  a  main  cause  of  tho  existing  disturbed  state.  Another  injurious  mode  is  that  of  part* 
ncruhip  leases,  in  which  a  numbor  of  |>ersonB  take  a  farm  jointly,  and  make  it  a  sort  of  common 
property.  Each  is  allowed  to  put  upon  it  a  certain  number  oi^  collopt ;  the  collop  consisting 
of  ono  horse,  two  cows,  or  twelve  goats,  A  degrading  stipulation  is  oflen  introduced  into 
leiuiOB,  by  which  the  occupant  is  bound  to  work  for  his  landlord  either  without  wages,  or  at 
11  rate  lower  than  ordinary. 

Tithe  is  one  of  the  ^vils  of  which  the  Irish  cultivator  most  grievously  complains.  Al- 
tliough  it  must  in  all  cases  full  ultimately  on  tho  landlord,  yet  to  take  from  the  cabin  of  the 
peasant  the  pig  which  he  has  reared,  or  tho  handful  of  potatoes  which  ho  has  raised  for  the 
support  of  hiB  &mily,  is  an  act  peculiarly  discouraging  and  irritating.  The  exemption  of 
grass  lands  tends  also  to  discourage  tillage.  Measures  taken  by  parliament  to  promote  tho 
commutation  of  titiies,  have  been  attended  with  considerable  success;  and  by  a  late  act 
arrangements  are  made  by  which  the  church  rates,  instead  of  being  taken  out  of  the  farmer's 
produce,  are  paid  by  the  landlord  out  of  his  rent. 

The  extent  of  country,  and  tho  objects  of  culture  in  Ireland,  vary  considerably  from  those 
of  tho  sister  kingdom.  Its  superficial  extent  is  computed  at  12,()0(),()00  Irish,  or  19,27H  760 
English  acres.  Of  this,  notwithstanding  the  considerable  amount  to  be  deducted  for  moun* 
tain,  lakes,  and  bogs,  Mr.  Young  calculates  that  there  is  a  greater  proportion  of  productive 
land  than  in  England.  The  soil  of  Ireland  is  shallow,  consisting  most  generally  of  a  thin 
sprinkling  of  earth  over  a  rocky  ground ;  but  tho  copious  moisture  wafted  from  the  sea, 
b^  which  it  is  everywhere  surrounded,  produces  a  quick  and  rapid  vegetation,  and  in  par« 
ticular  a  brilliancy  of  verdure,  not  equalled  perhaps  in  any  other  region  of  Europe.  Such 
a  country  is  of  course  highly  favourable  to  pasturage ;  and  as  this  pursuit  is  suited  to  the  irn- 

Cprfect  stages  of  culture,  the  roaring  of  live  stock  has  been  long  the  main  staple  of  Irish 
usbandry.  Its  luxuriant  plains  are  depastured  by  vast  herds  of  olack  cattle;  and  from  this 
Bource  is  derived  the  very  large  quantity  of  salted  provisions  shipped  from  the  southern 
ports.  The  number  of  oxen  and  cows  annually  killed  for  this  purpose  was  reckoned  at 
18,000.  This  trade  has  considerably  decreaseci  since  the  peace ;  but  the  export  of  live 
cattle  is  extensively  carried  on.  Great  facilities  have  been  lotely  afforded  for  it  by  the 
steam  packets.  The  dairy  is  also  a  great  branch  of  industry  in  Ireland.  None  of  its 
cheeses,  indeed,  have  acquired  a  reputation ;  but  butter  of  excellent  quality  is  made  and 
largely  exported.  Another  species  of  live  stock  is  an  essential  article  to  the  economy  of  an 
Irish  cultivator.  The  pig  usually  shares  his  cabin,  and  is  fed,  like  himself,  on  potatoes.  It 
ia  too  great  a  luxury  to  be  killed  for  his  own  consumption ;  but  is  sold  and  driven  to  the  ports 
to  be  salted  for  exportation.  Sheep  are  bred  extensively  on  the  mountain  tract*,  which  are 
unfit  for  rearing  any  other  stock.  In  many  places  they  are  bred  for  the  wool  and  milk.  In 
this  last  respect,  however,  goats  are  more  productive ;  and  they  are  reared  in  immense  qnan 
titles  ui  the  mountain  districts  in  the  north.  The  Irish  horses  are  small,  hardy,  and  capablo 
of  doing  much  work  upon  little  food.  Poultry  are  fed  in  great  numbers  in  and  around  all  tho 
cubina  ihe  interior  of  which  they  are  admitted  to  share ;  a  practice  extremely  favourable  t*' 


i  lit 


444  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Paut  m, 

tlieir  increase.  Great  quantities  of  geeso  are  kept  for  the  sake  of  the  feathers,  which  are 
cruelly  plucked  iVom  the  animals  alive.  The  proauce  of  grain  is  also  large,  notwithsUinditiff 
the  imperfect  processes  employed  in  cultivating  it.  Wheat  and  barley  were  little  raittcd  till 
of  late,  when  botli  the  culture  and  export  of  the  former  have  been  greatly  extended.  Stil, 
the  main  objects  are  oats  and  potatoes ;  the  former  as  the  subject  of  a  largo  export,  the 
latter  as  the  staple  food  of  a  considerable  body  of  the  people.  The  Irish  boast  of  the  potatoo, 
as  if  it  were  nowhere  else  produced  in  equal  perfection.  Compared  with  grain  of  any  kind, 
it  certainly  atlbrds  the  means  of  supporting  a  greater  population  upon  a  given  extent  of 
ground.  The  scope,  however,  which  it  atfonls  for  the  multiplicntion  of  the  people  in  miser- 
able circumstances,  ia  generally  considered  by  the  political  economists  ns  one  of  the  causes 
of  the  present  distress  in  Ireland.  Flax  is  also  a  valuable  product  of  Irish  husbandry,  afford' 
ing  the  material  of  tho  linen  manufacture.  According  to  a  return  made  to  the  trustcos  in 
1809,  tho  extent  sown  was  76,749  acres ;  in  addition  to  which,  the  various  little  scuttered 
patches  raise  the  number  probably  to  about  100,000  acres,  supposed  to  produce  at  an  average 
about  30  stones  per  acre ;  which,  at  10<.  6d,  per  stone,  would  make  the  entire  value  about 
1,500,000/. 

There  is  a  want  of  trees  in  Ireland.  The  immense  forests  which  some  centuries  age 
covered  a  groat  proportion  of  its  surface,  have  fiillen  and  been  converted  in  a  great  measure 
into  moss  or  bog.  The  bogs  of  Ireland  present  an  extensive  obstacle  to  cultivation.  They 
are  estimated  by  the  parliamentary  commissioners  at  2,330,000  English  acres.  From  them, 
indeed,  fuel  is  supplied  to  many  districts,  yet  the  draining  of  a  large  portion  would  bo  cer- 
tainly desirable ;  and  the  commissioners  seem  to  think  that,  from  their  generally  elevated 
position,  this  might  be  done  with  great  facility  and  advantage.  The  great  quantity  of  water 
bcneatli  these  bogs  causes  often  a  singular  phenomenon,  tliat  of  moving  bogs.  Bursting  the 
surface,  tho  bog  inundates  the  surrounding  lands,  spreading  desolation  and  barrenness 
through  its  whole  course,  which  in  one  instance  extended  no  less  than  twenty  miles. 

In  respect  to  manufactures,  the  state  of  Ireland  cannot  be  described  as  flourishing ;  a  mis- 
fortune for  which  she  may  accuse  the  oppressive  policy  of  England.  One  species  of  fabric, 
however,  she  has  been  allowed  and  even  encouraged  to  cultivate,  and  it  has  attained  to  a 
very  considerable  magnitude. 

The  linen  manufUcture  was  first  introduced  by  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  who  brought  flaX' 
seed  from  Holland,  and  workmen  from  France  and  the  Netherlands.  His  attainder,  aid  the 
subsequent  troubles,  suspended  the  undertaking;  but  it  was  revive<l  by  tlie  Dukeof  Ornond, 
who  established  near  Dublin  a  colony  from  Brussels,  Jersey,  and  Rochelle,  nnd  ,'.'ave  lands 
on  advantageous  terms  to  those  willing  to  embark  in  the  business.  Afler  t  ii  l^f'volution, 
tlie  English  parliament  created  a  board  ibr  the  promotion  of  the  linen  manufacture,  and 
granted  bounties  both  on  the  raising  of  Hox  and  the  export  of  linen.  These  exertions  met 
with  great  success ;  and  the  manufacture  has  become  general  throughout  Ireland,  and  par- 
ticularly in  Ulster.  The  following,  according  to  a  late  parliamentary  report,  was  the 
reputed  value  of  brown  or  unbleached  linens  sold  in  the  markets  of  Ireland  in  the  year 
1824:— 

IHster £2,109,809 

Leinster 192,888 

Munster 110,421 

Connaught 168,090 

Total       - i;2,580,7(» 

Tlie  mode  of  conducting  this  mai  Ricture  is,  however,  in  several  respects,  very  rude  and 
imperfect  It  is  generally  practised  by  individuals  holding  little  spots  of  ground,  tlic  culture 
of  which'  they  combine  with  that  of  weaving.  The  same  person,  or  at  least  the  same  family, 
in  many  cases  raises  the  flax,  dresses  it,  spins  it  into  yarn,  ond  weaves  it  into  cloth.  There 
is  too  much  anxiety  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  yarn  out  of  a  given  quantity 
of  flax,  without  regard  to  tiie  quality ;  and  the  sorting  of  the  yam,  so  that  it  may  be  of  an 
uniform  texture,  suited  to  the  kind  of  linen  intended  to  be  woven,  is  almost  wholly  neglected. 
In  some  instances,  however,  it  is  worked  to  a  most  extraordinary  degree  of  fineness.  Anne 
M'Quillin,  in  the  county  of  Down,  conld  spin  105  hanks  to  the  pound,  which  would  reach 
214  English  miles.  Exertions  have  lately  been  made  to  introduce  mill-spinning,  which,  it 
is  supposed,  would  generally  improve  the  quality  of  yarn,  though  it  could  not  produce  it  of 
Buch  extreme  fineness  as  some  of  that  spun  by  the  hand.  Twenty  years  ago  the  mill  could 
not  produce  above  fifteen  cuts  to  a  pound ;  now  it  can  make  nearly  fifty. 

The  export  of  linen  from  Ireland,  in  the  year  1824,  amounted  in  ail  to  49,491,037  yards, 
of  which  46,466,950  were  to  Great  Britain;  and  3,024,087  to  foreign  parts.  The  real  value 
of  the  whole  wng  2,412,858/.  Of  that  sent  to  Great  Britain,  31,314,5153  yards  were  retained 
for  home  consumption ;  the  rest  were  re-exported  to  the  same  quarters  as  Scotch  linen.  This 
great  manufacture  is  chiefly  supported  by  its  own  growth  of  flax.  Ireland,  however,  im- 
ports 25,000  tons  of  hemp  from  abroad,  and  3300  from  Britain ;  also  about  7500  tons  if 
linen  yarn;  of  all  which  materials  tho  value  falls  short  of  45,000/. 


Part  m.  I  Book  T. 


IRELAND. 


445 


'  the  feathers,  which  aro 
BO  large,  notwithslundin 
■ley  were  little  raiBcd  tj 

greotly  extended.  Stil, 
;ct  of  a  large  export,  the 
[rish  boaBt  of  the  potatoo, 
1  with  grain  of  ony  kind, 

upon  a  given  extent  of 
n  of  the  people  in  miser. 
Bts  m  one  of  the  causes 
f  Irish  husbandry,  oiford- 
made  to  the  truBtces  in 
3  various  little  scattcreij 
to  produce  at  an  average 
:o  the  entire  value  about 

lich  some  centuries  age 
erted  in  a  great  measure 
!le  to  cultivation.  They 
iflish  acres.  From  tliem, 
je  portion  would  be  cer- 
their  generally  elevated 
3  great  quantity  of  water 
ving  bogs.  Bursting  the 
solation  and  barrenness 
lan  twenty  miles, 
ed  as  flourishing ;  a  mis- 
.  One  species  of  fabric, 
and  it  has  attained  to  a 

ifTord,  who  brought  flax- 

His  attainder,  8 rid  the 

by  the  Duke  of  Oruond, 

.ochelle,  nnd  f'ave  lands 

After  til  J^t'volution, 

linen  manufacture,  and 

These  exertions  met 

ighout  Ireland,  and  par- 

lentary  report,  was  the 

of  Ireland  in  the  year 

2,109,809 
192,888 
110,421 
168,090 

2,580,7(i 

respects,  very  rude  and 
ts  of  ground,  the  culture 
least  the  same  family, 
es  it  into  cloth.  There 
out  of  a  given  quantity 
so  that  it  may  be  of  an 
Imost  wholly  ncglecteo. 
free  of  fineness.  Anne 
nd,  which  would  reach 
mill-spinning,  which,  it 
could  not  produce  it  of 
ears  ago  the  mill  could 

fty. 

oil  to  49,491,037  yards, 
parts.    The  real  value 

83  yards  were  retained 
as  Scotch  linen.  This 
Ireland,  however,  im- 

so  about  7500  tons  (f 


Distillation  is  another  branch  of  industry  characteristic  of  Ireland,  but  by  no  means 
(ttendod  with  the  saino  happy  effects.  It  has  hitherto  boon  carried  on  chiefly  in  defiance 
of  the  revenue  and  government,  and  has  given  birth  to  a  vast  system  of  contraband,  equally 
destructive  of  morals  and  of  public  order.  All  the  mountains,  bogs,  and  deep  valleys  of  tho 
north  and  west  abound  with  illicit  stills,  in  siiots  where  the  most  diligent  search  con  scarcely 
discover  them ;  and  where  detected,  they  can  scarcely  bo  soizecl  without  the  aid  of  an 
armed  tbrco.  When  the  troops  arc  seen  advancing,  concerted  signals  are  made,  and  the 
small  liglit  stills  are  soon  conveyed  to  a  distant  quarter.  The  farmers  and  proprietors  en« 
courage  illicit  distillation  as  tiio  most  ready  mode  of  affording  a  market  for  their  grain.  The 
quality  of  the  spirit  was  long  much  superior  to  that  produced  by  the  legal  distillers,  owing 
to  restrictions  imposed  on  tho  latter ;  so  that,  in  selling,  it  was  considered  tho  highest  ro- 
commendation  that  it  "  never  paid  duty."  The  most  rigorous  laws  were  enacted  in  vain,  for 
they  only  rendered  the  people  concerned  in  this  practice  more  desperate  and  determined. 
Of  late,  however,  tho  duty,  as  in  Scotland,  has  been  reduced  and  free  exportation  permitted. 

The  effect  has  been  remarkable ;  the  quantity  of  spirits  paying  duty,  which  from  1818  to 
1822  varied  from  3,000,000  to  4,000,000,  rose  in  1824  to  7,800,000,  and  in  1832  to  8,657,000 ; 
Uius  warranting  a  presumption,  that  tho  contraband  fabrication  of  this  article  has  been 
greatly  diminished. 

The  killing  and  salting  of  beef  and  pork  for  sale  forms  a  great  branch  of  Irish  commerce. 
The  beef  is  jwicked  in  three  different  forms,  called  planter's  beef,  India  beef,  and  common 
beef;  the  first  two,  having  the  coarse  pieces  taken  out,  and  charged  4s.  additional 
per  cvvt  While  tho  exirart  of  salt  beef  has  diminished,  that  of  pork  has  of  late  been  much 
extended. 

Tho  cotton  manufacture,  since  1822,  has  spread  through  Ireland  in  a  very  surprising 
manner,  particularly  in  tho  counties  of  Antrim,  Down,  Louth,  and  part  of  Dublim  The 
courser  linen  fabrics  are  disappearing  before  it,  and  proceeding  to  the  westward  and  south- 
word,  retaining  still  an  equal  hold  of  the  kingdom  in  general.  More  recently  this  fabric 
has  rather  declined,  and  linen  has  regained  the  ascendency. 

The  other  manufactures  are  not  of  primary  importance.  A  great  quantity  of'  wool  is,  in- 
deed, worked  un  by  the  peasantry  into  frieze,  linsoys,  and  flannels,  for  their  dor^estic  use ; 
but  the  only  fabrics  on  a  great  scale,  which  aro  those  of  broadcloth  at  Carrie k-on-Shannon, 
and  of  flannels  at  Kilkenny,  are  on  the  decline.  Breweries  have  been  established  in  tho 
prmcipal  towns,  and  are  rather  in  a  flourishing  state. 

In  tho  distribution  of  minerals,  Ireland  has  by  no  means  been  neglected ;  but  some  unpro- 
pitious  circumstances  have  prevented  any  of  them  from  being  turned  to  great  account.  Of 
these  impediments  the  most  material  is  the  want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  good  coal.  The 
fuel  of  Ireland  is  in  general  either  coal  imported  from  England  and  Scotland,  or  the  turf 
dug  out  of  its  immense  bogs ;  but  the  latter  has  not  yet  been  found  applicable  to  the  fusion 
of  metals.  From  these  causes  the  veins  of  iron  ore,  which  are  very  extensively  diffused 
through  the  island,  have  not  yet  been  turned  to  any  important  use.  The  copper,  also  of 
fine  quality,  which  is  found  in  the  counties  of  Wicklow  and  Cork,  must  be  sent  over  to 
Swansea  to  be  smelted.  The  lead,  however  of  Wicklow  is  worked  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent vith  imported  coal. 

Fishery  is  a  branch  of  industry  for  which  the  extended  shores  and  deep  bays  of  Irelano 
would  bo  peculiarly  adapted.  Nor  do  the  inland  waters,  the  rivers  and  lakes,  less  abound  in 
the  species  of  fish  appropriate  to  them.  The  diligence  of  the  Irish  in  taking  fish  for  im- 
mediate consumption  is  considerable,  being  urged  on  by  the  frequent  abstinence  from  othei 
food  which  their  Catholic  profession  enjoins.  Their  trout  and  salmon  are  distinguished 
both  foi-  size  and  taste :  the  salmon  are  caught  by  weirs,  stake-nets,  and  other  contrivances, 
but  with  so  little  precaution  that  their  number  has  been  sensibly  diminished.  The  curing 
of  fish  has  made  very  little  progress,  when  compared  with  the  f  opportunities  which  the 
coasts  of  Ireland  afford ;  and  Ireland  cannot  come  into  compotiticri  with  Scotland. 

Commerce. — The  manufactured  products  of  Ireland  are  quitt  inconsiderable;  she  has,  how- 
ever, great  facilities  for  tho  production  of  raw  materials;  and  it  is  in  all  respects  more  suit- 
able for  her,  as  well  as  for  England,  that  she  should  direct  her  efforts  to  this  department, 
and  import  manufactured  articles  from  Britain,  than  that  she  should  attempt  to  enter  into  an 
unequal  competition  with  the  latter  in  manufacturing  industry.  In  1825  the  rcstramta  on 
the  intercourse  between  Ireland  and  Great  Britain  were  mostly  abolished ;  and  owing  to  thia 
circumstance,  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  regular  intercourse  by  steam  packets  between 
Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Bristol,  and  the  principal  towns  on  the  east  and  south  coasts  of  Ireland, 
the  trade  between  the  two  countries  has  been  vastly  increased.  Owing  to  the  circumstance 
ot  this  intercourse  being  now  placed  on  the  footing  of  a  coasting  trade,  no  account  has  been 
kept  later  than  1825,  oi  the  reciprocal  imports  and  exports  of  each,  except  in  the  case  of 
co^n. 

In  1829,  the  imports  from  foreign  parts  were  valued  at  l,669,406i. ;  in  1831,  they  were 
l,552,228i.;  in  1882,  they  were  1,348,828/.  The  exports  in  1831  were  608,938/. :  in  1832 
'■hey  were  452,775/.     Within  the  last  few  years  there  haa  been  a  most  extraordinary  in- 

Vou  I.  38 


446 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI 


i! 


fihf 


creoBO  in  the  quantity  of  grp.in  and  live  atocli  imported  from  Iroland  into  Groat  Britain.  Tlii« 
former,  on  an  average  of  1830  and  1831,  amounted  to  543,618  quarters  of  wlieat,  niui 
1,563,503  quarters  of  oats  and  oatmeal.  In  18;}2,  there  were  imported  into  Liverpool  alono, 
838,6'10  quarters  of  wiioat,  value  048,2171. ;  325,720  quarters  of  oata,  3()0,4:M/. ;  14,4i3G 
quarters  of  barley,  24,626/. ;  60,624  cows,  765,864/. ;  140,090  pips,  484,542/. ;  74,200  ilitcp, 
129,055/. ;  24,077  lambs,  24,077/. ;  109,817  loads  of  meal,  203,780/. ;  177,252  sackH  of  flour, 
407,670/. ;  10,771  bales  of  bacon,  64,626/. ;  292,830  firkins,  15,801  half  firkins,  and  10,a48 
coolies  of  butter,  819,141/.  These,  witli  some  minor  articles,  made  up  a  value  of  4,444,6001 
The  imports  into  London,  Bristol,  and  other  ports,  may  be  presumed  to  bo  as  much  mote, 
tnd  perhaps  the  whole  may  not  fell  short  of  10,0(K),000/.  sterling. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  relative  foreign  commerce  of  the  principal  ptirts  of  Ire. 
land  in  the  year  l'S24.  We  add  tlio  ships  and  tonnage  belonging  to  and  the  amount  of  cus- 
toms on  each,  which  a  recent  report  enables  us  to  bring  down  to  1829 : — 


Eiitoruil  at 


Boiniat  

Cork 

DroKliudA.'x 

Diihllii 

Galway 

I.imcrick  ■..  ■ 
Iionitniiderry. 

Nuwry 

SUko 

Wulerford ... 
Wexthrd 


Toiinogo  Entered. 


Dritlah.  I  Foruisn. 


Tuna. 


Tuna. 


in,]23 
15,03.1 

8!I0 

S4,;<oa 

54U 

S.2";) 
3,'.>9:» 

U,7(l.1 
1,US5 
7,1100 
1,401) 


11,003 

13,1)76 

430 

10,407 

3,020 

3,4H0 

.■5,470 

7,tll8 

2,4(13 

3,137 


Belonging. 


Ships.    Tonnntro. 


247 

SAi 
30 

8Hi» 
1!) 
31) 
39 

101 
SO 
7B 

i:u 


S5,000 
17,0UU 

a,30o 

»i,000 

KOO 

1,WM) 

4,:«H) 

8,000 
l,i200 
7,000 
0,700 


Paid. 


Cuatnma. 


«il),OUO 

in«,fl(M) 

13.000 
000,000 
4,800 
PS,7U0 
74,000 
&1,000 

i.nno 

110,000 
4,H00 


The  shipping  of  Irclan,'.  is  small,  compared  with  that  of  the  sister  island.  On  the  31st 
December,  1830,  she  had  1424  vessels;  the  tonnage  of  which  was  101,820,  navigated  by 
7794  men  and  boys.  In  18J32  there  were  built  twenty-five  ship;.,  of  1909  tone.  There  were 
entered  inwards,  in  1831,  14,409  ships,  of  1,420,382  tons ;  outwards,  0801  ships,  1,073,545 
tons.  Of  this  were  employed  in  trade  witli  Groat  Britain,  13,584  ships,  and  1,262,221  tons, 
inwards;  9029  ships,  921, i2R  tons,  outwards;  in  foreign  trade,  915  ships,  158,161  tons, 
inwards;  772  ships,  152,417  tons  outwards. 

Canals  have  been  undertaken  in  Ireland  on  an  extensive  scale,  but  with  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  expected  benefit.  This  seems  partly  owing  to  the  excessive  mag.iitude  of  llie 
plans,  and  partly  to  the  prevalence  of  jobbing.  The  two  chief  undertakings  are  the  Grand 
and  the  Royal  canals,  both  proceeding  from  Dublin  into  the  interior.  The  former,  com- 
menced in  1756,  has,  by  large  advances  from  government,  been  completed,  at  an  expense  of 
upwards  of  2,000,000/.  It  is  carried  across  Kildare  and  King's  County  to  the  Shannon,  nc  ir 
Clonfert.  This  distance  is  eighty-seven  miles,  which,  with  a  branch  to  the  Barrow  at  Atliy, 
one  westward  to  Ballinasloe,  and  several  others,  makes  an  entire  length  of  156  miles.  Tlie 
Royal  Canal,  of  nearly  tlie  same  dimensions,  reaches  from  Dublin  through  Meath  and  Lonjj- 
ford,  nearly  eighty-three  miles,  to  Tarmonbarry,  on  the  Shannon.  The  expense  was 
1,420,01)0/.,  while  the  tolls,  in  1831,  amounted  only  to  12,700/. 

The  roads  of  Ireland  have  li^ii''  been  excellent.  Any  person  may  present  a  memorial  to 
the  grand  jury  of  the  county,  showing  the  necessity  of  a  new  road,  and  if  this  presentment 
be  approved,  the  work  immediately  proceeds.  Government  has  ertablished  mail-coaclics  to 
all  the  principal  towns,  and,  eiuce  the  rebellion,  has  made  fine  military  roads  into  the  interior 
of  Wicklow ;  but  stoge-coachea  and  other  means  of  conveyance  are  indifferent 

Skct.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  Ireland,  from  its  great  amount  and  rapid  increase  is  co.nsidered  as  one 
of  the  chief  causes  of  the  severe  poverty  which  presses  upon  the  body  of  the  people.  Till 
the  census  of  1821,  the  data  upon  which  it  was  calculated  were  conjectural.  Between  1712 
and  1726,  upon  a  calculation  from  the  number  of  houses,  at  six  to  a  house,  it  was  represented 
OS  varying  from  2,000,000  to  2,300,000.  Calculations  founded  on  the  produce  of  tiie  lienrtli 
duty  gave  in  1754, 2,372,000 ;  and  in  1788, 4,040,040.  In  1812,  it  was  estimated  at  5,937,000. 
In  1821,  a  census  gave  6,801,000.  That  of  1831  amounted  to  7,767,401,  of  whom  3,794,660 
are  male,  and  3,972,521  female. 

The  Irish  character  presents  very  marked  features,  many  of  which  are  amiable,  and  even 
admirable.  Hospitality  is  an  universal  trait,  and  is  enhanced  by  the  scantiness  of  the  portion 
which  is  liberally  shared  with  the  stranger.  The  Irish  are  bnn'e,  lively;  merry,  and  witty; 
and  even  the  lowest  ranks  have  a  courteous  and  polite  address.  They  are  celebrated  Jbr 
warmth  of  heart,  and  for  strung  attachments  of  kindred  and  fi'iendship,  which  leads  them,  cut 
of  their  scanty  means,  to  support  their  aged  relations  with  tlie  purest  kindness.  Benevo- 
ence  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the  higher  ranks.    They  are  curious,  intelligent,  aiir 


-,-  ■.-iryi^T^157w;>Wf?'iPfK;'^i,^«,y(P^"*«f'T 


Part  in 

nto  Groat  Britain.  Tli.» 
quarters  of  wlieat,  nnd 
wl  into  Liverpool  aloiio, 
oata,  3()9,4:h;.  ;  14,460 
34,542/. ;  74,200  :ihfcp, 
177,252  BuckH  of  flour, 
half  firkinH,  and  10,:)48 
p  a  value  of  4,444,5001. 
}d  to  bo  aa  much  muio, 

0  principal  ports  of  Irc' 
and  the  amount  of  cus- 
9:— 


mging. 

....  ,    — 1 

Paid. 

Tnniingo. 

Ciislnina. 

83,000 

UR.OUO 

17,000 

iiM),n(H) 

3,;Hm 

13,000 

S'l.OOO 

000,000 

KflO 

4,H00 

l.HOO 

HS,7«0 

4,:ioo 

74,000 

8,000 

&V0OO 

1,SJOO 

l.fiflO 

7,000 

110,000 

6,TO0 

4,H00 

3r  island.  On  the  Slst 
B  101,820,  navigated  by 
'  1909  tone.  There  were 
Is,  9801  ships,  1,079,545 
hips,  and  1,262,221  tons, 
)15  ships,  l.'i8,161  tons, 

t  with  only  a  small  por- 

fssivo  ma^.utudo  of  tlie 

^takings  ore  the  (irnml 

or.     The  former,  com- 

eted,  at  an  expense  of 

nty  to  the  Shannon,  no  ir 

to  the  Barrow  at  Atliy, 

gth  of  156  miles.    The 

rough  Meath  and  Lous- 

The  expense  was 

present  a  memorial  to 
and  if  this  presentment 
iblished  mail-coaches  to 
ry  roads  into  the  interior 
indifferent 


se  is  co.Tsidered  as  one 
dy  of  tht'  people.  Till 
3ctural.  Between  1712 
ouse,  it  was  represented 
9  produce  of  the  hearth 
I  estimated  at  5,937,000. 
101,  ofwhom3,794,W50 

are  amiable,  and  even 
icantiness  of  the  portion 
fllv.  merrv,  and  witty ; 
hey  are  celebrated  for 
I,  which  leads  them,  out 
jst  kindness.    Bcnevo" 

rious,  intelligent,  aiir 


Book  I.  IRELAND.  447 

oogor  for  information.  With  so  many  good  qualities,  it  were  too  much  to  expect  that  there 
aiiould  not  bo  some  faults.  They  are  dodcient  in  cleanliness ;  have  little  toate  for  conve' 
nionccs  or  luxuries ;  and  are  destitute  of  that  sober  and  steady  spirit  of  enterprise  which 
distinguishes  tho  English.  The  love  of  fighting  seems  to  be  a  general  infirmity.  The  fairs, 
which,  in  every  town  and  village  of  Ireland,  are  regular  and  of  long  duration,  afford  tha 
graiid  tlieatres,  first  of  unbounded  mirth,  and  ultimately  of  bloody  conflict  The  Irish  do  not 
nght  singlo-handed,  but  ia  bands,  and  on  a  great  scale.  On  receiving  a  supposed  injury 
they  go  round  to  their  companions,  friends,  and  townsmen,  and  collect  a  multitude,  with 
which  they  make  a  joint  attack  on  the  objects  of  their  wrath.  The  other  blemishes  of  th« 
Irish  aro  rather  frailtieB  than  sins.  They  are  represented  as  vain,  talkative,  prompt  to  speak 
u  well  as  act  without  deliberation:  this'  disposition,  with  their  thoughtless  gaiety,  betraya 
them  into  that  peculiar  bluudor  called  a  bull,  ivhich  their  neighbours  have  so  loug  held  forth 
u  a  national  characteriplic, 

Tho  ecclesiastical  state  of  Ireland  has  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  its  unsettled  con* 
dition.  Tho  native  Irish  did  not  share  in  any  degree  tlie  reformation  so  unai^^mousiy  adopted 
in  England  and  Scotland.  When,  therefore,  the  English  church  was  introduced  as  the 
established  religion,  it  threw  cut,  us  dissenters,  the  bulk  of  the  Irish  population.  Even  of 
tho  protestant  part  &  large  proportion  introduced  as  colonists  from  Scotland,  were  attached 
to  tho  presbytcrian  form. 
[From  a  parliamentary  paper,  it  appears  that  in  1835,  tlie.-e  were, — 

fet  Clint. 

Roman  Catholics 6,427,712    -    -    SOi 

Members  of  Established  Church,       a'52,0G4    •    -    lOj 

Presbyterians, 642,356    -    -      8 

Other  Protestants,     -    -    - 21,808    -    -        i 

7,943,940. 

Although  thoro  is  here  some  slight  inaccuracy,  yet  this  statement  serves  to  show  very 
nearly  the  proportion  of  the  different  sects.  Tho  places  of  worship  are  stated  in  the  some 
paper  to  be, — 

Roman  Catholics, -  -  2105 

Established  Church, -  1644 

Presbyterians,    .....-..---.-...-  452 

Others,      - -  -  403 

In  41  benefices  there  waa  no  member  of  the  Established  Church. — Am.  Ed,] 
The  Roman  Catholic  clergy  receive  no  etipend  from  government  but  are  entirely  sup 
ported  by  their  flocks.  They  are  formed,  however,  into  a  regular  hierarchy,  at  the  head  of 
wliich  arc  four  archbishops;  Armagh  (the  primate),  Tuam,  Cashel,  and  Dublin.  Under 
them  are  twenty-two  bishops,  with  a  vicar-general,  dean,  and  archdeacon  in  each  diocese. 
The  number  of  Catiiolic  priests  has  been  stated  at  1400,  besides  several  hundred  friars. 
Their  income  arises  less  from  any  fixed  allowance,  than  from  dues,  offerings,  and  presents; 
and  tho  bishops,  to  make  up  their  incomes,  receive  from  the  parish  priests  a  portion  of  what 
tliey  have  collected.  Mr.  Wakefield  has  attempted  an  estimate,  according  to  which, 
Christmas  and  Easter  offerings  amount  to  337,000i. ;  marriages  produce,  in  licenses,  fees, 
nnd  collections,  78,500i. ;  christenings,  12,500/. ;  buriiis,  12,500/. ;  in  all,  440,500/.  Ac- 
cording to  Arciibishop  Curteis,  the  income  of  a  bishop  is  about  500/.  a  year;  that  of  a  priest 
varies  from  100/.  to  400/.  Although  a  conge  is  asked  from  the  pope,  the  real  election  to 
vacant  places  rests  with  the  clergy  themselves ;  but  as  tlieir  incomes  depend  entirely  on  tlie 
favour  of  their  hearers,  they  are  subject  to  a  necessity  of  choosing  '  or/alar  priests,  which  ia 
not  felt  by  the  established  Catholic  churches.  Hence  the  influence  jt'the  priests,  always  so 
romarkablo  under  tho  Catholic  system,  exists  in  Ireland  to  an  extent  perhaps  unequa '  '.1. 
On  the  other  hand,  many,  especially  among  the  bishops,  aro  remarked  for  their  exempiitry 
life,  and  for  the  diligent  discharge  of  their  functions.  They  are  even  sometimes  instru- 
mental in  preventing  riot,  in  discovering  thefl,  and  procuring  restitution.  The  recent 
admission  of  Roman  Catholics  to  all  political  privileges,  though  it  does  not  make  any  change 
in  the  condition  of  the  clergy,  has  been  hailed  by  the  body  in  general  with  peculiar  satisfac- 
tion. It  is  hoped  that  it  will  either  make  them  more  friendly  to  the  established  government, 
or  diminish  their  influence  in  estranging  from  it  the  minds  of  the  people. 

The  Presbyterians,  as  already  observed,  are  nearly  confined  to  Ulster,  where  they  are  the 
most  numerous  sect  The  synod  of  Ulster  is  formed  into  a  sort  of  establidiment  consisting 
of  201  congregations,  besides  which  tJiere  are  110  congregations  in  comnwnion  vrAit  the 
Scottish  seceders.  The  ministers  receive  a  royal  gift  of  14,000/.  annually,  which  affords 
from  50/.  to  100/.  to  each.  The  Presbyterians  form  the  most  industrious,  thriving,  and 
intelligent  portion  of  the  people;  yet  a  great  proportion  have  imbibed  republican  ideas,  mi 
tiiey  pmigrate  to  America  more  readily  than  any  other  class. 


448 


DESCRIPTIVE  Gl'DGRAPHY. 


Paet  hi. 


The  Established  ru,'rrh  of  Ireland  in  in  union  v/ith  that  of  England,  and  every  way  simi- 
lar. It  consists  of  K  'if  '^'■v  ;.i  it  hoprics  and  eighteen  bishoprics ;  but  by  an  net  recently  passed, 
two  arclibishopricH  a^^e  hf  ■  onvcrted  into  bishoprics ;  and  ten  bishoprics  are  to  be  abolished.* 
The  entire  revenue  ok  '-u-  Irish  church  has  been  ascertained  to  exceed  150,000i.  for  th; 
bishoprics,  and  715,200/.  for  other  benefices.  The  lands  belonging  to  the  bishops  are  «>!'  L( 
greater  value;  but  in  consequence  of  being  let  en  rid  leases  renewed  from  time  to  t'uKj  on 
payment  of  tines,  and  never  coming  to  a  terminLi.'on,the  rent  derived  from  them  wat.  (^uictlw 
under  the  real  value.  It  iii  proposed  now  to  offe,-  these  leases  to  the  present  incunili/il,  jiri 
perpetuity,  on  payment  of  six  years'  purcl\ase  of  the  ir  estimated  value,  which,  it  is  calciiintcd, 
will  produce  about  3,000,000/.  A  tax,  iixieover,  varying,  according  ♦o  the  am  )Uiit  of  i'"  )ra» , 
from  five  to  fifteen  per  cent.,  is  to  be  laid  on  all  livings  above  9O01, ;  and  i'.!  producv  to  be 
appliod  to  the  augmentation  of  the  poorer  livings,  iii.d  the  building  o''  glebe  louses  and  if 
new  churchet^  Hence  ihn  parochial  tax,  called  th.>  vestry  cesp,  or  church  rait.-,  amouQli'.jj 
to  about  90,000/.  a  year,  is  no  longer  to  be  levied. 

The  lite -ature  of  Ireland  in  moiiem  times,  cannot  loiht  any  vsry  .iistinpuished  pre-emi- 
nence; yet  v'i3  };as  maintained  her  station  in  the  lit',  lary  world.  In  wit  and  e1o«juonce, 
indeed,  alw  Imn  excelled  both  the  sister  kingdom?.  In  the  former  quality,  Swi'"*  and  Sl.iridan 
uhine  unrivi'led;  'md  in  the  latter,  Ourke,  Grattan,  and  Cinan  have  (lM()lay*;d  daiiiit,'  uid 
brilliant  tligiit.'.  In  her  graver  pursuits,  Irtjland  has  noi;  been  so  happy;  i.hou.ti  fisher 
attained  ;ho  f.r.;  ;  riinence  'n  t'leological  It  arning,  and  Berkeley  was  the  auUiorc!  a  highly 
ingenious  «j;fosn  o''nhilr,aoipi>v. 

The  Iribii  establiahnoiils  fUr  education  ar..^  ;!carcely  adequate  to  the  magnitude  of  thii  coun- 
try. TJiero  is  only  op  o  uni^  "■::ity,  ttut  of  LJublin  iovinded  by  Elizabeth  on  the  model  of 
those  of  England,  but  not  on  so  grpi.t  u  nlo.  Of  it  and  of  other  Irish  literary  institutions, 
an  account  will  of)  found  under  t'le  hoal  of  J>jblJn.  As  the  constitution  of  this  university 
is  strictly  Protostf>i>t,  iin/!  lioes  not  ai'  » '  tlifi  tencliing  of  Catholic  theology,  the  Etmlents  of 
that  faith  must  liave  been  ail  educr.vc  i  r.lwoad,  hid  not  government  endowed  for  tlieir  use 
tlie  Collogc  of  Mayntxu.'.  It  is  supf.orted  by  a  revenue  of  about  9000/.  a  year,  and  contains 
a  president,  \ : -e-prtsident,  and  eiovon  professors,  all  vith  moderate  appointmcnv*;.  The 
Btudents  receive  board  and  education ;  and  the  whole  ai^mial  expense  of  each  is  not  supposed 
to  exceed  20/.  The  students  of  the  north  resort  chiefly  to  Gilasgow  for  theology,  and  to 
Edinburgh  for  ..ledicinf ;  though  there  has  been  an  attempt  to  obviate  this  necessity  by  the 
formation  of  an  instituiioi?  at  Belfast. 

The  education  of  the  pi,H}j  in  Ireland  is  a  subject  which  excites  the  deepest  interest  in  all 
thv  I'lfiids  of  that  country.  It  appears  that  by  the  8tli  of  Henry  VIII.,  every  clergyman,  on 
his  inc'iiotinn,  becomes  bound  to  keep  or  cause  to  be  kept  an  English  school,  This  act, 
howev')-,  Is  (MMier  obsolete,  or  so  far  evaded  that  only  i.  j,000  children  are  now  taught  in 
these  parcx';!'»;il  schools.  The  greatest  etfort  at  Irish  education,  however,  is  that  made  by 
the  Chortc)  i-tliools,  instituted  in  1733,  which,  by  parliamentary  grants  and  private  bene- 
fections,  hav;  i?njoyed  an  income  of  30,000/.  a  year.  But  this  sum,  which  might  almost 
furnish  sciioola  t:.  the  half  of  Ireland,  is  spent  upon  20C0  boys,  who  receive  board  as  well  as 
instruction.  Although  the  act  recites  no  other  object  than  instruction  in  the  English 
tongue,  proselytism  has  become  almost  tne  sole  aim.  The  Hibernian  Society,  the  Baptist 
Society  and  thaf.  for  discountenancing  vice,  support  schools  to  a  very  considerable  extent 
'I  he  KiK'are  Street  Society,  e;  lablished  in  1812,  founded  numerous  schools,  in  which  they 
endenvoared  to  induce  the  Catholics  to  attend  by  renouncing  all  attempts  to  gain  prose- 
lytes ;  but  from  the  entire  Scriptures  being  read  in  these  schools,  and  other  alleged  causes, 
iKe  Catholics  were  supposed  to  view  them  with  jealous.  The  allowance  made  to  this 
society  was  therefore  withdrawn,  and  a  new  plan  instituted,  in  which  the  moral  and  literary 
is  8e]Mirated  from  the  religious  education,  and  is  communicated  to  the  youth  of  both  religions 
during  four  or  five  days  m  the  week,  while,  in  the  remaining  period,  religious  instruction 
is  expected  to  be  administered  by  the  clergy  of  the  respective  churches.  Extracts  only 
from  the  boripture,  approved  by  the  leading  Catholic  clergy,  are  read  in  the  common 


•  The  new  arrangement,  when  completed,  will  be  ai  followi : 
AiiMAon  (with  CIngher,  Archb.). 


Inco" 

i £1X1 

Mcath, S,'    ; 

Derry  (with  Rapbnc) 8.i':".i 

Down  (with  Connor  snd  Drnmore) A 

Kilmore  (with  Ardogh  and  Elphini. .   7. 

Tuam  (with  Killala  and  Achonry) *    :C' 

OuBLiN  (with  Qlandclagh  and  Kildare) ..• .      .  '.  .;vi 

Ossory  (with  lieighlin  and  Ferns) 04!)0 

Cathel  (with  Emiy,  Woterfbrd,  and  Liamore) ''4 

Cloyne  (with  Cork  and  Ron) , &  . 

Killalorwith  Kilfenora,  Glonfert,  and  Kilmaoduagb) i.i-^i 

limerick  (with  Ardfer   :\nd  Aghadoe). , ,  „ d,;ibii 


t%t. 


Tstal. 


[Aa 


Pabt  hi. 

,nd  every  way  simi- 
nct  recently  passed, 
are  to  be  abol  ished,* 
«d  150,000i.  for  ths 
he  bishops  are  it' La 
om  time  to  f'liio  in 
)m  them  was.  riuwtly 
■esont  incumLinl,  ;ti 
hich,  it  iscalcii'iitcd, 
leani  )Uiitof  i'' 'nnf., 
nd  i  rt  producv  to  be 
lebe  i'OUBos  am!  if 
irch  rate,  amount  i;g 

^inpuished  pre-eml- 
wit  and  elo(iucnco, 

, Swit!  aniJ  Sl.'.ridan 
Mj)layt!d  darinL'  'Jid 
ippy;  ihou.-ii  Usher 
le  author  cC  a  highly 

Eignitudr  of  tho  coun- 
€th  on  the  mudcl  of 
literary  institutions, 
on  of  this  university 
logy,  the  Eiutlents  of 
idowed  for  their  use 
a  year, and  (ontains 
appointmcnVt;.  The 
each  is  not  supposed 
for  theology,  dnd  to 
this  necessity  by  the 

eepest  interest  in  all 
every  clergyman,  on 
ih  echool,     This  act, 

are  now  taught  in 
is  that  made  by 
and  private  bene- 
which  might  almost 
ive  board  as  well  as 
;ion  in  the  English 
Society,  the  Baptist 
considerable  extent 
hools,  in  which  they 
mpts  to  gain  prose- 
ther  alleged  causes, 
(vance  made  to  this 
moral  and  literary 
uth  of  both  religions 

eligious  instruction 
les.    Extracts  only 

ad  in  the  common 


Inco"' 

.  .    O,-    J. 

,..  P.r-.i 
, .  S    ■ 

e  'iso 

...  ■.  ni 

■I  i'ili 

...  o,;ii)ii 


Boos  I. 


IRELAND. 


149 


rer 


Bchools.  Ijx&I  funds,  to  a  certain  extent,  are  required  to  be  contributed.  Although  this 
system  haa  met  with  many  opponents,  yet,  in  the  beginning;  of  1833  there  had  been  estab- 
lished under  it  betwoe.n  500  and  600  schools,  calcul&r.ed  for  the  education  of  about  90,000 
scholars.  In  1824,  the  number  of  schools  in  Ireland  was  11,828,  and  scholars  660ji49i, 
or  these  scholars  304,742  paid  for  their  own  instruction,  and  among  this  number  were 
,'>07,0OC  "■itholics,  who  thus  showed  no  small  ardour  in  obtaining  the  benefits  of  knowledge. 
The  xl.'owmg  table,  from  parliamentary  documents,  shows  the  number  of  pupils  receivmg 
oiiblic  instu'xtion  in  the  years  specified. 


tm:. 


Malei.  Female*.  Total. 

905,606 130,907 3M  613 

349,913 300,937. £68,004* 

84,643 00,870 143,331 


The  fine  arts  do  not  appear  to  have  attained  any  great  excellence  in  Ireland.  Her  best 
painters  have  sought  for  patrona^^e  in  the  British  metropolis ;  and  the  attempts  to  establish 
on  annual  ex' ibition  in  Dublin  have  not  succeeded.  The  Irish  harp  and  native  Irish  melo- 
dies pnioy  C'  isiderable  reputation.  The  ecclesiastical  structures  have  not  tiiat  splendour 
liji  r  jnne&:  which  so  strongly  mark  many  of  those  in  England;  but  the  modem  edifices, 
espo-ially  i..  Dublin,  display  a  tastn  as  well  as  magnificence  which  render  that  capital 
alno't  preeminent 

In  fufiereis,  marriages,  and  similar  solemnities,  the  Irish  retain  several  old  national  cus- 
toms. The  practice  of  hired  howling  women  at  funerals,  called  ululates,  is  very  prevalent; 
a  considerable  sum  is  paid  to  those  employed,  though,  in  cases  of  necessity,  they  howl  gratis. 
A  still  more  unfortunate  custom  is  that  of  the  wakes,  where  thirty  or  forty  neighbours 
assemble,  are  entertained  with  meat  and  drink,  and  indulge  in  every  sort  oifun.  Marriages 
in  many  parts  of  the  country  are  marked  by  some  real,  or  at  least  apparent,  violence ;  the 
bridegroom  collects  a  large  party  of  friends,  seizes  and  carries  off  the  seemingly  reluctant  bride. 
Alluding  to  this  custom,  her  going  to  her  husband's  house,  even  in  ordinary  cases,  is  called 
the  "  hauling  home."  This  is  not  prompted  by  any  peculiar  shyness  on  the  part  of  the  fair 
sex ;  on  the  contrary,  the  mothers,  with  whom  the  ttoiir  chiefly  rests,  display  even  a  fever- 
ish anxiety  that  their  oflspring  should  not  remain  long  in  a  state  of  single  blessedness.  Thr 
&ir  sex  are  treated  among  the  higher  ranks  with  a  gay  and  romantic  gallantry ;  among  the 
lower  almost  as  slaves,  being  subjected  to  the  most  degrading  labour. 

Amusement  forms  a  copious  element  in  the  existence  of  an  Irishman.  Ample  scope  is 
afforded  to  the  Catholics  by  their  numerous  holidays,  and  the  Protestants  vie  with  them  in 
this  particular.  The  fairs  afibrd  a  grand  theatre  for  fun  of  every  description.  The  chief 
bodily  exercise  is  hurling,  which  consists  in  driving  a  ball  to  opposite  goals ;  to  this  are 
added  horse-racing,  cock-fighting,  cudgelling,  leaping,  and  dancing;  to  say  nothing  of  drink- 
ing and  fighting.  The  conversation  of  the  Irish  is  distinguished  by  loud  mirth,  seasoned 
with  a  go<^  deEU  of  humour,  by  singing,  and  telling  long  stories.  Thus  employed,  even  the 
poor  will  oflen  sit  up  to  a  late  hour. 

The  houses  of  the  Irish,  if  we  except  those  of  the  rich,  or  in  towns,  which  are  formed 
after  the  English  model,  are  mere  hovels  formed  of  earth,  taken  out  of  the  ground  on  which 
they  stand ;  whence  the  floor  is  reduced  at  least  a  foot  below  the  outer  level,  and  becomes  a 
receptacle  for  all  the  superfluous  moisture.  Tnis  is  the  more  incommodious  as  it  has  no 
boards,  and  the  bed  no  frame ;  nor  is  the  latter  raised  from  the  ground,  being  merely  straw 
spread  upon  the  floor.  This  humble  mansion  is  shareu  by  all  the  living  creatures,  which  the 
ramily  arr  able  to  muster ;  cows,  pigs,  geese,  and  fowls  \  which  are  rarely  separated  by  any 
partition  li-oin  the  other  tenants. 

No  compulsory  provision  exists  in  Ireland  for  the  support  of  the  poor ;  a  circumstance  to 
which  we  are  inclined  to  ascribe  much  of  their  distressed  state,  as  well  as  of  the  backward 
state  of  the  country  in  genertJ.  Not  being  obliged  to  contribute  any  thing  to  their  support, 
the  landlords  and  occupiers  have,  generally  speaking,  manifested  great  indifference  to  the 
condition  of  the  peasantry.  Fe^v  p..  ));fr  i^ia  have  aenitated  to  allow  their  estates  to  be 
subdivided  into  minute  portions  to  ».'>  ;nce  ihoir  ^Kjlitical  interests,  or  to  obtain  an  increase 
of  rent  But  it  is  abundantly  <,  .r  in  that  they  wouu.  -"nve  paused  before  venturing  on  such 
a  course  of  proceeding,  had  ■'  j  been  made  responsible,  in  all  time  to  come,  for  the  paupers 
tliey  were  thus  introducing  ^i  jon  their  properties. 

T!.e  dress  of  the  Irish  peasantry  consists  chiefly  of  the  native  v  ol,  worked  rudely  up 
into  firieze  or  linsey ;  for  they  seldom  can  afford  to  wear  the  fine  linen  which  thf  y  fabricate. 
But  the  most  prominent  feature  of  this  attiie  among  the  lowest  class,  is  its  lamentable  de- 
ficiency; in  man;  instances  it  covers  little  more  3ian  half  of  the  perscm,  and  i-resentE  an 
image  of  extrer  9  poverty.  When  this  deficiency  does  not  exist,  the  Irishronn  loves  to  dis- 
play the  extent  of  his  wardrobe ;  when  going  to  a  fiiir,  he  puts  on  all  the  coats  be  has,  though 
the  season  be  midsununer. 

The  foud  of  the  Irish  peasf  at  is  on  less  scanty  than  his  dress  and  habitation.    It  is  almost 


VouL 


'  t:«  v>,  ;9f;  not  aaeertaiiMd. 


9^ 


450 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  in 


wnolly  comprisod  in  tho  potato,  without  any  other  vegetable  (for  ho  is  a  stranger  to  ths 
luxury  of  a  ganlcn),  and  only  in  favourable  circumstances  is  it  accompanied  with  milk.  This 
fIxMl,  however,  is  sufficient  to  preserve  him  in  fbll  health  and  vigour.  In  tho  north,  the  use 
of  oatmeal  in  the  form  of  cakes  nnd  pottage  has  been  derived  ih)m  Scotland. 

Se(t.  VII. — Local  Oeograpky. 

Ireland  is  divided  into  four  provinces,  or  rather  regions :  Leinster  in  the  east,  Munster  ia 
.he  south,  Connau^ht  in  the  wcot,  and  Ulster  in  we  north.  This  is  independent  of  tb« 
minuter  English  division  into  counties,  a  number  of  which  are  comprised  m  each  of  the 
four  provinces.  These  last,  indeed,  when  Ireland  was  ruled  by  native  governments,  formed 
separate  kingdoms.  They  are  still  distinguished  by  marked  boundaries,  by  a  different  aspect 
nf  nature,  and  by  a  considerable  variation  of  manners  and  customs. 

The  following  table  exhibits  tho  leading  provincial  statistics  of  Ireland.  The  population 
statements  differ  considerably  fVom  those  nitherto  published ;  but  they  have  been  furnished 
by  Mr.  Porter,  of  the  Board  of  Trade  as  the  result  of  the  latest  and  most  accurate  digest  of 
the  returns  for  1881. 


CounCM. 

Souir* 

MIlM. 

Imprettd 

Unirn. 
Acrm, 

btliuM 
Annual 

I'alua, 

HOUM 

in  IIBI. 

lion  In 
IB3I. 

ClIlM  ud  Towu,  Willi  llieir  Fopulalion. 

Uinif'. 

£ 

bubltn 

931 

TXIfiW 

10,819 

250,911 

35,740 

380,107 

Dublin 

804,155 

Louth 

173 

191,345 

14,9111 

I04,70J 

81,:«ii 

134,84fl 

Drogheda .... 

17,305  Dundalk 

9,956 

M«ath 

SlU 

501,5,27 

5,000 

510,414 

37,943 

170,88(1 

Trim 

3,470 

WIcklow... 

480 

400,704 

04.000 

2!m,P99 

17,389 

131,557 

Wicklow.... 

8,040  Arklow...     . 

3,806 

W«xrord... 

SM 

545,079 

18,500 

305,134 

30,159 

188,713 

Wexford 

8,336 

Longford... 

SOU 

103,500 

55,947 

151,505 

18,987 

113,55e 

Longford  .... 
BnniKorthy  . 

3,783  New  Ron      . 

4,475 

3,557 

Wcitmeath 

301 

313,935 

55,088 

2.51,063 

33,015 

136,878 

Mullingar  ... 

4,100  Athlone 

11,309 

King-i  Co. 

*V> 

304,569 

133,349 

317,019 

33,504 

144,925 

Phillpitown  . 
Tullamore . . . 

1,931  Birr 

5,517 

5,406 

Qiicen'i  Co. 

307 

335,838 

00,972 

977,767 

83,105 

145,851 

Poriarlington 

3,877  Maryborough 

8,677 

Kildara 

309 

335,988 

60,447 

255,082 

10,478 

106,434 

Alhy 

Kildare 

3,093  Naai 

3,073 

1,510 

Kilknimy  . . 

4(W) 

417,117 

00,509 

437,093 

30,789 

193,080 

Kilkenny .... 

83,741 

Carlow     . . 

su 

100,833 

83,030 

lli4,H05 

13,028 

81,088 

Carlow 

8,035 

4,3«> 

4.113,300 

035,494 

3,472,400 

278,398 

1,009,713 

UMer. 
Down 

544 

503,077 

108,509 

480,123 

69,747 

353,013 

Newry 

10,013  Downpatrick 

4,133 

Donnaghadee 

8,705 

Antrim  •■■■ 

005 

483,100 

383,970 

569.150 

48,028 

325,615 

BeiniBt 

Antrim 

53,000  Carricklbrgua 
8,485  Lisburn'' 

8,706 
4,684 

Londonderr. 

470 

373,007 

1.T0.0.TS 

310,962 

34,691 

322,019 

Londonderry. 

0,313  Olerain 

4,851 

Doiipgal  . . . 

1,001 

590,730 

044,371 

340,501 

44,eoc 

280,140 

Ballyihannon 

3,831  Lifibrd 

978 

Fermanagh 

440 

.330,5IH) 

101,952 

950,301 

83,585 

149,763 

Enniikillen.. 

8,300 

Cavan  

47H 

431,403 

30,00(1 

307,741 

34,148 

887,933 

Cavan 

8,393 

MonoRhaa  . 

2f« 

.TOfl.OfiP 

0,9.Tfi 

219,581 

32,378 

195,530 

Monaghan . . . 

3,738 

Armagh. . . . 

2K) 

207,317 

42,4?2 

178,055 

30.20(1 

830,134 

Armagh 

Omagn 

8,493 

Tyrone  .... 

724 

550,830 

171,314 

598,005 

47,104 

304,408 

8,095  Dungammon. 

3JMb 

4,894 

3,749,352 

1,409,992 

3,905,378 

359,801 

2,286,099 

MuntUr. 
Clare  

744 

534,113 

259,584 

441,903 

35,373 

958,333 

Enni 

0,701 

Kerry 

1,013 

581,189 

552,809 

344,010 

35,507 

863,190 

Tralee 

Dingle 

Cork 

7,547  Killarney .... 
4988 
107!o]fl  Bandon 

7,014 

Cork 

1,038 

1,068,803 

700,700 

1,303,090 

114,459 

810,733 

10,179 

Kinsale 

7,098  Yoiighal 

8,fi«0 

Permoy 

3,708  Mallow 

4,114 

Waterford  . 

410 

353,347 

118,0.14 

305,304 

23,800 

177,054 

Waterford... 

38,831  LiHmore 

9,33lt 

Tipperary.. 

807 

819,658 

182,147 

880,539 

55,397 

403,563 

Clonmel 

Tipperary  . . . 
Roacrun 

15,590  Caihel 

6,348  Carr.-on.Suir 
5,830 

6,548 
7,4(6 

Limerick... 

Cmnaught. 
Lcitrim.... 

e04 

588,848 

91,081 

620,039 

43,400 

315,355 

Limeripk .... 
Carriek-on-Sb. 

66,554 
1,673 

5,875 

3,935,853 

1,905,308 

3,801,070 

300,995 

2,397,153 

400 

800,040 

128,167 

910,187 

21,709 

141,594 

Sllgo 

380 

257,217 

108,711 

897,443 

37.050 

171,765 

Bligo 

9,383 

Mayo 

1,335 

871,084 

485,134 

550,018 

5.1,051 

.166,39e 

Caatlebar . . . . 

5,404 

Qalway.... 

1,540 

055,713 

476,957 

808,704 

68,137 

414,684 

Galway 

Balllnaaloe  .. 
Rowommon  • 

33,180  Tuam 

1,811 
3,015 

4,571 

Roscommon 

541 

453,455 

131,003 

370,038 

37,399 

849,613 

4,108 

3,805,009 

1,330,093 

3,330,070 

197,408 

1,343,914 

•18,633 

14,603,473 

5,340,730 

13,715,578 

1,143,609 

7,767,401 

SuBSKCT.  1. — Leinster. 
Leinster  is  the  richest  and  most  cultivated  of  the  four  great  divisions,  and,  as  containing 
the  seat  of  government,  the  most  important  theatre  of  political  events.    Though  the  sur- 
&ce  be  level  to  a  great  extent,  it  is  not  destitute  of  considerable  ranges  of  mountains.  Thesa 

SThii  ii  the  Iriih  mile  of  40  to  a  degree.   Ths  area  bai  already  been  itated  to  tie  30,000  Engliih  aquare  mile* 
M.  Eo.] 


PABTin 

Btrenger  to  ths 
with  milk.  Thia 
10  north,  the  um 


cast,  Munater  in 
epcnUent  of  th« 
in  each  of  the 
irnmonts,  formed 
I  different  aspect 

The  population 
)  been  furnished 
;curate  digest  of 


Book  I. 


IRELAND 


IM 


Ihilr  Fopulttion. 

)undalk 

0;U6 

Vrklow...    . 

3,806 

«ew  Rom     . 

4,i7t 

Mhlone 

liirr 

11,3«1 
«,«I6 

Maryborough    8,677 
Naai 3,073 


Downpatrick  4,133 

Carrickrergui  8,706 

LiBburnf 4,884 

Colerain 4,891 

Lifford 070 


Dungmnmon.    3JMli 


Killarney....  7,0M 

Bandon 10.170 

I'oughal 8,0«0 

Wallow 4,114 

Unmore 8,3» 

'ashcl 6,ow 

larr.-on-Suir  7,469 


fuam  , 


4,571 


id,  as  containing 
Though  the  sur- 
lountains.  These 

ingUih  wiuare  duIm 


Include  almost  the  whole  county  of  Wicklow,  whose  bold  nnd  picturesque  sununita  are  aoen 
even  from  Dublin.  In  the  interior,  the  long  range  of  Slicvo-Blooni  stretches  towards  thp 
borders  of  Munster.  A  considerable  part  also  ot  the  midland  counties  is  covered  by  the 
great  bog,  which  crosses  the  whole  centre  of  Ireland.  Afler  all  deductions,  however,  there 
remains  a  large  extent  of  level  land,  fit  either  for  tillage  or  pai^turage.  This  is  tiio  port  of 
Ireland  whore  wheat  it  grown  to  the  greatest  extent,  oats  being  elsewhere  almost  the  only 
grain ;  and  its  rich  pastures  supply  the  capital  with  cattle  and  the  products  of  the  dairy. 

Leinster   comprises  the  counties  of  Dublin,  Kildare,  King's  county,  Queen's   County, 
Wicklow,  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  Wexford,  Meath,  Westmeath,  Ix)ngford,  and  Louth. 

The  county  of  Dublin  owes  its  distinction  almost  exclusively  to  its  containing  the  capital 
nf  Ireland.  The  city  of  Dublin  disputes  with  Edinburgh  and  Bath  the  reputation  of  being 
the  most  beautiful  city  in  the  empire.  If  the  brick  of  which  the  houses  are  built  impair  the 
effect  of  the  general  range  of  its  streets  and  squares,  its  public  builduigs,  composed  of  stone* 
surpass  in  grandeur  and  taste  those  of  any  of  its  rivals.  There  is  no  period  of  Irish  record 
ill  which  Dublin  was  not  an  important  place.  It  is  mentioned  hy  Ptolemy  under  the  name 
of  Eblona.  The  Danes,  in  the  ninth  century,  made  it  their  capital,  and  enclosed  it  with  a 
wall  about  a  mile  in  length,  the  course  of  which  may  still  be  traced.  As  soon  as  the  Eng- 
lish began  to  establish  themselves  in  Ireland,  its  proximity  induced  them  to  make  it  theur 
head-quarters;  it  new  with  the  improvement  of  Ireland  and  the  extension  of  the  English 
sway,  but  all  its  splendour  has  arisen  within  the  lost  sixty  or  seventy  years.  The  numerous 
streets  and  squares  formed  during  that  period  have  been  built  on  a  regular  plan,  and  contain 
several  superb  mansions,  which  once  belonged  to  the  principal  nobles.  The  squares  are  par* 
ticularly  iidmired ;  that  of  St.  Stephen's  Green  is  nearly  seven  furlongs  in  circuit;  Men  ion 
Square,  which  contains  the  splendid  mansion  of  Leinster  House ;  Rutland  Square,  in  the 
interior  of  which  are  the  gardens  of  the  Lying-in  Hospital ;  and  Mountjoy  Square,  are  also 
spacious  and  finely  laid  out  Of  the  streets,  the  finest  is  Sackville  Street,  170  feet  wide, 
and  adorned  with  many  ^^plendid  mansions.  "To  the  west  is  tlic  old  town,  now  beuing  marks 
of  decay,  and  still  farluor  west  is  the  tract  called  "  the  Liberfy,"  as  being  out  of  the  juris- 
diction of  the  magistrates.  It  is  inhabited  only  by  the  lowest  orders,  and  exhibits  scenes  of 
filth  and  wretchedness  not  to  be  paralleled  in  any  city  of  the  sister  island.  A  room  fifteen 
feet  square  is  frequently  let  to  three  or  four  families;  and  one  house  was  ascertamed  to  have 
lodged  108  persons.  Dublin  has  been  "  shorn  of  its  beams"  since  the  Unic  ;  when  the 
nobles  and  gentry,  no  longer  called  to  attend  parliament,  transferred  their  own  residence  to 
Uie  raetronmis  of  the  empire,  and  their  Dublin  mansions  have  been  converted  to  humbler  pur- 
poses. 1  ne  Castle,  the  residence  of  the  lord  lieutenant,  is  extensive ;  but  its  architectural 
beauty  is  almost  confined  to  a  modem  Gothic  chapel.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Patrick  (Jig,  212.), 
and  Christ  Church  have  a  venerable  aspect ;  but  they  can  rank  only  secondary  to  the  fine 
212  structures  in  the  English  cities.   The  splendid 

structure,  formerly  the  parliament-house  of  Ire- 
land, and  now  the  national  bank  (Jig,  213.), 

213 


St.  Patrick'!  Cathedral.  Bank  of  Ireland,  Dublin. 

was  built  between  1729  and  1739 ;  but  an  eastern  front  was  added  in  1785,  and  a  western 

front  shortly  afler.    The  portico  is  147  feet  in  length,  supported  by  lofly  Ionic  columns ;  the 

whole  covering  an  acre  and  a  half  of  ground.    The  Royal  Exchange  (Jig.  214),  forms  a 

square  of  100  feet,  and  its  principal  front  has  a  richly  decorated  portico  of  six  Corinthian 

columns.    The  Four  Law  Courts,  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  (Jig.  215.),  fonn 

^  215 

214 


Ezchaiwo,  Dnblia. 


Feat  Comti,  Dobl  Ji. 


*^.         -^  '\w4^ 


492 


de'":riptive  geography. 


p,iKT  in. 


also  one  of  the  nobleat  itructurea  in  Dublin :  it  conaista  of  a  aqo^re  of  ].40  feet,  preMntiiur  a 
fVont  of  six  Corinthian  pillare,  supporting^  a  circular  lantern  and  ina^nifiient  aome.  Tiie 
quay  is  orndinented  by  the  Custom-nouse,  of  which  the  fVont  ia  entirely  of  Portland  stone, 
embellished  with  a  Doric  colonnade,  and  extunding  376  feet.  The  Post  Otficj,  in  Sackville 
Street,  is  extensive  and  magnificent,  with  u  front  of  223  feet,  adorned  with  an  Ionic  portico 
of  Portland  stone;  the  main  structure  is  of  (r~ ' '  -  ^n  thu  centre  of  i^ckvillo  Street,  la 
the  monument  erected  to  Nelson ;  an  objci.  (  ,  )  ii  '  i  ornamental.  The  inns  of  court, 
the  theatre,  the  half-finishe<I  Roman  Cnth.llr-  Tnnu(>i«''  \a  cimpcl,  and  several  other  churchea 
and  chnpels,  with  many  of  the  hospit  i'.  iivir  mentioned  as  adding  to  the  architectural 
splendour  of  Dublin.  All  the  usual  n-wciations  for  the  relief  of  distress  are  supported  on  a 
liberal  scale,  and  grnat  zeal  is  shown  '  i  favour  of  all  institutions  for  the  promotion  of  know- 
ledge. Trinity  College  was  founded  in  1503;  and  its  students  amount  to  1600.  There  are 
25  rellowships,  and  the  livingb  in  the  gifl  of  the  university,  which  are  considerable  in  num- 
ber and  value,  are  offered  to  the  fellows  in  the  order  of  seniority.  The  gradations  of 
rank,  amongst  the  fellows  in  Trinity  Colle^fe,  are  indicated  bv  n  '-T-  '  dress  and  table. 
The  library  contains  100,000  volumes;  but  its  other  collect!.  ^^u  uui  uquul  to  :'  .'•in  of  the 
Dublin  Society.  Usher,  Swift,  Berkeley,  Chandler,  Leltuid,  Pamoh,  Burke,  Grattan,  Curran, 
with  other  distinguished  characters,  are  mentioned  as  pupils  of  this  seminary.  The  buildings 
of  the  College  are  on  a  hrgu  scale,  divided  into  three  quadrangles,  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  fellows  and  pupils  The  iVont  towards  College  Green  extends  300  feet,  and  is  lulorned 
with  columns  of  the  Cor.nthian  order.  The  library  forms  a  fourth  quadrangle,  built  of  hewn 
stone,  with  a  rich  entai  i.  ure ;  and  tlie  principal  room,  210  feet  long  and  41  feet  broad,  is 
elegantly  fitted  up.  At  i  nhort  distance  from  town  is  a  bot  nic  garden.  The  Royal  Dublin 
Society,  incorporateil  in  1749,  for  the  promotion  of  husbu.  /Iry  and  the  useful  arts,  has  a 
botanic  garden ;  a  uiuscum  of  natural  history ;  a  school  for  drawing,  with  modeln ;  and 
teachers  in  all  these  departments.  The  Roval  Irish  Academy,  incorporated  in  1782,  has 
published  many  volumes  of  Transactions.  The  Dublin  Institution  has  been  formed  on  the 
model  of  that  of  London,  and  a  citv  Library  established.  Although  a  g^reat  literary  spirit 
prevails  in  Dublin,  there  are  few  books  printed  there,  and  the  art  of  printing  is  in  a  back- 
ward state.  The  works  of  Iri  jh  authors  issue  from  the  London  presses.  Dublin  has  very 
little  foreign  t  ide ;  but  she  has  a  considerable  trade  with  England,  particularly  with  Liver- 
pool. The  bay  ;s  spacious,  and  has  good  anchorage ;  but  the  entrance  is  beset  with  formida- 
ble sond-baiiks,  particularly  those  called  the  North  and  South  Bulls,  which  cannot  be  passed 
by  large  vessels  at  low  water;  so  that  vessels  embayed  at  that  time  of  the  tide,  and  attacked 
by  strong  easterly  c'^les,  can  scarcely  escape  being  driven  upon  one  of  them.  To  avert  these 
evils,  a  double  wall  has  been  constructed  three  miles  in  length,  composed  of  enormous  blocks 
of  granite,  dovetailed  into  each  other,  the  interval  filled  with  gravel;  and  a  lightrhoui:3 
erected  at  the  end.  Another  pier  of  great  extent  has  been  built  at  Dunleary,  now  Kings- 
town, on  the  southern  side  of  the  bay,  which  is  connected  by  a  railway  with  the  capital. 
To  these  advantages  Dublin  unites  that  of  being  placed  at  the  termination  of  the  Grand 
Canal  on  the  souui,  and  the  Royal  Canal  on  the  nort! ,  tvhich  penetrate  by  different  lines  to 
the  Shannon  and  the  interior  of*^  Ireland,  In  1829,  Dublin  paid  the  sum  of  660,000/.  of  duty 
on  imported  goods,  wl.  "'e  that  paid  at  all  tl'e  other  pv)rt8  of  Ireland  amounted  only  to  910,000/. 
The  environs  are  celebitited  for  their  bea  t  The  •  st  numbei  "  villas  and  villages  which 
cover  the  adjacent  districts,  and  are  rendered  conspicuous  by  the  ^ound  sloping  down  to  the 
bay;  the  foreground  of  the  Dublin  mountains,  and  the  picturesque  summits  of  those  of 
Wicklow  in  the  background,  render  Uie  situation  striking  and  delightful.  To  the  west, 
Phoenix  Park,  a  royal  demesne  of  several  m'lp-;  ,!•  circumference,  ufTorfs  an  ag.  ;eable  pro- 
menade, and  has  lately  been  adorned  with  a>i  obelisk,  210  feet  high,  in  honour  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington.  The  rest  of  the  county  contains  only  villages,  .iiid  the  interior  possesses  ff"i 
interesting  objects.  The  shores  of  the  bay,  however,  include  manv  If  iking  sites;  and  the 
view  from  the  IMl  of  Killiney  is  almost  matchless. 

Wicklow  is  in  general  composed  of  bog,  forest,  and  moi-'^  in,  anc  contributes  little  to  the 
wealth  of  Ireland.  It  is,  however,  celebrated  for  picture .  bean  v.  Its  coast,  diversified 
by  hills,  broken  into  glens,  and  richly  wooded,  is  almost  c<  i  x<  i  the  seats  of  the  gentry 
and  opulent  citizens  of  Dublin.  These  variogoted  and  cmbellisht  grounds,  having  on  one 
side  the  expanse  of  tlie  Irish  Channel,  and  on  the  other  thf!  lofly  miantains  in  the  interior, 
produce  a  nuT"^ '"'  of  beautiful  sites.  The  demesne  of  Powerscourt  is  pre-eminent,  the  water- 
fell  (Jig.  216.,  descending  360  feet  down  a  steep  hill,  amid  vast  hanging  woods.  The  interior 
of  the  county  presents  features  of  n  very  difierent  description ;  glensnetween  lofly  mountains, 
naked  and  desolate.  Among  these  is  Glendalough  (Jig.  217.),  which  is  surrounded  by  a  most 
majestic  circuit  of  mountai.is,  and  contains  some  remarkable  ecclesiastical  monuments  attri- 
buted to  SL  Kevin,  a  ereat  patron  saint  of  Ireland  in  the  seventh  century.  One  of  his  disci- 
ples founded  at  Glenaalougn  a  little  city,  long  celebrated  as  a  seat  of  religion  and  learning 
Only  its  site  can  ncv/  be  traced ;  but  there  are  diBtinci  remains  of  seven  churches,  among 
which  Um  cathedral  and  St  Kevin's  kitchen  are  the  most  entire.    Loughs  Dan  and  Bray 


Book  I. 


IRELAND. 


4S» 


I  ol  Portland  stone, 


■ituated  in  the  boMm  of  the  wildest  mountains,  and  cnclosnU  d  v  dark  and  lofty  rocks,  present 
nature  under  an  aB[>€ct  the  most  rudely  sublime.  Wicklow  uom  veins  of  copper  ana  lead : 
gold  was  collected  in  one  year  to  the  value  of  10,000/. ;  hut  the  vein  was  soon  exhausted. 

The  towns  of  Wicklow  and  Arklow,  though  well 
built,  are  inconsiderable;  yet  the  latter,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ovoca,  has  a  little  trade,  and  was  once 
the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Ireland.  It  was  tho 
ii^^        scene  of  a  memorable  action  in  1798,  when  the  iiw 


,  m^'^''^f^' 


Powoncuurl  WalerrBll 


Qlendalouih 


surgents,  above  .)n,000  strong,  wore  defeated  by  a  small  British  detachment. 

Wexford,  to  thi  south  of  V\  icklow,  is  separated  from  it  by  a  range  of  mountains ;  but 
tho  interior  contains  a  great  deal  of  level  land,  in  which  agriculture  is  pursued  with  greater 
diligence,  and  the  tenantry  are  more  comfortable,  than  in  most  other  parts  of  Ireland.  Barley 
is  a  prevailing  crop.  Tho  woodlimda  also  are  extensive  and  valuable.  Wexford  is  a  place 
of  some  consequence,  with  a  harbour  much  obstructed  by  sand ;  yet  it  carries  on  some  traffic. 
Some  wof  .'  "re  made  both  ai  Wexford  and  Enniscorthy.  New  Ross,  in  the  western  part 
of  th(  county,  a  flourishing  t4>wu,  on  the  Barrow,  which  admits  of  large  ships  coming  up 
to  its  quay. 

Kilkenny,  a  h  and  exteiisiive  county,  separated  from  Wexford  by  the  Barrow,  is  watered 
not  only  by  that  river,  but  by  iU  tributaries  the  Nore  and  the  Suirc.  These  streams  carry 
off  the  superfluous  m  usture,  and  prevent  the  formation  of  bog  or  marsh  to  any  extent.  Kil- 
kenny, bring  chitil  'jvel,  or  intersected  only  by  hills  of  moderate  height,  is  composed 
almost  entirely  cither  of  aralilc  or  fine  pasture  land.  The  latter  is  employed  in  extensive 
dairies,  but  the  system  of  ciilt  ation  is  still  imperfect  Kilkenny,  the  capital,  advantage- 
ously situated  on  the  Nore,  ii?  ,  rtly  built  of  the  marble  of  the  surrounding  quarries.  Its 
cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  ii  Ireland,  and  the  castle,  with  its  remaining  gates  and  bastions, 
exhibits  indications  of  that  strength  which  enabled  it  to  hold  out  against  Cromwell  longer 
than  any  other  city  in  Ireland.  At  present  Kilkenny  flourishes  by  inland  trade,  and  by  a 
manufactory  of  blankets  and  other  woollens.  The  foreign  trade  of  the  county  is  carried  on 
by  Watcrford. 

Carlow  is  encompassed  by  mountains,  which  however  enclose  a  champaign  tract  of  great 
beauty  and  fertility,  equally  fit  for  tillti^e  and  pasture,  and  producing  the  best  butter  in  Ire- 
land. The  town  of  Carlow  is  a  considerable  place,  distinguished  by  an  abbey  and  castle, 
both  of  great  antiquity.  The  town  has  a  manufactory  of  coarse  woollens,  and  carries  on  r 
considerable  trade  Gown  the  Barrow.  An  extensive  Catholic  seminary  has  lately  been 
founded  here. 

Queen's  County  and  King's  County  form  a  table-land  of  moderate  elevation.    Part  of  the 

Sreat  chain  of  bogs  crosses  these  counties,  and  renders  a  large  proportion  of  them  unpro- 
uctive,  though  it  supplies  them  with  cheap  and  ab  idant  fueh  The  remaining  surface  m 
highly  fertile.  Queen's  County  is  situated  along  the  heads  of  the  Barrow  and  the  Nore ; 
Kings  County  reaches  to  the  Siiannon;  and  both  communicate  by  canals  with  Dublin. 
Portarlington,  on  the  borders  of  the  two  counties,  is  a  well-built  place,  with  good  schools, 
and  the  residence  of  a  considerable  number  of  gentry.  Tullamore,  on  the  great  canal,  and 
Birr  or  Parsonstown,  are  the  most  thriving  towns  in  King's  County. 

Kildare,  with  the  exception  of  about  a  sixth  part  of  bog,  forms  a  plain  of  the  finest  arable 
soil,  well  cultivated,  and  whence  the  capital  is  chiefly  supplied  with  grain.  The  Grand  taoA 
Royal  Canals,  which  both  cross  its  northern  border,  aSom  the  means  of  ready  conveyance 
to  Dublin.  Kildare-town,  presenting  a  lofty  round  tower  and  some  other  vestiges  of  past 
importance,  is  only  supported  by  the  mces  heid  on  the  curragh  of  Kildare,  an  expanse  of 
several  thousand  acres  of  the  very  finest  turf.  Naas  and  Atiiy  are  larger  towns,  and  tho 
castle  of  the  former  bears  testimony  to  the  period  when  it  was  the  residence  of  the  kin^ 


4M 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHY. 


Pabt  L 


of  Leinator.  In  this  county  ia  Mavnootti,  a  ainall  town  containing  the  coUug*  Mtabliik«d 
by  ffovonunent  tor  tho  education  ot  the  Roman  Catliolica. 

Moath  ia  ono  of  tho  moat  fkvouroil  cuuntioH  of  t}io  kingdom  in  reapoct  to  aoil.  Ita  rich  po»> 
turea  aupport  vast  herda  of  black  cattle,  which  aupply  tho  markuta  of  tho  capital,  and  are  ex- 
ported to  England.  The  prcMlucts  of  Uto  dairy  are  abundant,  though  not  of  very  aiiperior 
quality.     Trim,  where  the  aaaizoa  are  hold,  ia  a  amuU  town ;  Navan  and  Kolla  are  larger. 

Loutli,  though  tho  amalleat  in  area  of  any  Iriah  county,  ia  ono  of  tho  firat  in  point  ot  natu- 
ral find  acquired  advantages.  An  active  apirit  of  improvement  has  brought  almoat  every 
part  of  ita  excellent  soil  under  cultivation.  Ita  linen  manufacture  produces  chiefly  dowlu 
and  ahootinga,  with  some  cambric.  Louth  preaenta  many  aamploa  of  the  earthen  mounds 
called  rathi.  Dundalk,  the  capital  of  tho  county,  ia  ancient,  populous,  and  flouriahing.  It 
has  been  tlio  theatre  of  important  hiatoriciil  uventa;  but  its  lofly  towers  and  castles  are  now 
demolished,  and  have  given  place  to  copitbrtablu  dwellings.  The  town  consists  chietly  of 
ono  large  and  brood  street,  whence  many  lanoa  are  seen  diverging.  It  ia  the  only  place  in 
Ireland  where  the  cambric  manufacture  has  been  introduced,  and  continues  to  nouriah. 
Droghcda,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Boyne,  was  of  still  greater  importance  as  a  military  station, 
being  conaidered  ono  of  the  keys  of  Ireland.  In  the  great  rebellion  of  1041,  it  stood  a  long 
siege,  but  was  afterwards  taken  by  Cromwell,  who  punished  ita  roaiatance  by  a  moat  barba- 
rous massacre  of  tlie  garrison.  In  1000,  two  miles  abovn  Droghedo,  was  fought  tho  battle 
of  the  Boyne,  that  memorable  field  which  cstublitihed  Uie  civil  and  religious  liberties  of  the 
empiro.  The  fortiticationa  are  of  ol)Holotn  Htructure,  and  are  commanded  on  several  sidoa. 
The  place  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  extenaive  commerce  in  grain  brought  down  tho 
river  m  considerable  quantities  for  exportation ;  in  return  for  which,  coals  and  other  commo- 
dities are  imported. 

Wcstmeatti  and  Longford,  reaching  westward  as  far  as  the  Shannon,  consist  chiefly  of  a 
very  extensive  plain  considerably  encumbered  with  lakes,  bogs,  and  morasses,  and  subject  in 
part  to  the  overflowing  of  the  Shaiuion,  but  including  fertile  tracts  of  great  extent  Ath- 
tone,  tho  largest  inland  town  of  Ireland,  is  situated  partly  in  Westmeatn  and  partly  in  Ros- 
common. It  is  memorable  for  itH  rcaiatance  to  General  Ginkle  in  1091,  previous  to  the  battle 
of  Aughrim,  and  is  still  considered  an  important  military  station.  It  ia  divided  by  the  Shan- 
non into  two  parts  united  by  a  bridge.  With  this  exception,  theso  provinces  contain  only 
small  country  towns  and  large  villages.  Mullingar,  in  Westmeath,  has  a  considerable  trade, 
Longford  is  tho  capital  of  the  county  of  that  name. 

SuBSKCT  2. — Munater. 

Munster  includes  the  south  and  south-west  of  Ireland,  and,  though  not  the  most  extensive 
division  of  the  kingdom,  is  one  of  those  which  presents  the  boldest  and  most  striking  fea^ 
tares.  Most  of  the  great  mountain  chains  of  Ireland  traverse  Munster ;  among  which  are 
conspicuous  the  Galties  and  the  mountains  of  Kerry,  which  encircle  Killamey ;  so  that,  not- 
withstanding tho  almoflt  boundless  plains  of  Limerick  and  Tipperary,  and  the  level  character 
of  a  great  part  of  Cork,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  mountainous  region.  It  has  manufactures, 
though  not  on  so  great  a  scale  as  those  of  the  north ;  and  its  commerce  is  very  considerable, 
chiefly  in  the  export  of  salted  provisions.  The  Catholic  religion  prevails,  with  little  inter- 
mixture of  that  of  the  English  church.  Munster  is  divided  mto  larger  and  less  numerous 
portions  than  Lcinster ;  its  counties  are  Tipperary,  Waterford,  Cork,  Kerry,  Limerick,  and 
Clare, 

Tipperary,  extending  over  almost  the  whole  frontier  of  Leinster,  ia  crossed  by  a  long 
chain  of  mountains  called  variously  Slieve-Bloom,  the  Devil's  Bit,  and  other  uncouth  names; 
and  on  the  south  it  includes  port  of  the  Galties.  On  the  north  a  small  portion  of  the  great 
central  bog  extends  across  the  county ;  but  one  district,  along  the  upper  course  of  the  Suire, 
boors  Uie  appellation  of  the  Golden  Vale.  The  sheep  ana  horned  cattle  are  of  excellent 
quality.  There  ore  manufiictures,  chiefly  for  domestic  use ;  and  some  coal,  similar  to  that 
of  Kilkenny.  Clonmel,  the  county  town,  is  one  of  the  most  considerable  in  the  interior  of 
Ireland :  it  stood  a  long  siege  against  Cromwell,  who  afler  its  reduction  demolished  the  strong 
walls  and  castles  bv  which  it  was  defended.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  four  streets  cross- 
ing each  other,  and  carries  on  a  brisk  inland  trade.  Cashel  is  a  large  and  handsome  city, 
the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  to  whose  residence  a  considerable  library  is  attached.  In  ancient 
times,  it  was  the  capital  of  the  kings  of  Munster,  of  whose  palace  some  remnants  may  still 
be  traced.  Noble  fragments  remam  of  the  ancient  cathedral,  majestically  seated  on  the 
summit  of  a  precipitous  rock.  The  choir  and  nave,  210  feet  long,  are  strewed  with  the  re- 
mains of  its  rich  ornaments.  Here  was  deposited  the  Lia  Fale,  or  fatal  stone,  on  which  the 
kings  of  Munster  were  crowned.  The  structure  is  now  abandoned  to  decay,  and  modern 
cathedral  of  fine  Grecian  architecture  has  been  substituted.  Cashel  contains  remains  of 
other  monastic  edifices,  of  which  Here  Abbey,  on  the  same  rock  with  the  catliedrul,  is  a 
magnificent  specimen,  still  ahnost  entire. 

WaterfoFu  m  a  uiouuiainous  county,  and  only  a  small  portion  is  under  cultivation ',  tht 


Book  I. 


IRELAND. 


>r  cultivation;  th« 


ehiof  branch  of  rural  induitry  ia  the  dairy,  and  great  quantities  of  butter  are  aaltod  for  ex> 
yortation.  Watorford,  ita  capital,  one  of  tho  principal  aoa-portH  of  tho  nmj<iro,  boing  placed 
at  tlie  confluonco  of  the  Barrow  and  Suirn,  tho  xt'cimd  and  ttiird  rivora  of  Ireland,  enjoya  a 
inmt  extomiive  interconrao  with  the  interior.  Thn  <|uantity  of  beef,  pork,  buttor,  and  ffrain 
exported  to  Hnfrlami,  in  18iU-'2,  waa  valued  at  '2,(H{.'>,H()l/. ;  of  which  bacon  waa  547,000/. ; 
buttor.  n:)8,(MH)<.;  wheat  and  flour,  MO.OOO/. ;  oata,  12H,(NN)/.;  live  pin,  117,000/.  Tho 
wuthorn  piickei  communication  with  Kn^land  ia  carried  on  tVom  Watcrtord  to  Milford  Haven 
Within  thcHo  tnw  yearn,  aeventy  veiablH  have  been  fitted  out  for  the  Newfoundland  flahery 
Watorford  nnjoya  tho  benefit  of  a  deep  and  apacioui  harbour,  and  a  flno  quay  half  a  milo 
]on(^.  Ita  occlcaiaatical  monuments  aro  of  considerable  mafl^itude,  and  it  haa  an  elegant 
modem  cathedral,  with  other  fine  public  edifices.  Twenty  miles  to  the  west,  on  a  small 
bay,  ia  Oun<ifarvan,  the  largest  fishing  town  in  Ireland ;  and  its  antiquity  is  attested  by  a  cas- 
tle and  several  monastic  remains.  Lismore,  on  tho  Black  water,  is  now  deserted ;  but  ita  castle, 
erected  by  King  John,  in  1185,  still  presents  marks  of  ancient  grandeur,  and  haa  been  lately 
repaired. 

Cork  ia  the  largest  county  of  Ireland.  On  the  northern  border  is  the  lofly  range  of  the 
Oalties,  which  pri'sent  many  picture8(iiio  features,  and  command  extensive  and  beautiibl 
prospects;  its  wostorn  border  partakes  of  tho  mountiiinoua  character  of  the  ncifjhbouring 
districts  of  Kerry ;  and  the  rocky  shores  nnd  licadlnnds  washed  by  tho  waves  of  tho  Atlantic, 
are  of  an  awtbl  and  terrific  cliaractcr.  About  a  fitlh  of  the  county  consists  of  mountain  and 
bog;  the  rest  is  only  traverned  by  hills  of  moderate  elevation,  enclosing  fertile  and  often 
beautiful  valleys,  especially  that  along  tho  river  and  bay.  The  stylo  of  culture  is  altogether 
Irish;  in  small  farms,  by  poor  tenants,  chiefly  by  the  spade,  and  potatoes  the  prevailing  crop. 
Tho  maniifiictures  consist  of  sailcloth,  coarse  linens  and  woollens.  There  are  also  some 
extensive  distilleries. 

Cork,  the  great  southern  emporium  of  Ireland,  has  a  population  of  107,000;  being,  in  point 
of  wealth  and  magnitude,  tho  second  city  in  the  island.  Its  monastic  structures,  once  con- 
siderable, have  almost  entirely  disappeared.  Its  great  prosperity  is  modern,  in  consequence 
of  tho  provision  trade,  of  which  it  has  become  tho  chief  mart.  The  river  Lee,  at  its  junc- 
tion with  tho  soa,  forms  the  spacious  enclosed  bay,  called  the  Cove  of  Cork,  composing  one 
of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world.  In  consequence  of  its  convenient  situation,  the  West 
India  bound  fleets  usually  touch  there,  and  take  in  provisions.  The  export  of  salted  beef 
and  pork  has  somewhat  a<minished  since  the  peace ;  but  that  of  provisions  in  general,  and 
particularly  grain,  has  hten  greatly  augmented;  and  Cork,  on  the  whole,  is  in  a  very 
nouribliing  nnd  prosperous  state.  A  great  part  of  the  old  town  consists  of  miserable  and 
crowded  alleys ;  but  a  number  of  handsome  new  streets  have  been  built,  and  several  chan- 
nels branching  fi-om  the  Lee,  which  flowed  through  the  city,  and  were  detrimental  to  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants,  hove  been  filled  up.  Cork  has  a  literary  institution,  with  the  usual 
appendages  of  library,  lectures,  and  botanic  garden ;  and  it  supports  the  charitable  estab- 
lishments usual  in  great  cities  on  a  liberal  scale. 

Kinsale,  on  a  fine  bay  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bandon,  was  much  more  frequented  than  Cork 
by  the  early  English  monarchs,  who  bestowed  on  the  place  extensive  privileges,  and  viewed 
it  as  the  key  of  southern  Ireland.  It  has  now,  however,  sunk  under  the  superior  importance 
of  its  neighbour ;  and  it  is  chiefly  supported  by  a  fishery.  Youghal,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Blackwater,  has  a  good  harbour,  though  obstructed  by  a  bar ;  and  carries  on  some  trade  and 
manufacture. 

Kerry  presents  an  assemblage  of  mountains  wild,  rocky,  and  desolate.  These  are  inter- 
spersed with  valleys  and  narrow  plains  which  are  almoet  wholly  employed  in  pasturage ;  and 
Kerry  has  a  small  breed  of  cows,  which  yield  plenty  of  excellent  milk.  Its  coast  is  broken 
into  several  very  deep  bays,  particularly  those  of  Dingle,  Kenmare,  and  Tralee.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  herring  is  caught  in  these  bays.  Ttalee,  the  county  town,  exhibits  the  remains 
_-Q  of  a  strong  castle,  once  the  residence  of 

•^"  the  Earls  of  Desmond,  when,  under  the 

title  of  Palatine,  they  exercised  the  reel 
sovereignty  over  this  part  of  Ireland ;  a 
sway  which  terminated  with  their  attain- 
der under  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

Killarney  and  its  lakes,  as  to  scenery, 
have  no  rival  in  Ireland.  There  is  only 
one  body  of  water,  to  which,  however, 
the  term  lakes  is  usually  applied;  so 
completely  is  it  divided  into  three  bays 
united  only  by  narrow  straits,  and  pre- 
LakeiofKillimer.  sentlng  each  a  different  aspect  The  lower 

lake,   immediately  adjoining   Killamev 
(Jg.  218.),  forms  the  main  expanse  of  water,  and  presents  all  the  features  on  the  greatest 


:m^i 


] 


1' 
i' 


;1 


scale 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t.  in. 


MueiUM  Abboy. 


On  the  eutern  •horo  riao  the  mountaiiw  known  by  the  name  of  Mac^illioiiddy'i 

Roekit,  tho  highest  of  which  naei  toS400 
foot,  tho  moat  olovatc<l  point  in  Ireland. 
On  this  aide  alao  are  tho  moimtaina  of 
Tuniict)  and  Glonn,  with  thoir  inimonse 
forostfl.  Noar  the  western  bank  ia  tho 
boautit\il  island  of  InnisfUUen.  At  the 
moat  Boiitlinrn  point  of  tlio  lower  lake  a 
niiiclk  smnllor  bay  branchas  off  (Vnm  it, 
through  channels  formed  by  Dinis  Island. 
Thia  bay,  called  Turk  Lake,  ia  ove^ 
hung  on  one  aide  by  the  precipitoui 
aidea  of  the  lofty  mountain  ot  that 
name,  and  bordered  on  tho  otiicr  by 
tho  long  wooded  and  winding  ponin' 
aula  of  Mucruaa.  Tho  venerable  ruin 
of  Mucruaa  Abbey  (Jitf.  210.)  adds 
greatly  to  tho  interest  of  thia  part  of  the 
Bcenery.  From  Dinis  Island,  a  long 
wmding  channel  of  more  than  two  miles  leads  to  tho  Upper  Loko.  Tho  aoonery  noon  in 
this  passage  is  of  aurpocsing  grandeur  and  beauty.    Tho  most  striking  snot  is  at  tho  Eagle's 

Crag  (Jiff.  220.\  a  stupendous  and 
220  rugged  clitf,  which  bursts  suddenly 

on  tJie  view,  rising  in  a  pyramidal 
form  from  tho  water.  Throughout 
all  tho  rocks  of  Killarnoy,  but  here 
most  particularly,  the  eflbct  of  echoea 
is  most  powortnl  and  striking.  The 
Upper  Lake,  the  least  extensive  but 
tho  most  sublime,  oxiiibits  all  the  lof- 
tiest mountains  under  tho  most  im- 
posing point  of  viow.  Its  shores  are 
windmg  and  varied  with  numcroui 
islands,  whose  rocky  sides  contrast 
with  the  brilliant-  grcnn  of  the  or 
butua.  Tho  ascent  of  tho  highoal 
mountains,  Mangerton  to  the  north, 
and  Gheran  Tual,  the  highest  of  the  reeks  to  the  aoutli-ooet,  disclosos  awful  ranges  of  rugged 
precipices  and  of  dork  and  rocky  ravines;  and  their  summiU  command  an  astonishing  view 
of  tho  mountain  glens  and  rocky  sliores  of  Kerry,  and  the  expanse  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
distant  plains  of  Cork  ond  Limerick. 

Limerick  is  one  of  the  finest  counties  of  Ireland.  Its  borders  include  Pome  brandies  from 
the  high  mountains  of  Kerry  and  Tipperary ;  but  the  main  body  consists  of  a  fertile  plaia 
An  alluvial  tract,  two  or  three  miles  broful,  along  tlie  Shannon,  is  quite  exuberant.  That 
noble  river,  now  expanded  into  an  estuary  or  bay  sixty  miles  in  length,  runs  along  the  whole 
northern  bonier  of  Ijimerick. 

Tiie  city  of  Limerick,  now  outstripped  by  Cork,  ia  the  third  in  Ireland  Its  situation,  in 
tlie  centre  of  the  grand  internal  navigation  of  tlio  kingdom,  secures  to  it  an  extensive  trade; 
and  tlte  largest  vessels  can  ascend  to  the  harbour.  Limerick  is  one  of  tho  great  marts  for 
Uic  export  of  grain  and  provisions ;  the  value  of  those  shipped  from  it  in  18!)1,  having  oeen 
estimated  at  ^,'300{.  It  was  anciently  the  strongest  fortress  in  Ireland,  and  has  always 
Btood  out  to  tho  iast  extremity  for  the  Catliolic  cause,  Ireton,  Cromwell's  lieutenant,  re- 
duced it  only  after  a  long  siege,  aided  by  a  party  within  the  place.  In  169()-1,  it  stood  two 
long  siogcs,  and  yielded  only  upo..  tliose  advantageous  terms  called  the  "  capitulation  of 
Limerick."  Its  capture  was  considered  as  closing  tiie  contest  in  support  of  tho  Stuarts.  At 
tliisday,  not  more  than  a  twelfth  part  of  the  population  of  Limerick  is  protester.r.  The 
spacious  monasteries  are  almost  entirely  demolished ;  the  streets  are  narrow,  crowded,  and 
gloomy ;  but  since  the  fortifications  were  demolished,  they  have  been  carefully  widened.  In 
a  quarter  built  b>  Lord  Perry,  and  bearing  his  name,  they  are  spacious  and  regular;  and  the 
houses,  though  only  of  brick,  built  in  the  most  handsome  modem  style.  The  assembly-rooms, 
theatre,  a^d  other  modern  structures,  are  elegant  and  commodious. 

Clare  county  is  a  wild,  hilly,  romantic  district,  abounding  with  fine  creeks  and  har'  a, 
but  without  commerce,  and  with  muies  of  lead,  iron  and  coal,  which  have  not  b'" "» turnc  i  W 
account  More  than  half  the  surface  consists  of  mountain,  bog,  and  waste;  u. ;  '■--.  hoW' 
ever,  support  numerous  flocks  of  sliccp,  the  wool  of  wuich  is  of  superior  quality ,  "  icics 
on  the  banks  of  the  Shannon  and  the  Ptrgua  vie  in  fertility  v/ith  any  in  the  kingi;  <  >  Jnnis, 
the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  bonks  of  tlie  last-mentioned  river,  by  which  it  coi  nii<  icates 


Railltt'i  Crae. 


;';-.T-^-wjp^;);i  >^r^ir^i^;-^i^ ' 


Part.  III. 

i  of  Macfjfiilinuddy'a 
>f  which  rises  to  8400 
ito<l  point  in  Ireland, 
ire  tho  mountaini  of 

with  their  inimonBe 
western  bank  is  tho 
Innis^iillon.  At  the 
t  of  tiio  lower  lake  a 
bnnciios  off  iVom  it, 
rme<l  by  Dinis  Island, 
rurk  Lako,  is  over- 

by  tho  procipitoui 

mountain  ot  that 
3(1  on  tho  otiicr  by 
and  windinpf  ponin- 
Tho  venerable  ruin 
ly  0«,<r..  219.)  adds 
est  of  this  part  of  the 
>inia  Island,  a  lon([ 
rho  Boonery  soon  in 
SDot  is  at  tho  Eaf^lo'g 
).;,  a  stupendous  and 
rliicli  bursts  suddenly 
rising  in  a  pyramidal 
water.  Throughout 
f  Killarney,  but  here 
ly,  the  effect  of  echoes 
111  and  striking.  The 
10  least  extensive  but 
no,  exhibits  all  the  lof- 
8  under  tho  most  im- 
viow.  Its  shores  ore 
roried  with  numerous 

rocky  sides  contrast 
ant-  green  of  the  ar 
£ccnt  of  tho  highoal 
ngerton  to  the  north, 
'ful  ranges  of  rugged 

an  astonishing  view 
bo  Atlantic,  and  the 

I  some  branches  ihim 
its  of  a  fertile  plain, 
te  exuberant.  That 
runs  along  the  whole 

nd  Its  situation,  in 
t  an  extensive  trade; 
tho  great  marts  for 
n  18dl,  having  oeen 
ind,  and  has  always 
ircU's  lieutenant,  re- 
160O-1,  it  stood  two 
he  "  capitulation  of 

of  tho  Stuarts.  At 
is  protest? it.  The 
irrow,  crowded,  and 
refully  widened.  In 
id  regular ;  and  the 

'he  assembly-rooms, 

reeks  and  hai'  a, 
not  b'  '^  turncifo 
iste;  ,u.  :■  '•^.  how- 
juality,  "  icics 
19  king  I.  <>  Jnnis, 
h  it  coi  "'ill  icates 


Book  I. 


IRELAND 


457 


with  the  Rhnnnon.    It  is  considerable,  thougii  irregularly  built ;  and  its  abboy,  in  tho  purest 
4tyle  of  Gothic  arohitooturo,  is  considered  the  finest  in  Ireland. 

SuBSKcrr.  3, — Connaught. 

Connaught  forms  a  groat  peninsula,  tho  most  westerly  part  of  Ireland,  extending  iVom  the 
Shannon  to  tho  Atlantic.  This  division  is  of  ull  others  the  most  decidedly  Irish,  having 
continued  unsubdued  long  after  the  English  kings  claimed  tho  proud  title  of  lonls  of  the 
island.  It  still  contains  fewer  English  inhabitants;  tho  religion  is  more  universally  Catholic, 
industry  and  manufactures  have  inudo  less  nrogress,  and  all  the  imperfect  igriculturaj  im- 
plements and  processes  ore  in  more  general  uso.  Disturbances,  hoMover,  have  never  taken 
Slaco  hero  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  Munstor  and  Leinstor.  Its  shores  are  penetrated  by 
eep  and  extensive  bays,  forming  some  of  tho  finest  harbours  in  tho  world.  The  countiei  io 
Connaught  are  (klway,  Mayo,  Sligo,  Roscommon,  and  Loitrim. 

Oalway  presents  to  the  soa  ranges  of  stoop  clifls,  which,  with  tho  waves  of  the  Atlantic 
dashing  against  them,  exhibit  a  grand  spectacle.  Tho  interior  contains  two  exton!>ivo  lakes, 
and  ib  (livorHifiod  with  hills,  though  tlioro  are  few  which  are  not  fit  for  pasturage.  The  cattle 
are  of  goinl  cpiality,  and  tho  flocks  of  sheep  are  more  extensive  than  in  other  parts  of  Ireland. 
The  flshcrios  of  horring  and  salmon  are  considerable.  Galway  hr%  always  been  a  consideif- 
ablo  town,  and  is  still  supported  by  some  inland  and  foreign  commerce,  by  a  coiiHiderablo 
fishery,  liy  tho  resort  of  the  gniitry  to  it  for  sea-bathing,  and  as  the  only  scone  of  gay  society 
to  bo  found  in  Connaught.  It  was  onco  very  strongly  fortified  both  by  nature  and  art;  and 
to  obtain  tho  protection  of  tho  walls,  tho  streets  wero  made  narrow,  and  the  houses  high, 
massive,  and  gloomy ;  but  tlioy  have  of  lato  been  considerably  opened,  and  suburbs  built,  of 
a  more  gay  and  elegant  description. 

Tuam  is  an  ancient,  handsome  town,  of  considerable  extent,  tho  seat  of  an  archbishopric. 
Ballinasloc,  on  the  eastern  border,  holds  tlio  greatest  cattlo  fair  in  Ireland,  whore  tho  oxen 
and  shcoi)  of  tho  pastoral  counties  of  Galway  and  Mayo  are  mustered  for  tho  capital.  At 
the  mouth  of  tho  bay  of  Galway  are  tho  bold  and  rocky  islands  of  Arran, 

Mayo  is  chiefly  elevated  and  rugged  ;  some  of  the  mountains  rising  to  upwards  of  2600 
feet;  but  mnny  of  their  sides  are  verdant,  and  tho  valleys  rich  and  well  watered;  so  that 
Mayo  is  a  fine  pastoral  county.  The  estates  are  large,  but  tho  farms  small,  and  much  sub* 
livided.  M'lyo  contains  no  town  of  sufficient  importance  to  return  a  member  to  parliament. 
Castlebar,  the  county  town,  is  well  built,  with  a  linen  hall ;  and  tho  linen  manufacture 
flourishes.  Killala,  a  straggling  village,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  is  chiefly  noted  for  the 
landing  effected  in  1798,  oy  a  body  of  French  troops  under  General  Humbert,  who  pene- 
trated to  Castlebar,  but  wore  finally  obliged  to  surrender  to  Marquess  Comwallis. 

Sligo  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  bog ;  but  the  remainder  consists  of  a  sandy 
gravelly  soil,  well  adapted  to  tho  production  of  barley  and  oats ;  so  that  pasturage  is  not  so 
exclusively  tha  employment  here  as  in  the  two  last-mentioned  counties.  Salmon  is  caught 
in  large  quantities.  The  linen  manufacture  has  made  considerable  progress,  and  is  extend- 
ing. Sligo,  the  capital,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  the  head  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name, 
was  in  early  times  a  considerable  place :  it  has  suffered  severely  in  civil  contention ;  yet,  by 
the  advantage  of  a  ^cod  situation  and  harbour,  it  has  attained  considerable  imp>  rtance  ana 
trade.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  remarkable  circle  of  stones,  called  the  Giant's  Grave,  somewhat 
resembling  Stonehenge. 

Roscommon  is  mosUy  level,  finely  watered,  and  celebrated  for  rich  pastures ;  but  tho  in- 
crease of  population  and  manufactures  has  caused  a  great  part  of  them  to  be  lately  brought 
into  tillage ;  it  contains  some  pretty  little  lakes,  among  which  Lough  Key  is  particularly 
admired.  Roscommon  is  ancient,  a.id  marked  by  some  ecclesiastical  antiquities,  but  it  is 
not  now  so  important  as  Boyle,  pleasantly  situated  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  over  which 
there  are  two  fine  bridges ;  in  its  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  a  stately  abbey,  founded  in 
1512,  tho  arches  of  which,  forty-six  feet  in  height,  are  deemed  models  of  Gothic  architect- 
ural gra.ideur.    Elphin,  the  seat  of  a  very  ancient  episcopal  see,  is  only  a  village. 

Leitrim  is  filled  with  high  mountains,  presenting  nature  under  bold  features,  often  height- 
ened by  the  ruined  castles  which  crown  their  summits.  There  are  veins  of  iron,  lead,  copper, 
and  coal,  the  last  of  which  has  been  wrought.  There  are  good  pastures  in  the  valleys,  and 
on  the  sides  of  the  hills ;  and  pretty  large  quantities  of  oats  are  raised.  The  linen  manu- 
&cture  is  extending,  and  there  are  some  considerable  potteries.  Carrick  on  Shannon,  the 
county  town,  and  Leitrim,  which  gives  name  to  it,  are  only  villages. 

Sdbsect.  4. — Vliter. 
This  part  of  Ireland  presents  i.i  many  respects  a  superior  character  to  the  other  three,  its 
population  being  more  industrious,  better  instructed,  and  in  more  comfortable  circuttistdnces. 
The  Presbyterian  form  of  worship,  introduced  by  the  SeottiBn  settlers  under  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  is  the  prevailing  one.  The  linen  manufacture,  the  staple  of  the  country,  has  here 
'.ts  jhief  seat,  and  is  carried  on  almost  in  every  village.  The  harbours  of  Belfast,  London- 
ferry,  and  Lough  Swilly,  are  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  commerce.    The  coast  of  Antrun, 


i'OL.  I 


89 


3H 


■.  J, 

/I! 


468 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  TIL 


in  tlie  boldnwiss  and  peculiar  character  of  its  rock  scenery,  is  witliout  a  match  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  The  counties  of  this  province  are,  f^rmanagh,  Donegal,  Jjondondeny, 
.Antrim,  Down,  Armagh,  Tyrone,  Monaghan,  Cavan. 

Fermanagh  is  a  somewhat  rough  county,  comprising  a  large  proportion  of  mountain  and 
bog,  but  wiSi  fertile  valleys,  in  wnich,  besides  the  usual  producta  of  oats  and  potatoes,  flax 
is  cultivated  to  the  extent  of  about  5000  acres.  The  waters  of  all  the  high  grounds  flow 
down  into  Lough  Erne,  a  noble  lake,  upwards  of  twenty  miles  in  length.  It  is  studded  with 
numerous  islands,  covered  with  fine  woods ;  long  wooded  promontories  are  seen  stretching 
&r  into  the  waters ;  and,  tliough  the  immediate  borders  of  the  lake  are  not  mountainous, 
.ofty  distant  eminences  form  the  general  background  to  its  prospects.  Cistle  Caldwell,  BeU 
turbet,  and  Belleisle  are  the  spots  in  which  its  beauties  are  peculiarly  concentrated.  The 
chief  town  is  Ennlskillen,  delightfully  situated  on  an  island,  accessible  only  by  two  opposite 
bridges;  this  site  enabled  it  to  make  its  noble  stand  agamst  the  army  of  James  II. 

Donegal  includes  a  great  extent  of  the  north-western  coast  of  Ireland,  full  of  deep  bays 
and  fine  harbours.  In  its  interior,  however,  it  consists  almost  entirely  of  mountain,  moss, 
and  moor,  with  only  a  few  productive  valleys.  It  is  often  called,  with  some  adjoining  dis- 
tricts, "  the  black  north  of  Ireland."  Distillation  forms  an  active  branch  of  its  industry. 
Liflbrd,  its  small  county  town,  stands  on  the  Poyle,  upon  the  borders  of  Derry.  Ballyshan- 
non,  almost  at  the  opposite  extremity,  is  a  thriving  town,  beautifully  situated  on  the  channel 
by  which  Lough  Erne  pours  its  waters  into  the  Atlantic.  Raphoe  is  a  celebrated  episcopal 
Bee,  but  now  only  a  decayed  village. 

Derry,  or  Ijondonderry,  a  large  and  fine  county,  is  crossed  by  a  ran^e  of  mountains,  whose 
principal  peak*  are  fi'om  1000  to  1500  feet  high,  and  a  considerable  part  o..  whose  surface 
consists  '/f  heatii  and  bog.  TJiere  are,  however,  fine  valleys,  and  extensive  plains,  which 
are  cultivated  witfi  some  diligence,  but  according  to  that  system  rf  minute  subdivision  which 
is  the  bane  of  Irish  agriculture.  The  linen  manufacture  flourishes  in  full  vigour,  chiefly 
according  to  the  Irish  system,  among  tho  little  farmers  and  cotters,  who  combine  it  with  the 
cultivation  of  a  few  acres.  Londonderry  is  a  fine  city,  situated  at  the  point  where  the  Foyle, 
after  traversing  a  great  part  of  this  county  and  that  of  Tyrone,  falls  into  the  broad  basin  of 
Lough  Foyle.  It  is  ancient,  being  the  theatre  of  remarkable  events  even  in  the  time  of  the 
Danes.  In  1608,  after  the  attainder  of  O'Neale,  it  was  granted  by  James  I.  to  the  citizens 
of  London,  whence  it  derived  the  first  part  of  its  name.  But  its  chief  distinction  was  fi-om 
the  siege  sustained  by  the  city  in  1690-1,  against  the  united  forces  of  Ireland  under  James 
II.  Londonderry  is  composed  of  four  main  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles,  and 
surrounded  still  by  its  old  walls  in  full  repaii,  serving  rather  for  ornament  than  defence.  It 
has  an  ancient  Gothic  cathedra!,  and  some  handsome  modern  edifices.  It  is  now  supported 
by  an  extensive  commerce,  for  which  Lough  Foyle,  though  its  entrance  is  somewhat  impeded 
by  a  bar,  affords  a  spacious  and  secure  harbour.  Its  chief  intercourse  is  with  the  United  States 
and  the  West  Indies,  to  which  it  exports  the  linen  manufactured  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
Coleraine  is  a  well-built  town  on  the  Bann,  which  flows  fi-om  Lough  Neagh,  and  on  which 
is  the  most  extensive  salmon  fishery  in  the  island ;  but  the  rapidity  of  the  stream  obstructs 
the  navigation  upwards, 

Antrim,  occupying  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the  kingdom,  opposite  the  coa3t  of  Scotland, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  districts  of  Ireland,  in  regard  to  natural  features  as  well  as  to 
commerce  and  industry.  A  great  part  of  the  surface  consists  of  rugged  mountains,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  rock  and  moss,  and  even  its  best  soils  are  scarcely  available  for  agricultural 
purpost'H  till  improved  by  the  use  of  the  lime  with  which  the  country  abounds.  The  moun- 
tains, where  they  fee  the  ocean,  are  broken  into  vast  perpendicular  precipices,  exhibiting 
the  basaltic  columnar  form  on  a  grander  scale  than  exists  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
Of  these  objects,  the  Giant's  Causeway  (Jig.  221.)  is  the  most  celebrated  and  magnificent 
oj»|  Three  natural  pijers  or  moles,  400  feet 

**  in  height,  here  stretch  out  into  the 

sea,  and  are  visible  above  the  water 
for  about  300  yards.  The  walls  are 
composed  of  dark  basaltic  columns,  of 
the  most  regular  form,  and  so  closely 
united,  that  only  the  blade  of  a  knife 
can  be  thrust  between  them.  Each 
column  is  distinct  from  the  others,  and 
divided  into  jointed  portions,  as  per- 
fect as  if  art  had  formed  them ;  there 
being  in  each  part  a  projection,  which 
IS  lodged  in  a  corresponding  concavity  or  socket  of  the  one  contiguous.  The  coast  eastward 
of  the  causeway  is  composed  of  a  succvission  of  capes,  presenting  the  most  sublime  scenery; 
dark  precipitouB  clifS,  rising  regularly  in  gradually  retiring  strata,  and  formed  into  various 
faroken  colonnades  which  might  suggest  the  idea  of  palaces  overwhelmed  in  ruins. 
Other  striking  features  distuiguisli  the  coast  of  Antrim.    Conspicuous  above  all  othere  is 


The  Oiaot'i  Causeurar. 


Part  III 

a  match  in  any  other 
tonegal,  Ijondondenry, 

tion  of  mountain  and 
ats  and  potatoes,  Qa:c 
le  high  grounds  How 
th.  n  is  studded  with 
3  are  seen  stretching 
are  not  mountainous, 
C  istle  Caldwell,  Bel- 
y  concentrated.  The 
!  only  by  two  opposite 
of  James  II. 
land,  full  of  deep  bays 
ly  of  mountain,  moss, 
h  some  adjoining  dis- 
iranch  of  its  industry, 
af  Derry.  Ballyshon- 
ituated  on  the  channel 
a  celebrated  episcopal 

e  of  mountains,  whose 
part  Ok  vvhose  surface 
itensive  plains,  which 
nute  subdivision  which 
in  full  vigour,  chiefly 
ho  combine  it  with  the 
point  where  the  Foyle, 
nto  the  broad  basin  of 
even  in  the  time  of  the 
fames  I.  to  the  citizens 
jf  distinction  was  from 
f  Ireland  under  James 
er  at  right  angles,  and 
nent  than  defence.  It 
It  is  now  supported 
is  somewhat  impeded 
with  the  United  States 
is  part  of  the  country. 
JNeagh,  and  on  which 
"  the  stream  obstructs 

the  coajt  of  Scotland, 
features  as  well  as  to 
jged  mountains,  com- 
lilable  for  agricultural 
labounds.     The  moun- 
precipices,  exhibiting 
part  of  the  world, 
rated  and  magnificent. 
"  jrs  or  moles,  400  feet 
stretch  out  into  the 
Jiible  above  the  water 
lards.    The  walls  are 
|k  basaltic  columns,  of 
form,  and  so  closely 
the  blade  of  a  knire 
letween  them.    Each 
}t  from  the  others,  and 
ited  portions,  as  per- 
formed them;  there 
.  a  projection,  which 
The  coast  eastward 
lost  sublime  scenery; 
formed  into  various 
led  in  ruins, 
is  above  all  others  is 


Book  I. 


IRET.AND. 


Curiick-a-Rode. 


Fairhead,  called  also  Benmore ;  a  promontory  which  forms  nearly  the  north-eastern  pt'uit  of 
Ireland.  It  consists  of  a  vast  mass  of  columnar  greenstone,  coniposing  a  mural  precipice 
rudely  colunmar,  and  250  feet  high.  At  its  feet  lies  a  chaos  o  huge  masses  of  rock,  heaped 
togemer  in  the  wildest  confusion,  and  forming  a  scene  of  ruin  the  awful  grandeur  of  which 

has  scarcely  a  parallel.  Against  this 
the  sea  heaves  in  a  solemn  majestic 
swell,  the  peculiar  attribute  of  the  At- 
lantic waters.  Carrick-a-Rede  (Jig.  222.) 
is  a  small  island  composed  of  a  mass  of 
basalt,  imperfectly  formed  into  columns, 
separated  from  the  continent  by  a  chasm 
of  sixty  feet.  The  fishermen,  however, 
have  occasion  to  resort  to  it  with  the 
view  of  placing  nets  to  intercept  the 
salmon ;  to  reach  it,  therefore,  they  have 
constructed  a  daring  and  singular  bridge, 
formed  of  two  strong  parallofcables  fixed 
to  each  side,  with  planks  ir.8erted  between  them.  This  slight  pontage  is  subject  to  violent 
movements,  and,  if  not  judiciously  trodden,  may  precipitate  the  passenger  into  the  abyss ; 
but  the  fishermen,  accustomed  to  tread  it,  carry  great  loads  across  without  the  slightest 
apprehension.  Several  of  the  precipitous  cliffs  are  adorned  with  the  ruinp  of  ancient  castles, 
the  grandest  of  which  is  Dunluce  (Jig,  223.),  whose  extensive  area  covers  the  long  ridge  of 
ogg  -  an  almost  ii.sulated  rock,  which  presents 

^  its  perpendicular  face  to  the  ocean.   The 

walls  enclose  the  entire  surface  of  the 
rock,  and  rise  up  as  a  continuation  of  its 
precipitous  sides.  In  one  place,  the  rocky 
base  having  given  way,  the  apartment 
above  actually  overhangs  the  sea. 

Belfast,  the  grand  emporium  of  the 
north  Ui  Ireland,  has  risen  to  greatness 
by  rapid  steps.  Carrickfergus,  by  means 
of  peculiar  privileges,  monopolised  all 
the  trade  of  this  part  of^  Ireland,  till  these 
privileges  were  bought  up  by  the  Earl 
of  Strafford.  The  career  of  competition 
was  then  opened  to  Belfast,  and  she  gradually  outstripped  all  her  rivals.  In  1660,  the  town 
contained  about  6500  inhabitants.  At  present  the  population  is  53,000,  exclusive  of  a  large 
suburb  m  the  county  of  Down.  The  linen  manufacture  is  very  flourishing  a!  Belfast,  and 
that  of  cotton  is  rapidly  extending ;  besides  which  there  are  various  minor  fabrics.  Com- 
merce, howevei",  is  the  main  source  of  its  wealth.  The  linen  fabrics  of  the  north  arc  largely 
exported,  along  with  oats,  oatmeal,  and  salted  provisions ;  the  entire  value  of  which,  in  1810, 
amounted  to  2,900,000/.  The  duties  of  customs,  which  in  1801  were  182,314?.,  had  risen 
in  1829  to  259,000/.  Belfast  Lough  forms  a  noble  and  secure  bay,  and  the  ^ii.*nnel  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Lagan  has  been  so  deepened  by  art  that  vessels  drawing  chirtetp  feet  water 
can  come  close  to  the  wharves.  Belfast  is  mostly  built  of  brick ;  but  several  public  et'-lces, 
recently  erected,  the  Commercial  Buildings,  the  Museum,  St.  George's  Church,  &c.,  are 
ornamented  with  pillars  of  freestone.  Belfast  has  several  commercial  and  literary  institu- 
tions ;  and  in  1810,  the  Royal  Academical  College,  a  seminary  on  an  extensive  scale,  was 
founded. 

The  other  towns  of  Antrim  can  boast  little  more  than  names  known  in  history.  Antrim 
itself  has  lost  ita  former  importance,  though  beautifully  situated  near  the  great  body  of  water 
called  Lough  Neagh,  which  covers  about  100,000  English  acres,  and  borders  on  five  coun- 
ties,— Armagh,  Tyrone,  Londonderry,  Down,  and  Antrim.  Its  flat  shores  possess  liHle  ot 
interest  or  beauty ;  and  its  overflowings  have  converted  into  bog  about  60,000  ac re j  round  it. 
Carrickfergus,  at  the  mouth  of  Belfiist  Lough,  is  a  very  ancient  town,  once  the  emporium 
and  key  of  northern  Ireland,  but  it  has  yielded  the  palm  of  commerce  entirely  to  Belfast, 
and  is  supported  only  by  being  the  county  town  and  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place.  Lis- 
hurn  is  a  prosperous  town,  with  a  manufacture  of  damask. 

Down  is  a  fine  county,  penetrated  b;  several  large  lakes,  as  those  of  Strangford  and  Car- 
lingford.  The  latt  of  these  receives  the  Newry,  which  communicates  by  a  cpnal  with  Lough 
Neagh.  The  Mourne  mountains,  on  the  southern  border,  exceed  2600  feet  in  height,  and 
form  a  conspicuous  object ;  but  a  large  extent  of  the  county  is  level,  and  a  g-eater  propor- 
tion is  under  tillage  than  pasturage.  The  combination  of  farming  and  weaving  exists  in  a 
femaf kable  degree ;  and  the  linen  fabrics  are  not  only  extensive,  but  some  of  them  very  fine. 
Of  late,  however,  those  of  cotton  have  gained  a  pr^  ix\->nce  in  many  districts.  Down,  or 
Downpatrick,  celebrated  in  tradition  as  the  burial-place  ci  the  patron  saint,  iu  cf  moderate 


Dunluee  Castle. 


460 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  ITT. 


'<  .    * 


dimensioiu,  and  its  puMic  buildings  respectable.  Newry  ia  larcrer  anil  more  flourishing. 
These  advantages  are  owing  to  its  situation  in  the  bay  of  Carlingrord,  and  its  canal  commu> 
niofttion  with  Lough  Neagh,  which  enable  it  to  export  the  linen  manuikctures  and  provisions 
produced  in  an  extensive  district  It  is  ancient,  but  in  1689  was  reduced  to  ashes  by  Mar- 
shal Berwick ;  so  that  it  is  now  quite  a  new  town.  Donaghadee,  a  considerable  port,  with  a 
large  substantial  quay,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  ferry  between  it  and  Portpatrick,  the 
shortest  sea  communication  with  Britain,  and  by  which  packets  are  despatched  and  live  stock 
m  very  great  quantities  conveyed  over. 

Armagh  is  also  a  fine  ana  tigreeable  county.  In  general  it  is  only  pleasingly  diversified 
with  litUe  hills,  the  bogs  are  no  more  than  requisite  tor  supplying  fuel,  and  only  a  small  part 
is  left  unproductive.  Both  culture  and  manufacture  are  prosecuted  with  great  activity. 
The  linens  produced  in  1824  were  reputed  at  568,0002.,  exceeding  a  fifth  of  the  produce  of 
the  whole  kingdom.  Armagh,  the  capital,  was  celebrated  in  the  early  history  of  Ireland 
as  one  of  its  most  extensive  and  populous  cities,  and  has  always  been  the  ecclesiastical  m- 
tropolis  of  the  kingdom.  The  Augustine  monastery,  and  the  college  attached  to  it,  ranked 
for  a  long  time  among  the  most  celebrated  institutions  in  Europe  for  religion  and  learning; 
the  latter,  it  is  said,  could  once  boast  of  7000  students.  Armagh  sunk,  however,  under  suc- 
cessive ravages  by  the  Danes,  tlie  English,  and,  finally,  the  Irish  insurgents  under  O'Ncale, 
and  fell  into  decay ;  but  by  good  fortune  had  for  its  primate  Dr.  Richard  Robinson,  to  whose 
munificent  exertions  is  ascribed  its  revival  and  its  having  become  one  of  the  prettiest  little 
cities  in  Ireland.  To  him  Armagh  is  indebted  for  the  repair  of  its  cathedral,  for  a  library, 
and  an  observatory.  The  linen  market  is  well  supported  by  the  flourishing  state  of  tin 
manufacture  in  Armagh.  The  only  other  place  of  consequence  is  Lurgan,  a  Uiriving  maou- 
Picturing  town. 

The  fijree  counties  of  Tyrone,  Mona^kan,  and  Cavan  occupy  a  great  proportion  of  the 
interior  of  Ulster,  and  present  a  very  uniform  afpect;  a  considerable  extent  of  mountain  and 
bog,  fertile  plains,  rude  cultivation,  and  the  linen  manufacture.  O'Neale,  Earl  of  Tyrone, 
was  long  one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  English  power.  Omagh  is  the  county- 
town  of  Tyrone,  but  is  not  so  considerable  as  Dungannon,  a  large,  populous,  and  handsome 
place,  once  the  chief  seat  of  the  O'Neales ;  but  this  powerful  castle  was  demolished  by  the 
parlianr.entary  forces.  Strabane  is  also  a  populous  place,  finely  situated  on  the  Foyle. 
Moiiaghan  and  Cavan  are  both  tolerable  county-towns,  which  alone  possess  any  importance 
in  their  respective  shires. 


FINANCES  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 

L  Income  for  the  year  1834. 

Customa XS1,118,OJ20 

Excise .  16,7»,718 

Stampi  and  Hackney  Coachea,  4cc 7,468,735 

Taxes 4,667,330 

Fost  Office 3,319,980 

Mieccllaneous - 436,118 

East  India  Company 60,000 

Balance  on  hand , ».- 1,907,190 

Bepayments ..»■..-. 618,731 


H.  Expenditure  for  the  year  1884. 


jes3,456,5;: 


Pttymenta  out  (if  the  groaa  Reeenue. 

DrawbackK,  Repayments,  &c JCS,%4,S96 

Charges  of  Collection,  &c 3,583,635 

Miscellaneous 738,810 

Paid  at  the  Exchequer, 
Interest  and  Management  of  Pormanont  Debt . 

Terminable  Annuities 

Interest  on  Exchequer  Bills 

Bussian  Loan,  raised  in  Holland. . , 

Civil  List . 


6,52.'i,741 

34,158,879 

3,653,9!W 

6914!E4 

190,810 

510,000 

Civil,  Naval,  Military  and  Judicial  Annuities  and  Pensions 503,310 

Salaries  and  Allowances , 168,930 

Diplomatic  Balarieit  and  Pensions 181,448 

Courts  of  Justice 433,610 

Mint. 


14,850 

Army • 6,403,985 

Navy 4,503,910 

Ordnance 1,00(>.S9) 

Miscellaneous 3,335,iKl0 

Advances  for  Public  Works S,014,5U 

Total  Expenditure... £S3,mfi^ 

in.  Public  Debt— January  ieM.  Oftorge  for  1888 

37,000,900 


Funded  Debt 
Unflinded  Debt 


Totalf ..>.     .^.....r779,565,763 


779,780 
X38,501,8BS 


TRADE  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 


jr  and  more  flourishing, 
'd,  and  its  canal  commu- 
lufactures  and  provisions 
educed  to  ashes  by  Mar- 
considerable  port,  with  a 
n  it  and  Portpatrick,  the 
lespatched  and  live  stock 

ily  pleasingly  diversiiled 
el,  and  only  a  small  port 
tod  with  eteai  activity, 
a  fifth  of  me  produce  of 
early  history  of  Ireland 
in  the  ecclesiastical  me- 
;e  attached  to  it,  ranked 
r  religion  and  learning; 
nk,  however,  under  sue- 
surgents  under  O'Neale, 
hard  Robinson,  to  whose 
me  of  the  prettiest  litUe 
cathedral,  for  a  library, 
flourishing  state  of  tlie 
iurgan,  a  tiiriving  manu* 

great  proportion  of  the 
3  extent  of  mountain  and 
I'Neale,  Earl  of  Tyrone, 
,  Omagh  is  the  county- 
populous,  and  handsome 
e  was  demolished  by  the 

situated  on  the  Foyle. 
!  possess  any  important 


I  Account  of  the  Ofllcial  ■nd  of  the  Real  or  Declared  Value  of  the  principal  Articlee  of  Britiib  Produce  and 
Manun>cturo  exported  in  1833,  1833,  and  1834.— (From  the  Annual  finanei  Book  fur  1809,  pp.  131—138.) 


ArUclM. 


gnu  uil  eoppar  nunufiic^ura^ 
I'^tloi  iitatiuucturn  ....■• 

,        j-arn • 

UudwvM  and  cuUerf 

liMuid  itMl,  «n>u^tuiln» 

wrousW  •  •  • 

(iiWQ  iiL-inubetuifli  ••-•>■• 
._-  yarn  .••«.-•••-•• 

Wl • •  •  ■  •  • 

Hlk  gunuhctum 

SoipOIkl  OlIldiM- >  •  - 

Sopr,  KfiiMd 

Til,  wrought  ukd  unwroiigfat  • 

Wool,  ihaep^ 

WoolleD  uA  wonted  jtn  -  -  - 

Woollen  manuCutunw 

Ill  other  utidea 

ToWe 

Whereof  from  Omt  BritilQ  •  - 
tma  livlaud 


oeSciil  Vilue.* 


8,408,183 

47^186 

IJI&489 

149,991 

4,«^r- 


,981     I    6 


65,021,708  II    0 


64,582,007    9    7 
<i44;e85    I    5 


1803. 


L.          t.  i. 

1,018,884  II  « 

40.130,343    2  3 

e,279A76    6  8 

9611,503    4  7 


8,690^^3  14 

3,6S1I,K)9  0 

50,125  18 

392,053  7 

695,324  0 

453,910  17 

693,131  14 

371,634  3 

175,479  12 

113,191  3 

7,788,842  6 


4,578,046  12  II 


69,986,339  13    8 


1894. 


L.  I.  d. 

1,086,994    8    4 

44,2)16,902  13    0 

tMsen  18  » 

»47;478  18  II 

8,C3I,«;8    9  8 

3,850,763  14  5 

82,168  10  9 

371,466  19  10 

533,683    «  7 

382,198  10  0 

1,141,563  14  4 

370,115  18  10 

81,382  17  10 

99,933  II  9 

6314,103    3  10 

4.6»,6ea    I  6 


73,831,550  IS    1 


19,633,853  16    I      73,495^536  II    3 
355,486  17    7  336,015    4    I 


UecUred  Value. 


1832. 


L.  I.  <L 

916,563  I    6 

I2,«7^«>2  8    6 

4,7K7I>4  3    6 

1,434,431  7  II 

1,190,747  12  10 

1,774,728  13    « 

8,106    7    0 

I4?,«78    I    6 

629,690  10  10 

316,644  16    3 

l,(ni^789  16   0 

SM^OM   9   8 

219,650    I    0 

taaof  7  6 

6,244,658  II    8 
6,632,890  II    9 


36,444,684  18    7 


36,046,(87  II    6 
388,497    7    8 


1803. 


I.          I.  i. 

881,149    4  9 

I3,782,:l76  17  6 

4,704,024    9  I 

I,4ti6,3ei  12  11 

1,406,034  19  8 

8,167,023    7  I 

72,006    6  0 

184,176  10  8 

737,409  17  10 


301,284  19 

ge3,0M  4 

369,162  0 

333,603  17 

246,204  0 

6,294,432  3 

6,097,113  0 


39,667,347    6    6 


38,305,612  19    8 
361,934    8    9 


1834. 


L.         I.  i. 

961,823   8  II 

16,308,611    7    I 

6,211^14  IT   8 

1,486,233    I    1 

1,406,878    8    1 

8,443^  18    7 

13^12  II    » 

152,186  14  10 

637,196    6    4 

863,978    4  11 

916,381    6   6 

370368  II    6 

198,176  14    I 

238^  16    9 

6,736,870  II    0 

6,194,368    I    6 


41,649,191    9   6 


41,286,564    6    8 
362,697    4    0 


n.  Account  of  the  Real  or  Declared  Value  of  the  various  Articles  of  the  Manufacture  and  Produce  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  exported  to  Foreign  Countries  during  tlie  eight  years  ending  with  1834 ;  specifying  their  Value,  the 
Countries  to  which  exported,  and  the  Value  of  those  annually  shipped  for  each.— (Fapcrj  publiiktd  by  Board  tf 
TVaife,  vol.  iv.  p.  287.) 


Countrla  to  which  exported. 


Snden  ..-..■■....•. 

Norwajr 

Dumarlc 

FrwU 

Oonaoy 

Hollind 

Idfluin 

fnj^e*  ■•.■.■.*.■... 
Mii|il,  rroper 

Xmxx% 

Madeii* 

lain  and  llie  Balearic  Iilasda  • 

umff  lilauJl 

Oilmllar 

lUraed  the  Ilaliao  Uaada  •  • 


lUra 
Mila 


Iwlan  Iihndi 

Turtav  aud  Contloental  Oreaoe  (ex- 

diutve  of  the  Morm) 

More*  nnd  Greek  h     \% 

Enpi(h>ri>  01,  ...  Medilemnean) 
Tripoli,  narbary,  .-uid  Morocco  •  •  • 
Weitcni  Ccut  of  Africa  ....... 

CipeofGtxKt  llopo 

C«i»  Verd  Islaodl 

SI.  Heltna 

[lleof  Ilourbon 

Miurlliui 

irabia 

Cut  !nd'..  Con.)niiy>i  Territoriea 

,  ud  r.;yion 

..iiiua 

Sumitra  and  Jaw 

PfallipplDu  lilandi 

Hew  South  Wain,  Vrji  Dlement 

Und,  and  Swan  River - 

Haw  Zcal.ind,  and  South  Sea  lalanda 

Pwtl  of  Siara 

British  North  American  Coloniee  ■  • 

Briliih  Wifit  Indiea 

H'.tll 

Uutia  and  other  (ireln  West  Indiea 

''ailed  Slatea  of  Amenea 

Meiico 

Guatemala 

Colombia 

Brull 

Statu  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 

Chili 

ram .................. 

tilei  o(  Ouernaey,  Jeiacy,  AUentej, 

and  Man 


Expurla. 


1827. 


1828. 


L. 

1,406,970 
46,731 
39^129 
104,916 
174,338 
4,654,618 
8,104,661 
446,953 

39916 
835,414 
48,lj2l 
1,045,868 
1,942,762 
200,949 
37,196 

631,704 

63,684 

8,201 

165,769 

816,568 

41,430 

187 

196,713 


Totala- 


3,662,018 
610,637 
120,747 


178 


1,387,350 

3,683,882 

^7,931 

649,378 

7,018,278 

608,800 

1,943 

8l3,r2 

8,318,109 

^64,696 

400,134 

<>88,466 

320,969 


37,181 ,336 


L. 

IJI8,936 
411,699 
63,682 
111,680 
179,146 

4,394,104 

8,143,736 

498,938 

946,016 

27,940 

38,802 

301,153 

38^152 

l,038,eS5 

8,176,149 

836,458 

41,078 

186,942 

335 
36J02 
13,746 
191,452 
818,049 
6,856 
31,362 
35,188 
185,978 


1829. 


L. 
1,433,606 

38,232 
6<L234 
95247 
189,011 
4,473,555 

8,030,014 

491,388 

1,195,404 

31,244 

40,283 

861,675 

60010 

604,163 

8,202,030 

^,010 

80,466 


69,303 


183a 


4,256,582 


189,200 
300 

443,839 

8,447 


1,691,044 

3,ffi9,70t 
848,329 
660,728 

5,810,316 

307,029 

6,191 

861,113 

3,518,897 
312^9 
709  J7I 
S74,CI6 

329,428 


36,812.766 


244,253 

257,501 

240 

45,531 

16,341 

205,558 


3,659,318 


U6,886 
4,721 

310,688 
845 


1,681,723 

3,612/185 

297,709 

672,176 

':,923,4I5 


232,703 
8,616,040 
^Mi640 

818,050 

aoai7i 

319,906 


36,84il,«» 


L. 

1,489,538 
40,488 
63,!>26 
118,813 
171,923 

4,463,605 

2,022,468 

475,884 
1,106,695 

23,629 

38,444 
607,068 

42,620 

29^760 

3,25lil9 

189,135 

66,1.63 

1,139,616 

9,694 

110,221 

1,138 

252,123 

330,006 

1,710 

38,916 

10,042 

161,029 


1831. 


L. 

1,191,665 

67,127 

68  680 

92.294 

192,816 

3,648,962 

8,082,536 

ei»,688 
975,991 

41,638 

38960 
697,848 

33,282 

367,285 

2,490,376 

134,519 

60^883 


1832. 


3,885,630 


1(8,102 
71,220 

314,617 

1,396 

10,467 

1,857,133 

2,838,448 

321,783 

6ltS029 

6,132,316 

978,441 


216,751 

8,453,103 

632,172 

640,626 


344,036 


38,871,597 


10,446 
122^832 
426 
234,768 
857,246 
215 
39,431 


148,476 


3,377,412 


2(13,296 
3^1,t 

398,471 
4,752 


2,089,327 

81681.949 

31KI0a 

663,531 

g,053,5K) 

728,868 


Z. 

1,687,250 

^4,932 

34,528 

93,396 

2Si>,356 

6,068,997 

8,189,398 

614,791 

640,792 
77,920 
28,038 

442.926 
21,053 

461,470 

Si6l,772 

96,994 

65,725 

916,319 
10,149 
113,109 
751 
890,061 
292,406 


21,236 


163,191 


3,514,779 


160606 
118,284 

466,238 
1,576 


248,260 
l,C»^ 
339,870 
65l,£;' 
409,003 

384,634 


87,164,878 


2,075,723 

2,439,l«9 

643,.04 

633,100 

6,468,278 

199,881 


8K1.368 
8,l-<i,'j03 
(>U),168 
106,193 
876,610 

317,496 


86,460,604 


L. 

1^31,002 

66,549 

55,008 

99,961 

144,179 

4,356,548 

2,181,893 

886,420 

848,333 

967,091 

64,430 

31,411 

442,837 

30,607 

386,460 

2,316,260 

135,438 

38,916 

1,019,604 
25,914 
145,647 
2,350 
329,210 
346,191 
146 
30,041 


83,424 


3,496,301 


411,113 
186,398 

658,313 
896 


2,082,650 
8^,689 
^1638 

6H,22« 
1,519,699 

421,481 
&700 

127,826 
8,676,680 

iXhjm. 

81(C8I7 

387,524 

335,931 


30,667,347 


'■fe 


94,596 

136,423 

4,647,166 

8,470,867 

160,06e 

1,116,888 

1,600,188 

63,876 

38,456 

325,901 

30,688 

460,719 

3,282,717 

^^,696 

84,498 

1,207,941 
37,178 
168,871 
14,833 
386,483 
304^83 

fan 

31,616 

1,091 

149,319 

850 

8,578,669 

842,862 

410,273 

76,618 

116,014 

19,148 
1,611,068 
8,680,024 

351,897 

913,006 
6,844,968 

459,610 
3^366 

198,896 
8,460,879 

831,664 


360666 


41,649,191 


*  The  rate  at  which  all  articles  of  export  and  import  ere  offlcially  valued  wait  fixed  in  1606,  but  an  account  of 
Ine  reil  or  declared  value  of  the  exports  is  also  prepared ;  th?re  is,  however,  no  such  account  of  the  imports,  ant) 
(Mnlbre  tneir  ofllcial  vatuo  alone  can  be  giv(jn. 

88* 


4A2 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pabt  rn, 


IIL  Account  of  the  QuanlitieR  of  the  Principal  Articloi  of  Foreign  and  Colonial  Mcrchandiie  imported  into, 
exported  flroitii  and  retained  for  Connumption  in  the  l/nitod  Kingdom,  with  the  Nuit  Revenue  accruing  theroaa 
during  the  Yean  ended  8th  January,  1834,  and  ie05.—{ruper§ pubttilud  by  Board  of  T^ade,  vol,  iv.  pp.  1^19.) 


Dncriptkm  a(  Met  thaadlM. 


Adw,  iMul  udpot, eini. 

BtrllU  uxl  >lluai 

1^%  fr  lunint  or 

.^yi'ji   — 

Qttu,  »U.  I— 

Briilih  111-  uullo, Ibi. 

Eul  luia  and  Muiritliu — 

Iteeiga  plutttioa — 

ToUU 

Co«a Ibi. 

Hi»k».iirl.hc:u — 

Cotton  wool  from  fbrelgn  cnunlriM, 

rihisi  ."(ilnof  Anurin — 

tr«U      •  ■ - 

Tiirk'V  Jid  E(Tpl — 

Othor  6ialxn  countries — 

Co'toa  wool  from  BrItUli  pmnnlnni, 

nr.  1— 

EaM  I  idiei  and  MiurMiia  .  •  •  •  — 
H'l  iih  Wett  lodiei,  U»  |rov<ll 

of — 

Britiih  Wat  Indiei,  imported 

tram  •  ' — 

Ot'iei  ''  -  ■     poiMNioot — 

Totil  quanUUei 

Indigo Ibi. 

ludja --'  -- 

Lof  wood tone, 

Maoder cwt*. 

Madder  roots 

I'lax  and  tow,  or  codilU  of  flax 

and  hemp  -  •  • 

Currants — 

Lemons  and  oraa^>  >•••■-•  chests 

Raiiioa ,...,.-..  cwts. 

Hats  of  straw No. 

Waiting  of  straw lie. 

Hemp  undrened  ■  •  ■  • cwts. 

Hijes,  unlauned,  Til.1— 
BulnUo,  bull,  ox,  cow,  or  horse 

bides cwta. 

Hides,  tanned,  Tis.  :— 
Bulrslo,  bull,  OK,  cow,  or  bone 

hides lljs. 

Leather  gloves pain 

Molasses  • cwts. 

Oil- 
Olive  galls. 

Palm cwts. 

Train,  spermaceti  and  blubber  >  •  tuns 

Saltpetre  and  cubic  nitre cwl^ 

Flax  and  Linseed •  •  •  bushels 

Silk- 
Haw  lbs. 

Waste  and  knubbe  ........  — 

Cassia  Liguea — 

I^I-jier — 

Pimento .— 

Susar,  Ti7.  :— 

VVeil  India .  - cwts. 

East  India  and  Mauntius — 

Foreign  •. — 

Tallow — 

Tea — 

Timlier,  vi  ■.  :— 

Battens  and  battea  ends — 

Deal  and  deal  end great  bund. 

Masts  tj  and  under  8  inches  in  dia* 

n-eter No. 

Kfssls  8  and  under  12  inches  in  dia> 

meter -    — 

Masts  12  inches  and  upwards  *  •  Ids. 

(Mk  plants - 

Staves gt,  hund. 

Fir,  S  inches  B(;u-«re  and  upwartls,loads 

Oak,  ilitto — 

Unenumcrated,  ditto 

Wainscot  lofs,  ditto .  .  -  •    .  «  •  — 
Tobacco,  via.  i  — 
Unmaiaifacturat*  .........  lbs. 

Manufacturei*  or  segars — 

Snuff — 

Wool,  ibeep  end  lambe* — 

Wine,  viz.  i  — 

Caps Imp.  galls. 

French 

Fnrtu^ ^-" 

SMnish 

ftladeirm    .- 

Other  iorti 


Quantities  Imported. 


IBS3. 


I<»,7il9 
iHfOi 

wi,ni 

18,831,830 
9,373,1)80 


34,4.1«,l(» 


4,eu<l,7l8 
6I1,<88 


931,«ie,T58 

28,463,821 

g87,2tiil 

1,896,108 


32,7M,IM 

l,6M,IM 

431,696 
lia,S6i 

303,636,837 


6,635,436 
326,1114 

se,otio 

6IJ97 

e^tiei 

1,129,633 
I4i,.'>39 
3J1,%I 
158,324 

25,723 

iixa 

M7,4i9 


296,300 


65,702 

1,436,472 

717,034 

1,891,918 
267,194 
32,K76 
iat,746 

2,170,13a 

2,7SS,I09 
649,451 
1,297,710 
8,729,552 
4,844,973 

3,&5i,e3l 
737,653 
340,018 

1,115,427 
32,057,832 

10,597 
65,798 

9,169 

3,130 
4,416 
2,381 
63,896 
466,(194 

32,484 


22,082,579 

386,609 

3,864 

38,046,087 

454,394 
275,366 
2,226,733 
3,368,530 
301,057 
817,761 


7,443,841 


1834. 


94,134 
193,971 

849,300 

22,089,123 
9,951,141 
9,824,847 


41,i«5,in 


1,984,694 
404,039 


269,203,073 

19,291,396 

855,167 

2,260,852 

32,930,8eS 
1,672  211 


326,875,4ii 


4,155,296 

708,939 

21,054 

72,004 

80,297 

811,722 
192,786 
266,323 
213,729 
16,550 
4.5,372 
673,811 


437,291 


80,262 

I  697,944 

678,382 

2JI18,142 
270,6611 
25,334 
359,488 

2,210,23- 

3,e43,6"2 
1,012,951 
2,068,636 
7,875,340 
1,396,773 

3,644,243 

697,141 

202,C3a 

1,397,407 

33,643,980 

13,360 
67,103 

10,223 

3,853 
4,470 
2,719 
e6,8i5 
48»,466 
20,494 
41,769 
3,031 

38,517,861 

939,882 

164 

46,45E,232 

484,298 
oKI,376 
4.213,427 
3,446,563 
372,098 
8K3,754 


9,766,116 


Quantities  exported. 


1833, 


ll,3» 
2,458 

364 

194,980 
3,996,097 
11,158,501 


15,349,578 


2,351,877 


17,363,882 


8,664,814 

52,811 

7,045 

756 

27 


10,554 
5,294 

36,127 

56,093 
2,l«l 

32,170 


29,366 

10,450 
'"l'332 


397,367 

19,738 

2,093 

20,7,17 

652 

I       66,187 

1,341,546 

8,997,027 

2,810,384 

Ha 

)     366,550 

)■  Refin 

)     245,608 

39,-245 

254,400 

60 


21,1 
465 
19 
3,081 
810 
42 

eo 


1831. 


a,ii« 

3,233 

1,132 

168,046 
6Ja3,5ta 
8ri77,972 


15,250,480 


8,903,316 


24,461,963 


3,928,226 

8S<,234 

4^18 

1,527 


Quintilies  retained  for 
Consumption. 


166,422 

219,503 

8M,27« 

20,941,194 

1,799,319 

1,471 


22,741,084 


1,268,287 
449,168 


8,060,562 

210,914 

2,359 

442,686 

16,436 
99,540 
243,577 
732,306 
209,194 
312,245 


1,613,298 


19,569 
12,967 

1,460 
27,635 
23,956 

2,832 
19,672 


66,127 


4,964 
22,638 
2,078 

234330 
20,412 

3,727 
68,2:6 

7,523 

207,007 
1,680,350 
6,391,247 
1,799,143 

698,744 

401,044 

19,068 

1,181,005 


210 
86 
I 
2,634 
624 
32 
34 


ed. 


12,980,951 

273,360 

10,303 

807,U62 

6Ji69 
128J06 
29C,53a 
688,024 
173,910 
346,575 


1,639  121 


293,682,976 


2,323,300 

435,572 

17,595 

72,1»6 

60,549 

1,112,190 
140,443 
319,147 
137,692 
21,469 
22,079 
612,623 


2t»,E61 


48,578 

1,411,213 

643,886 

1,368,217 
216,225 
31,242 
160,235 

2,222,1167 

4,417,027 

267.472 

77,067 

2,228,393 
330.245 


V  3,651,804 
I 

1,000,769 
31,829,619 

12,384 
57,291 

8,756 

3,209 
4,833 
2,549 
69,480 
481,523 
27,236 
33,111 


20,602,971 

143,856 

IW 

39,066,620 

645,191 
232,550 
2,596  530 
2,246,085 
161,04!) 
426,372 


6,207,770 


89,960 
180,490 

849,301 

82,^4,073 

1.966,604 

2,418 


23,785,095 


1,173,795 
443,786 


Nell  Revenue. 


L. 

1,909 

16.703 
Drawbacks  k 
repayments 


86,674 
«91,I4I 

18,086 


302,83i,«5'.- 


8,447,827 

303,474 

14,026 

70,951 

75,271 

794,278 
163,523 
8.34,783 
147,467 
11,487 
2.5,470 
666,096 


342,718 


40,339 

1,003,828 

607,980 

2.223,227 
264,(06 
21.462 

213,963 
2,211,968 


100,182 

2,437,020 

323,751 


3,741,579 

I,l'i0,l80 
34,969,631 

13,560 
62,M8 

6,593 

3,618 
3,791 
2,616 
83.186 
493.200 
26,854 
40352 
3,269 

21,048,324 

145,385 

161 

40,840,271 

524.031 
260,690 
2,780,303 
2,279,853 
150,369 
485,308 


473,011 


29,781 
1,170 
3,498 

14.730 
3,721 

4,'^28 
311,063 
69,392 
149,195 
6,092 
18,768 
2,110 


49,743 

27,043 

1,761 

4,1m 

13,923 

15,900 

292 

1,778 

111,174 

6,S94 


4,414,302 

171,603 
3,444,102 

116,215 
521,494 

• 
10,449 


.J,I49 
43,386 
437,629 
33.775 
8,308 


'  3,140,085 

137,859 

75,975 
63,169 

I.  1,491,079 


6,480,^4        1,629,219 


1834, 


I. 
1,32( 
Gross  rsv, 
17,754 

j        4>tfO 


13,193 
28,2;( 

6I4,«3( 


11,779 


373,811 


32,as« 
l,aS7 
2,943 
7W 
1,8S3 

9,«H 
t^ltO 
57,U4 
122,271 

3,ua 
20,<ilS 


817 
29,931 

23/m 
1,559 
5.W2 

i3,sai 

2,19C 

l22,Si2 

6,721) 


in,9iM 
3,599,3(1 

129,774 
601,914 

8,1C8 

10,112 
3li,7iC 
440  JOG 
33;0-5 
10,1TI) 
6,.<67 


3,223,618 

131,319 

72,04! 
71,131 

1,662,311 


1,705,59 


■?:i>-;itm>i,jf'flj5->'nTT"7] 


Book  L 


DENMARK. 


468 


Merchandiw  imported  into, 
Revonua  accruing  tliereon 
Trade,  vol.  iv.  pp.  13-19.) 

ncd  (or  „„,  R„„u^ 


8,S36,<6',-  473,011 


IV.  Account  of  the  Shipping  employed  in  the  Trade  and  Navigation  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  18M;  ipeciiyini 
the  Number  and  Tonnoge  of  Voiieli  entering  Inwardi  and  dealing  Outwardi  (including  their  repeated  Voy. 
agei),  and  the  Number  of  their  Crewe ;  loparatlng  UriiMh  from  Foreign  Veawli  •  and  diitinguiihing  the  Navi- 
gation with  each  Country. 


CouDtrlM. 


Norwijr 

<  IVjonurk 

I  rtimta 

Genmnv 

Hollud  • 

Balfium 

fruoe    

Foitu|tl,  Propor 

A7or«i  --...-. 
Nhdelrt - 

Inda  uid  Um  Balevlc  Iduib 

C*iunr  lilauli 

OlbnJtir 

Iblt  ami  Italian  lilaBli  ■  • . 

MalU 

IodIu  hlanda  ••••.... 

Turkey  k  Continental  Oraace 

Murea  and  Greek  lalanda  •  * 

Tripoli,  Barbary,  ft  Morooeo 
Ccttt  or  Africa,(mm  Momcoo 

to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Capa  of  Good  Hope 

Eaaten  Coaal  from  tha  Cape 

of  Good   Hone  la  Babel 

Mandel 

lileof  Bourimn -  -  • 

Cape  de  Vci  lalaoda  >  -  >  - 
St.  Helena  and  Aaoenaioo  •  • 

Mauntlua 

Alabla 

Ettt  India  Company^  Terrl- 

torifla,  Hln|apor«  ft  Ceylon 

Soautra 

China 

Jaia 

PhitippinD  Iilanda 

forttcfSiam 

Naw  Soiilli  Walea 

Brilifh  Norttierii  Colonlee*  ■ 

Briti>h  Weit  IndlM 

H«li 

Cum,  and  other  I'oivlgn  Weat 

InJi 


Dnilnl  Statea 

Mexico 

Guatemala 

Colombia  -■>.-•-.•-• 

Brazili 

SlateaofRiodelaFlata 

ChUI 

Fen 

The  Whale  Fisheriea  *  .  •  • 
lilei  of  Guenuey,  Jeiacy,  and 

Man 

Oreeniaiid  (Ice) 

Fcmicn    |nrta    (not  diatio* 


Tolab- 


luwarda. 


Britlali. 


ShM, 
lfi» 

m 

69 

47 
IM 
701 

114 

ie> 

14 

427 

a* 
» 

S87 
8 

n 

134 
16 
6 

as 

137 

27 


188 


4a 

1,905 

«I9 

13 

as 

281 
35 

a 

36 
140 
S2 

27 
15 
107 

2,380 
7 


8)7,013 

lt,363 

6,403 

6,6111 

•2,021 

115,278 

137,546 

40,875 

128,017 

6>J,0  5 

11,331) 

2,475 

45,254 

3,830 

8,720 

88,142 

1,063 

8,469 

18,688 

2,311 

1,124 

4,014 

32,313 


362 

20,909 


75,461 


29,308 
1,801 
1,586 


12,400 

624,606 

846,(i03 

1,928 

7,152 
84,658 

6,893 
272 

7,459 
29,371 
10,120 

6,341 

2,768 
34,161 

146,543 
802 


13,908    2,298,263 


Mr-.. 

I3,5J8 

764 

398 

270 

1,506 

5,502 

6,684 

3,265 

18,168 

3,492 

753 

160 

2J>88 

I9S 

207 

3,218 

67 

4S2 

1,018 

121 

67 

209 

1,763 
330 


19 
1,073 


4,638 


2,649 
89 


672 
23,270 
13,387 

113 

359 

4,078 

3«6 

17 

414 

1515 
626 
358 
167 


10,103 
61 


Foreign. 


>a» 

183 
618 
657 
557 
544 
648 
371 
1,4(18 
36 


i 

402 
2 


37 


186,727  ,    6,894 


58,166 
35,910 
98,303 
53,282 
118,111 
45,471 
67,230 
43,683 
74,382 
4,538 


8,882 
T04 


I4J80 

7m 


298 


458 


684 

372 


1J67 

204,129 

490 


608 


5,652 


Mm. 

2,72} 
1,731 
^I38 
3,138 
5,081 
ifitt 
3,607 
2J60 
9,207 


788 
8 


S4 

8,417 
83 


65 


833,905  I  45,897 


101 
44 
835 

155 

719 

877 

878 

1,574 

V» 

185 

80 

84! 

84 

94 

473 

80 

42 

140 

10 

24 

20 

ISl 
47 


87 
387 
29 

18 
176 
48 


9,141 
2 


BriUah. 


7on«. 

217,375 

15,^8 

4,ln 

56,703 

25609 

117,964 

190,584 
34,061 

I3IJI4I 
61,lll8 
12,493 

vsa 

86;7t8 
3,711 
11,734 
71,076 
12,022 
5,753 
20,789 
1,158 
6,067 
2,634 

35,633 

9,143 


8,158 

0,198 

587 

99,833 

279 

t,887 

2,766 

728 

337 

29,r>e7 

609,383 

246,609 

7,728 

16,755 

133,754 

6,502 

3,820 
41,164 
9,906 
6,632 
2.178 
33,014 

122,365 
831 

1,169 


13,639  I  8,29f>,325 


9,941 

770 

283 

2,667 

1,218 

5,668 

5,847 

8,888 

13,361 

3,ld2 

848 

197 

2,178 

198 

648 

8,948 

645 

308 

1,168 

68 

299 

141 

2,091 
630 


14 

39 
119 
490 

29 


21 

632 

161 

46 

20 

1,756 

23,316 

13,836 

454 


6,217 
314 

203 

2,101 
613 
385 
136 

4,275 

8,841 
16 


Tonign. 


fit 

125 
641 

817 
425 
586 
597 
332 
1,202 

To 

2 

62 
1 
8 

60 
8 


7Vm<. 
,'18,826 
2J,I74 
lin,B09 
H6,TA) 
t>8,386 
48,l!«5 
64,214 

M,m) 

6l>,4r<9 

ie,i>33 

261 

8,499 

ti2 

1,151 

12,947 

984 

292 

260 
322 

640 


1,476 
1,623 


11        3,236 

648    80,!II3 

2  490 


854 
820 


164      20,61 


129,604  I    6,823  [  852,827 


1,731 
1,061 
5,408 
4>88 
3,817 
2,721 
3,881 
1,888 

'•S 
806 

it 

600 
8 

84 
708 
81 


148 
9,981 
^4 


14 

918 


45,929 


CHAPTER  V. 

DENMARK. 

Denmark  is  an  ancient  kingdom,  formerly  very  powerful,  hoW.ing  sway  over  the  surround- 
ing regions,  and,  as  a  predatory  state,  the  terror  of  all  Europe.  Though  now  reduced  to 
the  secondary  rank,  her  situation  renders  her  of  importance  in  the  general  system  of  the 
Continent. 

Sect,  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 

Denmark  consists  mainly  of  an  extensive  peninsula,  shooting  out  from  the  north-west 
comer  of  Germany,  and  a  cluster  of  large  islands  to  the  east  of  the  peninsula.  The  northern 
fihores  of  Denmark  approach  close  to  the  southern  point  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
bounding  the  great  interior  sea  of  the  Baltic.  She  commands  the  only  channel  by  which 
tlie  countries  around  this  sea  can  transmit  their  products  to  the  rest  of  Europe ;  a  circum- 
stance which  gives  her  some  consideration  as  a  maritime  state,  at  the  same  time  that  the  toll 
she  imposes  on  ships  passing  and  repassing  the  Sound,  is  productive  of  revenue.  The  Danibh 
peninsula  is  termed  Jutland ;  and  the  islands  in  the  interior  of  the  Baltic,  interposed  be- 
tween Jutland  and  Scandinavia,  are  Zealand,  Funen,  Odensee,  and  a  few  othera  of  smaller 
note.  Denmark  holds  also  the  German  territories  of  Sleswick  and  Holstein ;  with  Iceland, 
the  Faroe  Islands,  and  some  settlements  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  remnants  of  her  former 
maritime  power. 

Tie  extent  of  the  dominions  of  a  country  broken  into  such  a  variety  of  detached  portions 
can  with  difficulty  be  estimated.    The  only  compact  mass  consists  of  Jutland,  Sleswick 


IHH 

M 

^^^^^^^^^^Vi 

VI 

^^^^^HHf 

H  '^il 

^HS^^^^I  'IsBhI^^b 

^■^B^Pn  {I^^^^I^B 

^HR|^i^    '7i|PRP' 

^■S^HuT^^^           ^  '^IHliv 

■^■^n^^^M       ,t  i  LQ^^^Bl 

1 
1 

^^H  'ifl 

^ 

Hm 

^^^^^^^lyi 

'l■!■'^■■^- 

-^ 

4M 


MAP  OF  DENMARK. 


Fia.  22a 


Book  I 


^      DENMARK. 


465 


«p 


Mmbttt 


^ 


H«I1«»J»  ■ 


and  HolHtein;  bounded  on  the  west  and  north  by  the  North  Sea  or  German  Ocean ;  on  the 
east  by  the  sounds  which  form  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic ;  on  the  soutli  by  the  Elbe,  lliia 
tract  lies  generally  between  53^°  and  57^°  north  latitude,  and  8°  uid  11°  east  longitude. 
We  have  thus  a  length  of  280  miles,  and  a  breadth  of  120.  The  total  area  of  Uie  Ltenish 
monarchy,  is  about  !^,000  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  Denmark  is  nearly  flat ;  forming,  >  the  exception  of  Holland,  the  lowest 
part  of  the  great  plain  of  Northern  Germany.  Tho  i  (iinds,  in  particular,  in  mory  places, 
rise  only  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  soil,  as  in  the  rest  of  this  plain,  is  fre- 
quently sandy  and  marshy ;  the  climate  humid,  though  not  liable  to  those  severe  frosts  which 
prevail  in  the  interior  of  Scandinavia.  Hence  it  affords  good  pasturage,  and  its  soil  is  favour- 
able to  the  growth  of  the  coarser  species  of  jfrain. 

The  waters  of  Denmark  consist  chiefly  of  its  numerous  sounds  and  bays ;  the  Skagbrrack, 
which  comes  in  from  the  Nortli  Sea,  and  separates  Jutland  from  Norway;  the  Categat, 
which,  runnuig  southward  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  Skagerrack,  separates  that  peninsula 
firom  Sweden ;  the  Sound,  a  narrow  strait  at  the  extremity  of  the  Cattegat,  between  Zealand 
and  Sweden,  and  which  forms  the  main  entrance  into  the  Baltic.  The  insular  and  penin- 
sular character  of  her  territory  gives  Denmark  an  extent  of  coast  wnich  certainly  does  not 
fiill  short  of  600  miles ;  and  there  is  said  to  be  no  part  of  the  land  more  than  ten  miles  distant 
fh)m  the  sea.  This  structure  leaves  no  room  for  thu  formation  of  eny  riven  of  the  least 
consequence,  except  the  Eyder  in  Holstein,  and  the  canal  of  Kiel,  by  which  an  important 
communication  is  formed  between  the  ocean  and  the  Baltic.  Jutland  contains  a  number  of 
shallow  but  extensive  lakes,  closely  bordering  on  the  sea,  witli  which  they  ia  many  places 
communicate,  and  may  hence  be  regarded  as  bays.  ,-  ,    .  v 


1ft     '  r/^T»pN»l 


Sect.  II. — Natural  Qeography.  , 

SuBSEOT.  1. — Geology. 

Denmark.  The  geology  of  this  low  and  flat  country  ha?  not  been  completely  ascertained. 

As  far  as  is  known  at  present,  it  contains  neither  primitive  nor  transition  rocks:  the  only 

secondary  deposits  are  Weald  clay,  and  the  various  members  of  the  chalk  formation ;  both  oif 

which  are  generally  covered  up  with  tertiary  soils ;  which,  in  their  turn,  are  as  deeply  covered 


lU 


Z°«., 


Sl<*l«il»l ' 


90        40 


E^lUk  MIlH 


NORTH  PART. 
1.  L)rkenahuua 
i  Hiorinc 

3.  Hanihius 

4.  Toorited 

5.  Skaien 

6.  AalEok 

7.  Flailtttand 

8.  Bobyo 

9.  Bottergaard 
IO.BIokhuui 
ll.TnUtnip 
liThuw 

n.  Bnlet 
14.  Bientod 
llVaar 

16.  Alti 

17.  Ulited 

18.  Hab 

19.  Bundbre 
29.  Aalborft 
!1.  LoMtor 
n.  Kollecup 
Z).KiorupFrB- 

itegaard 
Si  Kolbye  Horru- 

96.  Forbye 

97.  Agger 

98.  Viibye 
».  Bundbr 
SaRwtetl 

31.  Nykiobinc 
S.  Hierk 
33.  Btrnndbyo 
34.Malle 
33.  Gunderalad 
36.Aara 
■37.  Bialejr 
%.  Ellethoy 

39.  Kongiley 

40.  Biem 

41.  Vivo 

43.  Bodringholm 

43.  Mariager 

44.  Hobroa 
u.  Ininduin 

46.  Boldrup 

47.  Ulbierg 

49.  Kaai 

50.  BorbeiM 

51.  Lonvig 

Vol.  I. 


59.  Harbos  Ore 
SLNeei 

54.  Ulborg 

55.  Vringalberi 
50.  Hohtbros 

57,  Hodiagoi 

58.  Sorup 
50,  KnuditrupOTer 

60.  Wiborg 

61.  Bkiems 
(>3.  Laiirberg 

03.  Random 

04.  Hotninji 

05.  Oented 
60.  ClMrup 
07.  Gierild 
68.  Greenaae 
09.  Alboge 

70.  Ebeltoit 

71.  Helfenaea 
73.  Agrie 

73.  Thoraaget 

74.  Hornilet 

75.  Skeibya 

76.  Aaihuui 

77.  Dover 

78.  Dallerup 
70.  Midatrup 

80.  Agerakuv 

81.  F.ngiivaog 

82.  Bunda 

83.  Arenburg 

84.  Noromme 

85.  Sondervang 

86.  Rinkioping 

87.  Dubenilund 

88.  Herningaholta 

89.  Fanrgaard 
SO,  Branaholm 
01.  Snee 
!)S,GiT« 

93,  Grendatrup 

94,  Seanderborg 

95,  Tranitrup 

96,  HaMrup 

97,  Honeni 
9a  Aaatrup 
IH),  Engum 

100,  Veile 

101.  RioggiTo 
10?.  Greene 
103.  Oddam 
•04.  Prsitrjpsas.-d 
105.  Luodago 


Reference*  to  the  Map  of  Denmark. 

10R,  North  Bork  50.  Tnnningnn 

107.  Haureig  51.  Woalingbuven 

108,  Kiergaard  53. 1'cllingitedt 

S3,  Rendaburg 

SOUTH  PART.  54.  Barloch 

1.  Hoe  55.  Schnelm 

2.  Varde  .J6.  Kiel 

3.  Jorne  57.  Rumor 

4.  Hodde  SB.  Reewlorr 

5.  Giording  59.  Preela 
B.  Folding  60.  Ploen 

7.  Vatrban  61.  Steten 

8.  Odated  63.  Kiokan 

9.  Bmioatrup  «3,  Dmnann 

0.  Froderica  64.  Lutgcnburg 

ll.CaUnng  65.  Halendorf 

13.  Chriitianafelde  66.  Oldenburg 

13.  Aaroo  67.  Burg 

14.  Haderaleben  68.  lloihgenhareo 

15.  Gram  •''■I.  Gromniz 

16.  Hyam  71).  Nc-'adt 

17.  Hiortland  71.  Kutin 

18.  Ripen  73.  Sarau 

19.  Reiabye  73.  Bchameradorf 

20.  Dailum  74.  Noumnnaler 

21.  Hoyer  7.5.  Wildenacbaren 
23.  Lygum  Kloater  76.  Oiitnraled 

23.  Hoiat  77.  Gribbom 

24.  Bchrudijtrup  78.  Meldorf 

25.  Apenrade  79.  Murno 

26.  Gravenatein  -80.  Brunabuttel 

27.  Holebul  81.ltzcliuu 

28.  Ucke  83.  Krcmpe 

29.  Tonder  83.  Gluckauull 

30.  EmbtbuU  84.  Ueteraen 

31.  Imkk  85.  Barmitedr 
33.  Ockkolm  86.  Hohenhorat 

33.  Brrdatodt  87.  Oldealnh 

34.  Modelburg  88.  Bedgberg 

35.  Jorl  89.  Travemuode 
:«.  Arenholt  00.  Lubeck 

37.  Flcnaborg  OI.Labonz 

38.  Sleerup  92.  Sierley 
oiling  03.  (iudow 
nppel  ^l-t.  Groven 

—     /indemark  95.  Boilzenburg 

43.  Gckernford*  96.  Laurnnurg 

43.  Bleawick  97.  Stunau 

44.  Holliogawio  98.  Wolhom 

45.  Treya  09.  L->maal 

46.  Huaum  100,  Pinneberg 

47.  Mildaled  101.  Wedel 
43.  rhnsnciaiadi  Jiri.  Hamburg 
40.  Garding  103.  Betgedor 


■an.  oieerv 

39,  Gcllin 

40,  Knpp< 

41,  Wind 


_    Rivert. 

S3,  Olteatrup 

glite' 

SiSax""" 

0  Widaw 

S5.  Giumaoa 

d  Eyder 

96,  Ringated 

e  Olor 

Soroe 

f  Elbo 
g  Trave 

•u;.  *ntvor(koT 

%.   ilagelae 

:      ihielakioT 

I.AAI.AND. 

I.,  f-  '  lealot 

I,  Frederickadai 

33.  Vh.<enav«l 

2,  Raunaholt 

3.  Nakakov 

33.  Neaived 
'U,  Praeatoe 

6.  M^arieboe 

35.  Wordiagbon 

SAM80G. 

7.  Rodbye 

1.  Nordbye 

8.  Nyeated 

S.  SeWeg 

9,  Baxkiopini 

FUNEN. 

FAL8TF.R. 

1,  Middeirartb 
X  Indalov 

1.  Onalev 

2.  Slubbekioping 

3.  Karleby 

4.  Nyokioplng 

5.  Kierteminde 

l>onkebye 

MOEN. 

7.  Nyborg 

1.  Mondemaik 

8.  Belling^ 

2.  Sleege 

9.0denH 

3.  Phanefiord 

10.  Broebye 

ll.Huubye 

ZEALAND, 

12.  Oeraieil 

1.  Tomnaerup 

13.  Aaaana 

3.  Raroloa 

14.  "  -naletle 

3.  Gillelye 

15.        :.igp 

4,  Elainore 

16.  Kiaiing 

5.  Fredoniborz 

17.  Gudbier 

6.  Blangerup 

18.  Svec  bolt 

7.  Lyngb™ 

IS  Faaborg 

R.  Copenhagen 
9.  GoTstrup 

AL9EN. 

10.  Ballerup 

1.  Noidburg 

2.  Auguatenhmg 

11.  Gy'ling 

13  Krobbeaholm 

3.  Sondert  ug 

13.  Holbek 

14.  Nyckioping 

ARROE. 

1.5.  Egemxrk 

1.  Boebye 

16.  Cal'.i. 

S.  Kiopmg 

17.  Gloria 

18.  Unrtloa. 

LANGELAND 

19.  Aagerup 
ao.  Kiiiinhiia 

^•«L1.«, 

31,Ki0C8 

t.     UMMO 

31 


M6 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paet  m 


'■H 


with  diluvium  of  sand,  atvt  calcareous  loam ;  which  latter  are  occasionally  conccnl*-<l  by  nowe' 
alluvial  deposits. 

Iceland  Tlwd  island,  bo  fer  as  is  !.  .  .^  u  to  jjcoloKists,  is  entirely  composed  of  if,nii(fenoui 
rocks.  'I'hese  are  of  two  classes;  v.^.  .'laloniun  and  vulcanic.  The  Plutonian  tormutioni 
are  ^ec>»»/onr,  and  its  orcop'pimyinjf  rocks,  and  t'lfrt//,  with  its  associutcd  tufTiiH  ^k- 

loids.  &.C.   Uf  all  the  rocV  ,  of  the  trap  scries,  amygdaloid  is  that  which  contains  t>  .test 

varieiy  of  minerals;  and  of  tlieso  the  zeolites  and  calcareous  spars  are  the  most  intercstina 
and  bcautiftil.  Tho  volcanic  rocks  oxliibit  the  usual  characters,  and  in  Iceland  are  spreu 
■round  in  vast  abundance. 

Faroe  hlanda.  This  small  insular  ^up  consists  of  seventeen  large  inhabited  islands, 
and  of  many  smaller,  with  and  without  inhabitants.  In  none  of  the  inhabited  islands  ore 
the  most  elevated  summits  lower  than  KKX)  fc'-t;  the  highest  land  is  in  the  island  of  Osteroe, 
which  rises  to  fiilly  2,8(H)  feet  above  the  level  of  tiio  sea.  The  two  prevailing  rocks  are 
greenstone  (dolerite)  and  clauttone.  The  greenstone  is  sometimes  basaltic,  Homutinies  per- 
phyritic,  or  amygdaloidal.  The  claystone  is  rod,  yellow,  brown,  and  green.  It  olternates 
with  the  greenstone,  in  beds  of  varying  tliickness.  The  beds  of  grecnstono  and  claystone 
of  the  group  all  incline  or  dip  towards  a  central  point  of  the  group,  rendering  ii  probable 
that  the  islands  are  but  portions  of  one  whole.  The  upper  surface  of  the  j,rrtA  nstone  's 
slaggy,  showing  tliat  the  mass  had  been  in  a  state  of  igneous  solution.  Tliero  are  two 
principal  varieties  of  ^ecnstone;  one  porphyritic,  with  crystals  of  glassy  felspar,  tlie  otiitr 
without  the  porphyritic  structure.  In  some  of  the  islands  there  are  beds  of  pitrhcoal,  asso- 
ciated with  nre  clay,  slate  clay,  and  sphoirosiderito,  resting  upon  the  trap,  and  covered  by  it. 
The  beds  of  greenstone  and  slate  clay  are  oflen  traversed  by  veins  or  dikes  of  basn  i  ,  and 
porphyritic  greenstone,  which,  however,  do  not  appear  to  occasion  any  change  in  tluMii ;  but 
tho  greenstones  ore  changed  in  position  and  direction  by  the  invasion  from  below  of  a 
conglomerated  rock,  a  kind  of  trap  tuftii.  Tho  trap  rocks  of  tho  Fi'^oes  have  been  long 
celebrated,  on  account  of  the  splendid  zeolites  they  afford :  some  species  of  this  beautiful 
fiimily  appear  to  be  daily  forming.  The  chloropccritc,  peridote,  and  precious  opal  are  also 
productions  of  this  insular  group. 

Si'DSECT.  2. — Botany. 

Denmark  and  Sweden,  Norv-ii/  nnd  Lapland,  the  Faroe  Islands,  and  Iceland, — the  latter 

{::iv  :!i;T  a  name,  indeed  to  a  plant  equally  common  in  tlic  other 
224         _^         .  M,  criijit.-ies,  Lichen  islandicus,  or  Iceland  Mosp,  (Jig.  224.),— 

tnav  '^8  considered  under  one  head,  so  far  as  regards  their 
'.•'^f.table  productions;  for  it  is  difficult  to  draw  an  exact 
line  of  demarcation,  and  even  of  these  tho  very  nature  of  our 
v.O'  k  does  not  allow  us  to  treat  much  at  large  :  this  is  the 
less  to  be  regretted,  because  the  classical  works  of  Linnsus 
and  Wahlenbcrg  are  in  the  hands  of  every  botanical  student; 
and  they  contain  a  mine  of  valuable  information  in  the  Flora 
Lapponica  and  Suecica  of  both  these  authors,  and  a  fund  of 
interesting  and  delightful  narrative  in  the  Tiachesis  Lajr 
ponica  of  the  great  Swedish  naturalist.  The  various  writings 
of  (Eder,  Vahl,  and  Hornemann  afford  much  useful  matter 
relative  to  the  plants  of  Demnark.  The  vegetation  of  a  great 
portion  of  these  countries  may  be  considered  the  same  as  that 
of  the  more  northern  ttnd  mountainous  parts  of  Great  Britain. 
Yet  as  the  northern  regions  of  the  continent  of  Europe  pre- 
sent an  alpine  and  arctic  vegetation,  in  a  much  more  perfect 
degree  than  islands,  we  should  scarcely  do  justice  to  our  subject,  did  we  not  offer  some  ^^ 
marks  on  the  distribution  of  the  vegetable  productions  of  a  portion  of  that  more  interesting 
and  extreme  northern  European  territory;  namely  Lapland.  The  natural  boundaries  of  this 
country  are  formed  by  some  low  mountains,  about  500  feet  in  height,  at  a  distance  of  from 
five  to  eight  Swedish  miles  from  the  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  They  present  no 
naked  summits,  but  are  covered  with  forests  of  Spruce  Fir*  (Jig.  225.1 :  these  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  last  subalpine  range  in  northern  Europe.  Commencing  in  the  south-east,  a 
little  bcrond  the  lake  Kemistrask,  in  lat.  67°,  it  tends  towards  Upper  Tomea,  and  utftt  to 
Ofover  Calix  in  the  west ;  stretches  south  to  Edifers,  in  Lulea ;  and  reaches  its  soutnermost 
point  at  the  Tafvelsjon,  in  Umean  Lapland,  lat.  64°.  This  mountain  chain  exhibits  Calla 
palustris  (J!g.  226.),  (a  plant  of  a  poisonous  family,  closely  allied  to  the  Arum  maculatum 
or  Wake-roUn,  and  to  the  Caladium  esculentum  of  the  tropics ;  and,  as  with  them,  a  kind  of 
brcii4  called  Missenbrfid,  or  the  bread  of  famine,  is  made  by  the  Laplanders  from  the  roots); 
Sweet  gale*,  common  Speedwell*,  Ox-eye*,  Meadow  Fescure-grass*,  and  Carex  stellulata*. 
The  Bueh*  th»e  produces  its  leaves  in  the  beginning  of  June. 

*  Tbe  naaei  marked  with  au  aiteriik  are  thoie  of  pUnti  found  alio  in  Britain, 


leelind  How. 


Book  I. 


DENMARK. 


m 


Tlio  infbritr  and  woody  dintrict  of  lApland  has  itw  upper  limit  at  BotKlankyla  in  Komcan 
Lapland,  botwoon  Kungfia  and  Munoniska  in  Tornea,  al  Jocrkmnck  in  Lulea,  and  atFalatrak, 
in  Umean  Lapland;  and  it  yiolds,  besidoH  the  Hpruce  Fir,  the  Meadow  Trefoil,  the  Lvaima* 
chia  thyraiflora*,  Lily  of  the  Valley*,  and  White  Water  Lily*,  which  (prew  abundantly 
Some  plants  which  are  peculiarly  tiubalpine  begin  to  appear,  aa  Tofidldia  palustria*  and  tier 
ratula  alpina*. 

22fi 


Spruce  Fir. 


Rein-deer  Mom, 


The  upper  woody  district  is  distinpfuished  by  the  absence  of  the  last-mentioned  plants;  but 
the  fuiests  of  spruce  still  abound.  Where  the  Spruce  ceases,  in  places  of  warm  exposure, 
the  upper  limit  of  this  region  is  indicated.  Its  boundary  in  Kemean,  Tornean,  and  Pitean 
Lapland,  is  more  distinctly  marked,  because  the  country  is  flatter,  and  destitute  of  deep 
valleys ;  but  in  such  situations,  in  Lulea  and  Umea,  the  Spruce  Fir  approaches  nearer  to  the 
Alps,  and  the  sides  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  it.  There  its  utmost  northern  limits 
are  found  to  be  at  Kyro,  near  the  great  lake  of  Enare,  in  lat.  60°  north.  Here,  too,  is  the 
most  northern  boundary  of  many  well-known  plants,  such  as  Trifolium  repens*,  Festuca 
rubra*,  Rumex  aquaticus*,  the  Yellow  Water  Lily*,  and  several  other  aquatics.  Many 
alpine  plants  commence,  as  Salix  glauca*,  extending  south  to  the  middle  of  this  region, 
Salix  hastata*  confined  to  the  north,  and  Bartsia  alpina*,  with  Lychnis  alpina*,  on  the  banks 
of  the  streams.     The  culture  of  barley  still  succeeds ;  but  scarcely  beyond  this  line. 

The  Btibalpine  mountains  in  this  region  are  very  dry  and  remarkably  gravelly  and  stony ; 
abounding  in  that  plant  which  Linnmus  has  so  beautifully  described,  in  his  Flora  Lapponica, 
as  the  main  support  of  the  Rein-deer,  and  consequently  of  the  Laplander,  Lichen  Rangife- 
rinus*  (Jifr.  227.),  or  Rein-deer  Moss.  Ill  could  the  liplander  subsist  without  the  supplies 
afforded  by  that  useful  animal ;  it  is  his  sole  wealth.  Almost  the  only  winter  food  of  this  ser- 
viceable animal  is  the  moss,  which  the  deer  are  so  fond  of,  that  though  it  is  commonly  buried 
at  that  season  under  a  great  depth  of  snow,  yet,  by  scratching  with  their  feet,  and  digging 
with  their  antlers,  they  never  fail  to  get  at  it  In  short,  without  this  lichen,  both  the  rein- 
deer and  the  Laplander  must  perish.  "  Thus,"  adds  Liimseus,  "  things  which  are  often 
deemed  the  most  insignificant  and  contemptible  by  ignorant  men,  are,  by  the  good  providence 
of  God,  made  the  means  of  the  greatest  blessings  to  his  creatures."  Linneeus  assures  us 
that  this  lichen  grows  so  luxuriantly  in  Lapland,  as  to  be  found  sometimes  a  foot  in  height 

But  as  the  hills  scarcely  rise  to  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow,  about  200  or  300  feet  higher 
than  the  woods  are  found,  they  are  fertile  in  such  plants  as  flourish  in  a  dry  and  barren  soil , 
viz.,  Menzicsia  zmr<i\m,  Arbutus  alpina*,  juncua  irindus%  Lycopodium  aipinum^,  Azalea 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


4^ 


1.0 


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Ul    lii 


lU 

lit 


L°    12.0 


L25  nil  1.4 


■  1.6 


■♦ 


Hiotographic 

Sdences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STRKT 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  MSSO 

(716)S72-4S03 


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^ 


% 

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468 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  m 


Cudbtu. 


prucumbens,'''  and,  though  tarely,  Diapensia  lapponica.  Here  the  Lici.cn  :,vjrtareu8  {Jig.  228.) 
■gia  Q<M  °'  Cudbrair,  abounds,  and  is,  both  here  and  in  Sweden  and 

-■'■  .  Norway,  ccUected  and  exported  to  the  dye-manufacturers. 

Wahlenberg  distingfuishes  by  the  term  "  Regie  subeylva- 
tica,"  or  partially  wooded  region,  that  where  the  Scotch 
Fir  grows,  but  not  the  Spruce.  This  is  more  contracted 
than  the  other  regions,  and  more  difficult  to  be  defined.  It 
is  not  unfrequently  eight  Swedisi:  miles  broad  in  northern 
Lapland ;  in  Kemea  extending  to  nearly  70°  of  lat.  Be- 
fore the  Scotch  Fir  ceases,  the  Carex  globularis  disap- 
pears, and,  in  the  more  northern  parts,  Prunella  vulgcrui 
Within  ^e  Fir  region,  the  beautinil  Pedicularis  lapponica 
appears  scattered  through  the  woods;  Viola  bifolia,  and 
Thalictrom  alpinum*  following  the  course  oi  the  streams;  Salix  lanata,*"  with  its  splendid 
golden  catkins,  at  tlie  margins  of  marshes  and  springs,  and  alnn  Ranunculus  lapponicus. 
The  cultivation  of  buley  scarcely  succeeds,  and  the  colcmists  are  miserably  po'T.  The 
Birch  comes  into  leaf  at  the  summer  solstice.  The  lakes  and  rivers  have  an  elevation  of 
about  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  subalpine  region  still  yields  the  Birch" 
(fietula  Ma),  though  other  trees  will  not  grow.  Its  upper  boundary  is  marked  by  the 
dwarf  stature  of  these,  where  thev  scarcely  attrjn  a  height  of  six  feet  The  Aspen*  (popu- 
Ivs  tremula)  and  the  Bird-cherrv  (Pruntu  Fadus)  cease  befo-";  the  Birch :  the  Sorbus  Aucu- 
paria,*  or  Mountain  Ash,  extends  as  far.  The  Birch  always  m  Lapland  reaches  to  a  much 
greater  elevation  and  more  northern  latitude  than  the  Scotch  and  Spruce  Firs.  Its  limita 
are  more  easily  determined ;  yet,  on  a  geognraphical  map,  they  are  with  difficulty  expressed, 
because  the  Birch  ascends  to  the  alpine  regions,  circumscribes  all  the  mountains,  and  pene- 
trates all  the  lesser  valleys :  thus  it  extends  almost  to  lat  71°  in  Western  Finmark,  and 
stops  but  little  short  of  the  North  Cape.  The  dry  portion  of  this  region  is  again  the  habi- 
tation of  the  Lichen  rangiferinus,  and  of  Azalea  procumbens,"*  Luzula  spicata,*  and  Juncus 
trifidus.*  On  the  borders  of  Russia,  the  Birch  as  well  as  the  Scotch  Fir  extend  even  to 
the  Northern  Ocean. 

The  lower  alpine  region,  or  the  Lower  Alps,  commence  where  the  Birch  ceases  to  exist, 
and  where  the  snow,  not  of  perennial  duration,  except  in  caves  and  hollows,  melts  belore 
the  middle  of  July.  There  the  Diapensia  lapponica,  Silene  acaulis,'"  and  Andromeda  hyp- 
uoides  are  found.  The  Salix  myrsmites'*  and  Dwuf  Birch  still  grow  erect  Nearly  the 
^^  same  vegetation  as  is  met  with  on  the  Lower  Alps  exists 

**^  -       "1^  ■-         upon  the  maritime  alps  of  Finmark,  to  the  most  northern 

promontory,  with  this  difference  only,  that  the  steep 
and  precipitous  rocks  harbour  more  moisture  and  anow, 
and  the  affinity  is  greater  with  the  alpine  range  in  the 
higher  mountains,  which  retain  tlie  snow  during  the  whole 
summer,  the  partial  melting  of  which  creates  a  moist 
and  even  a  boggy  soil.  Here,  therefore,  are  seen  the 
little  Dwarf  Willow*  (Jig.  229.)  (Salix  herbacea,)  Ra^ 
nunculus  glacialis  and  nivalis,  Pedicularis  hirsuta  and 
flammea,  Stellaria  biflora,  &igeron  uniflorum;*  plants 
eminently  alpine,  and  peculiar  to  those  situations. 
Beyond  these  is  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  Towaras  the  Norwegian  Ocean,  another 
form  of  the  alps  presents  itself;  lofly  mountams  without  any  plains,  circumscribed  with  veiy 
narrow  zones,  which  Wahlenberg  defines  as  the  more  elevated  sides  of  the  alps,  reaching 
nearly  to  the  limits  of  perpetu^  snow,  consequently  always  irrigated  with  snow-water: 
they  nourish  a  few,  and  those  marshy,  plants.  The  Ranunculi  (Crowfoots)  principally 
abound. 

The  lower,  or  less  elevated,  sides  of  the  alps,  generally  destitute  o**  perpetual  snow,  vield 
the  Dwarf  Birch*  in  the  moister  spots ;  and,  on  me  drier,  Andromeda  hypnoides,  the  Alpine 
Speedwell*,  Juncus  bifidus*,  and  Uie  Procumbent  Azalea.* 

The  bases  of  the  alps  are  where  the  Birch  grows,  but  no  Pmes.  Among  the  Birches, 
scarcely  six  feet  high,  the  Purple  alpine  Saxifrag^,  with  Saxifraga  nivalis  and  cemua, 
abound  in  the  moiirt  and  precipitous  places,  and,  in  those  that  are  more  drj',  Aspidium 
Lonchitis.  The  lower  portion  of  this  zone  affords  tall  birches,  such  as  are  found  in  the  more 
northern  regions,  only  in  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  deep  bays,  and,  beneaUi  them,  Aspidium 
Filix  Mas*,  Osmunda  Struthiopteris,  the  Blue  Alpine  Sowthistle*,  and  the  Red  Currant.* 

The  maritime  al[»  include  the  islands  and  promontories ;  so  exposed  to  the  winds  that 
they  derive  their  alpine  character  more  from  their  peculiar  situation  than  firom  their  eleva- 
tioi  above  the  level  oS  the  sea :  and  so  bare  are  they  of  trees  and  slirube,  that  even  the 
Juniper  will  not  succeed  there.  They  are  almost  equallv  destitute  of  the  more  alpuie  shrubs, 
mich  as  Andromedas ;  but  they  are  aidonied  with  succulent  alpine  plants,  such  as  SaxifingB 
oppuoitifolia*,  Silene  acaulis*,  and  Dryas  octopetala.    Near  the  shore  occur  some  produc- 


DwufWUlow. 


Part  m 

m  -wirtareuB  (Jig.  228.) 
sre  and  in  Sw«len  and 
he  dye-manufiicturers. 
term  "  Regio  subsylva- 
that  where  the  Scotch 
bis  is  more  contracted 
iicult  to  be  defined.  It 
(lilea  broad  in  northern 
learly  70°  of  lat.  Be- 
arex  globularis  disap^ 
trts,  Prunella  vulgcru 
1  Pedicularis  lapponica 
ids;  Viola  bifolia,  and 
ata,*  with  its  splendid 
anunculus  lapponicua 
miserably  po*  r.  The 
have  an  elevation  of 
still  yields  the  Birch' 
lary  is  marked  by  the 
-  The  A^n*  (poptt. 
rch :  the  Sorbus  Aucu- 
und  reaches  to  a  much 
pruce  Firs.  Its  limits 
th  difBculty  expressed, 
mountains,  and  pene- 
ITestem  Finmark,  and 
rion  is  a^fain  the  habi- 
a  spicata,*  and  Juncus 
ch  Fir  extend  even  to 

Birch  ceases  to  exist, 
hollows,  melts  betore 
"  and  Andromeda  hyp- 
ow  erect.  Nearly  the 
the  Lower  Alps  exists 
.,  to  the  most  northern 
only,  that  the  steep 
B  moisture  and  dnow, 
a  alpine  range  in  the 
mow  during  the  whole 
irhich  creates  a  moist 
erefore,  are  seen  the 
Salix  herbacea,)  Ra^ 
idicularis  hirsuta  and 
in  uniflorum;'*'  plants 
ose  situations, 
egian  Ocean,  another 
-cumscribed  with  very 
of  the  alps,  reaching; 
ed  with  snow-water: 
!rowfoots)  principally 

perpetual  snow,  vield 
lypnoides,  the  Alpine 

Among  the  Birches, 
nivalis  and  cemua, 
more  iry,  Aspidium 
ire  found  in  the  more 
leath  them,  Aspidium 
the  Red  Currant* 
ised  to  the  winds  that 
an  from  their  eleva- 
irube,  that  even  the 
e  more  alpine  shrubs, 
its,  such  as  Saxi&<^ 
occur  some  produc- 


•,^,J,,i;^t,.-,V, 


Book  I. 


DENMARK.      nf!!T<1 


liii' 


The  Antle  Ratpbetrr. 


tions  of  the  alps  of  the  south  of  Europe,  such  as  EIrigeron  alpinom*,  Sedum  villonun*  and 
Gentiana  involucrata,  which  in  Lapland  are  found  nowhere  inland.  The  Norwegian  alpii 
nourish  numerous  annual  plants ;  but  the  dryer  ones  of  Sweden,  remote  from  the  sea,  are 
icimarkable  fer  the  little  alpine  shrubs,  particularly  Azalea  lapponica,  which  scarcely  occun 
in  Norwav;  Salices  alone,  such  as  S.  myrsinitea*,  occupying  tneir  place. 

The  Bubalpine  spots  and  valleys  are  marked  by  the  presence  or  the  Pine;  but  the  meet 
extended  Fir  forests  are  only  found  at  the  heads  of  the  deep  inlets  of  the  sea,  in  narrow 
ravines,  sheltered  by  the  loftiest  mountains.  These  valleys  enjoy  a  much  milde?  cllmatd 
than  all  the  rest  of  Lapland:  there  are  found  the  Convallaria  verticillata"'.  Campanula  lati- 
{blia*  and  Fragaria  vesca^  in  abundance;  but  no  alpine  plants  will  grow,  except  the  Starry 
Saxifrage*  (^Saxifrage  ttellaris)  along  the  margins  of  the  rills. 

A  more  interesting  account  of  the  vegetation  of  Lapland,  at  different  elevations,  is  pul^ 
tilled  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  in  the  Appendix  to  the  LacheaU  Lapponica  of  Linneus.  It  ia 
f^^'  ^RQ^  j^  translated  from  the  Swedish  of  Dr.  Wahlenberff ;  his  "  Observations 

made  with  a  view  to  determine  tlie  height  of  the  Lapland  Alpa'* 
(1.)  On  approaching  the  Lapponese  mountains  {FfiUl),  we  first 
reach  the  line  where  the  Spruce  Fir  ceases  to  grow.  This  tree 
had  previously  assumed  an  unusual  appearance ;  Uiat  of  a  tall 
slender  pole,  covered  from  the  ground  with  diort,  drooping,  dark 
branches :  a  gloomy  object  in  these  desolate  forests !  The  Arctic 
Raspberry*  (Jig.  230.)  (Rubut  arctieua)  had  already,  before  we 
arrived  at  this  point,  ceased  to  bring  its  fruit  to  maturity.  With 
the  Spruce  we  lose  the  Cinnamon  Rose  (Rota  einnamomed"),  woA 
tha  Twin-leaved  Solomon's  Seal  (Ckmvallaria  bifolia),  Sic. ;  and 
the  borders  of  the  lakes  are  s'lripped  of  their  ornaments  of  Reedn 
(Arundo  Phragmiteg*),  Lysimacma  thyrsiflora*,  Gdium  boreale*, 
and  Carex  globularis.  Here  is  the  true  station  of  the  Arctic  Colt»' 
fbot  (Tuasuago  nivea).  The  kst  beaver-houses  are  seen  in  the 
rivulets ;  and  no  pike  nor  perch  is  to  be  found  in  the  lakes  higher 
up.  The  boundary  of  the  Spruce  Fir  is  8200  feet  below  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow,  and  the  mean  temperature  87°  of  Fahrenheit 

(2.)  Scotch  Firs*  (Pinut  sylvestria)  are  still  ibund,  but  not  near 
BO  tall  as  in  the  lower  country.  Their  stems  here  are  low,  and  their 
branches  widely  extended.  Here  are  seen  the  last  of  Ledum  psp 
uatre*,  Salix  pentandra*,  Veronica  serpyllifolia*,  &c.  The  bogs  have  already  a  very  sterile 
ppearance.  Near  the  utmost  boundaiy  of  the  Scotch  Fir  grows  Phaca  alpina.  Higher  ua 
baldly  any  bears  are  to  be  met  with ;  and  the  fruit  of  the  Bilberry*  does  not  ripen  well. 
The  Gwiniod  and  Grayling,  two  species  of  the  Salmon  tribe,  soon  uter  disafmear  from  tite 
lakes.  The  upper  limit  of  this  zone,  at  which  the  Scotch  Firs  cease,  is  %W0  feet  below  the 
line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  the  mean  temperature  about  36°  Fahrenheit  A  little  short  of 
this  point,  or  about  3000  feet  before  we  come  to  perpetual  snow.  Barley  will  not  ripen ;  but 
small  farms,  the  occupiers  of  which  live  by  grazing  and  fishing,  are  met  with  a»  far  as  400 
feet  higher ;  for  instance,  Naimaka  in  Enontekis,  and  so  &r  also  potatoes  and  turnips  grow 
large  enough  to  be  worth  cultivating. 

(3.)  Beyond  this,  the  dwarf  and  stunted  forests  consist  only  of  Birch.*  Its  short,  thick 
stem,  and  stiff,  widely-spreading,  knotty  branches,  seem  prepared  to  resist  the  strong  winds 
from  the  Alps :  its  lively  light  green  hue  is  delightful  to  the  eye,  but  evinces  a  weakness 
of  vegetation.  The  birch  forests  soon  become  so  low,  that  they  may  be  entirely  commanded 
from  the  smallest  eminence.  Their  uppermost  boundary,  where  the  tallest  of  Uiem  do  not 
equal  the  height  of  a  man,  is  2000  feet  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  This  zone  is 
therefore  much  wider  than  the  preceding.  Long  before  its  termination,  the  Alder*  (Almu 
incana),  Uie  Bird-cherry*  (Prunus  Padua),  and  the  Asi>en  (Populua  tremv.y),  were  no 
more  to  be  seen.  A  little  before  the  Birch  ceases,  we  miss  the  Mountain  Ash*,  which  for 
some  time  had  not  presented  us  with  any  fruit;  the  Arctip  Bramble*  (Rubua  arcticut)  was 
already  likewise  barren ;  the  Ling*  (Erica  vulgaris),  Aconitum  Lycoctonum,  &c.  Where 
the  birch  fore.'':  becomes  thmner,  the  reflection  of  the  heat  from  the  sides  of  the  mountains 
ia  the  strongest  Here,  in  many  spots,  we  find  the  vegetation  of  Sonchus  alpinus*,  Struthi- 
optcris,  and  Aconitum  Lycoctonum  remarkably  luxuriant  Tlie  drver  spots  now  become 
covered  with  the  Iceland  Moss*  (Lichen  rangiferinua) :  Tussilago  irigida  and  Pedicularis 
sceptrum-carolinum  extend  to  the  utmost  boundary  of  the  Birch.  Thus  &r  only  the  Char 
(Salmo  alpinus)  is  found  in  the  lakes,  and  higher  up  all  fishing  ceases. 

(4.)  All  mountains  above  this  limit  are  called  Fjall  (alpO.  Near  rivulets,  and  on  the 
margin  of  bogs  only,  is  found  a  little  brushwood,  consisting  of  S;<lix  glauca*,  whose  gray 
hue  affords  but  little  ornament  to  the  landscape.  The  lower  country  is  covered  with  the 
dark-looking  Dwarf  Bu-ch*  (Betula  nana),  which  still  retains  its  nnright  position.  A  few 
Juniper  bushes*,  and  some  plants  of  Salix  hastata*,  are  found  scattered  about  Every  hill 
is  covered  with  Arbutus  olpina*,  variegated  with  Andromeda  cierulea*.  and  the  Wintergreen* 
Vol..  L  40 


F''r'V*wwrv^ 


470 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paht  in. 


{Trientalis  evropaa).  The*  more  boggy  ^iind  is  decorated  with  Andromeda  polifolia'''  in 
its  greatest  beauty,  and  Pedicularis  lapponica.  On  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  where  the 
reflected  heat  bears  most  power,  grow  Veronica  alpina'",  Viola  biflora*,  Pteris  crispa*,  and 
Angelica  archanffelica.*  ^is  zone  extends  within  1400  feet  of  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 
The  glutton  {MtuteUt  Oido)  goes  no  higher  than  this.  The  berries  of  the  Cloudberry 
(Ruftua  ChttnuBtnorus)  still  ripen  here,  but  not  at  a  greater  elevation. 

(0.)  Now  no  more  brushwood  is  to  be  seen.  The  white  Salix  lanata*  is  not  a&ove  two 
ftet  high,  even  about  the  rivulets,  and  Salix  myrsinitcs*  is  of  still  humbler  nowth.  The 
Dwarf  Birch*  occupies  tiie  dry  spots,  and  creeps  entirely  upon  the  ground.  The  hills  are 
rJothed  with  the  rather  brown  than  green  Azalea  procumbens*,  and  A.  lapponica,  which 
give  this  zone  its  meet  peculiar  feature.  Verdant  spots  between  the  precipices,  where  the 
sun  has  the  greatest  power,  produce  Lvchnis  apetala*,  Erigeron  uniflorum"',  Astragalus 
'leontinus  and  montanus,  with  Ophiys  alpina.  In  boggy  places,  Aira  alpina*,  Carex  ustu- 
lata*,  and  Vaccinium  uliginosum*  are  observable.  The  only  berries,  however,  which  ripen 
at  this  degree  of  elevation  are  those  of  the  Crowberry*  (Empetrum  nigrum) ;  but  these  are 
twice  as  Iarg«  as  what  grow  in  the  woodlands,  and  rotter  flavoured.  The  upper  boundary 
of  this  zone  is  800  ft3et  mIow  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The  Laplanders  scarcely  ever 
4x  their  tents  higher  up,  as  the  pasture  for  their  reindeer  ceases  a  very  little  way  above 
this  point    The  mean  temperature  is  about  34°  Fahrenheit 

(6.)  Next  come  the  snowy  Alps,  where  are  patches  of  snow  that  never  melt.  The 
bare  places  between  still  produce  a  few  dark  shrubby  plants,  such  as  the  Crowborry*,  des- 
titute, however  of  fruit;  Andromeda  tetragona  and  hvpnoides,  and  Diapenaia  lapponica. 
Green  precipices,  exposed  to  the  sun,  are  decorated  with  the  vivid  azure  tints  of  Udntiana 
tenella  and  nivalis*,  and  Campanula  uniflora,  accompanied  by  the  yellow  Draba  alpina. 
Colder  and  marshy  situations,  where  there  is  no  reflected  heat,  produce  Pedicularis  hirsuta, 
and  Dryas  octopetala.*  This  zone  reaches  to  within  200  ibet  of  the  limits  of  perpetual  and 
almost  unmterrupted  snow. 

(7.)  Beyond  it,  the  eternal  snows  begin  to  cover  the  ground,  and  we  soon  arrive  at  a  point 
where  only  a  few  dark  spot^  pxe  here  and  there  to  be  seen.  This  takes  place  on  the  alps 
of  Quickjock  at  the  elevation  of  4100  feet  above  the  sea ;  but  nearer  the  highest  ridge,  and 

Krticul&rly  on  the  Norway  side  of  that  ridgo,  at  3100  feet  Some  few  plants  with  succulent 
ives  arc  thinly  scattered  over  the  spongy  brown  surface  of  the  earth,  where  the  reflected 
heat  is  strongest,  quite  up  to  the  line  of  uninterrupted  snow :  these  are  Saxifraga  stellaris*, 
rivularis*,  and  oppositifolia* ;  Ranunculus  nivalis  and  glacialis;  Rumex  digynus*,  Juncus 
arcuatus*,  and  Silene  acaulis.  The  mean  temperature,  at  the  boundaiy  of  perpetual  snow, 
k  32^0  of  Fahrenheit 

(8.)  Above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  the  cold  is  occasionally  so  much  tempered,  that  a 
ibw  plants  of  Ranunculus  glacialis,  and  other  similar  ones,  may  now  and  then  be  found  in 
the  cleils  of  some  dark  rock  rising  through  the  snow.  This  happens  even  to  the  height  of 
500  feet  above  that  line.  Farther  up,  the  snow  is  very  rarely  moistened,  though  some  um- 
bilicated  Lichens  (Oyrophora),  &c.  still  occur  in  the  crevices  of  perpendicular  itxsks,  even 
2000  feet  above  the  line  of  never-melting  snow.  These  are  the  extremes  of  vegetation, 
where  the  mean  temperature  seems  to  be  30°  Fahrenheit  The  Snow  Bunting  {EnAeriza 
nivalis)  ia  the  only  living  being  that  visits  this  elevate?  spot 

SvBSECT.  3. — Zoology.  '•  f     ■-  "•  .'f* 

The  native  Zoology,  m  conjunction  with  that  of  Norway,  has  been  ably  illustrated  by  the 
celebrated  Danish  naturalist  Miiller,  and  shows  that  the  fkuna  of  those  kingdoms  is  mjch 
richer  than  their  northern  and  ungenial  climate  would  lead  us  to  imagine.  The  total  num- 
ber of  land  quadrupeds,  including  the  domestic  species,  is  forty-one.  Among  these  we  find 
the  lynx,  the  glutton,  the  beaver,  the  leming,  and  the  flying  squirrel ;  together  with  ibnr 
of  the  largest  deer  inhabiting  Europe ;  namely,  the  elk,  the  stag,  the  rein-deer,  and  the 
fiillow-deer. 
The  Elk  (Cervut  Alcei)  {fig.  231.)  of  Euro])e  is  not  the  same  with  the  Moose-deer  of  Aroe< 

rica :  it  ie  £>und  in  Europe  between  latitude  63°  and 
65° :  in  size  it  is  higher  than  a  horse ;  and,  to  support 
the  enormous  weight  of  its  horns,  sometimes  nearly 
fifty  pounds,  its  neck  is  short  thick,  and  very  strong. 
Its  movements  are  rather  heavy :  it  does  not  gallop,  but 
t  f  !:JH^HDKBnfl^H^^  ambles  along,  the  joints  cracking  so  much  at  every 

step,  that  the  sound  is  heard  to  some  distance.  During 
winter  it  chiefly  resides  in  hiliy  woods ;  but  in  summei 
it  frequents  swamps  and  the  borders  of  lakes ;  often 
going  deep  into  the  water,  to  escape  the  stings  of  gnats, 
&c.,  and  to  feed  without  stoopmg.  With  its  enormous 
horns  it  turns  down  branches  of  trees,  to  feed  upon  the 
bark,  with  great  dexterity ;  and  these  are  also  used  M 
ji^2ik.  shovels,  to  get  at  pasture  when  covered  with  snow. 

The  young  are  so  simple  and  fearless,  that  they  will 


" ■^;/^'V)'-h?ty7'.r'^^^^'-''''*^'^?'"'4'»?7:i'^1IFP^''^'  ■"■' 


Pa«t  in, 

ndromeda  polifolia'''  in 
mountains,  where  the 
a*,  Pteria  crispa*,  and 
ine  of  perpetual  snow, 
ries  of  the  Cloudberry 

ata*  is  not  a&ore  two 
umbler  inrowth.  The 
round.  The  hills  are 
id  A.  lapponica,  which 

precipices,  where  the 
iniflorum"',  Astragalus 
a  alpina*,  Carex  ustu* 
however,  which  ripen 
igrum)i  but  these  aie 

The  upper  boundary 
planders  scarcely  ever 

very  little  way  above 

lat  never  melt.  The 
B  the  Crowberry*,  des- 
.  Diapensia  lapponica. 
zure  tints  of  Gentiana 
yellow  Draba  alpina. 
:e  Pedicularia  hirsuta, 
[imits  of  perpetual  and 

B  soon  arrive  at  a  pomt 
kes  place  on  the  alps 
the  highest  ridge,  and 
r  plants  with  succulent 
Lh,  where  the  reflected 
re  Saxifraga  stellaris*, 
paex  digynus*,  Juncus 
uy  of  perpetual  SDow, 

nuch  tempered,  that  a 
and  then  be  found  m 
even  to  the  height  of 
led,  though  some  uin< 
endicular  irocks,  even 
tremes  of  vegetation, 
Bunting  {EnAerixa 


ibly  illustrated  by  the 
kingd(nns  is  macb 

me.    The  total  num- 

\mong  these  we  find 
together  with  fbnr 

le  rein-deer,  and  the 

Mooee-deer  of  Ame* 
een  latitude  53°  and 
orse ;  and,  to  support 
IS,  sometimes  nearly 
ck,  and  very  strong, 
t  does  not  gallop,  but 
so  much  at  every 
ie  distance.  During 
oods;  but  in  summer 
ders  of  lakes ;  often 

I  the  stings  of  gnats, 
With  its  enormous 

es,  to  feed  upon  the 
ese  are  also  viRed  H 
covered  with  snow. 

less,  that  they  will 


BookL 


.VHM;     DENMARK.       ':i^i 


471 


The  Mockinc  Jar. 


lufllbr  themselves  to  be  taken  by  the  hand.  An  unusually  largo  elk,  kilTed  in  Sweden,  ia 
laid  to  have  weighed  1200  Iba.  These  animals  do  not  now  appear  to  be  employed  in  any 
domestic  office. 

The  Wolverine,  or  Glutton,  is  one  of  those  animals  whose  history  has  long  been  shrouded 
in  fiction  and  romance.  It  is  only  now  that  its  true  habits  have  been  given  to  the  world,  oy 
that  enterprising  traveller,  Dr.  Richardson.  The  Wolverine  of  America,  generally  consi- 
dered the  same  with  the  European  Glutton,  feeds  fhiefly  upon  beasts  that  nave  been  acci- 
dentally killed ;  but  it  will  hunt  smaller  animals,  as  meadow-mice,  marmots,  &c.  and  occa* 
sionally  attack  disabled  animals  of  a  larger  size.  In  its  gait  it  resembles  the  bear;  and, 
ilthough  not  fleet,  is  very  industrious.  Mr.  Graham  observes,  that  it  docs  more  damage  to 
die  small  lur  trade  than  all  the  other  rapacious  animals  conjointly ;  as  it  will  follow  the 
martin-hunter's  path  round  a  line  of  traps  extending  sixty  miles,  and  render  the  whole 
unserviceable,  merely  to  get  at  the  baits.  Yet  it  flies  from  the  face  of  man,  and  may  be 
killed  with  a  stick.  Its  total  length  is  not  more  than  two  feet  and  a  half. 
The  Birds,  according  to  Mailer,  amount  to  232  species:  tlie  greater  part  of  these  are 

common  to  the  northern  countries  of  Europe;  but  the 
Mocking  Jay  (Owuus  ij\fmistu$  Lin.)  (Jig.  232,),  and 
the  Nutcracker  {Nvc\fraga  caryocatactes)  are  unknown 
in  Britain  and  more  southern  latitudes :  the  bill  of  the 
latter  is  shaped  much  like  that  of  a  woodpecker,  and  is 
said  to  be  used  for  brcakinjr  the  shells  of  nuts :  whence 
its  name.  The  species  of  fish,  from  the  maritime  nature 
of  the  region,  are  numerous. 

Domestic  animals.  It  appears  that  the  breeds  caP^d 
the  lesser  and  greater  Danish  Dogs  are  much  more  com- 
mon in  other  countries  than  in  that  from  which  they 
have  been  named.  The  horses  and  cattle  are  of  very 
large-sized  breeds,  generally  called  the  Holstein.  The  greatest  number  of  oxen  seem  to  be 
bred  in  Jutland :  they  are  fattened,  during  summer,  in  the  rich  marshes  of  Holstein,  and 
driven,  in  the  autumn,  to  Hamburg. 

Sect.  HI. — Historical  Oeoffraphy. 

During  the  early  period  of  the  middle  ages,  the  swarms  of  pirates  sent  forth  by  Denmark 
spread  desolation  and  terror  to  the  remotest  extremities  of  Europe.  Canute  king  of  Den- 
mark even  ascended  the  English  throne  in  1017.  Denmark,  at  the  same  time,  carried  on 
frequent  wars  against  Ihe  contiguous  districts  of  Germany  and  Poland,  and  often  held  sway 
'■"•  large  portions  of  them.  But  her  most  brilliant  era  was  the  reign  of  Margaret  of  Wal- 
-,  sumamed  the  Semirainis  of  the  North,  who,  by  her  courage,  popularity,  and  address, 
eded  in  effecting  the  union  of  Calmar,  which  placed  on  her  head,  and  on  that  of  hex 
ntjpiiew  Eric,  the  crown  of  the  three  northern  kingdoms  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 

The  decline  of  Denmark  began  in  the  thlrteentti  century,  under  tiie  violent  and  tyranni- 
cal reign  of  Christian  I.  The  sanguinary  course  by  which  he  sought  to  punish  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Swedes  roused  all  the  dormant  spirit  of  that  brave  people,  who  found  a  deliverer 
in  Gustavus  Vosa,  and  were  finally  fVeed  fi'om  the  Danish  yoke.  During  the  two  following 
centuries,  Sweden,  led  to  victory  by  a  succession  of  heroic  monarchs,  rose  to  the  highest 
pitch  of  military  glory ;  while  Denmark,  always  defeated,  was  stripped  of  many  of  her  most 
important  territories,  and  sunk  into  the  rank  of  a  secondary  state.  Still  she  successfiilly 
cultivated  maritime  commerce  and  shipping,  and  obtained  some  valuable  possessions  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies. 

In  the  great  crisis  produced  by  the  conquests  of  Napoleon,  Denmark  was  thrown  into  an 
uidfortunate  predicament  Placed,  as  it  were,  at  the  point  of  collision  between  France  and 
Russia,  she  could  with  difficulty  escape  being  crushed  between  them.  Circumstances  of 
peculiar  hardship  threw  her  into  the  arms  of  ^nce,  to  whose  cause  she  adhered,  and  at  the 
great  contest  which  ended  in  the  down&ll  of  Napoleon,  she  became  a  victim.  First,  she 
was  deprived  of  Norway,  that  it  might  be  ceded  to  Sweden,  and  that  Russia  might  retain 
Finland.  Denmark  received  in  return  Swedish  Pomerania  as  an  inadequate  compensation. 
Next,  she  was  required  to  exchange  Pomerania  for  Lauenbur^,  a  territory  of  still  inferior 
extent  and  value ;  but,  as  it  borders  on  Sleswick  and  Holsteui,  it  has  rendered  her  dominion 
more  compact,  and  extended  henr  firontier  to  the  Elbe,  so  that  she  is  perhaps  rather  a  j^er 
qy  me  cxcnange.  ^   ^  ;-^  r.,,,:,.;  ,;  J;,  ,1  :,.„;*..:  ..■;:«:;!:■>  «*a..x»  .-•*;+ ^^i-'^  ..»ih*^!F!fij? 

Smt.  IV. — Productive  Industry. 

The  agriculture  of  Denmark  is  conducted  under  considerable  disadvantages  both  of  cli- 
mate  and  soil.  The  climate,  though  not  subject  to  severe  flrost  or  intense  cold,  is  chill  and 
damp ;  and  the  land  consists  in  a  great  measure  of  sand  and  marsh.  Ever/  pnrt  of  the  king- 
dom, however,  is  capable  of  some  cultivation,  and  occasional  tracts  of  uxuriant  fertility 
occur     Such  are  the  islands  of  Zealand  Laaland,  and  Falster ;  and,  in  a  still  greater  degree, 


^w 


DESCRIPTIVE  QEOQRAPHY. 


Pabt  III 


the  MaFCOMt  of  Sleswick  and  holatein;  tot  the  faiterior  u  arid  end  HUiidv.  The  induatry 
of  the  peaaont  in  Denmarlc  Proper  suffprs  manjr  aevere  checka;  he  haa  been  but  recently 
emancipated  fh>m  personal  bondage,  and  ia  atiU  subjected  to  roan;^  feudal  usages.  Life. 
leaaes,  under  which  toe  payment  is  made  in  produce  or  personal  services,  are  common.  The 
proprietors  are  generally  embarraaaed,  and  unable  to  expend  much  on  the  improvement  of 
their  lands.  The  fiumen  of  Hbbtein  and  Sleswick  oar^  on  the  process  of  cultivation  with 
ffntX  skill  and  activity.  The  chill  moisture  of  the  climate  ia  less  favourable  to  the  cultiva> 
tion  of  wheat  than  of  barley,  rye,  and  oats;  all  of  which  aflbrd  a  large  surplus  for  exporta* 
tion.  The  rearing  of  cattle  is  tJm  an  extensive  branch  of  industry,  though  too  little  atteii< 
tion  haa  been  paia  to  the  improvement  of  the  breeds,  unless  on  the  west  coast  of  Sleswick, 
on  whose  moist  and  rich  m^ovni  is  produced  what  bears  a  high  reputation  under  the  name 
d£  "  Hamburg  bee£"  Over  all  Denmark,  the  produce  of  the  dairy  forma  the  basia  of  a  krge 
export  trade. 

The  manu&cturea  of  Denmark  are  extremely  rude,  and  consist  chiefly  in  working  up  the 
flax  and  wool  of  the  country  in  a  coarse  form  ror  domestic  use.  A  great  proportion  auo  of 
the  wool  ia  exported.  Government  have  employed  ^freat  efforts  to  raise  Denmark  to  the 
rank  of  a  manu&cturing  country ;  and  some  fabrics  m  the  different  kinds  of  cloth,  brandy, 
■ugar-refinin|[,  Sui,,  have,  under  its  patronage,  been  set  on  foot  in  the  large  towns ;  but  these 
are  all  languishing,  and  with  difficulty  support  foreign  competition. 

The  commerce  of  Denmark  is  in  a  more  active  state  than  the  other  branches  of  industry; 
though  it  is  still  not  such  as  to  give  her  a  prominent  place  among  the  powers  of  Europe. 
The  oasis  consists  in  the  exportation  of  its  raw  produce.  The  grain  exported  firom  Jutland 
and  the  islands,  at  an  average  of  seven  years  to  1827,  amounted  to  29,000  quarters  of  wheat; 
141,000  quarters  of  rye;  190,000  quarters  of  barley;  43,000  quarters  of  oats.  The  rye 
was  chiefly  exported  to  Norway,  to  be  used  as  bread-«om,  and  the  barley  to  be  employed  in 
distillation.  The  value  of  these  articles  amounted,  in  1825,  to  $2,300,000.  That  of  butter 
and  cheese  exported  was,  in  the  same  year,  $1,300,000.  Holstein  and  Sleswick,  called  the 
duchies,  exported  at  an  average  also  of  seven  years,  78,000  quarters  of  wheat;  55,000  of 
xye ;  75,000  of  barley ;  130,0(M  of  oats.  The  value  of  butter,  cheese,  and  salted  meat,  ia 
still  ffreater.  Denmark,  from  its  situation  between  the  northern  and  middle  states,  has  a 
considerable  carrying  trade  of  the  bulky  articles  produced  by  the  former ;  and  ha^  also  a 
good  deal  of  ship-buuding.  Both  the  whale  and  herring  fisheries  are  likewise  carried  on  to 
a(»ne  extend 


■\uii 


:jm-Vhif' 


:    ;    ii'  r  SKrr.y.— Political  Geographff.'''^ 

The  constitution  of  Denmark,  originally  founded  on  the  basis  of  the  most  complete  feudal 
independence,  to  the  e:<:tent  of  rendering  the  monarchy  itself  elective,  underwent  a  com- 
plete cliange  in  1660,  when  Frederick  III.  had  the  address  to  obtain  an  act  by  which  the 
crown  was  declared  hereditary,  and  himself  invested  with  supreme  and  absolute  power. 
The  sway  of  the  Danish  princes  has,  however,  been  exceedingly  mild  and  populoi',  and  their 
despotic  power  exerted  m  a  manner  beneficial  to  the  people,  as  it  limited  the  oppressive 
rights  exercised  by  the  nobles.  These,  however,  continue  to  be  extremely  obnoxious; 
and  it  is  only  within  a  very  few  years  that  the  body  of  the  people  were  emancipated  from 
a  state  of  personal  slavery.  The  nobles  are  few  in  number,  consisting  only  of  one  duke, 
nineteen  counts,  and  twelve  barons.  The  king  himself  presides  at  the  supreme  national 
tribunal. 

The  revenue  amountstofrom  about  lljn',500,000  to  $8,000,000.  There  is  a  nominal  debt  of 
$75,000,000 ;  but  the  interest  paid  upon  it  is  small. 

The  military  and  naval  establishments  are  on  a  scale  suited  to  a  greater  country  thai 
what  remains  of  Denmark.  The  army  is  kept  up  to  nearly  40,000  regular  troops  and  60,000 
militia.  The  navy  has  not  recovered  fixnn  tlie  severe  shock  which  it  received  during  the 
last  war :  at  present  it  consists  of  six  ships  of  the  line,  six  frigates,  and  four  corvettes,  besides 
smaller  vessels.    The  sailors  being  all  registered,  no  difficulty  is  ever  found  in  manning  the 


navy. 


■W*  ;?^s,  ■:/-'*/•■ 


Sacr.  \L— Civil  and  Social  State. 


The  population  of  the  Danish  dommions  in  1832,  amounted  to  2,049,000;  of  which 
1,5^,000  were  in  its  ancient  domain  of  the  islands  Jutland  and  Sleswick ;  404,000  in  Hol- 
atein; ^(OOOinLauenburg;  51,000  in  Iceland ;  14,000  inCireenland  and  Uie  Faroe  Islands.* 

Naiiotud  character.  The  Danes  are  generally  quiet,  tranquil,  and  industrious.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  towns,  who  are  chiefly  engaged  m  trade,  have  a  great  share  of  the  patient, 
thrifly,  and  persevering  habits  of  the  Dutch.  The  peasantry,  poor  and  oppressed,  are  begin* 
ning,  however,  to  raise  their  heads ;  and  the  nobles,  no  longer  addicted  to  those  rude  and 

,  I  I     II  I     II  -* 

•  The  Danish  coloniet  are  Chriitlaniborg  and  other  itationi  in  Guinea,  with  44,000  inhabitant* ;  Santa  Cms 
■l.  Thomai,  and  St.  John  in  the  Weit  Indiei,  with  47,000 ;  and  Tranquabar  and  Aetoriei  on  the  Coiomandel  eoai^ 
in  tte  Bait  Indie*,  with  60,000.-Aii.  Eo. 


Pabt  KL 

ndv.  The  induitry 
Ls  been  but  recently 
ludal  ungea.  Life- 
I,  are  conunon.  The 
the  improvement  of 
I  of  cultivation  with 
urable  to  the  cultiv»i 
surplus  for  exporta* 
)ugh  too  little  atten- 
It  coast  of  Sleswick, 
tion  under  the  name 
I  the  basis  of  a  large 

ly  in  working  up  the 
it  proportion  auoof 
lise  Denmark  to  the 
nds  of  cloth,  brandy, 
rge  towns;  but  these 

iranches  of  industry ; 
te  powers  of  Europe, 
cported  firom  Juthind 
O  quarters  of  wheat; 
B  of  oats.  The  r^e 
ey  to  be  employed  in 

000.  That  of  butter 
Sleswick,  called  the 

of  wheat;  65,000 of 

1,  and  salted  meat,  is 
middle  states,  haii  a 

irmer ;  and  has  also  a 
likewise  carried  on  to 


lost  complete  feudal 
f,  underwent  a  com- 

an  act  by  which  the 

and  absolute  power. 

ind  popular,  and  their 
united  the  oppressive 
|xtremely  obnoxious; 

ire  emancipated  from 
[  only  of  one  duke, 
le  supreme  national 

\  is  a  nominal  debt  of 

.reater  country  thai 

■lar  troops  and  60,000 

Ireceiven  during  the 

aur  corvettes,  besidet 

bund  in  manning  the 

1,049,000;  of  which 
ck;  404,000  in  Hoi- 
die  Faroe  Islands.* 
industrious.  The 
I  share  of  the  patient, 
oppressed,  are  begin* 
'  to  those  rude  aud 


jihabUanta ;  Sanu  Cm 
Ion  tbe  Coromandsl  eouti 


Book  I. 


DENMARK. 


478 


daring  pursuits  which  rendered  them  once  so  formidable,  live  much  in  the  style  of  opulent 
nqpnetors  in  other  European  countries. 

The  Lutheran  religion  was  early  and  zealously  adopted  in  Denmark,  to  the  extent,  indeed, 
of  granting  toleration  to  no  other ;  but  the  liberal  principles  now  difiiised  throughout  Europe, 
have  made  Uieir  way  Ailly  into  that  country.  Science  was  at  one  era  somewhat  brilliantly 
patronised  in  Denmark.  The  observatory  at  Orienbaum  was  the  theatre  of  many  of  the 
moet  important  modern  observations;  anid  Tycho  Brahe  ranks  as  one  of  the  fatliers  of 
modem  astronomy.  (Elenschlager  and  other  writers  have  introduced  a  school  of  poetry  and 
dramatic  literature,  founded  upon  that  of  the  modem  German.  The  government  has 
bestowed  a  laudable  attention  on  the  general  education  of  its  people,  and  has  even  passed  a 
hw,  requiring  every  child,  of  a  certain  age,  to  be  sent  to  school.  The  schools,  on  the  plan 
of  mutual  instraction,  amounted,  in  1^,  to  2500,  and  more  were  in  progress;  there  are  also 
SOOOgrammar  and  parish  schools.  .,;,_.  „^  ^  ^i,    ..^        ,  <  ;;;./4 

Skct.  Vn.— Local  Geography. 
The  local  divisions  of  continental  Denmark  present  little  variety  in  consequence  of  the 
uniformity  of  its  sur&ce,  and  the  small  number  of  considerable  cities.  Its  divisions  are  Zeop 
land  and  the  other  islands;  Jutland,  Sleswick,  Holstein,  Lauenburg ;  with  the  remote  terrir 
tories  of  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the  Faroe  Islands. 

Zealand  is  a  flat,  fertile,  and  extensive  island,  separated  fl-om  Funen  bf  the  Great  Belt, 
and  from  Sweden  by  the  Sound.    Including  the  capital,  and  chief  seats  of  trade,  it  forms  the 
moet  important  part  of  the  Danish  dominions. 
Copenhagen,  (Jig.  233.),  (in  Danish,  Eiobenha&,  or  the  "merchant  port,")  the  capital 

of  Denmark,  is  situated  on  the  east 
coast  of  Zealand,  with  the  island 
of  Amak  oppposite  to  it,  and  seve 
ral  little  lakes  in  its  vicinity.  Its 
walls  enclose  a  circuit  of  five  milesb 
a  great  part  of  which,  however,  is 
covered  with  open  spaces,  and  with 
the  harbour  and  doclu.  Thehousei^ 
with  a  few  exceptions,  are  built  of 
brick,  plastered  over,  and  painted 
in  different  colours.  The  number 
of  inhabitants  is  about  115,000; 
the  houses  are  lofly,  and  contain 
many  families  in  each.  The  city 
is  divided  into  three  parts;  the  old  town,  which  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  population; 
the  new  town,  in  which  are  all  the  finest  edifices;  and  the  port,  or  Christian's  Havea  In 
the  midst  of  the  principal  square  is  the  bronze  statue  of  Frederick  V.,  weighing  45,000  lbs. 
This  square,  with  the  adjoining  one  called  the  King's  Mark  Place,  surrounded  by  the  palace 
of  Chaxlottenborg,  the  uieatre,  the  principal  hotel,  and  other  stately  buildings,  forms  the 
handsomest  part  of  Copenhagen.  The  cathedral  was  destroyed  during  the  bomlnrdment  by 
the  English,  and  is  left  in  ruins ;  but  the  Frue  Kirke  is  an  elegant  Grecian  edifice,  215  feet 
by  180,  with  a  Doric  portico,  and  for  which  Thorwaldsen  is  preparing  statues  of  the  apostles 
uid  evangelists.  The  palace  of  Rosenborg,  though  now  unoccupi^,  contains  an  extraor^ 
dimry  display  of  jewels,  precious  stones,  and  porcelain.  The  collections  in  science  and  art 
are  equal  to  those  of  the  greatest  capitals.  The  king  has  a  library  of  400,000  volumes,  with 
numerous  manuscripts  illustrative  of  the  history  and  literature  of  uie  NorUi,  as  well  as  those 
bought  by  Niebuhr  fh>m  the  East ;  an  extensive  museum  of  northern  antiquities :  a  gallery 
of  pictures,  comprisingsome  fine  specimens  of  the  greatest  masters,  and  a  numerous  collec- 
tion of  engravmgs.  The  University  of  Copenhagen,  a  highly  respectable  institution,  has  a 
valuable  library  of  about  100,000  volumes,  and  an  excellent  collection  of  northem  manu- 
scripts. The  arsenal  is  said  to  equal  that  of  Venice  in  beauty,  and  to  surpass  it  in  extent 
The  mint  throws  off  200  pieces  in  a  minute. 

The  other  towns  in  Zealand  and  the  islands  are  of  ccHnparatively  small  magnitude.  Roe* 
child,  the  ancient  capital  of  Denmark,  which  contained  once  thirty  convents  and  thirty 
churches,  is  now  remarkable  only  for  its  Gothic  cathedral,  in  whose  vaults  are  deposited  the 
remains  of  the  kings  of  Denmark.  Several  of  the  monuments  are  fine.  Elsinore,  with  its 
castle  of  Cronborg,  is  important  from  its  situation  on  the  Sound,  which  being  command^l 
by  the  castle,  the  government  is  enabled  to  levy  what  are  called  the  Sound  dues.  The  pas> 
Mige  to  Helsinborg,  in  Sweden,  may  be  made  in  half  an  hour.  Elsinore,  from  its  fevourable 
aituation  and  good  roadstead,  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce,  and  contains,  among  its 
inhabitants,  many  British,  Jews,  and  even  Mahometans.  It  has  a  handsome  cathedral,  with 
mne  fine  tombs.  Population  7000.  At  Cronborg  is  shown  the  chamber  in  which  the 
anfortunate  Matilda  was  ooifined.  This  castle  commands  a  noble  view  over  the  sea,  the 
VouL  40*  SK 


Copaakaccn. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


PASTlIt 


falands,  and  the  oppmite  coast  of  Sweden.  The  terrace  firom  which  these  are  viewed 
recalls  to  the  English  reader  the  first  scenes  of  Hamlet,  the  tradition  of  whoso  story  is  still 
prevalent  here.  Soroe,  in  the  interior,  surrounded  by  a  fine  country,  has  a  noble  academy ; 
and  contains  the  tombs  of  Eric,  Canute,  and  other  princes.  Odensee,  the  capital  of  Funen, 
has  a  college,  and  is  rather  a  thriving  town,  with  manufactures  of  woollen  and  soap.  Nye* 
borg,  in  Funen,  and  Corsoer  in  Zealand,  derive  some  importance  ftom  their  situation  on  the 
passage  of  the  Great  Belt;  and  Middelikrth,  in  the  former  island,  ihun  the  passage  of  the 
Little  Belt 

The  towns  of  Jutland  are  of  small  interest,  and  have  been  little  observed,  with  the  excep> 
tion  of  those  Which  lie  on  the  high  road  fl-om  Hamburg  to  Copenhagen.  Aalborg,  near  the 
northern  extremity,  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  four  bishoprics;  and,  bemg  situated  on  a  narrow 
arm  of  the  sea,  with  a  good  harbour,  carries  on  some  trade.  Aarhuus,  on  the  eastern  coast, 
is  the  seat  of  another  bishopric ;  and,  being  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  country,  exports  some 
grain.  Population,  5,000.  Colding  derives  some  importance  from  its  vicinity  to  the  passage 
of  the  Little  Belt    Wiborg  and  Ripen  are  also  deserving  of  mention. 

In  Sleswick,  the  city  of  Uiat  name  is  agreeable,  though  irregularly  built  Its  cathedral, 
with  uTimerous  monuments  of  ancient  dukes,  is  viewed  with  interest  Flemsborg,  on  a  deep 
and  winding  haqf,  or  bay,  with  an  excellent  harbour,  possesses  a  much  greater  commercial 
importance,  while  it  carries  on  the  communication  with  the  Baltic :  it  has  15,000  inhabitants. 
Tonningen,  on  the  other  side,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Eyder,  communicates  with  the  coud< 
tries  situated  round  the  German  Ocean ;  and,  by  the  canal  of  Holstein,  it  has  now  a  water 
communication  with  the  Baltic. 

Holstein,  the  most  southern  province  of  Denmark,  ranks  as  a  part  of  the  German  empire, 
to  which  it  once  belonged,  and  gives  to  the  king  of  Denmark  a  vote  in  the  diet.  Reaching 
to  the  Elbe,  and  being  more  in  the  commercial  circle,  it  has  a  considerably  brisker  trade  than 
the  northern  or  peninsular  territory.  Altona,  a  few  miles  below  Hamburg,  is  a  repetition  of 
that  city  on  a  smaller  scale ;  having  25,000  inhabitants,  busily  employed  in  the  commerce 
of  the  Elbe,  in  ship-building,  and  in  several  manufactures.  Gluckstaidt,  about  twenty  miles 
lower,  though  inferior  in  extent,  is  a  handsome  and  regular  town,  with  considerable  naval 
establishments.  Kiel,  on  the  eastern  or  Baltic  coast,  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  derives 
importance  from  its  situation  at  the  extremity  of  the  canal  which  connects  the  eastern  and 
western  seas.  It  contains  an  university.  Lauenburg,  a  level  tract,  intenected  with  several 
small  lakes,  though  it  rounds  the  Danish  borders,  does  not  possess  much  importance,  either 
in  itself  or  its  little  capital,  with  3,000  inhabitanti. 

Iceland,  on  appendage  of  the  Danish  crown,  unimportant  in  a  political  view,  but  interest* 
ing  from  its  physical  and  moral  aspect,  is  situated  in  the  Northern  Ocean,  on  the  border  of 
the  arctic  circle,  and  at  the  farthest  verge  of  the  civilized  world.  It  is  a  large  island,  220 
mUes  in  length,  and  210  in  breadth;  containing  about 40,000  square  miles.  Iceland  belongs, 
by  its  situation,  to  the  polar  world  ;  and  the  mountain  chains,  from  3000  to  6000  feet  high, 
with  which  it  is  everywhere  intersected,  give  it  a  still  more  severe  and  stem  character. 
Barley  is  the  only  grain  that  can  be  raised  and  this  only  in  patches ;  cabbages,  and  a  few 
other  imported  vegetables,  may  be  produced,  but  bv  no  means  in  perfection.  The  dependence 
of  the  inhabitants  is  chiefly  upon  the  abundance  of  fish  which  ^le  surrounding  seas  afibrd ;  so 
that  the  interior,  comprising  about  half  of  the  island,  is  a  desert  of  the  most  dreary  character. 

The  mountain  phenomena  of  Iceland  are  very  striking.  According  to  Glieman,  the 
jokuls,  or  hills  covered  with  ice,  rise  to  the  following  heights :  Oerefe,  6240  feet ;  Snafell, 

4672;  Findfall,  5368;  Hecla,  5210;  Eya- 
234  ^^U^^  ^'^^^  Oester,  5794.    AH  these  mountains 

are,  at  the  same  time,  glaciers  capped 
with  ice  which  never  melts;  but  these 

Sflaciers  consist  not,  like  those  of  Switzer> 
and,  of  great  mosses  sloping  down  firran 
upper  regions  of  the  mountains  to  the  vol- 
leys ;  they  ore  the  snows  of  winter  melted 
and  frozen  where  they  fall.  Beneath  this 
mantle  of  ice  and  snow  bums  a  perpetual 
fire,  which  in  every  part  of  the  island 
burets  forth  in  the  most  strange  and  fear* 
fill  phenomena.  Hecla  (fig.  234.),  with  its  flaming  volcano,  is  the  most  celebrated ;  but  its 
cmptions,  of  which  six  have  occurred  in  the  course  of  a  century,  are  at  present  suspended. 
There  are  six  other  volcanoes,  which,  in  the  course  of  a  century,  have  emitted  twenty 
eruptions. 

The  Geysers  form  a  phenomena  strikingly  characteristic  of  Iceland,  and  rank  with  the 
moat  extraordinary  that  are  produced  on  ony  part  of  the  globe.  They  consist  erf*  fountains, 
which  throw  up  boiling  water,  spray,  and  vapour,  to  a  great  height  into  Uie  air.  The  ernp* 
tioos  are  not  continuous,  but  announce  their  approach  by  a  sound  like  that  al  BttbterraneMU 


Heola. 


pABTin. 

1  theae  are  viewed 
f  whoBO  Btory  is  ■till 
u  a  noble  academy ; 
the  capital  of  Funen, 
len  and  soap.  Nye* 
their  situation  on  the 
n  the  passage  of  the 

ved,  with  the  excep* 
.  Aalborg,  near  the 
situated  on  a  narrow 
on  the  eastern  coast, 
mntry,  exports  some 
cinity  to  the  ] 


Book  I. 


DENMARK.  »^''*i»< 


m 


built.  Its  cathedral, 
Flemsborg,  on  a  deep 
1  greater  commercial 
18 15,000  inhabitants, 
icates  with  the  coun- 
,  it  has  now  a  water 

the  German  empire, 
the  diet.  Reaching 
bly  brisker  trade  than 
irg,  is  a  repetition  of 
ed  in  the  commerce 
t,  about  twenty  miles 
th  considerable  naval 
harbour,  and  derives 
nects  the  eastern  and 
ersected  with  several 
:h  importance,  either 

al  view,  but  interest- 

ean,  on  the  border  of 

B  a  large  island,  220 

les.  Iceland  belongs, 

00  to  6000  feet  high, 

and  stem  character. 

cabbages,  and  a  few 

}n.    The  dependence 

mding  seas  afford ;  so 

lost  dreaiy  character. 

ing  to  Giieman,  tbs 

,6240  feet;  Snafell, 

;HeclB,5210;Eya- 

All  these  mountains 

ne,  glaciers  capped 

er  melts;  but  these 

ike  those  of  Switzer* 

sloping  down  from 
nountains  to  the  val- 
)ws  of  winter  melted 
,  fall.  Beneath  this 
w  bums  a  perpetual 

part  of  the  island 
)st  strange  and  fear* 

celebrated;  but  its 

present  suspended. 

,ve  emitted  twenty 


y 


t 


and  rank  with  the 
consist  erf*  fountains, 
the  air.  The  erap* 
lat  of  BubterraneooB 


GrMt  Sqn«r> 


thunder ;  immediately  after  which,  a  column  of  water,  accompanied  with  prodigious  volumes 
286  of  Bteam,  bursts  fortli,  and  rushcB  up  to  the  height  of  fifty, 

■izty,  ninety,  or  even  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  The  water 
■con  ceases ;  but  tlie  spray  and  vapour  continue  to  play  in 
the  air  ibr  several  hours,  and,  when  illuminated  by  the  suiii 
produce  the  meet  brilliant  rainbows.  The  largest  stonee, 
when  thrown  into  the  orifice,  are  instantly  propolled  to  an 
amazing  height,  and  remaining  often  for  some  minutee 
within  the  iimuence  of  the  steam,  rise  and  M\  in  singular 
alternation.  Stones  thrown  into  the  fountain  have  the 
remarkable  effect  of  acting  as  a  stimulus  to  the  eruj^ 
tion,  and  causing  it  to  burst  from  a  state  of  tranquillity. 
The  basin  of  the  Great  Geyser  (Jig.  235.),  is  of  an  oval 
fimn,  witii  diameters  of  fifty-ei^ht  and  sixty-four  feet 
Every  spot  around  the  Geysers  is  covered  with  vario^^ 
ted  and  beautiful  petrifactions.  Leaves,  grass,  lushee, 
are  converted  into  white  stone,  preserving  entire  every 
fibre. 

The  Sulphur  Mountains,  with  their  caldrons  of  boilmg 
mud,  present  another  phenomenon  which  the  traveller  be* 
holds  with  the  utmoat  astonishment  These  consist  chiefly  of  clay,  covered  with  a  crust, 
which  is  hot  to  the  touch,  and  of  sulphur,  f^om  almost  eveiy  part  of  which,  gas  and  steam 
are  perpetually  escaping.  Sometimes  a  loud  noise  guides  the  traveller  to  a  spot  where  cal- 
^^  drons  of  black  boiling  mud  (Jig. 

*80      ^  236.),    largely   impregnated   with 

this  mineral  substance,  are  throw- 
ing up,  at  short  intervals,  their 
eruptions.  That  on  the  Krabla, 
observed  by  Mr.  Henderson,  had  a 
diameter  equal  to  that  of  the  Great 
Geyser,  and  rose  to  the  height  of 
thirty  feet  The  situation  of  the 
spectator  here  is  not  only  awful,  but 
even  dangerous;  standmg,  as  Sir 
George  Mackenzie  observes,  "  on  a 
support  which  feebly  sustains  him, 
over  an  abyss  where  fire  and  brim< 

^  „       .  „ ,  stone  are  in  dreadful  and  incessant 

Caldroo  of  Bolllos  Mod.  action  " 

The  civil  and  social  state  of  Iceland  presents  features  no  less  interesting.  It  was  dis* 
covered  about  the  year  840,  by  Nadod,  a  Danish  pirate.  After  its  settlement  it  became  a 
little  independent  republic ;  and  the  arts  and  literature,  driven  before  the  tide  of  barbarism, 
which  then  overwhelmed  the  rest  of  Europe,  took  refiige  in  this  remote  and  frozen  olime. 
Iceland  had  its  divmes,  its  annalists,  its  poets,  and  was  for  some  time  the  most  enlightened 
country  then  perhaps  existing  in  the  world.  Subjected  first  to  Norway,  in  1261,  and  after- 
wards to  Denmark,  it  lost  the  spirit  and  energy  of  an  independent  republic.  Yet  the 
difiiision  of  knowledge,  even  among  the  lowest  class,  which  took  place  during  its  pros* 
perous  period,  still  exists  in  a  degree  not  paralleled  in  the  most  enlightened  of  other 
nations.  Men  who  seek,  amid  the  storms  of  the  surrounding  ocean,  a  scanty  provision 
for  their  families,  possess  an  acquaintance  with  the  classical  writings  of  antiquity,  and 
a  sense  of  their  beauty.  The  traveller  finds  the  guide  whom  he  has  hired  able  to  hold  a 
conversation  with  him  in  Latm,  and  on  his  arrival  at  his  miserable  place  of  rest  for  the  night, 
is  addressed  with  fluency  and  elegance  in  the  same  language.  "The  instruction  of  his  chil- 
dren," says  Dr.  Holland,  "  forms  one  of  the  stated  occupations  of  the  Icelander ;  and  whilA 
the  little  hut  which  he  inhabits  is  almost  buried  in  the  snow,  and  while  darkness  and  deso* 
lation  are  spread  universally  around,  the  light  of  an  oil-lamp  Ulumines  the  page  from  which 
be  reads  to  his  family  the  lessons  of  knowledge,  religion,  and  virtue." 

The  Faroe  Islands  compose  a  group  in  the  Northern  Ocean,  between  61°  15'  and  62"  20' 
N.  lat.,  to  the  N.W.  of  Shetland,  which  they  resemble.  The  principal  are  Stromsoe,  Osteroe, 
Suderoe,  and  Norderoe,  with  the  smaller  islands  of  Nalsoe,  Vagoe,  and  Sandoe.  Their  only 
wealth  is  produced  by  the  rearing  of  sheep,  fishing,  and  catching  the  numerous  birds  whioi 
cluster  round  the  rocks.  With  the  surplus  of  these  articles  they  supply  their  deficiency  at 
grain.    Thorsham,  on  Stromsoe,  is  the  only  place  that  can  be  called  a  town. 


-i  \  •' 


■(>:. 


»«*-!'■ 


titf 


DESCRIPTIVE  UEOORAPHY 


Ifi^iut^.i   **  V.v.»/»»(\»-«lljiH»>-V»H>t«**,  ' 


CHAPTER  VL 

■WEDKN  AND  NORWAT. 


W' 


pAkT  ni 


Bwbdhi  and  Nokwat,  now  united  into  one  kin^om,  form  an  extonaive  region,  ■trotchiag 
from  the  utmoat  verm  of  the  temperate  zone  fkr  mto  the  flrozen  ranife  of  the  arctic  circle. 
Along  the  north  ana  west  itmtch  the  wide  shores  of  the  Frozen  Ocean,  ao  far  aa  yet  known. 
The  ■outh*weat  point  of  the  kingdom  bordera  on  the  North  Sea  or  German  Ocisan.  The 
Baltic  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  enclose  it  on  the  south  and  east;  so  that  it  fbrms  an  immense 
peninsula.  The  isthmus  by  v/hich  it  is  joined  to  Russia  is  above  200  miles  broad,  but  lo 
closely  barred  by  mountains  and  flrozen  plains,  that  the  kingdom  is  nearly  inaocossible, 
incept  by  sea. 

SacT.  I. — Oeneral  Outline  and  A$peet. 

■■  This  kinffdom  is  of  vast  extent  Its  length,  flrom  the  extreme  point  of  Scania  to  the  North 
Cape,  is  1800  miles.  Its  breadth,  flrom  the  extreme  points  of  the  provinces  of  Stockholm 
on  the  east,  and  Bergen  on  the  west,  will  little  exceed  800  miles.  Its  area  is  297,000  square 
miles.  Of  this  large  territory,  scarcely  a  half  can  be  considered  aa  belonging  to  the  civi* 
lized  world.  The  Laplander,  who  derives  his  whole  subsistence  from  the  rein-deer,  can 
hardly  be  included  witnin  the  pale  of  civilized  society.  Even  the  southern  districta  have  a 
ruggea  and  repulsive  aspect,  when  compared  to  almost  any  other  European  state.  ForesU 
of  tall  and  gloomy  pine  stretch  over  the  plains,  or  hang  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains ;  the 
ground  for  nve  months  in  the  year  is  buried  under  snow ;  cultivation  appears  only  in  scat- 
tered patches,  and  was  long  c^uite  insuflScient  to  fiimish  bread  to  the  inhaDitants. 

The  mountains  consist  chiefly  of  the  dark  and  lofty  chain  of  the  Dofrines,  which  were 
ibr  ages  a  barrier  between  the  two  separate  and  hostile  states  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  but 
are  now  included  within  the  united  Kingdom.  It  commences  near  Gottenburg,  on  a  low 
scale,  and  becomes  much  more  elevated  in  passing  through  Norway,  where  some  of  its  pin 
nacles  exceed  8000  feet  Chains  of  secondary  elevation  run  tluough  Lapland ;  but,  in 
approaching  the  North  Cape,  they  again  rise  as  high  as  before,  and  fkce  the  polar  seas  with 
clifb  of  pr«ligious  magnitude. 

Tlie  rivers  are  numen  us,  Sweden  being  a  country  proflisely  watered ;  but,  as  they  rise  h 
the  Dofirines,  and  traver  se  the  divided  breadth  of  the  peninsula,  thev  seldom  attam  any 
material  length  of  course.  The  larfrest  is  the  Dahl,  which  crosses  Dalecarlia,  and  fiills  into 
the  sea  at  Geflle,  after  a  course  of  260  miles.  The  most  important  as  to  navigation  are  those 
which  form  the  outlet  to  the  lakes,  particularly  the  Gotha,  reaching  fhnn  uie  lake  Wener 
to  Gottenburg.  The  Glomme  and  tne  Dramme  are  pretty  consic^rable  rivers,  rumiinff 
fh>m  north  to  south,  and  down  which  considerable  quantities  of  timber  are  floated.  Laplana 
pours  a  number  of  large  streams  into  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia ;  but  these  are 
usually  chained  in  ice,  and  at  no  time  can  be  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  agriculture  or 
navigation. 

Lakes  form  the  grand  depository  of  the  surplus  waters  of  Sweden.  The  Wener  bean 
almost  the  character  of  an  mland  sea,  and  the  completion  of  the  canal  of  Trdlli&tta,  by 
enabling  ita  coasto  to  communicate  by  the  Gotha  with  Crottenburg,  has  given  them  almost 
the  fbll  advantages  of  a  maritime  site.  The  Wetter,  though  equal  in  length,  covers  not 
nearlv  so  great  an  extent  of  ground.  Mftler,  or  Malar,  is  a  narrow,  winding  loci:,  or,  more 
strictly,  a  bay,  running  sixty  miles  into  the  interior  flrom  Stockholm,  to  whose  environs  its 
variegated  and  rocky  shores  give  a  beautiful  wildness.  Small  lakes,  enclosed  between  hills^ 
are  of  very  fbequent  occurrence,  both  in  Norway  and  Sweden. 

'-  ■■   .  ".f    ■',  .  ■•;      •■    •.  .iff 

Smt.  n. — Natural  Oeography,       ^     '  a; 

SoBraor.  1.— C?eo2o^. 

(1.)  GaoLooT  OF  SwEDBN. — ^I.  Primitive  rocks.  Granite  occurs  in  the  mountains  of 
J&mtland,  in  Herjeadalen,  in  Lulea  Lappmark,  in  Pitea  Lappmark.  It  occurs  also  in  the 
plains,  without  any  covermg  of  other  rooks,  as  in  Upland,  Westmanland,  Sudermanland,  and 
a  part  of  East  and  West  Crothland.  It  passes  into  gneiss  and  syenite.  Gneiss  occurs  in 
many  places  in  Sudermanland,  East  Gothland,  &c.,  with  beds  of  copper  and  iron  ore.  Mica 
■late  aoounds  not  only  in  the  principal,  but  also  in  the  subordinate  chains,  and  contains  the 
greater  number  of  the  metalliferous  beds  met  with  in  Sweden.  It  often  alternates  with  vast 
beds  of  primitive  limegtone,  quartz,  &c.  In  the  high  mountain  ridges,  the  strata  of  this 
nek  are  generally  disposed  at  an  angle  of  45° ;  while  in  the  subordmate  chains  they  aie 
vertical.  In  many  places  it  abounds  m  garnets,  when  it  is  known  under  the  name  noorftji, 
or  murkstein,  Uie  garnet  rock  of  geologists.  Clay  slate  occurs  sparingly :  tak  slate,  in 
several  quarters,  occurs  m  considerable  abundance.  Porphyry  occurs  only  in  Smaland, 
where  the  basis  is  a  ^uartzy  homstone  (hallejtinta)  with  embedded  crystals  of  felspar,  and 
grains  of  quarts.    Pnmitive  limestone  occurs  generally  in  the  secondiiiy  mountain  chain% 


Book  L 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


4T7 


but  Boldom  in  the  neighbourhcMxl  of  the  central  chaini.  It  is  mixed  up  with  hornblende 
tremolite,  quartz,  nrpentino,  gamot,  ma^piotic  ironatono,  and  mica.  It  ia  often  metalliferous 
containing  onlena,  copnor,  and  iron  pyrites.  Serpentine,  with  the  exception  of  masses  in 
lome  metalliferous  beds,  seldom  occurs  pure :  it  is  oflen  mixed  with  limestone,  when  it 
occun<  in  primitive  limestone.  Quartz  rock  occurs  cither  pure,  and  in  whole  mountains,  as 
in  Dahlsland,  Smaland,  and  many  other  places;  or  it  altomatos  with  mica  slate,  as  in  DahL»> 
land,  and  also  in  the  motalliferuus  beds  of  Persborg  and  Klacko.  The  limestone  of  Dane- 
mora  contains  mica  slate.  It  alxo  occurs  in  veins  in  granite  and  mica  slate,  &.c.  Porphyri- 
tic  quartz,  a  granite  rock,  with  embedded  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar,  occurs  in  Smaland, 
Tomea  Lappmark,  &e.  Primitive  trap.  Of  this  interesting  group  of  rocks,  the  following 
kinds  are  met  with ;  viz.  hornblende  rock,  hornblende  with  felspar,  and  hornblende  witn 
mica. 

II.  TVansJtton  rockt.  Conglomerate  and  sandstone,  which,  in  some  places,  are  covered 
with  transition  limestone,  occur  in  Jilmtland,  Tomea  Lappmark,  Anf^ermanland,  Dalecarlia, 
SchOncn,  islands  in  the  Lake  Wetter,  East  and  West  Gothland,  Nenka,  Dalarnia.  Transi- 
tiou  porphyry :  in  the  parish  of  Elfdal,  in  Dalarnia.  The  basis  is  of  the  nature  of  horn- 
itonc.  it  rests  upon  transition  sandstone,  and  is  covered  by  syenite,  porphyry,  and  transition 
ffreenatone.  Oreywacke  slate  lies  upon  sandstone,  and  is  covered  by  transition  limestone, 
ft  sometimes  contains  coal,  and  then  passes  into  a  kind  of  shale.  It  also  contains  fossil 
remains  of  marine  animals.  Transition  limestone  occurs  in  Gothland,  CEland,  Sch&nen, 
East  and  West  Gothland,  Nerika,  Dalarnia,  and  J&mtland.  In  the  regular  succession,  it  lies 
immediately  upon  alum  slate,  but  in  Gothland  directly  upon  sandstone.  It  is  seldom  covered 
oj  other  rocks,  excepting  in  West  Gothland,  where  it  is  covered  by  clay  slate  and  green* 
atone.  It  contains  many  different  petrifactions,  as  orthoceratitcs,  ammonites,  anomites,  echi* 
nites,  corallites,  and  entrochites.  Its  colour  is  commonly  gray,  or  bluish  gray,  and  reddish 
brown,  oflen  varied  with  veins  of  a  green  colour.  Transition  trap  is  the  youngest  rock  of 
ihe  transition  class  in  Sweden.  In  Elfdal  it  rusts  upon  porphyry ;  upon  transition  clay  slate 
and  alum  slate  in  Kennekulle,  Billengen,  the  Hunne  and  Halleberge,  and  others,  in  West 
Qothland. 

ni.  Secondary  roek$.  The  mountain  chain  around  Helsingborg,  in  SchOnen,  is  composed 
of  secondary  sandstone.  It  contains  beds  of  slate  clay,  bitummous  shale,  and  black  bitumi* 
Dous  coal.  This  sandstone,  which  belongs  to  the  black  bituminous  coal  formation,  is  covered 
with  other  secondary  deposits,  as  limestone,  the  age  of  which  is  not  well  known.  The  only 
one  of  these  newer  secondary  deposits,  the  geognoetical  history  of  which  has  been  made 
out,  is  Chalk.  This  interesting  ixirmation  occurs  at  Limhamn,  near  to  Malmo.  It  encloses 
balls  of  common  flint,  and,  at  its  lower  part,  passes  into  a  more  solid  chalk  and  secondary 
limestone. 

TV.  Tertiary  rockt.  The  tertiary  deposits  seem  to  occur  in  some  pomts  of  the  land  not 
fir  distant  from  the  sea^oast ;  but  they  have  not  been  carefully  explored. 

V.  Alluvia/  rock$.  Many  tracts  more  or  less  deeply  covered  with  gravel,  sand,  and  clay, 
occur  in  Sweden. 

Minet.  The  mines  of  Sweden  have  been  long  celebrated  all  over  the  world,  and  have 
been  frequently  described  by  travellers.  Oold  ana  silver  mines.  The  Adelfors  mine,  which 
formerly  yielded  thirty  or  forty  marks  of  gold  annually,  now  fbmishes  only  three  or  ibur ; 
those  of  Fahlun,  where  copper  predominates,  return  annually  four  marks  cif  r.rld  and  fifty 
marks  of  silver.  The  silver  mine  of  Sahla,  which,  during  the  reign  of  Q-.oen  Christina, 
fielded  annually  20,000  marks  of  silver,  does  not  at  present  afford  annually  more  than  2000 
or  3000  marks.  Copper  mines.  The  most  considerable  copper  mines  are  those  of  Fahlun, 
which  is  also  known  under  the  name  of  Kopparberg.  The  mines  of  Atwidaberg,  in  East 
Gothland,  furnish  about  a  sixth  part  of  all  the  copper  which  the  Swedes  obtain  annually  from 
mines ;  those  of  Fahlun  jrield  more  than  the  half  of  the  copper  raised  in  Sweden.  llie  ore 
at  I^hlun  is  copper  pyntes,  disposed  in  an  immense  irregular-shaped  mass,  in  mica  slate : 
10,200  quintals  of  copper  are  yielded  by  it  annually.  Iron  mines.  The  greatest  iron  mines 
are  those  in  Uie  province  of  Upland :  of  these  the  most  important  are  uiose  of  Skebo,  of 
(Esterby,  not  far  from  Danemora,  of  Gimo,  of  Ronaes.  Iran  is  mined  as  far  north  as  Gell- 
vara,  which  is  200  leagues  to  Uie  north  of  Stockholm.  The  island  of  Uto,  on  the  east  coast 
(^  Upland,  also  afibrds  a  considerable  quantity  of  iron.  The  whole  mmes  afford  annually 
1|800,000  quintals  of  iron.  Cobalt  mines.  Tlie  principal  mines  of  this  metal  arc  those  of 
Timaberg,  near  to  Nykdpin^,  and  at  Awed,  in  East  Gothland.  These  mines  affi>rd  excel- 
lent cobalt,  but  the  quantity  is  not  great  Coal  mines.  Coal  mines  have  been  worked  for 
eome  time  in  Scania,  two  leagues  from  Helsinborg,  and  are  afibrding  a  considerable  return. 
Sulphur  and  vitriol.  The  pyritical  minerals  of  Dylta  afford  annually  1050  quintals  of  sul- 
phur, and  those  of  Fahlun  about  100  quintals  of  the  same  substance.  The  vitriolic  watem 
of  Fahlun  afford  annually  about  600  quintals  of  green  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  iron,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  blue  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  copper.  Alum.  The  annual  produce  of  alum  in 
about  42,600  quintals.  Quarries.  Sweden  possesses,  besides  its  regular  mine^^also  vsIiuf 
die  qvarries  of  granite,  porphyry,  and  marble.    The  pcrphyiy  quarries  of  Eliuul  are  tfaa 


47R 


MAP  OF  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


Flo.  W 


OiMvrtik         M 


Fio.  -JSt 


BuokI 


8W£0£N  ANU  NORWAY 


47V 


■  ■ 


NMkCtfa 


Sr4 

•< 

1%' 


r  »  I.;    ■   •' 


tfl 


H 


c.i''-' 'jiiui*™** 


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Rli>        6 


pbnif      " 


ItrffMt  and  m<Mt  celebratod  in  Europe.    Nearly  all  the  fine  modern  worlu  in  porphyry  trt 
in  Uin  iNirphyry  of  Eltrlal. 

(3.)  UM>UMiy  ur  Nokwat  and  LAM.Ain>.— I.  Primitivt  nek:  Theie  wild  but  highly 
interoitiriK  countrinM  are  principAJlv  compoaed  of  primitive  and  tranaition  rooka;  aeoondary 
roolia  occur  but  mrul^,  niul  alluvial  depoaita  are  not  ao  abundant  aa  in  many  other  Iom  exton« 
mvc  rntfiotu.  (iramu  ia  a  rare  ruck  In  Norway  and  Lapland,  and  may  be  eoaaidorod  one 
of  tho  TuuMt  ahumlaiit  rookH  in  Huandinavia.  Tne  granite  freauently  appears  in  veina  tra> 
veraing  t)io  primitivo  atralAfiod  rocka,  or  ninning  parallel  with  oeda  or  atrata;  and  aumotimoe 
it  can  DO  Mon  Hproad  over  tho  aurikce  of  mica  alato,  aa  at  Forvig,  or  irregularly  aiwooiated 
with  clay  itlatn  and  diallage  rock,  aa  in  the  iiiUnd  of  Magoroo.  UneUi  aoenia  to  be  by  litf 
the  moat  fVequent  ond  abundant  rock  in  Scandinavia,  all  tJio  otlior  primitivQ  rockii  appearing 
to  be  in  ooino  ilogreo  lulxMrdinate  to  it.  Mica  ilalt  reata  upon  and  alUtrnatoii  with  tho  gneiaa, 
but  ia  fiir  IVoni  boiiig  ao  gonoraliy  diatributed  aa  tluit  rock.  Clay  iluln  along  with  tho  nika 
•lato  ia  not  of  fVnqiiant  occurrunco.  i^artt  rock,  variouK  hornblende  rocki,  und  limeitone, 
occur  in  bcda  Mulwrdinatn  to  thn  gnoiaa  and  mica  alatn.  OaMtro,  or  dinUaae  rock,  otio  of  the 
moat  benutitlil  of  thu  okler  rocka,  occura  in  great  quantity,  connuctud  with  clay  alato,  in  th 
(gland  of  Matrorofl,  and  othor  parta  of  Norway. 

II.  TraniUhn  rocki.  Thin  cloaa  containa,  boiidea  greyieacke,  alum  $late,  and  limeitone 
(which  contniim  iinich  tromolitu),  and  oUior  rocka  witll  known  to  minoralogiMta  aa  ninmbora 
of  thia  claHN,  tho  following : — 1.  Granite,  which  oomotimoH  containa  homblondo.  2.  Syenite, 
which  containa  a  boautiful  Laliradorio  variety  of  common  felipar,  and  numoroua  cryitalt  of 
the  gem  namud  zircon.  3.  Porphyry,  and,  aaaociatod  with  it,  varioua  trap  rocka  allied  to 
banlt  and  amygdaloid. 

III.  Secondary  rocki.  Tho  groat  primitive  land  of  Scandinavia  continues  onward  to  the 
extreme  northnrn  point  of  Norway ;  but  in  thia  high  latitude  aome  new  formationa  make 
their  appoarancu  among  the  older.  Tho  aandatono  mmrtz  of  Alton  has  boon  known  since 
tlie  publication  of  tho  travels  of  Von  Duch.  On  tho  Koat,  towards  tho  Rusaian  dominions, 
there  ia  a  conaidorablo  tract  which  difTora  more  from  tho  primitivo  formations  than  tho  sond- 
itone  quartz  of  Alton  does.  Sand»tnne  and  conglomorato  extend  acroas  the  sahjaccnt  gnoisa 
in  a  horizontal  poaition.     Thoae  rocks  probably  Imlong  to  the  old  red  Bandttone. 

IV.  Alluvial  rocka.  Old  iiUuvium  occurs  on  the  coost,  and  in  the  interior  in  numy  of  the 
rtllnys,  and  tho  new  ovorywhero  in  greater  or  less  quantity. 

Mtnet.  The  only  gilverminet  in  Norway  are  those  of  KAngsberg,  aituated  in  mica  slate, 
which  formerly  afTordod  rich  returns,  but  of  late  have  yielded  no  profit.  The  gold  mine  of 
Edswold,  and  the  mines  of  lead  and  ailver  in  Jarlaberg,  have  been  but  feebly  worked.  The 
jopper  minei  are  principally  situated  in  the  northern  division  of  the  kingdom.  The  most 
onsiderable,  near  Koiroas,  were  discovered  in  1044.  They  have  afforded  considerable  quan« 
ities  of  topper :  in  1805,  tho  annual  return  was  7860  quintals  of  copper.  Tho  other  mines 
•f  copper  are  from  Vi  to  20  leagues  of  Drontheim,  at  Quikne,  Laskken,  Selboo,  and  in  tho  dis- 
trict of  Chriatiimia,  ut  Frederic kagave  or  Foledal.  Tho  principal  tron  mines  are  those  of  Aren- 
M  and  Kragoroe,  in  southern  Norway.    The  mine  of  Laurwig,  near  tho  town  of  tliut  name, 


NOHTH  PAUT. 

i-  »!''•'.• 
9.  Niawbir 
•I.  Tiina 

3.  Ldbiibijff 
.  Hammi'rftint 
O.  AlinnnBinl 
7.  Joktby 

'elvlMknnUi 
(■utoknino 

\llllnj.tUTM 


urrarsarA 
atiivurt 


s 


Ilefereneti  to  the  Map  ^f  Sweden  and  Norway. 

1d«pio« 
iiWtd 
oiiholm 
.•rn* 
Bont'le 

Ar»l<li 

Noraio  1. 1 

"      "      ■  f.\ 

t 

«.] 
7.1 
B. 


SinlivHra 
IMbIso 
inM 
1$.  aiipftet 
g«lwi« 
Silbf^joek 
Rindijiur 
^Waimal 
M.  Lulea 

M!|a]iiltKmcia 

38.  Upper  Tones 
S-  Jornaa 
Jg.  Kalix 
30  Rancs 
40.  HRrmli 
«I.  Tvan 


M.  nitartund 
fX  MariBb> 
HB.  Hormlal, 
H7.  Dronthalm 
m.  UiiHvif 
80.  Qarbari 
00.  Hevne 

BOUTH  PART. 
'.  Bundawtll 
,  Rracka 


.  J,  Jwia 

!Oaddc^a(t 
.  Poldaraid 
.  Btrom 
.  OlderiMaa 
.  Honatad 
.  Hnlmiet 
,  UndonalMr 
.  KalWon 
.  jfoHnca 
.  Btfom 
.  Anla 
.  Juiaela 
.  Amund 
.  Nardmaliiig 
,  Parrikcn 

.  Nordincra 
M'*n!OSssd 
iFoiii 


M.  Mm 
^.  nuhan 

aji  CMvaa 
no.  Blirf en 
40.  Aaravif 
41.(2dd«o    . 
49,  TuMuntdal 
iX  Nora 

44.  Chriitiania 
4.V  Frf  iiaando 
40.  Nar* na 
47.  Nnrrbarko 

45.  Tuna 
Jedniora 


Jrolle 

SI.  Eniedal 
Si  Aabjrn 

deib 
Jamranfe 
38.  ai!fle 
99.  Fahlun 

30.  Mora 

31.  Malunf 
22.  Danb/ 
33. Giuael 


orata 
U'na 
Waddo  ' 
Jpaal 
atoeknnim 
M.  Mariafral 

§1  fossils 

so.  Qrehrn 
00.  Philipalad 
Al.  Carlatad 
flS.  Holmedal 
fl3.Moaa 
64.  Tonaberi 
6.1.  Oramen 
68.  Ranlaod 
(ft.  gflboe 

70.  ChriiUananad 

71.  Lancoa 
79.Valle 

73.  Mokland 

74.  AreiKjai 

75.  Baoda 


'rederjekalad 
'  ndertekali 
Ideralla 

.idkoplDi 

Ikara 

lopinf 
^.kopinr 
.  eaierwick 
iinkoplof 
abir 
jAonio 
lonkopiog 
Ijo 


,1 


n.C>rerTd 
04.  parehcm 
"".  uottenburt 

ilaiinarad 

Votiebaek 

Hortundo 

tialeriralt 

v'ubj 
Jaaa 

JlurapakolU 
,  Calmar 
loffholai 
^araenMiB 
partohamm 

.  Landacrona . 

I.  Chriatianalad 
Horum 
raliterbo 
dalfflo 

River*. 

I  lana 


Iton 
anneiw 

i>rria  * 

idelven 
-  eina 
Okunmao 

m  IJiiane 
n  fTiian 
o  Indal 
p  AoKermaaa 

JWTnSd 

!&  ' 

U     JIM 

T    [aliz 


I    .ainio 
J  Muonio 

,  „Laka. 
a"  Horn 

b»    Slora       /;.;, 

c*  A»e 
d*  ITmea 
e*  Walfomaa 

R*  Btora 
Tnemand 
flonen 
..    .Hater 
!•  H>lmai 
m*  VVellet 
n*  Wener 
o*  BoUnen 


n'  BIO 

m 


"If"' 


«90 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  111 


tllbrds  nnnually  26,000  quintals  of  bar-iron  and  OOflO  quintals  of  cait-iron.  The  ostabliih* 
mont  of  tiio  sauio  kind  at  Moss  aiTords  annually  10,000  quintals  of  iron  in  bars  and  cast 
The  samo  annual  quantity  is  afforded  by  the  mines  of  Bnrum,  Bolvig,  Ulfbss,  Kidfoss,  Ego- 
land,  NacB,  Dikkomarken  Fossum,  and  Oudnlcn.  lAstly,  tlie  mines  of  Haseel,  Frooland, 
Lessee,  nnd  Mostmarkon,  fbmish  fVom  30()()  to  fiOOO  quintals  of  iron  annually.    Tho  annual 

(roduco  of  the  iron  mines  of  Norway  is  estimated  by  a  well-known  statistical  writer  at  about 
B0,00()  quintals.  The  mines  of  cobalt,  whicli  are  worked  at  Modum  and  Fossum,  are 
extensive  but  not  deep.  In  tho  year  1702  they  yielded  2817  quintals  of  ore.  There  is  a 
mine  of  plumbwfo  and  black  lead  at  Enf|[ledal.  The  mines  of  alum,  which  are  worked  in 
the  mountain  of  Egeberg,  near  to  Christtanio,  ailbrd  not  only  a  sufficiency  for  tho  consump* 
tk>n  of  tlu)  Danish  states,  but  also  a  considerable  quantity  fbr  exportation.    Norway  possoasot 

Juarries  of  granite,  marble,  miU$t<me,  whetBtone,  ilate  and  clay.    Granite  is  exported  to 
lollond ;  the  marble  and  other  minerals  supply  the  Danish  states. 

SvBSKOT.  2. — Botany. 
The  Botany  of  these  countries  has  been  noticed  under  that  of  Denmark. 

SuuBOT.  8. — Zoology. 

The  Zoology  of  Swedbn,  the  native  country  of  the  celebrated  Linnnus,  is  so  well  known 
to  naturalJHts,  by  the  writings  of  that  groat  man,  that  to  thorn  tho  subject  is  fiimiliar.  Nor 
does  it  present  any  thing  very  different  in  its  general  character  from  that  of  Denmark.  The 
blenk  and  inhospitable  regions  of  Norway  and  Lapland,  to  whicu  naturo  has  denied  the  rich 
and  verdant  pasturage  of  Britain,  and  tho  consequent  abundance  of  grazing  animals,  are, 
however,  the  chief  metronolis  of  the  Rein-deer,  whose  diveraified  qualities  are  beautifiilly 
adapted  for  supplying  such  dcf.ciencies. 
The  Rein-deer  (Kongifer  Tarandus  H.  Smith)  (Jig.  288.)  forms  the  sole  riches  of  the 

Laplander,  and  its  care  is  almost  his  only  occu- 
pation. According  to  the  season,  ho  migrates 
to  the  sea  shore,  the  plains,  or  tho  mountains, 
The  rich  often  poRscHS  2000  head;  and  Uie 
poorer  seldom  less  than  100.  The  adult  male, 
m  a  wild  state,  is  cvon  larger  than  a  stag ;  but 
tiie  domesticated  races  are  somewhat  smaller: 
the  sight  and  scent  of  these  creatures  aro  aston- 
ishing, and  guide  them  with  wonderful  precision 
through  the  most  dangerous  passes  and  in  tho 
darkest  stormy  nights  of  an  arctic  wjnter.  To 
tliis  sagacity  the  Laplander  trusts  his  life  with 
confidence;  and  accidents  rarely  happen :  they 
draw  his  sledge  with  such  amazing  rapidi^ 
that  in  twenty-four  hours  a  pair  of  Rein-deer  have  been  said  to  perform  a  journey  of  100 
miles.  In  a  wild  state  they  are  gregarious ;  and,  when  domesticated,  evince  an  oxcessive 
attachment  to  each  other.  During  summer  they  are  much  tormented  by  a  species  of  gad-fly, 
but  the  old  account  of  the  glutton  falling  upon  them  fh)m  a  tree,  and  then  dovnuring  them, 
u  now  considered  fkbulous.  During  life  this  useful  animal  supplies  its  niai>tcr  with  Iak)ur  and 
milk;  and,  when  dead,  every  part  becomes  serviceable,  the  skin  for  clothing,  and  fbr  boots; 
the  horns  to  make  utensils ;  the  sinews  for  thread,  and  the  flesh  for  food :  the  intestines  ore 
also  used ;  and  the  tongue  is  a  well-known  article  of  commerce. 
The  Birds  are  not  numerous,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  differ  not  from  those  of  Denmark 
and  the  other  northern  kingdoms.  The  Iceland  Falcon  {Falco 
islandictu)(^g.239.)  rarely  wanders  to  more  temperate  climes;  and 
a  gigantic  Owl  (Strix  lapponica  Lin.)  is  a  peculiar  inhabitant  of 
the  dreary  solitudes  of  Lapland :  to  these  we  may  add  two  other 
species ;  the  large  Ural  Owl,  and  the  Great  Snowy  Owl.  These 
formidable  birds  prey  upon  numerous  ptarmigans  and  grouse,  great 
numbers  of  which  inhabit  the  confines  of  uie  arctic  circle.  The 
Curruca  suecica  Sw.  or  Blue-throated  Reed  Warbler,  one  of  the 
most  elegant  birds  of  Europe,  is  m  t  peculiar,  as  its  name  would  im- 
ply, to  Sweden,  being  common  in  Irance  and  Switzerland. 

The  insects  of  Sr/eden,  during  its  short  summer,  are  very  numer- 
ous; and  many,  enumerated  oy  Acerbi,  verjr  beautiful;  but,  in 
autumn,  nearly  the  whole  country  is  terribly  infested  by  Musqui- 
toes,  these  tormenting  little  anKniLls  being  beyond  calculation  more 
numerous  in  high  northern  latitudes  than  in  the  woods  of  tropica) 
America. 


lln  Bein-D«er. 


iMkod  FoIeoM 


Part  III 

iron.  Tho  oBtabliah* 
■on  in  ban  mid  cut 
,  Ulfiwa,  KidfuflB,  Ego. 
of  Uamel,  Frooland, 
nnuallv.  Tho  annual 
tiitical  writer  at  about 
um  and  Foflsum,  are 
la  of  ore.  There  is  a 
which  are  worked  in 
ency  for  the  consump* 
n.  Norway  pooaenw 
Granite  is  exported  to 


nark. 


icuB,  is  no  well  known 
bject  \»  familiar.  Nor 
hat  of  Denmark.  The 
TO  has  denied  the  rich 
grazing  animals,  are, 
lalities  are  bcautifiUly 

the  sole  riches  of  the 

I  almost  his  only  ocou- 

0  season,  ho  migrates 

nine,  or  tho  mountains, 

20(X)  head;  and  the 

.00.    The  adult  male, 

argor  than  a  stag ;  but 

re  somewhat  smaller: 

se  creatures  are  aston* 

ith  wonderful  precision 

)UB  passes  and  in  tho 

an  arctic  wjnter.    To 

er  trusts  his  life  with 

rarely  happen :  they 

ich  amazing  rapidit^ 

brm  a  journey  of  100 

,  evince  an  excessive 

)y  a  species  of  gad-fly; 

then  devouring  them, 

[tiastcr  witii  labour  and 

othing,  and  for  boots; 

the  intestines  are 

om  those  of  Denmark 

celand  Falcon  {Falco 

temperate  climes;  and 

peculiar  inhabitant  of 

may  add  two  other 

Snowy  Owl.    These 

ns  and  grouse,  great 

3  arctic  circle.    The 

Warbler,  one  of  the 

its  name  would  im- 

Switzerland. 

mer,  are  very  numer- 

ry  beautiful;  but,  in 

y  infested  by  Muequi- 

end  calculation  mors 

the  woods  of  tropical 


QOOK  I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 


401 


:''' '""      Sbot.  III. — Hiitorkal  Ucography        '    '  '  *i. 

Tho  early  history  of  Scandinavia  is  deeply  involved  in  rhblo  and  unoortainty.  Ptolemy 
tnd  Pliny,  the  best  informed  of  ancient  goographors,  soom  tocliatinguish  it  fVom  '' Great  Qer* 
manv,"  oft' tho  coast  of  whicii  tlioy  repronont  fiasilia,  or  Daltia,  ni>  u  largo  isiand,  though  not 
noarlv  approaching  to  the  roal  dimensions.  Tho  Uoths  wore  found  in  early  posHomtion  of 
8wo(fon,  and  its  southern  provinces  have  been  denominated  Gothland ;  but  tlio  question, 
whether  tlioy  woro  the  native  possessors,  oi  entered  it  as  con(iuen>ni,  is  ono  wfiich  can 
Karcolv  bo  now  decided.  Scandinavia  has  been  called  the  "  storehouse  of  nations ;"  and 
*  till  itiuu-eyod  myriods  iVom  the  Italtio  coast"  are  supposed  to  have  been  among  tho  most 
numerous  ot  thnso  who  spread  war  and  desolation  throuf^hout  Europo.  Dr.  Clarkn  ridiculoM 
this  idea,  as  inapplicublo  to  a  country  of  unbroken  furcsts,  and  a  slowly  advancing  (N)pula- 
tion,  making  tho  first  esHays  of  agriculture ;  yet,  though  tho  |X)pulation  could  nover  bo  groat, 
the  Bin?')lo  and  pastoral  habits  of  tho  people  might  dispose  emigrants  to  Boek  subsistonco  with 
tho  sword  in  happior  climates. 

Scandinavia,  first,  by  a  series  of  formidable  expeditions,  moilo  a  figure  in  history  at  tho  end 
of  tho  ninth  century.  Harold  HarHiger,  or  tho  Fair-hairod,  the  first  of  the  groat  sea-kings 
of  the  North,  having  united  the  formerly  independent  districts  of  Norway  undor  his  sway, 
undertook  triumphant  expoditions  against  Shetland,  Orkney,  and  the  Hebrides.  For  several 
centuries  tho  Danes  and  Norwegians  hold  full  possession  of  thoso  islands ;  gc  vo  a  king  to 
Engliiiul,  and  fbrmod  a  permanent  eHtablishmont  in  Normandy.  Tho  defeat  of  llaco  in  Scotr 
land,  ami  of  Harold  III.  in  England,  during  tho  eleventh  century,  put  an  end  to  this  maritime 
dominion:  and  tho  northern  nations,  notwithstanding  tlieir  immenso  mipply  of  nx^al  stores, 
have  n(!Vor  since  iittainod  to  more  than  a  secondary  rank  among  tlio  maritime  po  veni, 

Tho  union  of  the  kingdoms  of  Scandinavia,  in  i:)88,  under  Margaret,  called  the  bemiramis 
of  tho  Nortli,  forms  a  memorable  era.  Immediately,  however,  aflor  the  death  of  that  able 
princess,  the  Swedes  began  to  struggle  for  indeirandenco.  But  their  repeated  attempts  to 
establish  a  separate  kingdom  were  always  defbated,  till  the  cruel  and  tyrannical  roign  of 
Christian  II.  drove  matters  to  extremity,  and  brought  on  a  now  revolution. 

Gustavus  Vasa,  in  1520,  hoisted  again  tho  national  standani  in  the  province  of  Dalecarlia, 
and,  in  three  yeara'subsoquontly,  entered  Stockholm  in  triumph.  Afler  a  long  struggle,  tho 
Danes  were  conipelled  to  recognise  tho  independence  of  Sweden. 

Tho  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  formed  a  glorious  era  for  Sweden.  Tho  Protestant  reli- 
gfion  having  been  ostablished  under  (lUHtavus  Vasa,  Swoden  began  to  bo  looked  to  as  its  nuf- 
port  when  assailed  by  a  fbrmiduble  confederacy.  In  1030,  Gustavus  took  the  field  at  tlio 
head  of  only  ten  thousand  Swedes ;  but  around  this  gallant  band  rallied  all  tho  Protestant 
powers  of  Uermany.  The  splendid  victory  of  Brcitenfbld  humbled  tho  house  of  Austria,  and 
re-establislied  tho  civil  and  religious  lilierticsof  theempire.  P>cn  afler  his  fall,  in  tlio  glori- 
ous field  of  Lutzen,  his  generals  continued  to  wage  that  desperate  war  of  thirty  years,  which 
was  necessary  to  compel  the  Catholic  league  finally  to  renounce  its  pretensions.  Sweden, 
at  the  peace,  obtained  Pomerania,  and  otTier  important  possessions  in  Germany ;  and  con- 
tinued, till  the  end  of  tho  seventeenth  century,  to  exercise  a  powerful  influence  on  the  afiiiira 
of  Europe. 

The  victories  and  reverses  of  Charles  XII.  threw  a  wild  and  romantic  lustre  around 
Sweden,  which  terminated,  however,  in  tho  loss  of  her  station  and  greatness.  Being  de- 
feated at  Pultowa,  by  the  Czar  Peter,  and  driven  to  seek  shelter  from  the  Turks  at  Bender, 
he  was  obliged  to  purchase  peace  by  the  sacrifico  of  Livonia,  and  others  of  his  finest  nrovinces. 
The  influence  of  Sweden  was  thenceforth  confined  within  its  own  barren  limits,  an(l  it  ranked 
with  difficulty  as  a  jiowcr  of  tho  second  order.  Tho  only  remarkable  change  in  the  course 
of  the  century  was  produced  by  tho  revolutions  of  1772  and  1760,  when  Gustavus  III.  suc- 
ceeded in  converting  tho  government  into  an  absolute  monarchy,  though  in  other  respects 
his  reign  was  advantageous  to  Sweden. 

The  election  of  Bemodotte,  one  of  Bonaparte's  commanders,  to  fill  tho  throne,  lefl  vacant 
through  the  rash  conduct  of  the  legitimate  monarch,  made  a  great  change  in  the  relations 
of  Sweden.  To  conciliate  his  new  subjects,  he  restored  in  fbll  plenitude  the  representative 
constitution,  which  liad  been  reduced  to  a  mere  shadow.  Having  joined  the  confederacy 
against  his  former  master,  he  received  Norway  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Finland,  and 
had  thus  a  more  compact  and  defensible  territory.  The  Norwegians  exclaimed,  not  without 
reason,  against  this  compulsory  transference ;  yet  Denmark  had  deprived  them  of  their  free 
constitution,  which  they  now  regained,  and  hod  in  so  many  reapects  depressed  the  country, 
vith  the  view  of  concentrating  every  thing  at  Copenhagen,  that  the  connection  now  tormi- 
oated  has  been  considered  the  bane  of  Norway. 

Sect.  FV, — Political  Oeography. 

The  constitution  of  Sweden  is  one  of  the  few  in  Europe,  which  has  always  preienrad 
BODie  portion  ot  that  representative  system  which  had  been  formed  in  remote  age*.  Towuda 
'he  close,  indeed,  of  the  last  century,  it  was  reduced  by  Gustavus  IIL  to  little  more  than  a 

Vol  1  41  8L 


4(0 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IIL 


form.  Bernadotte,  however,  an  elected  monarch,  without  any  national  claim,  was  obliged 
to  court  the  favour  of  the  nation,  and,  with  that  view,  to  re-establish  the  rights  of  its  ancient 
diet  This  is  now  rather  an  antique  and  cumbrous  form  of  legislature,  consisting  of  four 
ciders;  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  the  peasants,  and  the  burghers;  who  sit  and  vote  in  separate 
houses. 

Of  these  houses,  that  of  the  nobles  consists  of  about  1200  members ;  the  head  of  eacK 
&mily  being,  by  inheritance,  its  legal  representative.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes  :-< 
herra,  counts,  barons,  &c. ;  reddar,  knights ;  and  rivena,  or  gentlemen  who,  though  without 
any  title,  have  received  letters  patent  of  nobility.  The  house  of  clergy  consists  of  the  arch- 
bi^op  and  all  the  bishops;  while  the  rest  of  the  ecclesiastical  body  is  represented  by  depu< 
ties.  The  burghers  are  chosen  by  the  towns,  every  freeman  who  pays  taxes  having  a  vote : 
*hey  form  an  independent  body,  partly,  porhaps,  because  the  honour  of  a  seat  is  not  eagerly 
contested.  The  peasants  do  not  exactly  correspond  to  our  idea  of  that  term :  they  consist 
sf  a  body  of  little  propfietors,  or  lairds,  who  cultivate  their  own  ground,  and  who  are  numei> 
ous  in  Sweden.  Their  allowance  of  a  dollar  a  day  is  provided  by  a  subscription  among 
their  constituents ;  and,  in  some  cases,  two  or  three  districts  must  combine  to  furnish  out  one 
deputy.  The  nobles  have  bestirred  themselves  much  to  keep  down  the  attempts  made  by 
this  class  to  rise  in  society.  They  have  procured  regulations,  according  to  wliich  no  person 
could  sit  in  the  house  who  allowed  himself  to  be  called  Herr  (or  Mr.),or  who  wore  acoatof 
fine  cloth.  Notwithstanding  all  their  efforts,  however,  this  house,  and  that  of  the  burghers, 
are  daily  increasing  in  strength. 

In  the  division  of  powers,  the  royal  prerogative  is  ample.  The  king  appoints  to  all  offices 
civil  and  military,  and  he  is  obliged  to  convoke  the  diet  only  once  in  five  years,  and  to  coa< 
tinue  its  sittings  three  months ;  but  he  may  make  tlie  meetings  more  frequent,  and  longer. 
He  has  also  a  negative  upon  the  laws  proposed  by  the  diet  In  regard  to  the  diet  itself,  the 
division  rests  wiUi  a  majority  of  the  houses ;  but  if  they  be  two  against  two,  the  balance  is 
struck  by  the  committee  of  state,  a  body  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  members  from 
each.    No  tax  can  be  levied,  or  loan  obtained,  without  the  consent  of  the  diet 

The  storthing  of  Norway,  restored  by  Bernadotte,  is  possessed  of  much  higher  privileges 
than  the  Swedish  diet  It  assembles  more  frequently,  and  at  its  own  time,  without  any  con- 
trol fiom  the  king ;  and  it  allows  to  him  only  a  suspensive  veto,  obliging  him  to  accept  any 
project  whicii  has  been  three  times  presented  by  the  storthing.  These  rights  havmg  been 
once  granted,  Bernadotte,  who  found  them  pressing  somewhat  hard  against  his  prerogative, 
has  in  vain  mode  several  attempts  to  abridge  them.  A  highly  republican  spurit  prevails  in 
Norway,  and  the  influence,  and  almost  existence,  of  the  nobles  is  nearly  annihilated. 

The  revenue  of  Sweden  arises  from  a  poll-tax ;  the  poduce  of  tlie  royal  demesnes,  duties 
on  exports  and  imports,  mines  and  forges,  distilled  spirits,  and  some  monopolies.    The  whole 

E reduce  is  about  $5,000,000  a  year,  exclusive  of  lands  assigned  to  soldiers  and  sailors,  and 
y  which  these  classes,  in  time  of  peace,  ore  chiefly  supported.    The  niUitary  force,  is  at 
present, — 

Sweden.                          Norway.  Total. 

In&ntry 26,221  ....    9,642  -  -  -  35,863 

Cavalry 4,580  ....    1,070  .  .  .  5,650 

'    Artillery      ....      2,400  ....    1,278  .  -  -  3,678 

Landwehr    ....    83,368  ....  10,000  .  -  .  93,368 

The  troopd  are  raised  by  conscription :  they  only  receive  pay  when  on  actual  service ;  re- 
maining, at  other  times,  in  the  provinces,  where  they  employ  themselves  in  cultivating  lands 
assignol  to  them  for  their  support 

Sect.  Y,— Productive  Industry. 

Sweden  seems  doomed  by  nature  to  be  a  poor  country.  Her  most  southern  districts  are 
beyond  the  limits  of  that  zone,  in  which  alone  the  finer  and  more  valuable  kinds  of  grain, 
and  the  richer  fruits,  come  to  maturity.  Her  scanty  harvest  consists  solely  of  rye,  bigg,  and 
oats,  scarcely  accounted  as  food  in  more  favoured  clunates.  Scandinavia  is  described  gene- 
rally as  one  unbroken  boundless  forest,' varied  only  in  its  aspect  by  little  patches  of  cultivated 

Agricultural  industry  till  of  late  had  not  done  much  to  remedy  natural  deficiencies.  Ao 
cording  to  the  valuable  statistical  details  collected  by  Dr.  Thomson,  the  arable  land  in  Swe- 
den amounts  to  1,818,450  English  acres,  which  is  only  a  sixty-second  of  the  entire  surface, 
«c,  throwing  out  the  Norrlana  deserts,  a  thu1;y-second.  Of  this,  1,363,000  acres  are  returned 
as  under  cultivation.  But  the  average  size  of  a  Swedish  farm  is  only  twenty-seven  and  a 
half;  the  annual  average  of  grain  sown  on  each  farm  does  not  amount  to  a  Winchester 
uBshei ;  and  the  annual  pfuduce  of  the  whole  country  was  only  5,700,000  spanns,  or  about 
7I4OOO  quarters.  Hence  Sweden  was  obliged  to  import  grain  to  a  great  extent ;  arid  such  is 
ciw  aeucity,  that  the  peasantry  oilen  griml  the  bark  or  even  wooa  of  the  fir-tree  into  flour 


pakt  m. 

Claim,  was  obliged 
rights  of  its  ancient 
9,  consisting  of  four 
and  vote  in  separate 

I ;  the  head  of  eack 
into  three  classes  :-• 
ivho,  though  without 
consists  of  the  arch- 
represented  by  depu" 
xixea  having  a  vote : 
a  seat  is  not  eagerly 
t  term :  they  consist 
and  who  ore  nume^ 
,  subscription  among 
ne  to  furnish  out  one 
le  attempts  made  by 
g  to  wliich  no  person 
,  or  who  wore  a  coat  of 
that  of  the  burghers, 

appoints  to  all  offices 
ive  years,  and  to  con< 
frequent,  and  longer, 
to  the  diet  itself,  the 
at  two,  the  balance  is 
ber  of  members  from 
the  diet 

luch  hi§[her  privileges 
iroe,  without  any  con- 
ig  lum  to  accept  any 
je  rights  having  been 
Etainst  his  prerogative, 
ican  spirit  prevails  in 
ly  annihilated, 
■oyal  demesnes,  duties 
mopolies.  The  whole 
[diers  and  sailors,  and 
niUitary  force,  is  at 

Total. 
.  35,803 
.      5,650 

-  3,678 

-  93,368 

on  actual  service ;  re> 
es  in  cultivating  lands 


Isouthem  districts  are 
.luable  kinds  of  grain, 
llely  of  rye,  bigg,  and 
|via  is  described  gene- 
patches  of  cultivated 

_al  deficiencies.  Ac- 
le  arable  land  in  Swe- 
lof  the  entire  surface, 
dd  acres  are  returned 
ly  twenty-seven  and  a 
Aunt  to  a  Winchester 
1,000  spanns,  or  about 
1;  extent ;  and  such  is 
he  fir-tree  into  flour 


Rook  L 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


483 


Bwediah  Mode  of  lackuurc. 


H  nutriment  equally  scanty  and  unwholesome.  These  stateir  -,  are  given  in  1812;  since 
which  time  we  find  it  mentioned  that  acricuUurB  has  mode  l  very  rapid  progress ;  that  im- 
proved processes  have  been  introduced  m>m  other  countries ;  and  that,  in  the  most  southern 
provinces,  a  great  extent  of  moving  (and  before  entirely  barren)  sand  has  been  rendered  solid, 
and  covered  with  plantations  and  grain.  The  consequence  has  been,  that  in  1827,  Sweden  oven 
exported  39,000,  and,  in  1828, 164,000  tons  of  grain  of  every  description.  Every  form  has  a  tract 
of  forest  of  about  1000  acres  attached  to  it,  on  which  cattle  are  fed :  these  are  reported  as 
only  amounting  to  403,000  horses,  1,475,000  cows,  and  1,212,000  sheep.  The  most  valuu* 
ble  product  of  land  is  formed  by  the  vast  forests  with  which  nature  has  covered  the  whole 
240  country.    The  trees  over  all  Scandinavia  are 

■  Btnall,  and  consist  chiefly  of  the  birch,  the 
pine,  the  spruce  and  Scotch  firs.  Wooden  in- 
closures  (Jiff.  240.)  of  a  peculiar  form,  ore  uni- 
versally employed.  The  poplar  and  the  willow 
are  also  indigenous.  The  timber  of  these 'trees, 
as  well  as  the  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine,  drawn 
from  them,  forms  the  chief  objects  of  Scandi- 
navian exports.  Those  on  the  hills  of  Nor- 
way are  in  much  demand  for  masts.  Accord- 
ing to  M.  Hegelstamm,  not  more  than  the 
115th  part  of  the  surfoce  of  Norway  is  under  cultivation,  chiefly  in  oats;  a  space  which 
misfht  be  greatly  extended ;  yet  the  annual  production  is  stated  at  2,650,000  tons. 

The  manufecturcs  of  Scandinavia  are  inconsiderable,  unless  we  should  class  their  mines 
as  such.  Even  in  the  common  trades  the  work  is  lazily  and  ill  performed,  and  charged  at  a  high 
rate,  which  renders  this  the  most  expensive  country  in  Europe  for  those  who  live  luxuriously. 
It  is  a  curious  foct  that  some  great  merchants  in  the  western  towns  send  their  linen  to  be 
washed  in  London. 

The  mines  of  Sweden  are  peculiarly  rich  in  important  products.  Its  iron,  found  chiefly 
in  primitive  rocks,  is  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  is  widely  diflTuscd.  In  1812,  there  were 
176  mines;  624  smelting-houses;  764  forges;  producing  in  all  1,293,411  cwt.  of  iron.  The 
exportation,  in  1821,  amounted  to  340,000  skippund,  and  in  1824  had  risen  to  373,000,  of  which 
346,000  were  in  bars,  and  28,000  in  ruder  forms.  There  are  also  some  valuable  mines  in  the 
southern  provinces  of  Norway.  A  most  extensive  deposit  of  copper  occurs  in  the  province 
of  Dalecarlia,  particularly  at  Fahlun.  Gold  occurs  at  Adelfors,  in  Sweden,  to  no  great 
amount ;  but  the  silver  mines  of  Kfingsberg,  in  Norway,  are  the  richest  in  Europe.  The 
metal  occurs  in  masses,  of  which  there  was  once  found  one  weighing  600  lbs.  There  are 
also  lead  mines  of  some  importance  at  Scola,  and  in  other  parts  of  Sweden. 

Fishery  appears  a  pursuit  peculiarly  appropriate  to  tlie  extensive  coasts  of  Scandinavia. 
Yet  the  Swedes  are  not  much  addicted  to  it,  probably  because  the  Baltic  during  a  great  part 
of  the  year  is  frozen.  Gottenburg  had  once  a  herring  fishery,  now  nearly  lost,  the  shoals 
having  taken  another  direction.  The  Norwegian  fishery  is  considerable,  though  bearing  only 
a  small  proportion  to  the  almost  unlimited  opportunities  afforded  by  its  wide  seas,  and  its 
deep  and  commodious  bays.  Its  cliief  thentre  is  for  to  the  north,  off  the  Isles  of  Ijjffoden. 
The  season  lasts  only  for  seven  or  eight  weeks  in  the  year,  when  fishermen  crowd  thither 
from  all  quarters.  Codfish  is  the  chief  object :  it  is  cut  into  pieces,  and  spread  on  the  rocks 
to  dry,  whence  it  receives  the  names  of  stockfish  and  clipfish.  According  to  Mr.  Brooke,  the 
number  taken  in  a  year  was  700,000,  which  may  be  worth  nearly  #600,000 ;  they  are  sent 
chiefly  to  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy.  The  roes  are  also  salted  and  barrelled  for  exportation 
also  the  fish  oil  to  the  amount  of  about  30,000  barrels. 

The  commerce  of  Scandinavia  is  greater  than  its  unimproved  agriculture  and  total  want 
of  manufoctures  might  lead  us  to  suppose.  But  nature  has  gifled  these  bleak  regions  with 
an  almost  inexhaustible  store  of  timber  and  iron,  two  of  the  prime  necessaries  of  human 
life;  the  main  implements  in  ship-building  and  in  the  construction  of  houses,  machinery,  and 
famiture.  These  articles  are  indeed  also  the  produce  of  North  America ;  and  Britain,  which 
affords  the  best  market,  has  lately  sought  to  favour  her  colonies  in  that  quarter  by  a  great 
inequality  of  duties.  Yet  the  superior  quality  of  the  Scandinavian  commodity  always  secures 
it  a  sale.  The  entire  exports  of  Norway  are  estimated  by  Dr.  Clarke  at  1,800,OOOZ.  sterling ; 
but  we  believe  that  this  is  very  much  beyond  the  mark.  The  commerce  of  Sweden  is  not 
on  so  great  a  scale ;  her  surplus  timber  being  not  nearly  so  ample,  though  her  iron  is  superior. 
She  has  suffered  much  injury  firam  the  absurd  prejudices  of  tne  peasantry,  who  obtained  the 
prohibition  of  colonial  produce,  and  of  almost  all  foreign  articles  of  consumption  ;  and  though 
these  were  regularly  imported,  and  in  daily  use,  the  trade  was  greatly  fettered  by  being 
carried  on  only  as  contniuanu.  In  1828,  however,  commercial  trei^ies  were  concluded  on  a 
more  liberal  footmg.  The  total  number  of  merchant  vessels  belonging  to  the  diflferent 
towns  of  Sweden,  in  1820  was  1178,  of  the  burthen  of  61,000  tons. 


1      Xi^WiJH' 


184 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


P-v«T  III. 


Sect.  VI. — OivU  and  Social  State, 

The  population  of  Sweden,  according  to  the  latest  census,  inade  in  1825,  amounted  to 
2,771,252 ;  of  whom  20,490  were  nobles ;  13,077  ecclesiastics ;  66,604  citizens ;  the  remain- 
der belonged  to  the  class  of  peasants.  Of  tiiese,  1,332,070  were  males,  and  1,438,382 
females;  2,489,973  resided  in  the  country,  281,279  in  the  cities.  This  was  a  rise  of 
186,562  since  1820.* 

The  population  of  Norway,  by  a  census  made  m  November  1826,  amounted  to  1,050,182; 
of  whom  105,021  inhabited  cities,  934,414  the  country.  This  was  a  rise  of  164,662  since 
1815. 

The  national  character  of  the  Swedes  is  usually  painted  under  favourable  colours.  Their 
honesty  is  described  as  proverbial ;  and  Dr.  Clarke  considers  the  contrast  between  them  and 
the  Russian  people,  in  this  respect,  as  most  striking.  Highway  robbery,  though  it  has  b::en 
known,  is  exceedingly  rare ;  and  charity  boxes,  which  are  oi\en  set  up  on  the  public  roads, 
have  never  been  plundered.  "  The  nation,"  says  Mr.  James,  "  has  its  singularities :  there 
exists  something  of  a  reciprocity  between  the  moral  and  political  constitution  of  Sweden. 
Rigidly  ceremonious,  they  make  tlieir  stiff  and  measured  courtesies  the  essentials  rather 
tiian  the  forms  of  life ;  and  seem,  in  a  sti-anger's  eye,  a  people  cold  in  their  nature  as  the 
very  snows  they  dwell  upon.  Their  characteristics,  a  passive  courage,  not  unmixed  with 
indolence ;  a  pride  not  free  from  ignorance ;  a  disposition  that  is  not  ill-humoured,  from  hav- 
ing no  humour  at  all,  from  indifTurence,  from  apathy.  But  a  Swede  is  never  in  extremes ; 
even  these  traits  are  not  deeply  marked ;  and  if  we  review  the  more  favourable  side  of  his 
character,  we  shall  find  in  him  an  undaunted  spirit  of  perseverance,  and  an  honest  love  of 
freedom,  to  which  the  feelings  of  every  one  do  homage."  The  same  writer  mentions  a 
cold-blooded  obduracy,  connected,  perhaps,  with  a  sanguinary  turn  of  mind,  displayed  in 
those  frequent  assassinations  which  have  stained  the  pages  of  Swedish  history.  The  man- 
ners of  the  higher  ranks,  in  consequence,  perhaps,  of  political  connexion^  have  been  studi- 
ously formed  on  the  French  model,  which  does  not  accord  very  hoppily  with  the  somewhat 
rude  simplicity  of  the  Swedes,  who  find  it  easier  to  imitate  the  frivolity  and  dissipation  of 
tiiat  people,  than  their  easy  and  careless  grace.  Several  habits  are  enumerated  as  preva- 
lent even  amon^  the  higher  classes  in  Scandinavia,  which  seem  to  negative  its  pretensions 
to  any  high  pitch  of  refinement  Among  these  are,  spitting  even  on  handsome  caq>ets,  blow- 
ing the  nose  with  the  fingers,  and  recording  games  on  the  table  with  chalk. 

The  religion  of  Sweden  is  Lutheran,  and  the  church  Episcopal.  This  countnr,  whicii 
stood  long  at  tlie  head  of  the  great  Protestant  confederacy,  is  animated  with  an  ardent  zeal 
for  the  reformed  religion.  The  Catholics,  till  of  late,  scarcely  enjoyed  common  toleration, 
and  they  are  still  excluded  from  the  diet  and  the  higher  otfices  of  state.  The  Swedish  peopi, 
are  commended  for  their  regularity  in  performing  the  duties  of  their  religion :  at  'he  same 
time  it  has  been  remarked  that  the  dissenters  from  the  established  church  are  much  fevrar 
than  in  other  Protestant  countries ;  which  has  been  imputed  to  the  wont  of  any  peculiar 
fervour  upon  the  subject.  The  wide  extent  and  thin  population  of  the  northern  districts 
must  oflen  render  the  provision  for  their  religious  instruction  very  defective.  The  diocese 
of  Tornea,  in  Lapland,  is  750  miles  in  circumference ;  and,  what  is  more  blameable,  the 
small  number  of  clergy  employed  are  not  required  to  understand  the  language  of  tlie  natives. 
The  income  of  the  largest  bishopric  in  Sweden  is  about  #5000  a  year. 

In  science,  the  Swedes,  considering  their  poverty  and  remote  situation,  have  made  a  very 
distinguished  figure.  Gustavus  Adolphus  favoured  the  interests  of  literature  with  a  degree 
of  ardour  not  generally  known.  Of  the  spoils  of  places  conquered  by  him,  he  set  a  particular 
value  upon  books  which  he  transmitted  to  Sweden,  in  order  to  form  the  foundation  of  several 
large  libraries.  The  Swedes  cultivated  with  peculiar  ardour  botany  and  mineralogy,  which 
some  of  their  countrymen  mainly  contributed  to  raise  to  the  rank  of  sciences.  In  botany,  the 
name  of  Linnoeus  is  yet  without  a  rival ;  and  Cronstadt  and  Bergman  were  in  their  day  little 
inferior,  though  they  now  yield  to  Werner  and  other  great  names  which  have  arisen  in  other 
countries.  &rgman  and  Scheele  made  also  large  contributions  to  chemistry,  which  is  still 
ably  pursued  by  Ekeberg,  Berzelius,  and  Afzelius.  Although  history  and  poetry  have  been 
cultivated,  they  have  not  produced  any  writers  whose  reputation  has  spread  tiiroughout 
Europe.  From  the  limited  sphere  of  the  Swedish  language,  few  works  of  science  are 
written  in  it,  or  translated  into  it :  hence  Uie  literati  of  Sweden  are  particularly  well  versed 
in  the  languages  of  foreign  nations.  One  of  the  subjects  in  which  Sweden  may  most  ju8t}y 
exult  is,  the  general  spread  of  education  among  the  lower  orders,  which  seems  to  equal  or 
exceed  that  which  Scotland  enjoys ;  and  to  this  may  probably  be  in  a  great  measure  ascribed 
Uieir  generally  meritorious  conduct  Norway  is  not  nearly  so  literary  a  country  as  Sweden; 
Dr.  Clarke  even  states  that  there  is  not  m  the  whole  country  a  single  bookseller's  shop. 
This  was  in  a  great  measure  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  Denmark,  whicii  would  not  aiiow  an 
university  to  be  founded  even  in  Christiania,  which  used  to  be  a  rival  to  that  of  Copenhagen. 

•  The  only  Sn-cdiali  colony  is  St.  Bartbolomew  in  the  W.  Indiei,  with  about  9000  inhabitanti.— Ail.Ei). 


Rook  I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


4»5 


Yet  Norway  can  boost  of  literary  names ;  Holberg,  Pontoppidan,  Vahl  the  botanist,  Torficiis, 
and  Snorro  Sturleson,  the  old  historians.  A  vein  of  bold  and  rude  poetry  is  cultivated  with 
peculiar  ardour ;  and  Dr.  Clarke  exhibits  a  roll  of  names  unknown  to  Europe,  whose  claims 
to  diatmction  appear  to  be  somewhat  justified  by  a  specimen  given  to  us  by  Mr.  Wilson. 

Of  the  learned  establishments  of  Sweden,  the  most  eminent  is  the  university  of  Upsal, 
the  chief  nurse  of  all  the  great  men  who  have  distinguished  her  literary  records.  This  cele- 
brated seat  of  northern  learning  was  founded  in  1478,  by  Steno  Sture,  was  enlarged  by 
Gustavus  Vosa  and  Gustavus  Adolphus,  but  reached  its  highest  eminence  in  the  last  century, 
when  it  was  adorned  by  Linnoeus,  and  all  the  men  of  science  who  have  been  distinguished 
as  reflecting  gloiy  on  Sweden.  Since  that  time  its  lustre  has  been  somewhat  diminished, 
though  statements  on  this  subject  vary  considerably.  The  professors  have  salaries  of  about 
1500  a  year ;  and  are  left  thus  almost  wholly  dependent  on  their  students,  who  live  in  private 
lodgings.  They  attend  what  and  whom  they  please ;  and  their  exertions  are  not  stimulated 
or  tried  W  any  public  examinations.  The  mineralogical  collection  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete in  Europe ;  and  the  library  contains  50,000  volumes.  Its  most  precious  treasure  is  the 
Codex  Argenteus,  a  manuscript  of  the  four  Gospels,  wn-itten  in  silver  characters,  and  sup- 
ooaed  to  date  os  for  back  as  the  fourth  century.  The  garden  of  Linnteus  has  been  neglected 
lor  a  larger  one  lately  founded,  but  which  scarcely  corresponds  to  the  botanical  fame  ofUpsal. 
The  royal  library  at  Stockholm  is  still  more  extensive.  It  is  particularly  rich  in  manuscripts, 
in  sagas,  and  otlier  historical  works,  and  in  original  drawings  by  the  great  masters.  This 
collection  is  open  to  the  public.  The  Swedish  academy  of  sciences,  founded  in  1739,  by 
learned  private  individuals,  has  published  above  100  volumes.  It  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  in  Europe,  and  the  greatest  men  in  other  countries  have  viewed  it  as  an 
honour  to  1^  enrolled  among  its  members.  In  the  college  of  mines  are  preserved  copious 
specimens,  drawn  from  a  country  so  rich  in  metallic  productions.  The  cabinet  of  models, 
presenting  the  various  mechanical  contrivances  employed  through  the  different  parts  of  Swe- 
den, is  also  considered  very  interesting. 

The  fine  arts  in  Sweden  have  been  cultivated  amidst  considerable  difficulties.  The  opera 
is  conducted  with  splendour  and  taste ;  Lergell,  as  a  sculptor,  has  been  ranked  second  to 
Canova,  and  even  called  the  Michael  Angelo  of  the  North.  Breda  in  portrait,  and  Fulerantz 
in  landscape,  enjoy  reputation. 

The  habitations  of  Scandinavia  are  very  simple  and  uniform.  "  Having,"  says  Dr.  Clarke, 
"once  figured  to  the  imagination  a  number  of  low  red  houses,  of  a  single  stoir,  and  each 
covered  with  turf  and  weeds,  a  picture  is  presented  of  the  oppidan  scenery  of  Sweden." 
The  houses,  however,  are  well  finished  within,  and  elegantly  furnished ;  and  by  means  of 
stoves,  double  windows,  and  close  doors,  they  are  kept  comfortably  warm,  even  during  the 
most  rigorous  winter.  Swedes  have  even  complained  tliat  they  suflfered  much  more  &ova 
cold  in  London  than  in  their  native  city. 

The  dress  is  described  by  Dr.  Clarke  as  equally  uniform  with  the  habitations.  "  A  skull- 
cap, fitting  close  to  the  crown,  edged  with  a  little  stiff  lace,  the  hair  being  drawn  as  tight 
and  straight  as  possible  beneath  the  cap  from  all  parts  of  the  head,  as  if  to  start  from  the 
roots;  add  to  this,  a  handkerchief  thrown  over  the  cap  when  they  go  out;  a  jacket;  short 
petticoat ;  stockings  of  coloured  or  white  woollen ;  and  high-heeled  shoes :"  this  is  the 
„ . .  .  .^  general  costume  of  the  Swedish  women.  Mr.  Wilson  thus 

■Hi-  -v.i*«  .*»,        describes  the  dress  of  the  representatives  of  that  class  of 

peasants : — "  White  worsted  stockings,  half-boots  extend- 
ing above  the  calf  of  the  leg,  yellow  leather  small-clothes 
with  knee-buckles,  a  short  brown  coat  and  waistcoat,  and 
a  plain  handkerchief  tied  round  their  necks."  The  an- 
nexed cut  (fff.  241.)  may  give  an  idea  of  the  attire  and 
aspect  of  the  Norwegian  peasantry.  In  winter  these  gar- 
ments must  be  reinforced  to  the  utmost  ability  of  the 
wearer,  as  a  fence  against  the  excess  of  the  cold.  The 
peasantry  wear  a  sheepskin  cloak,  with  the  wool  towards 
the  body,  and  close  fur  caps.  Dr.  Clarke  mentions  as  a 
travelling  dress,  thick  yarn  stockings  covered  by  stout  lea- 
ther boots,  and  over  these  again  toots  made  of  the  hides 
of  rein-deer,  with  the  hair  on  the  outside,  and  doubly  lined 
.  with  sheepskin  covered  with  black  wool.  The  people  wear, 

Norwegmn  peaianti.  besides,  fur  caps  on  the  head,  bearskin  pelisses  over  the 

body,  besides  several  flannel  waistcoats,  and  on  the  hands,  gloves  of  sheepskin  covered  by 
double  gloves  of  fur  and  wool.  Yet  these  accumulated  guards  are  insufficient  to  prevent 
the  feeling  of  the  most  intense  cold,  which,  in  those  not  duly  fenced  against  it,  sometimes 
produces  d«ath,  and  firequently  a  frost-bitten  limb. 

41* 


inhabitantL-AM.  Eo. 


Km 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  hi 


'         '  Sect.  VII. — Local  Oeography. 

This  section  naturally  dividoa  itsolf  into  tlireo  Bubonlinate  parta : — 1.  Sweden ;  2.  iVorvay 
and  9.  Lapland ;  which,  though  accountod  partly  Swodiah  and  partly  Norwegian,  haa  a  dis- 
tinct character  of  its  own.  .     ^ 

SuBSECT.  1. — Sweden. 

Sweden  is  formed  into  throe  great  divisions :  Svealand,  or  Sweden  Proper ;  Gotaland,  or 
Gotliland ;  and  Nordland,  or  Norrland.  In  the  following  statistical  tabhi,  the  extent  and 
arable  produce  are  from  materials  collected  in  1812,  since  which  time  cultivation  hns  been 
ffreatly  extended ;  but  the  population  is  IVom  the  census  of  1826. 


NorrlHitten 

Vi'iiturbottaii  ■■•■ 
Vaatcr  Norrland . 
Jniutland 

Swtitn. 

Stockholm 

Upaala 

Veituros 

Nykopiiig 

Orohro 

Cirlitadt 

Stnrn  Kapparberg 
Ocfleborg 

aothlatid. 

LinkApiiig 

Calinar 

Jonkiipinit 

Kronnncrg 

Blekingo 

Skaraborg 

Elhborg 

Gottenborg 

IJnIiuitadt 

Chrlatiaiiitadt .  ■ . 

Malmnhui 

Gothland 

Stockholm  city. . . 
Total. . 


Arabia  Qmund, 
'ruimlaiiiU. 


B,oeo 

10,530 
83,780 
IO,rjO 


S3,U0 


71,410 
M,nU4 
55,315 
5'l,0U 
40,933 
84,473 
.M,547 
Ufi,307 


473,!I10 


104,061 

no,i>.>i 

63,0M 

37,«lt5 

31,715 

143,ltl3 

73,eoa 

43,458 
43,083 
8»,344 
SS3,«00 
30,064 


928,734 


1,451,700 


Btlni  10  Iht 
whiile  u  \ 


8,151 

1,4U5 

330 

017 


015 


S3 
13 
37 
»! 
30 
43 
ISO 
140 


45 


31 
34 
40 
48 
27 
13 
37 
33 
S3 
13 
4 
SO 


20 


NumUr  of 
I'una. 


539 

0U4 

1,5U3 

1)45 


3,794 


4,050 
3,548 
3,853 
3,370 
8,774 
1.708 
1,708 
2,080 


S3,000 


5,458 
3,347 
3,005 
3,837 
1,08U 
4,804 
4,900 
3,783 
8,023 
3.003 
4,033 
1,098 


39,487 


65,309 


Oiwniltv* 


81,834 
83,870 
30,819 
90,381 


103,787 


58,049 
48,657 
49,003 
S«,7»l 
61,730 
63,599 
79.313 
50,034 


490,809 


04,194 
8:1,404 
70,115 
56,010 
31,533 
80,910 
103,715 
66,400 
47,485 
70,331 
05,037 
17,500 


840,363 


1,443,858 


OnUn  pmducf  d 

in  AnaniM. 
(l«lk  UuM.) 


37,570 
56,676 
103,500 
48,348 


845,000 


316,067 
985,356 
911,100 
935,006 
108,979 
377,514 
940,781 
153,996 


9,009,017 


360,044 
930,£06 
933,346 
175,380 
139,143 
435,864 
334,388 
915,757 
107,190 
306,087 
548,334 
83,583 


3,304,184 


5,703335 


fttmUUa*. 


40,034 
44,911 

30,133 


195,804 


103,005 

ei,8B7 
88,618 
106,71)3 
109,954 
103,373 
130,388 
06,736 


870,153 


183,380 
160,790 
130,906 
103,709 

85,314 
150,614 
187,031 
146,001 

85,657 
145,380 
193,190 

38,151 


1,635,0,13 
70.473 


8,771,358 


Sweden  Proper  occupies  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  and  includes  the  capital,  and  the 
great  mining  districts.  It  consists  of  an  immense  plain,  covered  by  almost  boundless  forests, 
intermixed  with  patches  of  cultivation ;  only  a  few  hills  of  moderate  height  breaking  its 
vast  uniformity.  Three  great  lakes,  like  inland  seas,  the  Wener,  the  Wetter,  and  the  Malar, 
form  almost  a  continuous  chain  across  its  centre.  Besides  these,  there  is  an  immense  num< 
ber  of  smaller  lakes,  especially  towards  the  north,  communicating  hy  river  channels  with 
the  greater.  These  lakes  do  not  display  the  grandeur  which  belongs  to  those  of  Switzer- 
land ;  but  their  wide  and  winding  shores,  broken  with  rocks,  and  fringed  with  a  profusion  of 
wood,  present  many  romantic  scenes. 

The  division  into  provinces,  of  Sweden  Proper,  as  well  as  of  Gothland,  as  given  in  the 
preceding  table,  was  mod^  recently  by  government,  and  is  the  only  one  upon  wnich  statist!- 
cal  details  have  been  collected.  But  there  is  another  and  earlier  division,  which  remains 
still  fixed  in  the  Swedish  mind;  and  corresponds,  in  fact,  both  to  the  aspect  of  nature  and  to 
the  peculiarities  in  the  people.  These  are  Sudermanland,  the  province  which  contains  the 
capital,  and  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  lake  Malar ;  Upland,  a  high  territory  on  the 
northern  side  of  that  lake ;  Westmanland,  to  the  west  of  Upland ;  Nerike,  a  beautiful  little 
region,  completely  enclosed  between  the  three  great  lakes ;  W^armeland,  to  the  north  of  the 
Vvener,  covered  with  a  multitude  of  little  lakes ;  and,  lastly,  Dolecarlia,  called  also  Dalarne, 
or  the  Plains,  a  province  which,  of  all  others,  presents  the  most  striking  and  peculiar  fea- 
tures. It  is,  above  all,  distinguished  by  the  energetic  character  of  its  peasantry,  whose 
exertions  at  one  time  reared  the  fallen  monarchy,  ai^  who  continue  to  form  its  uiost  power* 
fui  uf  ftmce.  They  still  hold  as  a  maxim,  that  one  Dalecarlian  is  equal  to  two  of  any  other 
Swedes.  Their  diet  is  poor  in  the  extreme,  consisting  in  a  great  measure  of  bnrk-bread . 
yet  their  health  and  vigour  do  not  suffer ;  and  a  number  of  them,  who  were  quartered  as 
troous  at  Stockiiolm,  were  affected  with  fbvers  in  consequence  of  the  repletion  caused  bj 


Past  in 

8»eden ;  S.  iVorway 
Norwegian,  has  a  dis< 


Book  I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


4»7 


Proper;  Gotalond, or 
ab]i},  the  extent  and 
cultivation  hns  been 


Onln  pnductd 

in  AranM. 

fmUUHL 

(I'MUl  iHUlWl.) 

37,570 

40,094 

Kjm 

44,«11 

io3,ioe 

nm 

48,348 

30,139 

iMS,«)e 

18S,8»4 

3]e,oe7 

103,Of>S 

98j,aw 

8I,8B7 

811,100 

88,618 

995,008 

100,7ft) 

108,979 

100,951 

377,514 

10.1,379 

940,781 

190,388 

]S3,9Ue 

06,736 

8,000,017 

870,153 

360,044 

188,980 

930,£06 

100,730 

933,346 

1S»,906 

175,980 

i09,n& 

139,143 

85,314 

495,804 

150,614 

334,389 

187,031 

915,757 

146,601 

107,190 

85,657 

300,087 

145.380 

548,334 

102,ll» 

83,593 

38,151 

3,904,184 

1,635,6.-H 

79,473 

5,709339 

8,T71,9S» 

the  capita],  and  the 
ost  boundless  forests, 
height  breaking  its 
etter,  and  the  Malar, 
is  an  immense  num< 
river  channels  with 
to  those  of  Switzer- 
with  a  proiiiaioD  of 

nd,  as  ffiven  in  the 
upon  wnich  statisti- 
ion,  which  remains 
ect  of  nature  and  to 
which  contains  the 
igh  territory  on  the 
:e,  a  beautiful  little 
to  the  north  of  the 
ailed  also  Dalarne, 
and  peculiar  fea- 
peasantry,  whose 
m  its  uiusi  power- 
0  two  of  any  other 
ure  of  bark-bread . 
were  quartered  ai 
!pletion  caused  b; 


Btookholm 


eating  whoaton  bread.    The  memory  of  the  groat  Gustavus  Vasa,  the  founder  of  the  Swe- 
dish monarchy,  is  cherished  in  this  province  with  the  utmost  warmth;  and  mai  y  memoriala 
of  him  arc  preserved  in  different  places. 
Stockholm  (Jig.  i242.),  witii  which  we  shall  commence  our  details,  is  finely  situated,  at  tho 

junction  of  the  extensive  and  beau- 
tifhl  lake  of  Malar,  or  MUer,  with 
the  sea.  It  stands  partly  on  some 
small  islands,  and  two  peninsulas, 
presenting  a  view  as  beautiflil  and 
diversifled  as  imagination  can  con- 
ceive. Innumerahle  craggy  rocks 
rise  flrom  the  water,  partly  covered 
with  houses,  and  partly  planted 
with  wood ;  while  vessels  of  all 
fbrms  and  doscriptions  arc  seen  passing  to  ond  fro.  Wmte  edifices,  consisting  of  public  and 
private  pnlnccs,  churches,  and  other  buildings,  rising  t'rom  an  expanse  of  waters,  produce  an 
effect  of  incompnrable  grandeur.  When  tho  lake  and  sea  are  fivzen,  thev  are  covered  with 
sledges  of  all  kinds,  and  exhibit  one  of  the  gayest  scenes  imaginable.  If  external  appear- 
ance were  alone  to  bo  relied  on,  Stockholm  might  be  deemed  the  most  magnificent  city  in 
the  world.  This  impression  is  not  sustained  by  any  beauty  Or  convenience  in  the  interior. 
Except  the  grout  square  of  Norden  Malm,  tiio  streets,  though  of  very  considerable  length, 
are  neither  broad  nor  handsome.  There  is  no  foot  pavement ;  the  houses  are  lofly,  all  white- 
washed, and  tho  shops  are  extremely  poor.  The  different  fhmilies  reside  in  separate  floors 
or  stories,  one  above  another,  the  ground-floors  being  usually  occupied  as  shops.  The  royal 
poluco,  however,  begun  by  Charles  XI.,  and  finished  by  Gustavus  III.,  may  vie  with  any 
structure  of  tlio  kind  in  Europe.  It  is  in  tho  Grecian  style,  quadrangular,  four  stories  high, 
built  of  brick  only,  but  faced  witli  stone-coloured  cement.  Its  situation,  facing  the  quay, 
and  commanding  a  view  of  all  parts  of  the  city,  adds  greatly  to  its  beauty.  It  contains 
some  fine  specimens  of  sculpture  and  painting,  curiosities  connected  with  Swedish  history, 
and  a  range  of  small  apartments  embclliahod  by  Gustavus  III.  in  a  fanciful  manner.    This 

Silacc,  with  the  finest  buildings  of  the  city,  stands  on  one  of  the  islands.  The  kings  of 
wodcn  have  in  the  country  other  palaces :  that  of  Drottningholm  is  a  handsome  stuccoed 
building,  roofed  with  copper,  and  having  side  wings;  but  the  gardens  are  barbarously  laid 
out  in  tiie  old  fashion,  with  trees  and  hedges  clipped  into  fanciful  shapes. 

NykOping  is  tho  only  tract  of  Sweden  Proper  which  is  south  of  the  lakes.  The  town  of 
that  name,  though  small,  has  an  air  of  magnificence.  The  houses  are  of  wood  painted 
yellow. 

The  provincesof  Westeros,  Orebro,  and  Corlstadt,  along  the  north  side  of  tlie  lakes,  reach 
across  the  kingdom.  Enkdping,  on  a  branch  of  the  Malar,  is  the  first  town  which  occurs 
westward  fhim  Stockholm,  but  it  js  not  of  great  consequence.  Westeras,  on  the  same  lake, 
has  more  commercial  importance,  as  a  link  between  the  capital  and  the  northern  and  western 
provinces.  There  is  oniy  one  principal  street,  about  two  miles  in  length ;  Uie  houses  are 
only  of  one  story,  and  often  roofed  with  turf.  It  is  the  see  of  the  richest  bishopric  in  Swe- 
den. The  cathedral  is  a  simple  edifice ;  but  one  of  the  most  elegant  in  Sweden,  adorned 
with  a  very  elegant  porphyry  monument  erected  to  Eric  FV.,  who  died  by  poison  in  1577. 
Next  comes  Kftping,  small  and  poor ;  but  celebrated  as  having  been  the  residence  of  Scheele. 
It  lies  at  the  extreme  interior  pioint  of  the  Malar.  Quitting  that  lake,  and  proceeding  south- 
west, we  come  to  Arboira,  a  beautifiil  little  town  on  a  river  which  falls  into  that  lake,  and 
near  a  canal  which  connects  it  with  the  lake  Hjelmar.  A  steam-packet,  established  by  an 
Englishman,  now  enables  it  to  communicate  with  the  capital.  Nearly  due  west  is  Orebro, 
a  more  considerable  town,  and  the  occasional  place  of  meeting  for  the  Swedish  diet.  It  is 
reckoned  the  fiflh  town  in  Sweden,  containing  about  4000  people,  and  the  streets  are  broad 
and  spacious,  though  the  houses,  as  elsewhere  in  Sweden,  are  low,  and  of  painted  wood. 
The  stodthub,  or  governor's  residence,  which  includes  also  the  prison,  is  a  huge  shapeless 
edifice.  The  church,  which  forms  also  the  place  of  meeting  for  tne  diet,  is  an  ancient  struc- 
ture, originally  Gothic,  and  built  of  stone,  but  patched  with  brick,  and  in  various  styled. 
Proceeding  westward,  we  enter  Carlstadt,  or,  as  anciently  called,  Warmeland,  a  region 
entirely  of  mines,  forests,  and  lakeletSL  and  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  extended  shores  of 
the  Wener  lake.  Carlstadt  is  situated  near  tho  point  where  this  lake  receives  the  Clara,  a 
considerable  river,  which  traverses  these  wooded  regions,  and  down  which  immense  quanti- 
ties of  timber  are  floated ;  advantage  for  this  purpose  being  taken  of  the  floods  to  which  i 
is  occasionally  subject.  One  company  from  Gottenburg  has  saw-mills,  at  which  are  annually 
cut  upwards  of  K),000  planks.  Carlstadt  is  a  place  of  from  2000  to  8000  people,  presenting 
the  ordinary  aspect  of  Swedish  towns.  It  collects  the  vast  produce  of  the  mines  ana 
forests  of  Warmeland,  and  transmits  them  across  the  Wener  to  Wenersberg,  whence 
they  find  their  way  to  Gottenburg.  Considerably  in  the  interior  is  Philinstadt,  in  thp 
very  heart  of  the  iron  mines,  by  which  it  is  supported. 


48B 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  ia 


Pcnberc  Mine. 


The  moflt  remarkable  are  those  of  Persberff  {Jig.  S43.)t  a  few  miles  to  the  eaflt> 

ward.  They  are  thirteen  in  number,  dug 
into  a  mountain  entirely  composed  of  veins 
and  beds  of  iron  ore.  Dr.  Clarke,  ailer 
having,  in  the  couise  of  ten  years'  travei, 
inspected  many  of  the  principal  works  of 
tb's  kind  in  diflerent  countries,  declares,  that 
he  had  never  beheld  any  thing  equal  to  this 
for  crandeur  of  eflect,  and  for  the  tremen* 
douBly  striking  circumstances  under  which 
human  labour  is  hero  perfurmcd.  In  the 
wide  and  open  abyss  suddenly  appeared  a 
vast  prospect  of  yawning  caverns  and  prodi 
gious  machinery.  Immense  buckets,  sus- 
pended by  rattlmg  chains,  were  passing  up 
and  down ;  ladders  were  scaling  all  the  in- 
ward precipices;  upon  which  the  work- 
people, reduced  by  their  distance  to  pigmies, 
were  ascending  and  descending.  The  clank- 
ing of  chains,  the  groaning  of  the  pumps, 
the  hallooing  of  the  miners,  the  creaking 
of  the  bloclu  and  wheels,  the  trampling  of 
horses,  the  beating  of  the  hammers,  and  the 
loud  and  frequent  subterraneous  thunder 
from  the  blasting  of  the  rocks  by  gunpowder, 
in  the  midst  of  all  this  scone  of  excavation  and  vapour,  produced  an  effect  that  no  stranger 
could  witness  unmoved. 

Dalecarlia,  or  Dalarne,  extends  to  the  north-east  of  Warmeland.  It  is  covered  with  an 
extraordinary  proRision  of  mosses  and  fungi,  so  that  it  is  termed  by  Dr.  Clarke  the  supreme 
court  of  the  cryptogamia.  We  have  already  remarked  the  peculiar  character  of  the  people, 
who  preserve  entire  the  dress,  habits,  and  the  daring  energy  of  the  ancient  Swedes.  The 
most  important  branch  of  productive  industry  consists  in  the  mines,  particularly  the  great 
copper  mine  at  Fahlun  (Jig.  244.).    It  is  immediately  adjoining  to  the  town,  and  consists  of 

an  enormous  conical  mass  with  the  top 
downwards.  The  bottom  of  the  cone,  be- 
ing the  top  of  the  mine,  was  the  first 
worked;  and  the  galleries  being  made 
through  it  without  due  precaution,  the 
whole  fell  in,  producing  on  immense  open 
crater  which  still  remams.  Regular  stair- 
cases of  easy  descent  traverse  this  im- 
mense crater  or  basin,  from  its  outer  lip 
to  the  lowermost  point,  whence  arise  vast 
volumes  of  smoke  and  vapour,  giving  it 
the  appearance,  on  a  greater  scale,  of  the 
Neapolitan  Solfatra.  It  is  divided  into  no 
less  than  1200  shares  or  sections,  among 
which  tlie  ore  is  divided  immediately  on 
being  brought  up,  and  it  is  then  smelted 
on  a  small  scale  by  the  different  indivi- 
duals. The  ore  is  not  rich.  In  1600,  this 
mine  is  said  to  have  yielded  8,000,000 
pounds  of  copper ;  in  1650, 5,500,000 ;  but 
at  present  only  1,120,000  pounds.  The  workmen  have  now  reached  the  bottom,  or  the  sur- 
face of  the  cone,  and  are  still  working  through  the  ground,  in  the  fond  hope  of  coming  to  the 
top  of  another  cone,  reaching  downwards.  Unless  mis  chimera  should  be  realised,  the  mine, 
it  is  said,  will,  in  a  few  years,  cease  to  be  productive.  Fahlun  is  a  regularly  built  but  old- 
foshioned  and  dirty  town,  subsisting  solely  by  the  mine.  It  has  two  churches,  one  covered 
with  copper,  but  this  has  not  a  handsome  appearance,  the  colour  of  that  metal  being  converted 
into  a  whitish  green  soon  afler  exposure  to  the  weather.  Near  Fahlun  is  the  house  where 
Gastavus  Vasa  lay  concealed,  the  proprietor  of  which  has  studied  to  preserve  in  its  pristine 
state  this  asylum  of  the  Swedish  kmg.  His  chamber,  bed,  and  clothes  are  still  shown;  hia 
shirt  of  worsted  mail  fitted  similar  to  those  made  by  the  Circassians,  and  his  other  weapons. 
Sala,  which  is  properly  in  Westmanland,  may  be  mentioned  here  as  another  mining  town 
on  a  smaller  scale,  neat,  regular,  but  ill-paved.  The  only  important  mine  is  one  of  galena, 
which  yields  2000  marks  of  silver,  and  32,000  pounds  weight  of  lead.    There  is  also  u  cop* 


Fablun  Mine. 


Part  III 

miles  to  the  east- 
een  in  number,  dug 
ly  compoeed  of  veins 
Dr.  Clarke,  oflcr 
of  ten  years'  travel, 
I  principal  works  of 
untriea,  declares,  that 
ly  thing  equal  to  thia 
and  for  the  tremen* 
stances  under  which 

perfurmed.  In  the 
suddenly  appeared  a 
ng  caverns  and  prodi 
mense  buckets,  bus< 
lins,  were  passing  up 
re  scaling  all  the  in- 
n  which  the  work- 
r  distance  to  pigmies, 
sending.  The  clank- 
aning  of  the  pumps, 
niners,  the  creaking 
els,  the  trampling  of 
:he  hammers,  and  the 
bterraneous  thunder 
I  rocks  by  gunpowder, 
ffect  that  no  stranger 

t  is  covered  with  an 
.  Clarke  the  supreme 
iracter  of  the  people, 
icient  Swedes.    The 
urticularly  the  great 
town,  and  consists  of 
mass  witli  the  top 
ttom  of  the  cone,  be- 
mine,  was  the  first 
nlleries  being  made 
due  precaution,  the 
ng  an  immense  open 
lams.  Regular  stair- 
traverse  this  im- 
n,  from  its  outer  lip 
it,  whence  arise  vast 
id  vapour,  giving  it 
greater  scale,  of  the 
It  is  divided  into  no 
or  sections,  among 
ided  immediately  on 
it  is  then  smelted 
the  different  indivl- 
rich.    In  1600,  this 
yielded  8,000,000 
.650, 5,500,000;  but 
3  bottom,  or  the  sur- 
jpe  of  coming  to  the 
3  realised,  the  mine, 
ularly  built  but  old- 
urches,  one  covered 
ital  being  converted 
is  the  house  where 
iserve  in  its  pristine 
ire  still  shown ;  his 
his  other  weapons, 
iother  mining  town 
le  is  one  of  galena, 
There  is  also  u  cop- 


DooK  L 


BWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


4(0 


Upiala. 


per  mine,  which  produces  little ;  aud  one  of  iron,  which  is  not  considered  worth  the  expense 
of  working. 

Upland,  coinciding  nearly  with  the  modem  Upsala,  is  an  interesting  province,  exSendinff 
firom  a  part  of  the  lake  to  the  river  Dal.  It  is  flat,  but  diversified  with  numerous  little  round 
knolls,  which,  with  the  small  lakes  and  the  numerous  fine  forests,  render  it  picturesque.  It 
contains  Upsala,  the  seat  of  the  great  northern  university,  and  Danemora,  the  most  valuable 
of  the  iron  mines. 
Upsala,  or  Upsal  0^^.  245.),  is  the  place  in  Sweden  most  venerable  for  its  antiquity.    It 

was  long  the  residence  of  the  kings, 
245  and  has  always  been  the  chief  seat 

of  religion  and  learning.  Even  in 
pagan  times  it  was  the  residence  of 
the  highpriest  of  Odin ;  and  in  1026, 
Everinus,  a  bishop  from  England, 
was  placed  there,  for  the  purpora  or 
converting  the  natives  to  Christiani- 
ty. The  cathedral  is  the  largest  and 
finest  ecclesiastical  monument  in 
Sweden,  a  country  not  eminent  for 
such  structures.  The  exterior  is  in- 
deed  only  of  brick,  and  there  is  an 
injudicious  mixture  of  the  Gothic 
with  the  Doric  towers.  But  the  in- 
terior is  very  striking,  adorned  with  a  double  row  of  fourteen  fluted  columns,  a  magnificent 
altar,  and  above  all  by  many  monuments  of  the  kings  and  heroes  of  Sweden.  Particular 
notice  is  attracted  by  that  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  and  the  three  Sturcs,  successively  regents  of 
the  kingdom,  who,  in  that  station,  earned  the  title  of  fathers  of  their  coimtry.  Tho  shirt  dl 
mail  of  Margaret,  the  Semiramis  of  the  North,  is  also  kept  as  a  warlike  relic.  Upsala  con- 
tains also  a  palace  founded  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  now  half  burnt  down.  It  is  at  present  sup- 
ported solely  by  the  university,  of  which  an  accotmt  has  already  been  given.  It  is  destitute 
of  all  trade  or  industry.  It  is  therefore  small,  but  very  regular  and  neat,  having  a  large 
square  in  the  centre,  where  all  the  streets  converge. 

The  mine  of  Danemora  ia  situated  near  the  small  town  of  Osterby.  Swedish  iron  is  the 
best  in  the  world,  and  the  iron  of  Danemora  is  the  best  in  Sweden.  Dr.  Thomson  was  told 
at  Shefiicld,  that  cast  steel  could  not  be  made  with  any  other.  Danemora  was  first  wrought 
as  a  silver  mine,  but  this  was  soon  exhausted.  The  iron  chen  began  to  be  wrought,  and  soon 
established  the  high  character  it  now  holds.  The  great  opening  is  fifty  fathoms  deep,  and 
the  mine  has  been  wrought  thirty  fathoms  lower  down.  The  ore  is  blasted  with  gunpowder. 
At  short  intervals  are  heard  tremendous  explosions,  like  the  discharge  of  the  heaviest  artil- 
lery, which  are  echoed  tlirough  the  caverns,  and  shake  the  earth  like  a  volcano,  while 
volumes  of  smoke  burst  forth  after  each  crash.  From  the  mouth  of  the  cavern  enormous 
masses  of  iron  are  raised  up  by  machinery.  The  mine  belongs  to  a  number  of  private  indi- 
viduals, who  have  erected  a  steam-engine  at  an  expense  of  36,000  rix-doUars.  The  produce 
is  estimated  at  4000  tons.    There  are  twenty-seven  other  mines  in  the  province  of  Upsala. 

Gothland,  or  Gotaland,  the  southern  division  of  the  kingdom,  forms  a  large  peninsula,  with 
a  wide  circuit  of  shores.  It  enjoys  a  considerably  milder  climate,  and  is  the  only  part  of  the 
kingdom  where  wheat  is  raised  in  any  considerable  quantity.  It  is  here  also  that  the  recent 
improvements  in  agriculture  have  been  chiefly  observable.  There  is  thus  more  land  in  cul- 
tivation, and  trees  will  not  grow  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  coasts;  so  that  Gothland  is 
not  so  thoroughly  covered  with  wood,  as  the  provinces  to  the  north  of  the  lakes.  If  we 
except  Uie  capital,  this  division  contains  almost  all  the  sea-ports  and  naval  arsenals ;  and 
consequently  engrosses  nearly  all  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  kingdom. 

The  modem  and  official  divisions  of  Gothland  have  been  exhibited  in  the  statistical  table. 
The  ancient  divisions  are  into  Elastem  and  Westem  Gothland,  divided  from  each  other  by 
the  long  line  of  the  lake  Wetter ;  Smaland,  an  extensive  but  barren  tract,  to  the  south  of 
that  lake ;  and  Scania,  or  Schdnen,  the  southern  peninsular  extremity  of  Sweden,  a  better 
peopled,  and  better  cultivated  district  than  any  other  in  the  kmgdom. 

Eastern  Gothland  comprises  chiefly  the  modem  provinces  of  NykSping  and  Link5ping. 
The  town  of  Nykdping  is  agreeably  situated  at  the  extremity  of  a  small  oay  of  tho  Baltic, 
and  though  small  has  an  air  of  magnificence ;  but  it  carries  on  little  or  no  trade.  It  is  now 
much  outstripped  by  Norkfiping,  the  largest  of  all  the  kdpinga  (i.  e.  markets),  and  the  fourth 
town  in  Sweden.  Norkdping  lies  upon  the  large  river  Motala,  which  communicates  between 
the  lake  Wetter  and  the  Baltic,  and  which  is  here  broken  into  numerous  rocky  channels. 
The  chief  branch  of  induBtry  consists  ir  the  manufecture  of  broadcloth,  which  is  produced  so 
fine  as  to  sell  at  twenty-seven  shillings  per  ell,  of  one  yard  and  three  quarters  broad.  The 
breed  of  sheep  in  the  neighbourhood  has  been  considerably  improved  by  the  introduction  of 
merinos.  The  town  is  regularly  built,  of  neat  wooden  houses.  Linkdping  is  another  pro* 
Vol.  I.  3  M 


400 


DESCRIPTIVE  QEOQRaWIY. 


PabtIH 


vincial  capital,  handsomer  in  its  aspect,  thougfh  much  smaller,  than  NorkOpingf.  The 
catitedral,  rebuilt  four  hundred  years  ago,  is  one  of  the  tinost  ecclesiastical  structures  in  the 
kingdom,  and  near  it  is  a  very  handsoino  theatre. 

The  district  of  Smaland  has  for  its  chief  town  JonkOpinff,  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the 
Wetter,  and  commanding  grand  and  beautiful  views  over  that  immense  lake,  which  has  here 
a  wide  border  of  low  but  nnely  wooded  rocks.  The  town  has  been  entirely  rebuilt  since 
1700,  when  it  was  burnt  to  the  ground.  Though  built  chiefly  of  wood,  like  other  Swedish 
towns,  it  contains  many  good  and  commodious  nouses,  the  residence  of  wealthy  inhabitants, 
who  have  been  attracted  by  the  amenity  of  the  site.  A  high  court  of  appeal  for  this  part  of 
Sweden  is  established  here.  About  ton  miles  distant  is  Tuberg,  a  long  round-backed  hi.1, 
composed  wholly  of  one  unbroken  mass  of  flne  magnetic  ironstone.  It  presents  such  a 
colossal  mass  as  in  Hauamann's  opinion  must  continue  to  afford  a  source  of  riches  to  the 
remotest  posteritjr.  The  upper  bed,  370  feet  thick,  has  been  wrought  for  250  years.  It  is 
merely  blasted  with  gunpowder,  when  the  fragments  fall  to  the  bottom,  and  are  conveyed  to 
neighbouring  furnaces.  The  ore  is  not  very  rich,  the  proportion  of  pure  iron  varying  from 
21  to  32  per  cent. ;  but  it  is  very  tractable,  and  iVco  from  any  hurtful  ingredients.  The  iiiil, 
though  only  400  feet  high,  commands  an  almost  boundless  view  over  the  vast  wooded  flats 
of  Smaland.  This  district  contains  also  a  considerable  quantity  of  bog  iron  ore  of  inferior 
quality,  and  some  copper  mines. 

The  sea-coast  of  Smaland,  consisting  of  the  modem  provinces  of  Calmar  and  Bleking,  la 
of  .  naked  and  unpromising  a8pcc^  but  contains  some  havens  of  importance.  Calmar  is 
noteu  in  Swedish  history  os  a  strong  fortress,  and  still  more  because  in  one  of  the  opartmLnts 
of  its  castle  was  signed  the  celebrated  treaty  which  united  the  three  crowns  of  the  north  on 
the  head  of  Margaret.  Carlscrona  is  tiie  chief  naval  orscnal  and  one  of  the  largest  towns  in 
Sweden.  It  is  built  on  three  small  islands  connected  with  each  other  and  with  the  coast  by 
long  wooden  bridges,  while  other  islands  serve  for  the  erection  of  works  for  the  defence  of 
the  harbour.  These  are  square  batteries  of  stone,  well  mounted  with  ordnance,  which  appear 
formidable  enough,  though  probably  not  capable  of  coping  with  a  ship  of  the  line.  Separate 
establishments  exist  for  the  large  vessels,  and  for  the  flotilla;  but  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
features  consists  of  tiie  covered  docks,  partly  excavated  out  of  the  vast  masses  of  solid  rock, 
The  want  of  tides  in  the  Raltic  is  supplied  by  sluices,  which  open  into  the  port,  and  are 
emptied  again  at  pleasure.  Carlshamn  is  a  smaller  town,  romantically  situated,  like  a  cluster 
of  nests,  on  the  tops  of  cHAb,  During  war  it  enjoyed  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  neutral 
trade,  which  it  has  since  lost.  Christianstadt  is  a  fortress  of  considerable  celebrity,  the  cap- 
ture of  which  formed  the  first  military  achievement  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Some  fragments 
of  the  fortifications  remain,  and  the  approach  to  them  is  defended  by  an  extensive  swamp 
which  surrounds  the  place. 

Scania  begins  here,  a  flat  and  fertile  peninsula,  forming  the  most  southern  part  of  Sweden, 
There  are  numerous  German  residents  in  Scania,  supposed  to  have  sought  refuge  there 
during  the  Protestant  persecution  in  Germany ;  and  some  Scotch  fkrmers  have  also  sought  to 
introduce  an  improved  system  of  agriculture.  In  the  centre  of  Scania  is  Lund,  the  seat  of 
the  second  university  in  Sweden,  containing  30,000  volumes,  a  good  observatory  and  botanical 
garden,  anu  a  noble  cathedral  in  the  Norman  style  of  architecture,  Malmo,  formerly  one  of 
the  Hanseatic  towns,  is  the  chief  seat  of  trade,  Helsenving  and  Ystadt,  neat  little  ports,  are 
the  chief  places  of  embarkation  for  Denmark  and  Germany.  All  these  to^\•ns  command 
magnificent  views  of  the  Sound,  enlivened  by  the  crowds  of  shipping  that  are  continually 
passing. 

Having  turned  the  southern  point  of  Sweden,  we  come  to  the  coast  of  West  Gothland, 
situated  on  that  great  gulf  of  the  German  Ocean  called  the  Cattegal.  Being  the  part  of  the 
kingdom  nearest  to  the  great  states  of  Europe,  it  carries  on  a  principal  part  of  the  commerce 
of  Sweden.  Laholm  and  Halmstadt  are  ports  of  some  consideration,  in  the  gloomy  and 
heathy  province  of  Hollaid,  but  almost  the  whole  of  the  western  commarce  of  Swedan  centres 
at  Gottenburg. 

Gottenburg  is  built  in  the  interior  of  a  bay  set  round  with  rugged  and  naked  rocks,  and 
the  whole  country  round  is  sterile  and  desolate.  It  is  supported  by  its  situation  at  tiie  mouth 
of  the  Gotha,  the  broadest  and  most  navigable  of  the  rivers  of  Sweden,  which  by  means  of 
the  cfinal  of  Trdlhiitta  affords  a  fiill  communication  with  the  great  interior  lake  of  Wener, 
and  the  opportunity  of  bringing  down  those  immense  stores  of  wood  and  iron  produced  around 
its  shores.  The  prosperity  of  Gottenburg  was  also  greatly  promoted  by  the  French  anti- 
commercial  system,  under  which  this  port  remained  one  of  the  few  channels  by  which  British 
goods  could  force  their  way  into  the  Continent.  It  is  a  very  handsome  city,  built  entirely  of 
stone,  the  use  of  wood  having  been  prohibited  since  the  last  great  conflagration,  the  second 
which  had  occurred  in  the  course  of  ten  years.  A  magnificent  church,  lately  built,  is  con- 
structed, in  a  great  measure,  of  stone  imported  fiwm  Si'-otlnnd,  The  principal  street,  which 
js  long  and  wide,  has  a  canal  running  through  it ;  the  others  strike  off^  fivm  it  at  right 
angles.    The  principal  merchants  are  Scotch,  who  live  in  a  style  of  great  magnificence. 

West  Gothland  presents  still  some  other  spiking  features.    Among  these  rank  foremost 


PartIIL 

han  NorkOpinif.     The 
tstical  BtnicturcB  in  the 

at  the  cxtromity  of  the 
80  lake,  which  has  here 
I  entirely  rebuilt  since 
lod,  like  other  Swedish 
of  wealthy  inhabitants, 
f  appeal  for  this  port  of 
ong  round-backed  hk.1, 
e.  It  presents  such  a 
source  of  riches  to  the 
lit  for  250  years.  It  is 
xn,  and  are  conveyed  to 
pure  iron  varying  from 
inpredients.  Tlie  hill, 
r  the  vast  wooded  flata 
og  iron  ore  of  inferior 

Palmar  and  Bleking,  is 
mportonce.  Calmar  is 
1  one  of  the  apartments 
crowns  of  tlie  north  on 
of  the  largest  towns  in 
r  and  with  the  coast  by 
rks  for  the  defence  of 
ordnance,  which  appear 
)  of  the  line.  Separate 
!  of  the  most  remarkable 
ist  masses  of  solid  rock. 
1  into  the  port,  and  are 
y  situated,  like  a  cluster 
Toportion  of  the  neutral 
•able  celebrity,  the  cap- 
phus.  Some  fragments 
by  an  extensive  swamp 

luthem  part  of  Sweden, 
sought  refuge  thero 

ers  have  also  sought  to 
is  Lund,  the  seat  oi' 

servatory  and  botanical 

ilalmo,  formerly  one  of 
,  neat  little  ports,  are 
lose  towns  command 
that  are  continually 

ast  of  West  Gothland, 

Being  the  part  of  the 

part  of  the  commerce 

jn,  in  the  gloomy  and 

jrce  of  Swedan  centres 

and  naked  rocks,  and 
situation  at  the  mouth 
in,  which  by  means  of 
erior  lake  of  Wener, 

iron  produced  around 

by  the  French  anti- 
mels  by  which  British 
city,  built  entirely  of 
Hagration,  the  second 
h,  lately  built,  is  con- 
rincipa!  street,  which 
5  off  from  it  at  right 
eat  magnificence. 

these  rank  foremost 


Book  I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY, 


«; 


Uio  cataracta  and  canal  of  TroMtto.  Above  the  former  the  river  is  a  mile  broad ;  but  being 
contined  between  two  lofly  rocks,  it  pours  down  its  waters  with  prodigious  force.  The  de- 
scent, however,  is  only  a  hundred  feet  in  ttio  course  of  two  niilos,  making  thus  a  rapid  rather 
than  a  fall ;  the  water  rushing  along  with  inconceivable  rapidity,  boiling  up,  and  covered 
with  foam.  The  noise  is  prodigious,  and  clouds  of  vapour  are  thrown  up.  These  cataracts 
opposed  a  complete  obstruction  to  the  navigation  of  the  Qotha,  which  the  kings  of  Sweden 
expended  iminoiiao  sums  in  endeavouring  to  overcome ;  but  Uieir  works  were  too  imperfect 
to  resist  the  impetuosity  of  the  current  At  length,  in  1708,  the  enterprise  was  taken  up 
by  a  company  of  private  merchants,  who  in  seven  years  brought  it  to  a  happy  completion. 
The  canal  is  twoiity-fbur  feet  wide,  and  eight  feet  deep.  It  extends  only  two  miles ;  but 
being  cut  through  a  granite  rock,  sometimes  to  the  depth  of  one  hundred  and  filly  feet,  it 
proved  a  work  of  very  great  labour.  Wenerborg,  at  the  junction  of  the  Gotha  with  the 
Woner,  is  the  channel  by  which  the  products  of  the  interior  are  brought  down  the  river ; 
yet  it  does  not  derive  from  this  trade  much  prosperity  or  importance.  Uddevalla  and  Stron- 
atadt,  are  small  sea-ports,  with  some  trade  and  fishery,  but  thev  have  suffered  since  the 
herrings  deserted  the  coast  Bkara  and  Fahlkoping  are  places  of  some  consequence  in  the 
interior  of  West  Gothland. 

Norrland  forms  a  third  division,  which,  if  considered  as  including  Lapland  (and  it  is  so 
considered  politically),  would  be  much  more  extensive  than  all  the  rest  of  the  kingdom  put 
together.  It  is,  however,  our  intention  to  reserve  for  a  particular  section  Uie  vast  and 
peculiar  region  known  under  the  name  of  Lapland.    Norrland,  in  a  restricted  sense,  com- 

JriHos  the  four  provinces  named  in  tlie  table,  but  is  better  known  under  tlie  divisions  of 
anitland,  Angermanland,  Medelpad,  and  Hclsingland.  Jamtland,  where  it  borders  on 
Norway,  includes  some  of  the  highest  mountains,  several  of  them  rising  to  6000  or  7000 
feet.  The  rest  of  Norrland  is  flat,  and  the  climate  moist  and  variable,  Tike  that  of  Jamt- 
land, but  colder.  Wheat  scarcely  ripens  beyond  Sundswall ;  near  to  the  northern  border, 
barlev  and  rye  ripen  witli  difficulty.  Almost  the  only  fruits  are  cherries  and  gooseberries. 
The  land  under  cultivation  did  not  in  1812,  exceed  52,000  acres,  which  is,  in  proportion  to 
tlie  whole,  only  as  1  to  915.  Yet  the  people  are  industrious ;  and  Von  Buch  observed  a  greater 
air  of  prosperity  here  than  in  the  rest  of  the  kingdom.  The  woods  which  cover  almost  the 
whole  country,  are  infested  by  numerous  herds  ofwolves.  Of  the  entire  population,  amounting 
to  159,1(M),  only  6318  live  in  the  towns,  which  of  course  must  bo  very  unimportant  Sunds- 
wall and  Ilemosand  are,  however,  sea-ports  of  some  little  consequence,  oa  is  Umea;  but  this 
last  properly  belongs  to  Lapland. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Norway. 
This  extensive  portion  of  the  Swedish  monarchy,  recently,  by  compulsion,  but  in  all  like- 
lihood permanently,  united,  comprises  a  very  long  line  of  maritime  territory,  facing  the 
boundless  expanse  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  Throughout  its  whole  length,  in  an  oblique 
line  parallel  to  the  sea,  runs  the  chain  of  the  Dofrines,  presenting  many  bold  and  lofly 
summits  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  Sneehatta,  the  highest,  is  8100  feet  These  moun- 
tains throw  out  numerous  chains,  sloping  downwards  to  the  sea,  which  form  romantic  valleys 
and  deep  and  winding  bays.  Norway  produces  some  corn,  not  nearlv  sufficient  however, 
for  its  own  consumption ;  but  exports  large  quantities  of  timber  and  fish,  receiving,  in  return, 
'  those  commodities  of  which  it  stands  most  in  need. 

Tiie  southern  Norwegian  provinces  of  Aggerhuus,  Christiania,  and  Christiansund,  include 
a  considerably  greater  proportion  of  level  territory  than  the  other?.  They  have  the  great 
range  of  mountains  to  the  north  and  west,  and  are  not  separated  from  Sweden  by  these 
natural  barriers.  Through  these  provmcea  flow  southward  into  the  bay  of  Christiania  the 
Drammen  and  Uie  Glommen,  Uie  two  greatest  rivers  of  the  North,  and  bring  with  them  an 

immense  quantity  of  timber,  which 
246  is  cut  into  deals,  and  exported  to  all 

parts  of  Europe.  The  export  of  iron 
13  also  considerable. 
•  Christiania,  (Jig.  246.),  capital 
of  all  this  district  witli  a  population 
of  20,581,  now  ranks  as  the  capital 
of  the  whole  kingdom.  It  is  situated 
at  the  head  of  a  long  interior  bay  or 
fiord,  and  enijoys  a  situation  which 
Von  Buch  considers  as  altogether 
wonderful.  The  bay,  its  islands, 
the  crowds  of  sails  spread  among 
them,  with  the  view  of  majestic  hilla 
rismg  over  hills  in  the  distance,  appeared  to  him  equalled  only  on  the  lake  of  Geneva,  which, 
however,  has  not  the  vessels  and  islanda  Christiania  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  trade  in 
deals ;  and  those  cut  in  its  saw-mills  are  considered,  by  the  traders  in  this  article,  to  be 


UbritUuia. 


«n 


DESCRll'llVr  GEOGRAPHY. 


I'aut  III. 


■upetior  to  all  others.     Scmu  merchanta,  pu'lmlffrly  tiie  Ankera,  nwinUiii  thn  Mtato 

of  princes,  ami  tn      aiidorod  <  '<  and  liberie    vie  w4  to  any  in  Europe.    Clirir 

tiania  comoa  mon  into  -•  "tact  i.    ,.  m  ith  the  morr  o<l. umrd  countriea  of  Europe, 

and  haa  adopted  almost  i^  a  latvely  the  iiu^.  ,  ,?nt<<  \s  liich  dintinffuiah  llipvn.  The  building! 
are  regular,  and  mostly  of  stune;  so  that  in  le  course  of  200  yoam,  while  other  Scandina< 
vian  towiu  tiavn  been  rt  atedlv  reduced  to  u«hos,  Chriotiania  has  sutfuriil  <  /  nlight  injury 
flrom  fire.  Since  tli  >on  witn  Sweden,  it  hnn  rpceived  an  university,  with  iwu  profcHon, 
who  have  moderate  les,  cliiefly  derived  from  ({ruin. 

There  aro  other  hav.  aa  of  soniu  importance  in  this  ,  ithem  tract  of  Norway.  On  the 
western  coast  of  Christinnin  fiord,  the  two,  Bragenes  and  .Stromaoe,  unite  in  fbrmmg  what 
Li  called  Drammen,  at  the  ut!t  of  the  n/iportant  river  of  that  nani'  Tonsborg,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  same  side,  is  a  town  ome  ancient  celebrity,  but  now  a  good  deal  decayed. 
On  the  eastern  side  of  the  same  bay  i.^  Moss,  watered  by  a  stream,  turningtwenty  saw-milli, 
by  which  an  immense  quantity  of  deabi  are  prepared  for  exportation.  Fredericiuhall,  an 
ancient  and  still  important  fi-ontior  town,  is  beautit\illy  situated  in  an  interior  bay,  winding 

among  mountains.  Near  it  is  the  strong 
fortress  of  Frcderickstadt,  the  scene  of  the 
death  of  Charles  XII.  The  pass  of  the 
Swinsund  C/^.  247.),  on  the  imnicdiato 
firontier,  presents  one  of  the  most  romantic 
and  picturesque  scenes  in  Scandinavia. 
Christiansund,  the  most  southern  province 
of  Norway,  haja  a  capital  of  the  same  name, 
the  fourth  town  in  the  kingdom,  which, 
fVom  its  situation  on  the  Skagerrack,  is 
visited  for  shelter  and  supplies  by  nume« 
rous  vessels  entering  and  leaving  the 
Baltic.  The  interior  firom  Christiania, 
Bwiniund  F.rry.  though  it  includes  Hedeinarkon,  and  other 

largo  pastoral  valleys,  and  though  its  communications  are  Ikcilitatcd  )n  the  large  lake  of 
Mioeen,  does  not  contain  a  single  town.  That  of  Hammer  atteste  its  former  magnificence, 
by  the  remains  of  a  palace,  and  of  several  churches  now  restored.  The  whole  of  this  terri- 
tcry  is  hemmed  in  on  tlie  west  and  north  by  the  gigantic  ranges  of  the  Doverfield  and 
Fillefield,  which  separate  it  from  Drontiioim  and  Bergen. 
The  province  of  Bergen  is  rude,  rocky,  and  mountainous,  consisting  of  ihe  slope  down- 
wards to  the  sf".  ii  the  highest  part 
of  the  DofViiio  range.  The  town  of 
Bergen,  (/^' .  248.),  at  the  head  of  a 
long  interior  bay,  was  formerly  ac> 
counted  the  capital,  and  contains  a 
population  of  18,511.  Its  commerce, 
which  is  considerable,  is  founded  on 
the  exportation,  less  of  the  produce 
of  the  country  behind  it,  than  of  the 
northern  fishery  at  Daffoden,  of  which 
the  produce  is  brought  to  Bergen  by 
J,     II  r.     .  numerous  barks,    its  merchants  hod 

long  the  monopoly  of  this,  and  still 
retain  much  the  greatest  share.    They  are  chiefly  Dutch,  and  send  a  vessel  weekly  to 
Amsterdam  for  a  supply  of  the  garden  stuflTs  which  their  own  soil  does  not  yield.    Bergcu 
is  built  of  largo  masses  of  wooden  houses,  amid  rocks,  and  has  sufiered  st  ,  rely  by  fire. 
,,  The  province  of  Drontheim,  to  the  north  of  Bergen  and  Christiania,  and  separated  from 

them  by  vast  mountains,  cor- 
!(Mli<:   I   '  J^  responds   in  latitude  with  the 

Swedish  Jamtland.  The  capital 
(Jig.  249.),  of  the  same  name, 
is  situated  on  the  shore  of  & 
winding  fiord,  but  subsists  less 
by  foreign  commerce  than  by 
the  internal  c<Hmnunicati(in  be 
tween  numerous  valleys  and 
disvr :  ui  to  which  it  forms  a  cen* 
tra).  .x»int  of  union.  Of  these 
valleys,  that  of  the  Guldal  is  the 
most  extenaive  and  beautiful, 
and  singulaxly  celebrated  in  Swedish  story  and  tradition.  Here,  it  is  boasted,  dwelt  the 
mighty  Haco,  the  noble  and  wise  Olaf  Tryggvason.    The  society  of  Drontheim  is  always 


Orootbeim. 


Book  I.  '^ 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


408 


held  forth  m  repreientinif  under  the  htppieat  light,  the  genuine  Norwegian  rhnraeter ;  iii 
wtrmth  of  kindnete,  and  generoui  hoipitality.  Dr.  Clarke  praiiei  chiofly  itn  truly  Norwe- 
gian  liniplinily;  but  Von  Buch  coniidora  it  aa  marked  by  more  refined  taate,  more  graL<  I'liI 
and  attractive  mannen,  than  tho  mciety  of  Chri«tiania,  In  no  diatrict  of  No  ,..y  u  there 
laid  to  be  luch  a  foelini;  «f  patrio*.iiim  and  public  spirit  Dronlheim  is  built  v>  ttollv  of  wood, 
and  has  in  cofis<;i]uoncj  h»oii  seven  times  burnt  to  the  ground;  yet  thohouM'-  ore  nandouin 
ind  ornament r<]  with  taste.  There  is  a  spacious  palace,  built  wholly  of  thn  laterial,  and 
partaking  its  im^xirfoction.  Drontheim  also  contauis  the  remains  of  a  cathedral,  the  largest 
edifice  in  the  country,  and  to  which  the  whole  population  of  the  North  came  oncn  in  pil> 
grimage.  Tho  environs  are  very  beautiAil,  with  numerous  country-seats,  and  lofty  sm  v- 
crowned  hills  in  tho  distance.  Chriatianstmd  is  also  a  small  sea-port  and  fishing  town  in 
this  province. 

Beyond  Drontheim  commences  Norrland,  a  district  rather  than  a  province,  the  name 
being  vaguely  applied  to  all  tho  north  o**  Hci>  "linuvia.  Relatively  to  Norway,  it  is  marked 
by  an  increasing  mtonsity  of  cold ;  *]w  .<  j  lU.  r  j,  even  at  3000  feet  high,  being  capped  with 
perpetual  snow,  and  vast  table-pie  ..i>  >i.  Idi  maining  covered  with  it  during  the  whole 
summer.  Grain,  even  of  tho  c'<  .^oh^  (»<sci.;>  its,  ripens  only  in  a  fow  fkvoured  spots.  The 
ipruco  fir  gradually  disappia'. J,  and  shelter  i.'  necessary  to  allow  the  Scotch  nr  and  thp 
tnrch  to  spring  up.  The  Aimt'  h  or,  is  somewhat  milder  than  that  of  regions  under 
the  same  latitude  on  th  *(.  Hie;  so  Uii  ii,  while  the  ports  of  Stockholm  and  Carlscrona  are 
ihut  during  seveiil  m-  iii  >f  the  year,  those  of  Norrland  remain  continuaily  open.  Yet 
in  this  dreary  regic.i  j.  \..i,  a  busy  scone  of  human  action  ani'  existence.  TIio  numerous 
islands,  and  tho  deep  bays  between  *hem  and  the  land,  ofibrd  spots  to  which  shoals  of  fish 
come  from  the  tarthest  depths  nf  the  North  Sea  to  deposit  their  spawn.  During  the  whole 
year,  the  hnrring  affords  a  regular  occupation  to  the  Norrland  boatman ;  but  frran  February 
to  April,  tJK!  shnils,  migrating  fVom  thenco,  and  from  all  the  surroundinff  coasts,  crowd  to 
the  LofTodon  Islands,  the  central  seat  of  the  northern  fishery.  These  islands  form  a  chain 
narallel  to  the  land,  and  separated  by  narrow  channels  through  which  the  tides  of  the 
Northern  Ocean  rush  with  tremendous  rapidity.  The  sea  flows  asm  the  most  rapid  rivers,  and 
the  name  of  stream  is  employed : — Malstrdm,  the  famous  whirlpool,  GrinutrAm,  SundstrAm, 
which,  when  the  tide  is  high,  produce  the  cflTect  of  a  mighty  cataract  Waves  are  seen 
itrugglinff  against  waves,  towering  aloft,  or  wheeling  about  in  whirlpools;  the  dashinff  and 
roaring  of  which  are  heard  many  miles  out  at  sea.  The  produce  of  the  fishery,  which  has 
been  rendered  much  more  abundant  by  the  introduction  of  large  nets  instead  of  hooks,  i'' 
conveyed  to  Bergen  in  a  great  number  of  little  barks.  The  Danish  government  endeavoure*"* 
to  form  at  Stromsoe  a  commercial  dep6t  for  the  produce  of  Norrland ;  but  in  this  bleak  situa 
tiin  it  has  not  flourished.  The  Russianb  come  with  numerous  vessels  ftom  Archange, 
bringing  meal  and  provisions,  which  they  give  in  exchange  for  the  fish  caught 

SuMBOT.  3. — Lapland. 
The  vast  region  of  Lapland  is  divided  from  the  rest  of  Scandinavia  by  a  line  drown  acros» 
it  nearly  coinciding  with  the  Polar  Circle,  so  as  to  render  it  almost  entirely  an  arctic  region. 
It  consists  partly  of  great  chains  of  mount*'""  "ome  of  which  are  4000  feet  high,  while 
other  extensive  tracts  are  level.  Througt  wmsae  roll  the  Tornea,  the  Lulea,  the  Pitea,  and 
other  rivers  of  long  course,  and  navigable  for  the  few  boats  which  have  any  occasion  to  pass 

along  them.  The  Laplanders  are  a  peculiar  race, 
short  stout,  brov'-n,  with  black  hair,  pointed  chin, 
and  eyes  render*,  d  weak  by  exposure  to  the  smoke 
and  snow.  They  are  divided  into  the  mountain 
or  wandering  l^planders,  and  those  who  dwell  in 
what  are  ccdled  villages ;  but  Kautokeino,  which 
forms  a  sort  of  Lapland  capital,  when  visited  by 
Acerbi,  was  found  to  contain  not  more  than  four 
families  and  a  priest  The  swift-footed  rein-deer, 
which  they  train  to  draw  thrm  in  sledges  over  the 
snow,  form  their  riches ;  tlie  flesh  and  milk  of 
these  animals  coo^pose  their  food,  and  the  skins 
their  furniture.  The  tents  of  the  Laplanders 
(Jig.  250.)  are  formed  by  six  beams  of  wood 
meeting  nearly  at  top,  covered  with  cloth,  a  flap 
of  which,  left  between  two  of  the  beams,  serves 
as  the  door.  The  floor  is  spread  with  rein-deer 
skins,  having  the  hair  upwards,  and  which  thus 
serve  for  either  lying  or  sitting,  the  tent  being  too 
low  to  stand  in,  except  in  one  place.  A  stone 
ftame  is  made  in  the  middle,  for  the  fire ;  and  there  is  a  hole  at  the  top,  to  which  the  smoke 
Vol.  I  42 


MNDlais  LaplMdw'i  T«aU 


404 


OESCHIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  III 


Lapliinilcn  Travailing. 


muBt  find  its  why ;  but  this  it  does  not  efTect  till  it  has  thickly  impreffnated  the  whote 
tent  v'ith  its  flimes;  which,  however,  are  valued  as  afTording  a  protection  in  winter  o^inat 
the  c*'  '.in  summer  against  the  cwarms  of  musquitoes  witli  which,  during  a  period  of 

short  and  eA.ireme  heat,  the  air  is  in^ted.  The  herds  of  rein-deer  vary  from  300  to  up- 
vnrda  of  1000,  accordinj|[  to  the  wealth  of  the  possessor.  All  day  they  wonder  over 
the  hills,  and  in  the  evonmg  arn  driven,  not  without  some  occasional  resistance,  into  an  en- 
closed  park,  where  they  are  milked.  Each  yields  only  about  a  tea-cupful  of  milk ;  but  rich, 
aromatic,  and  of  exquisite  taste.  Linmeus  mentions  nineteen  farms  in  which  milk  is  pre- 
paro<l  for  food ;  but  cloanlinese  does  not  preside  over  tlicir  cookery ;  and  the  use  of  the  hand, 
without  knife  or  fork,  to  carry  every  thing  to  the  mouth,  and  of  tlie  tongue  to  lick  the  dishes, 
prevents  an  European  from  joining  these  meals  with  any  rclisli.    The  Laplanders  travel 

from  place  to  place,  and  move 
'^Sl  A±.  their  families,  usually  at  the  be 

ginning  of  winter  and  summer, 
in  sledges  made  in  tlie  form  of  a 
boat,  and  drawn  by  rein-deer 
(Jig.  251.).  These  animals  are 
tamed  and  trained  with  con- 
siderable diiHculty,  and  they  are 
sometimes  restive ;  but,  in  gene- 
ral, they  bound  over  liill  and 
dale  with  surprising  celerity. 
The  natives  have  also  a  species 
of  snow-shoe;  not  a  brood  flat  board,  like  that  of  America,  but  somewhat  in  Uie  form  of  a 
skate,  with  which  they  glide  rapidly  along  tlie  surface  of  deep  snow,  and  even  up  and  down 

tlie  steep  sides  of  tho  hills  (^g.  252.). 
Their  dress  is  carefully  contrived  for 
tlie  purposes  of  warmth.  The  under 
port,  or  shirt,  is  composed  of  sheep's 
skin  with  the  wool  inwards ;  while  the 
e.\terior  coot  is  formed  by  tho  skin  of 
the  rein-deer,  or  some  other  animal, 
having  the  fur  outwards.  They  add 
fur  gloves,  and  a  woollen  pointed  red 
cap  (Jg.  253.). 

The  entire  population  of  Lapland, 
spread  over  a  surface  of  150  miles  square, 
is  stated  by  Dr.  Thomson  not  to  exceed 
60,000,  or  one  inhabitant  to  every  three 
square  miles.  Even  this  scanty  inca- 
sure  is  supported  only  on  tho  sea- 
coasts  by  a  supply  of  fish.  The  parish 
of  Kautokeino,  in  the  interior,  extending  200  miles  in  length  and  90  in  breadth,  was  re- 
ported to  Acerbi  as  containing  not  more  than  ninety  fiimilies,  of  whom  twelve  only  are 
tixed.  The  Laplanders  arc  a  harmless  race,  among  whom  great  crimes  are  unknown.  Only 
one  murder  has  been  heard  of  in  twenty  years;  and  the  absence  of  theft  is  proved  by  that 
of  bars,  bolts,  and  other  safeguards.    They  do  not  show  that  open  hospitality  and  warmth 


Laplander  doacondiniit  a  8now-Fluke. 


Laplander  wlUi  Magic  Dram. 


Moantain  Laplander. 


of  heart,  f:?  which  rude  nations  are  so  often  celebrated.  They  are  cold,  shy,  rnistnisftiil, 
and  ditticuit  to  treat  with,  at  least  unless  tobacco  or  brandy  be  brought  in  as  mediators.  Tiiey 
were  formerly  very  superstitious ;  and  the  Lapland  witches  were  famous  for  their  empire 
over  the  winds,  wmch  they  encloised  in  bags,  and  sold  to  the  mariner.    The  magic  drum 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM 


4M 


LHsgleDrani. 


(fig.  254.)  and  the  enchanted  chain  (Jiff.  255.)  are  still  in  occasional  use.  Yet  the  Laplander! 
have  been  converted  to  Christianity,  and  are  attentive  to  its  duties,  coming 
often  fVom  vast  distances  to  attend  divine  service,  though  the  instructions  are 
conveyed  to  them  only  througfh  the  broken  medium  of  an  interpreter. 

The  sea-coast  of  Lapland  prnsenU  a  continuation  of  the  some  bold  and  rocky 
features  which  distinguish  that  of  Norway,  Here,  too,  the  fishery  is  carried  on 
with  activity.  It  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  o|  Finnish  race,  called  Quans,  who 
have  pushed  across  Lapland,  and  exert  an  activity  unknown  to  the  natives  of 
that  region.  The  Russians  from  Archangel,  also,  not  only  bring  their  meal  to 
exchange  for  fish,  but  carry  on  the  fishery  themselves  to  a  great  extent.  In 
July  and  August  they  cover  with  their  small  three-masted  vessels  all  the  fiords 
and  sounds,  and  throw  out  lines  that  are  sometimos  two  miles  long,  and  contain 
600  or  700  hooks ;  so  that  their  vessels  are  filled  with  the  utmost  rapidity.  The 

government  has  founded,  on  the  large  island  of  Qualoc,thetownof  Hamincrfest, 
le  most  northern  in  the  world,  and  destined  as  a  rival  to  Archangel ;  but  the 
settlement  lias  never  taken  root  in  this  ungenial  climate,  and  continues  also, 
with  one  exception,  to  be  the  smallest  that  exists.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
North  Cape,  on  the  extreme  fVontier,  the  fort  of  Wardhuus,  defended  by  twenty 
men,  forms  the  only  barrier  to  prevent  the  Russians  from  taking  possession  of 
the  whole  country.  Mageroe,  the  most  northerly  of  the  islands,  consists  of 
steep  rocks  rising  perpendicularly  from  tiie  sea,  and  ascended  as  if  by  stairs.  In 
a  rocky  recess  stands  Kielvig,  with  four  or  five  families,  on  a  level  spot,  barely 
affording  a  site  for  the  houses,  and  exposed  to  the  perpetual  war  of  the  elements. 
The  tempests  here  rage  with  such  fury,  that  it  is  oflen  impossible  to  leave  the  house  without 
danger  of  being  blown  into  the  sea.  At  the  northern  point  of  this  island  is  formed  by  the 
North  Cape  the  grand  boundary  of  the  European  continent,  facing  the  depths  of  the  Polar 
Ocean.  It  consists  of  an  enormous  mass  of  naked  rock,  parted  by  the  action  of  the  waves 
into  pyramidal  clif&,  down  which  largo  fragments  are  continually  falling. 


Uiflc  Chain. 


CHAPTER  VIL 
HOLLAND  AND   BELGIUM. 


The  NernERLANDS,  comprising  now  the  two  kingdoms  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  form  a 
maritime  territory,  which,  situated  almost  in  the  'centre  between  the  north  and  the  south  of 
Europe,  and  penetrated  by  the  Rhine  and  its  tributaries,  possesses  great  natural  advantages 
for  industry  and  commerce.  It  has,  accordingly,  fiom  4  very  early  period  of  modem  history, 
ranked  as  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  flourishing  parts  of  Europe.  The  union  of  the 
Batavian  and  Belgic  Netherlands  into  one  kingdom,  thcmgh  in  fiict  only  a  renewal  of  that 
which  subsisted  at  a  former  period,  was  suddenly  terminated,  in  1830,  by  a  revolution  of  the 
Belgians.  The  separate  existence,  however,  of  Holland  and  Belgium  being  yet  recent,  and 
the  statistical  information  respecting  them  having  for  a  number  of  years  been  collected  \vith 
reference  always  to  the  entire  Netherlands,  they  will  be  still  treated  most  advantageously 
in  combination.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  observe,  that,  since  the  revolution  of  1880,  Belgium 
has  been  erected  into  a  separate  monarchy,  through  the  mediation  of  the  five  great  powers 
of  Europe ;  and  the  crown,  with  their  consent,  has  been  conferred  on  prince  Leopold,  formerly 
of  Saxe-Coburg. 

Sect.  I. — Qeneral  Outline  and  Aspect, 

Holland  and  Belgium  may  be  regarded  as  a  large  corner  or  segment  cut  off  from  France 
and  Germany,  which  form  round  it  a  species  of  irregular  arc.  Arbitrary  lines,  drawn  ron- 
formably  to  treaties,  mark  all  except  its  maritime  boundaries ;  for,  though  several  of  the 
fjreatest  rivers  of  Europe  cross  its  territory,  none  of  tliem  have  any  limitary  character.  The 
maritime  boundary,  which,  like  the  inland,  extends  from  north-east  to  south-west,  is  the 
North  Sea,  or  German  Ocean,  which  is  formed  here  into  a  species  of  large  gulf  by  the  oppo- 
site coast  of  part  of  the  English  Channel.  Holland  is  also  penetrated  by  the  deep  inlet  of 
tlio  Zuyder  Zee.  The  whole  territory  extends  between  49°  30'  and  53"  34'  N.  lat.,  and 
2°  80*  and  7°  12'  E.  long. ;  making  about  280  miles  in  length,'  and  220  miles  in  breadth. 
The  entire  extent,  according  to  the  best  calculations,  amounts  to  24,870  square  miles,  or 
15,900,000  English  acres. 

In  respect  to  surfiice,  this  country  includes  the  lowest  portion  of  the  great  Tew  land  of 
the  European  continent  The  northern  parts,  composing  the  new  kingdom  of  Holland,  are 
mostly  below  the  level  to  which  the  bordering  sea  rises  during  high  tiues  or  s wells.  Hence 
originated  an  imminent  danger  of  inundation,  till  the  Dutch  constructed  those  mighty  dikes, 
by  which  the  sea  is  excluded,  and  which  form  so  extraordinary  a  monument  of  their  industry. 
Holland  is  humorously  described  by  Butler  as  a  country  that  draws  fifty  feet  of  water." 
The  Belgic  provinces  are  also  fiat  but  not  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  sea,  nor  much  exposed 


MAP  OF  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUAL 


Fio  25a 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM 


407 


to  river  inundation.  In  the  south-eastern  district  of  Lidge  and  Namur,  branches  of  the 
Rhenish  niountaina  render  the  surface  irreguhr,  and  sometimes  billy,  particularly  in  the 
tract  formm^  part  of  the  ancient  forest  of  Ardennes. 

Several  rivers,  which  rank  among  the  greatest  in  Europe,  and  are  derived  from  distant 
sources,  pass  through  this  territory;  and,  separating  into  numerous  channels,  form  broad 
estuaries  at  their  entrance  into  the  ocean.  Thoy  all  unite  in  the  channel  of  the  majestic 
Rhine ;  yet,  by  a  sin^ar  fortune,  this  great  name  is  not  retained  by  the  main  branch  of  thv 
river,  which,  m  tummg  to  the  westward,  receives  the  name  of  Waal,  and  afterwords  that 
of  its  important  tributary  the  Maese,  under  which  designation  it  flows  into  the  sea  below 
Rotterdam.  The  Yssel,  another  considerable  branch,  runs  northward  into  the  Zuyder  Zee ; 
while  the  name  of  Rhme  is  retamed  by  onother,  comparatively  a  rivulet,  which  passes 
through  the  provinces  of  Gueldres  and  Utrecht  The  Maese  or  Mouse  is  the  only  great 
river  which  has  the  larger  part  of  its  course  through  the  Netherlands,  traversuig  the  mterior 
of  Belgium  from  south  to  north.  Its  main  tributaries,  the  Sambre  on  the  west,  and  die 
Roer  on  the  east,  have  only  a  portion  of  their  course  through  Belgium.  The  Scheldt  has 
not  nearly  so  long  a  course ;  but  this  river,  and  its  tributaries,  the  Lys,  the  Dyle,  the  Dender, 
and  the  Neethe,  water  the  most  improved  districts,  and  visit  the  greatest  cities  of  Belgium. 
When  united  under  their  main  branch,  they  form  a  broad  navigable  channel,  opening  into 
an  estuary,  which  affords  to  Antwerp  the  means  of  carrying  on  an  extensive  maritime  com* 
merce. 


HOLLAND. 

I.  fXeiland. 

I.  Piaaens 

S.  Buitenpoit 

3.  Dobkum 

4.  Ijeuwarden 

5.  St.  Jacob 

?.  Franokcr 
,  HirliiKea 
e.  Kotnwurt 

9.  Bnltward 

10.  Worki-m 

II.  Hindelopen 
13.  Stavoren 

13.  Sloten 

14.  Kuinder 

15.  Teikappel 

16.  Grouw 

17.  School 

18.  Noordwelda 

19.  Be«8ter  Zwang 
SO.  Donkeiboek 

II.  Oroningen. 
81.  Marum 

S<  (irrpakerke 
S3.  Zoltkamp 
!4.  Uikert 
33.  Iioppenum 
V.mtzy\ 

37.  Winicboten 

38.  Fort  Bourtanie 

39.  Tor  Apel 

30.  Ter  Maanch 

31.  Kolhom 

33.  Groningen 

ni.  Drentlu. 
33.Ronn 

34.  Gaiteren 
33.  Atsen 
30.  Smilda 

37.  Dieverburg 

38.  Weaterborg 

39.  Odnorn 

40.  Sohoonebeek 

41.  Koevorden 
43.  Ruinen 

43.  Meppel 

IV,  Overviitl. 

44.  Steenwyk 

45.  Blnckzyl 

40.  VollcnhoTen 

47.  Bnartealaii 

48.  Kampen 

49.  Hattem 

50.  Zwoll 

51.  Genemuiden 

53.  Ommen 

S.3.  Hardenberg 

54.  Den  Ham 

55.  Almelo 

50.  Ootmanum 
57.  Oldenzaal 
.%  Eniehede 
50.  Delden 

oiiGJoT"""" 

n!  Holten 

VOL.L 


References  to  the  Map  of  Holland  and  Belgium. 


64.  Wetepe 
6.1.  Heirno 

76.  Deventer 

V.  Outlderlmd. 

66.  Elburg 

67.  Poalhuii 

68.  Harderwirk 
60.  Leuvenum 
7U.  Nrkerk 
73.  Baraeveld 

73.  Koolvyk 

74.  Apeldoom 

75.  Vauen 

77.  Zutphen 

78.  Lochem 

70.  Borkulo 
ro.  Ruorlo 
SI.Bradevort 
83.  Heerenberg 

83.  Deutichem 

84.  Donburg 
8S.DeV\roeatHoer 

86.  Amheim 

87.  Huiaen 

88.  Hnrveld 

80.  Wagenlngao 

00.  Thiel 

gi.  Kuileoburg 

VI.  Utreeht 
g3.V(ryk 
93.  Venendaal 

04.  Imeliteln 

05.  Montfoort 

06.  Utrecht 

07.  NieuwertluM 

08.  Naarden 

71.  Amerafoott 

Vn.Jfartk  Hol- 
land. 
09.  Amaterdam 

100.  De  Knag 

101.  Monnikendam 
103.  Purmetead 

103.  Edam 

104.  Hoorn. 
10.1.  Enkhunen 

106.  Madenblick 

107.  Kolhom 

108.  The  HeMer 
lUO.  Calandioog 

110.  Petten 

111.  Broek 

112.  Alkmaar 

113.  ^mondaan 

114.  Bererwrk 
I  lis.  Zandvoort 
lis.  Haarlem 

Vin.  Sttuth  Hoi- 
land. 

117.  Liaae 

118.  Leimoden 
IIO.Le]rden 
jxO.  1  he  Mague 
131.  Oraresaada 
133.  WUiTeen 
133.  Good* 


134.  Schoonhovon 

135.  Leedam 
ym.  Gorcum 

137.  Rottonlam 

138.  Charloi 

130.  Stryen 
l:iO.  Helvoeuluri 

131.  Goeree 

IX.  Ztalani. 
1.13.  Zinrikzoe 

133.  Goea 

134.  Veere 

135.  Middleburg 

136.  Sluya 
i:i7.  BlerWiet 

138.  Axel 

139.  Huht 

140.  Thokin 

141.  Sleenbergen 

IX.JfoTlhBrahant. 
143,  Bergen  op  Zoom 

143.  Rnzendaal 

144.  Williamatad 

145.  Breda 

146.  Chaam 

147.  Tllburg 

148.  GeertruideDberg 

149.  Heoadon 
l.V).  Bommel 
IM.FortSl.Aodriea 
153. Grave 
1.53.  Veehel 
154.  Boii  le  Duo 
1.S5.  Houvel 
156.  Reuael 
1.57.  Luika  Oealel 

158.  Eenel 

159.  Leenda 

160.  Aalen 

161.  Helmoni 
163.  Wanroy 

163.  Verlingbflck 

X.  Limlnag. 

164.  Vellen 

165.  Peterwertb 

166.  Venio 

167.  Helden 

168.  Merel 
lao.  Weert 
170.  Ruremonde 
)71.  Weaeon 
173.  Oirsbeeck 

173.  fioildue 

174.  Maeatriebt 

175.  Gulpen 

XI.  Luzmbwg. 

176.  Wlea  Wam- 

paoh 

177.  Clorraux 

178.  Vianden 
170.  Ewhdorf 
180.  Martelanm 
]H1.  Nider  Pallen 
JH3.  Luxemburg 

183.  Each 

184.  Friaann 
18S.Canaeb 


186.  N.  Anwen 

187.  Moneh 

188.  Rttelbruck 
180.  Diekirch 
100.  Echienach 
191.  Grevenma- 

ctaeren 

BELGIUM. 

I.  AnUetrp. 
1,  Arendonck 
S.  Turnhout 

3.  Minderhout 

4.  Gorin* 

5.  Ooat  Malle 

6.  Sent  Vliet 

7.  Fort  Lillo 

8.  Fort  St.  Philip 
0.  Antweip 

10.  Bergenhout 

11.  Berchem 
13.  Boom 

13.  Mechlin 

14.  Lier 

15.  Voadoncken 

16.  Herenthala 

17.  Geitel 

18.  Loromel 

II,  himhurB. 

19.  Heick  Tuien 
30, Peer 
31.  Hamont 
S3.  Maaerck 

33.  Aach 

34.  Reckem 

35.  Haiaalt 

36.  Bilaen 

37.  Tongrea 
88,  Manihoven 

III,  SffUtA  Brabant. 
SO,  Tirlemont 

30,  Incourt 

31,  Mouatier 
33.  Nivelloi 

33.  La  Belle  Alliance 

34.  Hnlle 
:U.  Waterloo 

36.  Bruaseia 

37.  Vianden 

38.  Louvain 
30.  Haerleu 

40.  Dieat 

41.  Aeracnot     - 
43.  Ecluae 

43,  Dondeneel 

44,  AKhe 


i?: 


IV. 
45. 
46, 

S: 

49, 
80, 
51. 
S3. 
5.% 
54. 
SS, 


42* 


Eatt  Ftttndcri, 

Aloat 

NInora 

Grammont 

Parieke  , 

Oudenarde 

Leeuwerghem 

Dnnflnnei 

Deinea 

Ghent 

Wetcren 

Calaktn 


^  Hamma_ 
57.  Burcht  Town 

and  Fnrt 
.58.  Tete  de  Flandrea 
SO.  Doel 

60.  Envelde 

61.  St.  Laurena 

V.  Wut  Ttandero. 
63,  Cuooke 

63.  Blankenburg 

64.  Brugea 

65.  Oatend 

66.  Nieuport 

67.  Thorout 

68.  Dixmuide 

69.  Loo 

70.  Rouatbrugge 

71.  foporingha 
73.  Warnetoa 

73.  Yptea 

74.  Menin 

75.  Courlray 

76.  RouBoelaeie 

77.  ThioU 

„VI.  flainanJt. 

78.  Poltea 

79.  Deiret 
80. 1'eiiip  Leuve 
81.  Tournay 
83.  FoDlenoy 

83.  Peruveh 

84.  Quivraio 

85.  Sara 

86.  Mona 

87.  Lena 

88.  Ath 

89.  Enghien 
SO.  Roeulx 
01.  Goaoeliea 
93.  Charleroi 

03.  Merbea  le 
Chateau 

04.  Reaumunt 

05.  Ranaae 

06.  Chimay 

VII.  JVamur. 
07.  Marienbourg 

98.  Philipville 

99.  Lignr 
lOu.  1  ml  Jaudian 
101.  Graux 
103.  Namur 

103.  Gembloux 

104.  Egbezoe 

105.  Andennei 

106.  Naltore 
1U7.  Peaaoulx 
108.  pinant 
1U0,  jambeline 

110.  Beau  Raing 

111.  Gadinne 

Vin,  lAegt. 
119,  nt  Hubert 
111  fiea'noaintv 


116.  Grand  MenU 

117.  Tohogne 

118.  Mieraii 

119.  Huy 

130,  NeuTllla 

131,  Omal 
133,  Landen 

133.  FlemaUa 

134.  Liege 

135.  Viae 

136.  Limburg 

137.  Heron 

138.  Baufaya 

139.  Spa 

130.  Solvnetre 

131.  Douflame 
133.  BikTeInt 

133.  Theaaion 

134.  Vieil  Balm 

IX.  Lvzemburg 

135.  Traillea 
130.  Ilaatogne 

137.  Nenvillo 

138.  Chau  de  Bo- 


^Iwsno 
Arkin 


130,  Arkin 

140,  Virion 

141.  Belle  Fontaina 
143.  Porenaart 

143.  Bonillun 

144.  Qrehimoot 

145.  Aniuy 

146.  Reeogna 

147.  NeurChateaa 


Rivtri. 

Ichu; 


114.  Marche 
lis.  Hi 


larooui* 


a  Rchuirlen 
b  Honm 

0  Kuinder 
d  Reeat 

fDlnkal 
Vecht 

1  Chipbeeeh 
1  Berkel 

k  Rhine 
I   Waai 
mMeuae 
n  Great  Aa 
o  Dommel 
p  Merk 
q  Scheldt 
r  Ypeilee 
a  Lya 
t  Senno 
a  Haine 
V  Sambra 
wDyle 
X  perraer 
y  Little  Lethee 
s  Great  Letbea 
B»  Ourt 
b»  Our 
c*  Bur* 

d*    SviTiC/ 

e*  Leeae 
f  •  Alaetle 
g*  M 


[oaelle 

3N 


498 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  III. 


The  only  considerable  lake  in  Holland  is  Haerlcm-Meer,  a  wide  shallow  expanse ;  which, 
however,  was  of  great  service  to  the  Dutch  during  their  grand  struggle  for  independence, 
by  ffiving  them  the  means  of  laying  the  surrounding  country  under  water.  There  are  several 
emuler  lakes  of  the  same  character  in  Friesland. 

•     Sect.  II. — Natural  Oeography.  '.,,.. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Qeology. 

The  higher  parts  of  this  country  are  composed  oi  strata  of  transition  slates  and  quartzes 
more  or  less  inclining  to  sandstone,  generally  directed  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  and  traversed 
Ly  numerous  veins  of  quartz.  These  slates  are  clay  slate,  whet  slate  or  hone,  drawing  slate 
or  black  chalk.  Resting  upon  the  transition  rocks  occur  various  secondary  deposits.  The 
first  formation  is  the  old  red  sandstone,  upon  which  rests  the  mountain  limestone.  Asso- 
ciated with  these  rocks  are  various  slate  clays,  and  beds  of  anthracite  or  fiance  coal.  Mines 
of  brown  iron  ore,  or  hydrate  of  iron,  and  of  red  iron  ore,  or  oxide  of  iron,  occur  among 
these  rocks.  A  great  field  of  the  coal  formation,  resting  upon  tliis  mountain  limestone, 
extends  from  Aix-Ta-Chapelle  to  Douay.  The  coal  formation  in  this  tract  of  country  forms 
a  series  of  irregular  basins,  of  which  the  most  considerable  are  those  of  Liege  and  Ciiarleroi, 
which  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  small  ridge  of  limestone.  The  ciiicf  rocks  of 
these  coal-basins  are  sandstone,  slate,  clay  ironstone,  and  coal.  The  most  important  coal 
mines  are  those  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mens  and  Cliarlcroi ;  but  the  mines  of  Liege  are 
remarkable  on  account  of  the  difiicultics  the  miners  meet  witii  in  their  workings ;  the  number 
of  beds  of  coal  being  reckoned  as  high  as  eighty-three  by  M.  Dumont.  From  Aix-Ia-Ciia- 
pelle  by  Macstricht  and  Brussels,  the  country  is  composed  of  chalk,  with  occasional  displays 
of  green  sand,  gault  and  Shanklin  sand,  rising  from  under  it. 

The  tritonian  or  lower  tertiary  rocks  form  in  the  Netherlands  a  very  considerable  basin, 
in  which  is  situated  the  city  of  Brussels.  It  is  composed  principally  of  sands,  ferriferous 
sandstones,  white  sandstones,  flint,  limestone,  and  clayey  marl.  These  tertiary  deposits  are 
observed  more  or  less  deeply  covered  with  diluvium ;  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldt, 
Meuse,  and  Rhine,  there  are  vast  deposits  of  river  alluvium,  which  alluvium  forms  also  the 
islands  of  Zealand,  and  the  greater  part  of  Holland. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Botany. 

The  Botany  of  this  country  is  noticed  under  that  of  Germany. 

SuBSEOT.  3. — Zoology. 

The  Native  Zoology  oflTers  nothmg  peculiar.  The  Dutch  horses  (fig.  257.)  are  only  valu- 
able for  draught:  those  of  Friesland,  Berg,  and  the 
country  of  Juliers,  are  the  best;  but  their  feet  are  gene- 
rally large,  they  eat  much,  and  have  little  endurance 
This  race  appears  to  have  been  derived  from  Den- 
mark, and  to  have  produced  the  Holstein,  which  was 
the  parent  of  the  old  unimproved  English  breeds  of 
horse&  The  Flemish  sheep  are  of  a  breed  common  to 
France  and  the  Netherlands,  being  in  general  horn- 
less, high  on  the  legs,  and  derived  from  an  intermix- 
ture with  the  Barbary  long-legged  sheep.  The  Dutch 
oxen  are  of  an  immense  size,  sometimes  weighing  2000 
Duteh  Hone.  pounds. 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Oeography, 

The  Netherlands  formed,  in  ancient  times,  the  principal  part  of  Gallia  Belgica.  Thir 
Belgn  were  the  rudest,  the  bravest,  and  tlie  fiercest  of  the  three  nations  of  Gaul.  A  despe- 
rate struggle  was  maintained  before  they  yielded  to  the  genius  of  Cssar,  and  the  superioi 
discipline  of  the  Roman  armies.  At  length  the  country  within  the  Rhine  was  reduced  to  j 
the  condition  of  a  Roman  province ;  but  the  Batavi  the  ancient  Hollanders,  united  them- 
selves to  Rome  rather  as  allies  than  subjects.  , 

During  the  middle  ages  the  Netherlands  passed  through  a  series  of  vicissitudes.  So  early 
as  the  era  of  Charlemagne,  they  had  acquired  distinction  i.i  the  pursuits  of  industry ;  and 
some  of  their  fabrics  were  sent  by  that  monarch  to  the  caliph  Haroun  Alraschid,  as  speci- 
mens of  the  arts  and  industry  of  Europe.  When  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  fell  to  pieces, 
these  states  were  divided  into  a  number  of  separate  principalities,  all  successively  united,  by 
marriage  contract  or  inheritances,  under  the  sw;iy  of  the  house  of  Burgundy.  It  was  at  this 
time  iiiai  the  Flenifsu  provinces  rose  to  tiie  iiighest  pitch  of  manufacturing  and  commercial 
prosperity.  They  received  all  the  raw  materials  of  France  and  England,  countries  then 
rude  and  agricultural,  and  returned  them  in  a  manufactured  state.  Ghent  alone  is  said  to 
have  emnloved  40,000  looms ;  though  this  is  most  probably  much  exaggerated.   Bruges  first, 


Part  III. 

illow  expnso ;  which, 
fgle  for  independence, 
iter.  There  are  Boveral 


m  slates  and  quartzes 

0  S.  W.,  and  traversed 
or  hone,  drawing  slate 
sondary  deposits.  The 
tain  limestone.  Asso- 
or  glance  coal.  Minea 
e  of  iron,  occur  among 
lis  mountain  limestone, 

1  tract  of  country  forma 
}f  Liege  and  Ciiarleroi, 
.  The  chief  rocks  of 
he  most  important  coal 
the  mines  of  Liege  are 
'  workings ;  the  number 
mt.  From  Aix-la-Cha- 
vith  occasional  displays 

^ery  considerable  basin, 
lly  of  sands,  ferriferous 
ise  tertiary  deposits  are 
nouths  of  the  Scheldt, 
alluvium  forms  also  the 


IVtOK  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


iM 


ig.  257.)  are  only  valu- 
iesland.  Berg,  and  the 
)ut  their  feet  are  gene- 
lave  little  endurance 
derived  from  Den- 
Holstein,  which  was 
i^ed  English  breeds  of 
of  a  breed  common  to 
eing  in  general  horn- 
ved  from  an  intermix- 
ed sheep.    The  Dutch 
letimes  weighing  2000 


Gallia  Belgica.  Thi' 
onsofGaul.  Adespe- 
BBsar,  and  tlie  superioi 

Rhine  was  reduced  to 
)llanders,  united  them- 

vicissitudes.  So  early 
juits  of  industry ;  and 
an  Alraschid,  as  sped- 
lemagne  fell  to  pieces, 
successively  united,  by 
rgundy.  It  was  at  this 
;uring  and  commercial 
ngland,  countries  then 
ihent  alone  is  said  to 
fgerated.  Bruges  first, 


\nA  then  Antwerp,  formed  the  grand  depdt  for  the  commerce  of  the  northo/n  and  middle 
states  of  Europe. 

The  house  of  Austria,  by  the  intermarriage  of  Maximilian  I.  and  Mary,  the  heireas  of 
Burgundy,  succeeded  to  the  rich  dowry  of  the  Seventeen  Provinces.  They  formed  one  of 
the  chief  sources  of  the  power  of  Charles  V.,  who  transmitted  them,  with  Spain  and  hia 
Italian  dominions,  to  his  son  Philip  II. 

The  Reformation  was  early  introduced  into  the  Netherlands,  and  had  a  most  powerful 
influence  upon  their  destiny.  Being  suited  to  the  sober  and  thinking  habits  of  a  manufao* 
taring  population,  it  was  soon  embraced  by  a  majority  of  the  people,  who  were  thus  placed 
in  direct  collision  with  the  fierce  and  gloomy  bigotry  of  Philip  II.  The  Inquisition  being 
introduced,  in  its  most  unrelenting  severity,  with  a  view  to  the  suppression  of  the  new  doc- 
trine, drove  the  people  into  open  rebellion ;  and  a  contest  of  fifty  years'  duration  arose,  the 
most  fierce,  bloody,  and  important  in  its  consequences,  of  all  those  to  which  differences  of 
religion  have  given  rise.  The  duke  of  Alva,  who  boasted  that,  during  his  government  in 
the  I<ow  Countries,  18,000  persons  had  perished  on  the  scafibld,  was,  however,  unable  to 
subdue  the  independent  spirit  and  determined  enmitv  to  Spanish  dominion  which  he  had  been 
instrumental  in  kindling.  The  more  moderate  conduct  of  his  successors,  and,  above  all,  of 
Alexander  Farnese,  succeeded  in  re-establishing  the  Spanish  sway  over  the  Belgic  provinces 
which  were  not  defended  by  any  natural  barriers.  Even  the  Dutch  were  reduced  to  the 
disastrous  necessity  of  opening  their  dikes,  and  allowing  a  great  part  of  their  territory  to  be 
inundated.  Their  courage  and  perseverance,  however,  the  great  talent  of  the  first  two 
princes  of  the  house  of  Orange,  and  the  aid  afforded  by  Elizabeth,  enabled  them  finally  to 
achieve  their  independence.  The  union  of  Utrecht,  when  they  constituted  themselves 
into  an  independent  state,  by  the  title  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,  was  concluded 
in  1.597. 

From  this  period  the  destiny  of  the  United  Provinces,  called  more  commonly  by  the  name 
of  Holland,  the  chief  province  among  them,  was  entirely  different  from  that  of  Belgium. 
They  speedily  attracted  many  of  the  manufactures,  and  all  the  commerce,  which  had  raised 
the  Flemish  cities  to  prosperity.  The  Dutch*  conquered  from  Portugal,  at  that  time  under 
the  dominion  of  Spain,  the  finest  of  her  possessions  in  the  East  Indies ;  obtained  a  temporary 
footing  in  Brazil ;  and  rendered  Amsterdam  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  trade  with  India : 
they  carried  on  the  fisheries,  especially  those  of  herrings,  upon  un  unprecedented  scale ;  and 
became  the  first  maritime  people  in  the  world.  The  commercial  greatness  of  Holland  pre- 
sents so  remarkable  a  phenomenon,  that  we  cannot  forbpar  availing  ourselves  of  some  part 
jjf  that  luminous  illustration  of  it,  which  has  been  afRirded  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  M'Cul- 
loch.     That  able  writer  observes : — 

"  Between  the  years  1651  and  1672,  when  the  territories  of  the  republic  were  invaded  by 
the  French,  the  commerce  of  Holland  seems  to  have  reoched  its  greatest  height.  De  Witt 
estimates  its  increase  from  the  treaty  with  Spain,  concludi^d  at  Munstcr  in  1643,  to  1669,  at 
fully  a  half.  He  adds,  that,  during  the  war  with  Holland,  Spain  lost  the  greatest  part  of 
her  naval  power ;  that  since  the  peace,  the  Dutch  had  obtained  most  of  tlie  trade  to  that 
counti^,  which  had  been  previously  carried  on  by  tlie  Hanseatic  merchants  and  the  English ; 
that  almost  all  the  coasting  trade  of  Spain  was  carried  on  by  Dutch  shipping ;  that  Spain 
had  even  been  forced  to  hire  Dutch  ships  to  sail  to  her  American  possessions ;  and  that  bo 
^rcat  was  the  exportation  of  goods  irom  Holland  to  Spain,  that  all  the  merchandise  brought 
from  the  Spanish  West  Indies  was  not  sufficient  to  moke  returns  for  them. 

"At  this  period,  indeed,  the  Dutch  engrossed,  not  by  means  of  any  artificial  monopoly,  but 
by  the  greater  number  of  their  ships,  and  their  superior  skill  and  economy  in  all  that  regarded 
navigation,  almost  the  whole  carrying  trade  of  Europe.  The  value  of  the  goods  exported 
from  France  in  Dutch  bottoms,  towawls  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  exceeded 
40,000,000  livTCs ;  and  the  commerce  of  England  with  the  Low  Countries  was,  for  a  very 
long  period,  almost  entirely  carried  on  in  them. 

"  The  business  of  marine  insurance  was  largely  and  successfully  prosecuted  at  Amster- 
dam; and  the  ordinances  published  in  1551, 1563,  and  1570,  contain  the  most  judicious  regu- 
lations for  the  settlement  of  such  disputes  as  might  arise  in  conducting  this  difficult  but 
highly  useful  business.  It  is  singular,  however,  notwithstanding  the  sagacity  of  the  Dutch, 
and  their  desire  to  strengthen  industrious  habits,  that  they  should  have  prohibited  insurance 
upon  lives.  It  was  reserved  for  England  to  show  the  advantages  that  might  be  derived  from 
this  beautiful  application  of  the  science  of  probabilities. 

"In  1690,  Sir  William  Petty  estimated  the  shipping  of  Europe  at  about  2,000,000  tons, 
ivhich  he  supposed  to  be  distributed  as  follows : — viz.  England,  500,000 ;  France,  100,000 ; 
Hamburg,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Dantzic,  250,000;  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  250,000 
■hat  of  the  Seven  LTnitec"  Provinces  amounting,  dccording  to  him,  to  900,000  tons,  or  to  nearly 
me  half  of  the  whole  tonnage  of  Europe !  No  great  dependence  can,  of  course,  be  placed 
ipon  these  estimates;  but  the  protnibility  is,  that,  had  they  been  more  accurate,  the 
preponderance  in  favour  of  Holland  would  have  been  greater  than  it  appears  to  be;  for 
the  official  returns  to  the  circulars  addressed  in  1701  by  the  commissioners  of  customs 


500 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


to  the  officers  at  the  different  ports,  show  that  the  whole  mercantile  navy  of  England 
amounted  at  that  period  to  only  261,222  tons,  carrying  27,106  men.  (Macpherion'$  An- 
tiab  of  Commerce,  anno  1701.) 

"  It  may,  therefore,  be  fairly  concluded,  that,  during  the  seventeenth  century  the  foreign 
commerce  and  navigation  of  Holland  was  greater  than  that  of  all  Europe  besides ;  and  yet 
the  country  which  was  the  seat  of  this  vast  commerce  had  no  native  produce  to  export,  nor 
even  a  piece  of  timber  fit  for  ship-building.  All  had  been  the  firuit  of  industry,  economy 
and  a  fortunate  combination  of  circumstances. 

"  Holland  owed  this  vast  commerce  to  a  variety  of  causes :  partly  to  her  peculiar  situa- 
tion, the  industry  and  economy  of  her  inhabitants,  the  comparatively  liberal  and  enlightened 
Sstem  of  civil  as  well  as  of  commercial  policy  adopted  by  the  republic ;  and  ])artly  also  to 
e  wars  and  disturl»nces  that  prevailed  m  most  European  countries  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenUi  centuries,  and  prevented  them  Scom  emulating  the  successful  career  of  the 
Dutch. 

"  Many  dissertations  have  been  written  to  account  for  the  decline  of  the  commerce  uf 
Holland.  But,  if  we  mistake  not,  its  leading  causes  may  bo  classed  under  two  prominent 
heads,  viz.  first,  the  natural  growth  of  commerce  and  navigation  in  other  countries ;  and 
second,  the  weight  of  taxation  at  home.  During  the  period  when  the  republic  rose  to  great 
eminence  as  a  commercial  state,  England,  France,  and  Spain,  distracted  by  civil  and  reli- 
gious dissensions,  or  engrossed  wholly  by  schemes  of  foreign  conquest,  were  unable  to  apply 
their  energies  to  the  cultivation  of  commerce,  c?  tc  withstand  the  competition  of  so  i  idiu- 
trious  a  people  aa  the  Dutch.  They,  therefore,  were  under  the  necessity  of  allowing  the 
greater  part  of  their  foreign,  and  even  of  their  coasting  trade,  to  be  carried  on  in  Dutch 
bottoms,  and  under  the  superintendence  of  Dutch  factors.  But  after  the  accession  of  Louis 
XIV.  and  the  ascendency  of  Cromwell  had  put  an  end  to  internal  commotions  in  France  and 
Englan^!,  the  energies  of  these  two  great  nations  began  to  be  directed  to  pursuits  of  which 
the  Dutch  had  hitherto  enjoyed  almost  a  monopoly.  It  was  not  to  be  supposed  that,  when 
tranquillity  and  a  regular  system  of  government  had  been  established  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, their  active  and  enterprising  inhabitants  would  submit  to  see  one  of  their  most  valu- 
able branches  of  industry  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  Dutch  ceased  to  be  the  canien 
of  Europe,  without  any  fiiult  of  their  own.  Their  performance  of  that  fiinction  necessarily 
terminated  as  soon  as  other  nations  became  possessed  of  a  mercantile  marine,  and  were  able 
to  do  for  themselves  what  had  previously  been  done  for  them  by  their  neighbours. 

"  Whatever,  therefore,  might  have  been  the  condition  of  Holland  in  other  respects,  the 
natural  advance  of  rival  nations  must  inevitably  have  stripped  her  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
commerce  she  once  possessed.  But  the  progress  ../  decline  seems  to  have  asen  considerably 
accelerated,  or  rather,  perhaps,  the  eflbrts  to  arrest  it  were  rendered  ineffectual,  by  the 
extremely  heavy  taxation  to  which  she  was  subjected,  occasioned  by  the  unavoidable  expenses 
incurred  in  the  revolutioniuy  struggle  with  Spain,  and  the  subsequent  wars  with  France 
and  England.  The  necessities  of  uio  state  led  to  the  imposition  of  taxes  on  corn,  on  flour 
when  it  wi>r  pfround  at  the  mill,  and  on  bread  when  it  came  from  the  oven ;  on  butter,  and 
fish,  and  fruit ;  on  income  and  legacies ;  the  sale  of  houses ;  and,  in  short,  almost  every 
article  either  of  nec?ssity  or  convenience.  Sir  Vi^illiam  Temple  mentions  that  in  his  time 
— 4nd  taxes  were  greatly  increased  afterwards — one  fish  sauce  was  in  common  use,  which 
directly  paid  no  fewer  tlmn  thirty  different  duties  of  excise ;  and  it  was  a  common  saying  at 
Amsterdam,  that  every  dish  of  fish  brought  to  the  table  was  paid  for  once  to  the  fisherman, 
and  six  times  to  the  state. 

"  In  consequence  principally  of  the  oppressiveness  of  taxation,  but  partly,  too,  of  the 
excessive  accumulation  of  capital  that  had  taken  place  while  the  Dutch  engrossed  the  carry- 
ing trade  of  Europe,  profits  in  Holland  were  reduced  towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  have  ever  since  continued  extremely  low.  This  circumstance  would  of  itself 
have  sapped  the  foundations  of  her  commercial  greatness.  Her  capitalists,  who  could  hardly 
expect  to  clear  more  than  two  or  three  per  cent,  of  net  profit  by  any  sort  of  undertaking 
carried  on  at  home,  were  tempted  to  vest  their  capital  in  other  countries,  and  to  speculate 
in  loans  to  foreign  governments.  There  are  the  best  reasons  for  thinking  that  the  Dutch 
were,  until  very  lately,  the  largest  creditors  of  any  nation  in  Europe.  It  is  impossible, 
indeed,  to  form  any  accurate  estimate  of  what  the  sums  owing  them  by  foreigners  previously 
to  the  late  French  war,  or  at  present,  may  amount  to;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  at  the 
former  period  the  amount  was  immense,  and  that  it  is  still  very  considerable.  M.  Demeunier 
{Diclionnaire  de  FEconomie  Politique,  tome  iii.  p.  720.)  states  the  amount  of  capital  lent 
by  the  Dutch  to  foreign  governments,  exclusive  of  the  large  sums  lent  to  France  during  the 
American  war,  at  seventy-three  millions  sterling.  According  \o  the  author  of  the  Richesse 
de  la  Hollande  (ii.  p.  292.),  the  sums  lent  to  France  and  Engl  tnd  only,  previously  to  1778, 
amounted  to  1,500,000  livres  toumcis,  or  sixty  millions  sterling.  And  besides  these,  vast 
sums  were  lent  to  private  individuals  in  foreign  countries,  botl  regularly  as  loans  at  interest, 
and  in  the  shape  of  goods  advanced  at  long  credits.  So  grea'.  was  the  difficulty  of  finding 
on  advantageous  investment  for  money  in  Holland,  that  Sir  V^i'liam  Temple  mentions,  that 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


tne  payment  of  any  part  of  the  national  debt  was  looked  upon  by  tho  creditors  as  an  evil  of 
the  first  magnitude.  '  They  receive  it,*  says  ho,  *  with  tears,  not  knowing  how  to  dispoae  of 
it.  to  interest  with  such  safety  and  ease.* 

"  Among  the  subordinate  causes  which  contributed  to  the  decline  of  Dutch  commerce,  or 
which  have,  at  all  events,  prevented  its  growth,  wn  may  reckon  the  circumstance  of  the 
commerce  witli  India  having  been  subjected  to  tho  trammels  of  monopoly.  De  Witt 
expresses  his  firm  conviction,  that  the  abolition  of  the  East  India  Company  would  have 
added  very  greatly  to  the  trade  with  the  East ;  and  no  doubt  can  now  remam  in  the  mind 
of  any  one  mat  such  would  have  been  the  case.  The  interference  of  the  administration  in 
regulating  the  mode  in  which  some  of  the  most  important  branches  of  industry  should  be 
carried  on,  seems  also  to  have  been  exceedingly  injurious.  Every  proceeding  with  respect 
to  the  herring  fishery,  for  example,  was  regulated  by  the  orders  oi  government,  carried  into 
effect  under  the  inspection  of  officers  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Some  of  these  regulations 
were  exceedingly  vexatious.  The  period  when  the  fishery  might  begin  was  fixed  at  five 
minutes  post  twelve  o'clock  of  the  night  of  the  24th  of  June !  and  the  master  and  pilot  of 
every  vessel  leaving  Holland  for  the  fishery  were  obliged  to  make  oath  tliat  they  would 
respect  the  regulation.  The  species  of  salt  to  be  made  use  of  in  curing  difierent  sorts  of 
herrings  was  a^  fixed  by  law ;  and  there  were  endless  regulations  with  respect  to  the  size 
of  the  barrels,  the  number  and  thickness  of  the  staves  of  which  they  were  to  be  made ; 
the  gutting  and  packing  of  the  herring;  the  branding  of  the  barrels,  &c.  &c.  (^Histoire  dea 
Piches,  4-0.  dans  les  Mera  du  Nord,  tom.  i.  chap.  24.)  These  regulations  were  intended 
to  secure  to  the  Hollanders  that  superiority  which  they  had  early  attained  in  the  fishery,  and 
to  prevent  the  reputation  of  their  herrings  from  being  injured  by  the  bad  fiiith  of  individuals. 
But  their  real  efiect  was  precisely  the  reverse  of  this.  By  tying  up  the  fishers  to  a  system 
of  routine,  they  prevented  them  from  making  any  improvements;  while  the  facility  of  coun- 
terfeiting the  public  marks  opened  a  much  wider  door  to  fraud,  than  would  have  been  opened 
liad  gcvemmeut  wisely  declined  interfering  in  the  matter. 

"  In  despite,  however,  of  the  East  India  monopoly,  and  the  regulations  now  described,  the 
commercial  policy  of  Holland  has  been  more  liberal  than  that  of  any  other  nation.  And  in 
consequence,  a  country  not  more  extensive  than  Wales,  and  naturally  not  more  fertile,  con- 
quered indeed,  in  a  great  measure  from  the  sea,  has  accumulated  a  population  of  upwards 
of  two  millions ;  has  maintained  wars  of  unexampled  duration  with  the  most  powerful  mon- 
archies ;  and,  besides  laying  out  immense  sums  in  works  of  utility  and  ornament  at  home; 
has  been  enabled  to  lend  hundreds  of  millions  to  foreigners." 

The  French  revolution  produced  a  movement  so  great,  and  with  which  Holland  was  in 
such  close  contact,  that  it  acted  powerfiilly  upon  her  political  destinies.  The  revolutionary 
armies,  after  having  defeated  those  of  all  the  allied  powers  on  the  plains  of  Belgium,  advanc- 
ed into  Holland ;  where,  meeting  with  support  from  a  powerful  internal  party,  they  had  no 
difficulty  in  subverting  the  dynasty  of  the  house  of  Orange.  In  its  stead  was  formed  the 
Batavian  republic,  virtually  united  to,  and  ruled  by,  the  republican  government  of  France. 
A  vigorous  attempt,  made  in  1799,  by  Britain  and  Russia,  to  re-establish  the  old  order  of 
things,  was  baiSed ;  and  no  sooner  had  Napoleon  been  made  emperor  of  France,  than  he 
bestowed  Holland,  formed  into  a  kingdom,  on  his  brother  Louis.  This  prince,  of  a  mild 
and  amiable  temper,  was  disposed  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  Dutch ;  but  he  was  allowed 
only  to  act  as  viceroy  to  his  brother,  and  was  obliged  to  assist  in  forwarding  those  measures 
by  which  Napoleon,  in  the  vain  hoire  of  ruining  Britain,  endeavoured  hermetically  to  seal  all 
the  ports  of  the  Continent  against  foreign  commerce.  This  system  was  most  distressing  to 
all  countries  subjected  to  it;  but  to  Holhnd  it  was  peculiarly  ruinous:  that  maritime  com- 
merce on  which  hbr  whole  greatness  had  rested,  received  a  blow  firom  which,  perhaps,  it  will 
never  recover. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  grew  out  of  the  measures  adopted  by  that  great  coalition 
which,  after  a  long  series  of  triumphs,  totally  overthrow  the  colossal  fabric  that  had  been 
raised  by  the  genius  of  Napoleon  and  the  bravery  of  the  French.  After  its  fall,  Austria 
might  have  advanced  a  claiQi  to  the  Netherlands,  so  long  n  portion  of  her  extended  dominion. 
Bemg,  however,  so  remote,  and  so  much  detached  from  her  other  territories,  it  was  likely 
to*  prove  a  dependency  inconvenient  and  difficult  to  defend.  She  therefore  consented  to 
accept  indemnification  in  another  quarter,  and  to  allow  Belgium,  with  Holland,  to  be  formed 
mto  a  representative  kingdom,  under  the  house  of  Orange ;  believing  it  might  serve  as  a 
barrier  against  any  future  encroachment  of  France.  The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  thus 
formed,  was  divided  into  two  distinct  ports,  Holland  and  Belgium ;  but  the  latter,  differing 
in  religion,  language,  and  manners,  was  always  discontented  at  this  union,  and  considered 
itself  as  a  subject  state.  Inspired  by  the  example  of  France  in  1830,  the  people  rose  in 
arms,  and,  after  a  short  but  desperate  struggle,  succeeded,  with  the  ultimate  consent  of  ths 
CTeat  powers,  in  forming  themselves  into  a  separate  kingdom,  under  the  name  of  Belgium. 
It  comprises  the  provinces  of  South  Brabant,  East  and  West  Flanders,  Antwerp,  Hainaalt, 
Namur,  Liege,  the  greater  part  of  Limburg,  and  a  emM  part  of  Luxemburg.    Holland, 


m 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


PiUiTni 


oeaidea  the  ten  United  Provinces,  has  nearly  all  Luxemburg,  and  a  nnall  part  of  Linibur(r, 
containing,  however,  Maeatricht,  its  largest  town. 

v.*  ■  .f.Vfciil-'. '';  ^5  ti       •.    Sect.  IV, — Political  Oeography.        ,;,'i).',    ;      / 

A  limited  monarchy  was  the  constitution  established  for  the  new  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands,  and  continued,  with  some  modifications  in  Belgium,  in  both  tlie  parts  into  which  it  has 
been  aeporated. 

The  leffislative  power  in  Holland  is  vested  in  the  State»-General ;  a  popular  assembly, 
modified,  however,  somewhat  differently  from  those  either  of  Britain  or  Fiunce.  Each  pro 
vince,  as  under  the  ancient  Dutch  system,  has  an  assembly  of  its  own,  which  regulates  locai 
aflkirs,  and  hoa  even  the  power  of  imposing  local  taxes.  It  cannot,  however,  injure  com- 
merce by  imposing  heavier  duties  on  the  produce  of  other  provinces  than  its  own.  The 
members  of  these  provincial  assemblies  are  chosen  by  electoral  colleges  formed  in  ever}' 
great  town ;  not  by  public  meeting,  or  open  election ;  but  by  the  police  officers  going  from 
house  to  house,  and  collecting  billets  signed  and  sealed.  The  members  of  the  second 
chamber  of  the  States-General  arc  chosen  for  three  years,  one-third  of  the  number  being 
annually  renewed.  The  upper  chamber  does  not  consist  of  hereditary  nobles,  but  of  s 
council  of  from  forty  to  sixty,  named  by  the  king  for  life.  [The  Belgian  chambers  are  both 
elective ;  the  Senate  or  upper  house  being  chosen  for  the  term  of  eignt,  and  the  Represent- 
ative chamber  for  that  of  four  years. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  revenue  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  amounted  to  about  $35,000,000,  raised 
by  the  usual  expedients  of  land-tax,  excise,  customs,  stamps,  post-office,  and  by  a  tax  on 
fatenta.  These  are  required  to  be  taken  out  by  all  persons  exercising  trades  or  professions ; 
and  partake  of  the  character  of  an  income  tax,  inasmuch  as  their  magnitude  is  determined 
by  the  extent  of  the  sales  made  by  the  parties  during  the  preceding  year. 


Fndnoe  of  lbs  principal  bnachet  of  the  ReveQue  or  llw  Netheriaadi . 
lu  rioriat. 


Wrecl  Turn 

Stiinin,  Regjitntlop,  fcc.    •  •  ' 

Imprwt  and  Export 

DuUeiud  ICnM 

Warranty  on  Gold  and  Silver  ' 

Von 

UMwj  of  the  NetborliDdf  •  ■ 

Lotlerv  cf  Bniaeli ' 

Ui(h  thnda 


1816. 


I3,9<D,T00 

92,127,999 

I3I,TM 

1,066,308 

1,47.1,047 
I,S46,U80 


I8M. 


2S,872,SI3 

12,501,909 

31,191,866 

1W),90S 

l,0M,476 

584,44S 

1,0«,W7 

1,108,1:33 


rrinclpal  bnnchii  of  Uw  Eipendltur*  ot  the  Nelhtrlanda. 
In  Fiorina. 


KiDft'i  HottwMd 

Oreal  Uffica  of  SUte 

Forolipi  Affiin  •    •-■ 

Juitire 

Interior  and  Watentxit» •  - 

Religions,  except  the  Catholle 

Catholic  Helinlnn 

Education,  Arta,  Conunerce,  and  Coloniea  ■ 

rinaocea  

Navy 

Army  *  •  ■  •  - -  ■  ■  ■  ■ 


lete. 


9,«0O,00t 
1,468,836 
997,808 
S494,Stl 
7,946,910 
1,964,961 
I,9SS,I7< 
3,894,738 

eUI4,342 
<l34,53l 

97,198,574 


1898. 


3,100,000 
l,06.i,430 
766,969 
9,191,049 
e,I.W,949 
1,397,311 
1,631,413 
79,0Ht 

38,707,162 
6v982,M2 

lg,«44.M> 


The  total  average  annual  produce  of  the  revenue,  during  this  period,  was  88,044,153 
florins.  • 

The  article  finances  means  chiefly  the  interest  of  the  public  debt  This  amounted,  in 
1826,  to  upwards  of  four  per  cent,  on  a  capital  of  832,334,500  florins.  The  debt  was 
almost  wholly  contracted  by  the  Dutch,  principally  during  their  protracted  and  glorious 
struggle  for  mdependence,  and  partly  during  the  period  that  Holland  was  connected  with 
France. 

The  total  annual  average  expenditure,  during  the  above-mentioned  years,  was  98,106,820 
florins. 

Sit  has  been  settled  that  Holland  should  assume  six-thirteenths  of  the  Netherlandish  debt, 
Belgium  the  remaining  seven;  but  the  latter  has  not  hitherto  paid  any  part  of  the 
interest  The  expenditure  of  the  Dutch  kingdom  in  1833  was  49,385,849  florins,  exclusive 
of  44,000,000  for  extraordinories  on  account  of  the  war  establishments.  The  former  sum 
includes  the  interest  on  the  whole  debt  amounting  to  21,621,484  florins. 

The  expenditure  of  Belgium  was  73,000,000  francs,  comprising  no  charges  on  the  debt; 
but  nearly  three-fiflhs  of  this  sum  was  absorbed  by  the  military,  which  it  has  been  necessary 
to  keep  on  the  war  establishment. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  military  force  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  was  in  a  somewhat  large  propor- 
tion to  its  resources.  This  was  supposed  to  be  rendered  necessary  by  the  proximity  of  so 
great  a  power  as  France,  whose  attack,  or  at  least  whose  dictation,  there  might  be  roon»t(i 
apprehend.  The  army,  before  the  late  changes,  amounted  to  about  62,000  men.  The 
Belgic  provinces,  having  been  long  the  principal  theatre  of  hostility  between  France  and 
Austria,  were  guarded  by  a  line  of  strong  fortresses.  These  had  been  allowed  to  fall  some- 
what into  decay ;  but  the  allies,  having  brought  their  contest  with  France  to  a  triumphant 
conclusion,  determined  to  strengthen  them  as  a  barrier  against  the  future  encroachments  of 
that  power ;  and  the  large  contributions  levied  upon  her  were,  in  a  great  measure,  employed 
in  restoring  the  fortresses  to  their  original  condition.  Several  of  these,  however,  by 
an  agrefiment  made  between  the  French  and  English  governments,  have  been  recently 
dismantled.     Both  powers  have  kept  up  large  forces  since  the  revolution ;  but  will  soon  re- 

*  The  ezponaes  of  canals,  iirkea,  and  navigation  in  general. 

t  Tlie  cliarges  for  education  are  now  included  under  the  head  of '  interior." 


PaktIII 

mall  part  of  Limburg, 


ngdom  of  the  Netlior- 
parts  into  which  it  hu 

;  a  popular  assembly, 
>r  France.  Each  pro. 
which  regulates  loca! 
however,  injure  com- 
9  than  its  own.  The 
eges  formed  in  evei)- 
ce  officers  going  from 
mbers  of  the  second 
of  the  number  being 
ary  nobles,  but  of  a 
an  chambers  are  both 
t,  and  the  Represent- 

t  #35,000,000,  raised 
Bee,  and  by  a  tax  on 
trades  or  professions ; 
nitude  is  determined 
a. 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


508 


tureortlwNalbalanih. 

1816. 

1896. 

9,100,000 

9,191,049 
S,IM,249 
1,337,311 
1,631,413 

79,OI9t 

18,444^} 

2,600,00t 

•37,898 
3,394,511 

]» 
1,3»%I7« 

a3l4,'^ 
CJ4,S3I 
27,128,074 

od,  was  88,044,162 

This  amounted,  in 
uis.  The  debt  was 
ractcd  and  glorious 
ivas  connected  with 

lars,  was  98,106,820 

Netherlandish  debt, 
id  any  part  of  the 
19  florins,  exclusive 
The  former  sum 

arges  on  the  debt; 
has  been  necessary 

ivhat  large  propor- 
the  proximity  of  so 

might  be  roon»t(i 
52,000  men.  The 
tween  France  and 
lowed  to  fall  some- 
e  to  a  triumphant 

encroachments  of 
neasure,  employed 
lese,  however,  by 
ive  been  recently 

but  will  soon  re- 


r." 


duce  them  to  f>.  regular  peace  establishment,  of  which  it  is  impossiblb  at  proaont  to  give  any 
account 

In  naval  aflkirs,  Holland,  no  longer  the  maritime  rival  but  the  close  ally  of  Britain,  made 
only  faint  attempts  to  raise  her  navy  fVom  the  low  state  to  which  it  was  reduced  by  the 
disasters  of  tho  rovolutionarv  war. 

[It  consists,  at  present,  of  six  ships  of  the  line,  sixteen  large  class  and  seven  nnall  claM 
frigates,  thirty  corvettes  and  brigs,  four  steam  vessels,  and  about  eighty  armed  barks,  of  five 
guns,  for  the  defence  of  the  interior  waters. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  foreign  possessions  of  Holland,  after  being  entirely  wrested  from  her  during  the  war, 
were,  with  tiie  e.xception  of  Ceylon,  the  Cape  ofGood  Hope,  Demerara,  and  Berbice,  restored 
in  1814.  In  the  East  Indies,  she  possesses  the  Moluccas,  the  extensive  and  fertile  island  of 
Java,  with  settlements  on  Sumatra,  Celebes,  and  Borneo ;  and  some  factories  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar  and  Coroniandel.  In  Africa,  she  retains  £1  Mina,  and  otlier  factories  on  the  Gold 
Coast.  Her  West  India  colonies  are  not,  and  never  were,  very  considerable,  unless  as  com* 
morcial  depdts.  Both  the  navy  and  the  colonial  possessions,  in  the  separation  of  the  two 
kingdoms,  remain  with  Holland. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Induxtry.  .    ""!.     ."  ''. 

There  is  no  country,  perhaps,  which  in  proportion  to  its  extent  and  original  resources, 
produces  so  great  an  amount  of  valuable  and  useful  commodities  as  Holland  and  Belgium. 

Tho  agriculture  of  the  Belgic  provinces,  though,  contrary  to  the  usual  course,  it  was  founded 
upon  their  manufactures  and  commerce,  being  exempted  from  the  vicissitudes  which  befell 
them,  continues  to  form  the  most  amplo  source  of  wealth.  The  whole  territory  of  Flanders 
is  cultivated  like  a  garden.  A  great  proportion  consisted  originally  of  harsh,  barren  sands, 
producing  nothing  but  heath  and  fir ;  yet  by  the  application  of  manure  these  wore  gradually 
reclaimed,  and  brought  into  their  present  state  of  high  fertility.  The  culture  of  artificiu 
grasses,  and  especially  of  clover,  is  tho  characteristic  process  of  Flemish  husbandry,  which 
It  has  taught  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  care  of  the  Flemish  farmers  in  collecting  manure 
was  early  conspicuous,  and  as  naturally  grew  out  of  the  use  of  artificial  grasses,  and  conse- 
quent stall-feeding.  The  use  of  liquid  manure,  collected  in  largo  reservoirs,  is  common  to 
Uiis  country  with  China,  and  not  known  in  any  other  part  of  Europe,  except,  perhaps. 
Norway.  Turf  ashes,  especially  those  imported  from  Holland,  are  in  high  estimation, 
and  are  said  to  produce  an  almost  magical  eflect  on  the  vegetation  of  clover.  In  general, 
the  Flemish  agriculture  is  conducted  on  a  careful,  economical,  antique  practice ;  the  farmers 
not  having  adopted  many  modem  improvements  in  tho  arrangements  of  husbandry,  such  as 
the  crossing  of  the  breeds  of  cattle,  and  tho  use  of  machinery,  which  have  been  adopted  in 
England  with  such  happy  effect  But  this  system  of  agriculture,  after  supplying  the  most 
dense  population  in  Europe  with  the  standard  productions  of  the  soil,  yields  sevenil  articles, 
such  as  madder,  rape,  clover,  and  mustard-seeds,  hops,  &c.,  for  exportation. 

The  objects  of  culture  in  the  Dutch  provinces,  in  consequence  of  their  humid  climate, 
and  of  the  demand  for  animal  food  for  the  great  cities,  are  almost  entirely  connected  with 
pasturage.  Holland  is  as  it  were  one  great  meadow,  intersected  by  canals,  and  traversed 
by  rows  and  groups  of  trees.  The  cattle  are  stalled  in  the  winter,  and  fed  on  hay,  turnips, 
&c. ;  but  in  summer  they  are  kept  constantly  grazing  in  tho  open  air.  The  produce 
of  the  dairy  has  been  orought  to  such  a  state  of  improvement  as  to  be  an  object  of  export- 
ation ;  Dutch  butter  enjoys  a  high  reputation,  and  the  cheese  is  in  good  repute  over  a.11  Europe. 

Horticulture,  which  elsewhere  is  only  a  recreation,  has  in  tlie  Netherlands  attained  such 
unportance,  as  to  become  a  national  object  Besides  amply  supplying  its  own  markets  with 
culinary  vegetables,  Holland  exports  them  in  large  quantities  to  Norway,  and  other  districts, 
where  the  growth  is  prevented  by  the  rigorous  climate.  Ornamental  gardening  has  been 
cultivated  with  peculiar  ardour,  especially  in  its  floral  department.  When  the  tulipo-mania 
reigned  in  Holland,  it  was  carried  to  such  an  excess,  that  lots  of  120  tulip-roots  sold,  in  1637, 
for  100,00Q  florins ;  and  particular  specimens  have  brought  from  8,000  to  10,000.  In  point 
of  foct,  however,  these  roots  formed  a  kind  of  imaginary  currency,  or  medium  for  a  sys- 
tematised  species  of  gambling.  They  were  never  actually  transferred  from  one  individual 
to  another ;  but  were  a  sort  of  stock  whose  whole  value  was  derived  from  caprice.  The 
government  at  length  put  down  this  species  of  gambling,  and  the  prices  of  tulips  fell  to  their 
natural  level. — Careful  enquiries  carried  on  by  the  government  of^  the  Netherlands  are  con- 
sidered as  having  proved  that  the  agricultural  capital  of  the  whole  country  amounted  to 
10,395,000,000  francs.    The  following  estimate  was  made  of  the  growth  and  produce : — 


Hedsm.  Tftlne  In  Tnnet, 

Whent  350,000 154,000,000 

Rye     700.000 IfiSOOOflnn 

Buckwneat  300,000 33,000,000 

Barley 980,000 84,000.000 

Pulac 110,000 48.000000 

ISotaloes     131,000 41,000,000 

Oati   300,000 84,000,000 


Heetarei. 

Orchard 94,000. 

VegetHbles ■•.,  =  !.  ..-..=    93,800. 

Hemp  and  flax 310,000. 

Madder 30,000. 

Cattle  and  animal! 


Value  m  Tnne*, 
3,000,000 

Kb   AAA  AAA 
•        U«/,UvU,UlfV 

.  136,000,000 
■  31,000,000 
.  150,000,000 


(06,000,000 


B04 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  III 


Maniifkctuhnjj  induitrv  is  tho  branch  in  which  the  Belffic  province*  formerly  niott 
excelled,  &nd  in  which  tli(<ir  decay  has  boon  moat  comipicuoua.  Throe  contiirios  ago,  the 
Unena  and  woollens  of  Ohont,  Louvain,  Brussels,  and  Mechlin,  clothed  tho  hicher  ranks  ir 
all  the  Burroundinif  countries.  Since  that  time,  the  fabrics  of  France  and  Enffland,  have 
attained  utu^h  nn  astoniithin^  nuperiority,  utid  are  at  oi  ho  cheap,  and  so  wolladnptod  to 
the  taste  of  the  ngo,  tliat  ti)u  Low  Country  manutlicturorH  can  willi  d*<iiculty  maintain  their 
ground  ovon  in  internal  consumption.  In  cottons,  CHpocially,  they  or^  auite  unable  to  with- 
stand nrititih  cninpotitiun.  There  are  still,  howovor,  somo  fine  linon  hibrics,  laccR,  lawns, 
cambrics,  in  which  tlio  manufacturers  of  Mechlin,  Brussels,  Slc.  continue  unrivalled,  and 
which,  though  so  much  supcrscdeil  by  muslin  and  Nottingham  lace,  still  enjoy  a  certain 
demand  throuffhuut  Europe.  The  fine  laces  have  been  solu  for  seventy  or  eighty  Napoleons 
a  yaitl.     The  Flomii^h  breweries  are  also  very  extensive. 

Tho  manufacturing  indubcry  of  Holland  is  not  on  so  great  a  scale  as  her  commerce.  T1.3 
pottery  ware  of  Doitt  has  lost  most  of  its  ancient  reputation,  and  oven  in  HoUan''  is  super- 
seded  by  the  earthen\vare  of  England.  The  spirit  called  gin,  geneva,  or  hollands,  is  pro- 
duced at  Schiedam,  Amsterdam,  and  other  towns,  of  an  excellence  which  it>  universally 
acknowledged.  The  refining  of  sugar,  and  the  manufacture  of  snuff,  are  continued  on  a 
great  scale,  chiefly  in  Amsterdam  and  Ilottordam,  and  the  making  of  tobacco-pipes  at  Gouda 
u  said  to  employ  6000  persons.  Silk,  leather,  and  woollens,  are  still  manufactured,  though 
not  to  such  an  extent  aa  formerly,  nor  muoh  with  a  view  to  exportation.  The  ffencral  value 
of  Dutch  and  Belgian  manufactures  has  been  estimated  as  follows: — Iron,  46,000,000  francs; 
copper,  5,000,(KX);  woollens,  80,000,000;  linens,  05,000,000;  lace,  25,000,000;  cottons, 
60,000,000;  refined  sugar,  14,000,000;  salt,  10,000,000;  spirits, 40,000,000;  beer,  110,000,000; 
tobacco,  28,000,000;  nil,  :)0,000,000 ;  soap,  10,000,000;  leather,  28,000,000;  earthenware, 
4,000,(X)0 ;  bricks,  6,000,(KK);  books,  15,000,000;  bleach  Jig,  10,000,000;  dyeing,  10,000,000; 
paper,  8,000,(KX):  in  all,  fl7r),0(MMHK)  francs. 

The  commerce  of  tho  Netherlands  has  declined,  both  absolutely  and  relatively,  but  in  a 
less  remarkable  degree.    The  causes  have  appeared  in  the  historical  survey.    The  total  8U9> 

Knsion  of  all  maritime  intercourse  with  other  countries  during  the  subjection  of  Holland  to 
ance,  and  the  conquest  of  tlie  Dutch  colonies  by  England,  rendered  it  necessary,  as  it 
were,  to  begin  every  thing  afresh  at  tho  restoration  of  peace  in  1815.  But  the  largo  capi- 
tals in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  mercliants,  their  commodious  situation  in  tho  centre  of  the 
most  improved  states  of  Europe,  the  recovery  of  some  of  the  most  valuable  of  their  foreign 
possessions,  and  the  considerable  surplus  of  native  commodities  which  their  country  affords 
for  exportation,  secured  for  them,  as  soon  as  the  ports  were  open,  a  considerable  trade.  Since 
tho  peace,  it  has  been  continually  increasing ;  and,  previously  to  the  late  revolution,  was 
more  equally  distributed  than  before  among  tho  Belgic  as  well  as  the  Dutch  ports.  Holland 
exports,  of  its  own  produce,  butter,  cheese,  geneva,  tobacco-pipes ;  of  the  produce  of  its 
fishery,  herrings,  stockfish,  whalebone,  whale  oil ;  from  its  foreign  possessions,  cofiTee,  sugar, 
rum,  cotton  wool,  cloves,  nutmegs,  mace,  pepper ;  with  linens,  wool,  and  various  articles 
from  Germany  and  the  Baltic.  Belgium  exports  madder,  vegetable  oils,  lace,  lawn,  and  fine 
linen. 

There  are  no  official  returns  of  imports  and  exports  published ;  but  a  very  able  writer  in 
the  Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  to  whose  researches  we  have  been  mucn  indebted,  has 
given  from  original  sources  the  following  account  of  the  importation  of  the  principal  articles 
of  merchandise  into  the  Netherland  ports  during  the  year  1827 : — 


AETICLK. 


CofTee,  bales 

Ditto,  tons 

Bulbar,  clieiu 

Ditto,  inau 

Ditto,  tons 

Tobacco  of  America,  torn. 

Rice,  bale* 

Ditto,  tons 

Cotton,  bales 

Indigo,  chests 

Ditto,  seroons 

Tea,  quarter  cbests 

Bliins,  pieces 

Pepper,  bales 

Wheat.  lasU 

Rye,  ditto 

Barlejr,  ditto 

Potash  of  Russia,  puds*. .. 
Linseed  Oil  of  do.  do. . . . 
Tallow  of  ditto  do.... 
Hemp  of  ditto  do>  .. 


PORTS. 


Amsterdam. 


111,0.50 

3,G03 

13,inO 

2,987 

18,053 

15,305 

1,080 

8,412 

13,003 

06 

138 

15,134 

9,971 

31 

13,494 

7,835 

878 

50,583 

1,340 

9,416 

19,110 


Rotterdam. 


Antwerp. 


97,307 
1,079 
7,508 
8.145 
3,H29 

13,<I34 

13,W)9 
5,301 

19,007 

470 

88 

9,537 

34,501 
S,S47 
1,603 
5,130 
1,413 

34,791 

835 
4,555 


378,103 

3,5.19 

56,350 

50,039 

4,038 

1,3.31 

16,350 

14,935 

«,8S6 

1,333 

611 

1,467 

315,044 

31,847 

96 

96 

100,990 

1,191 

8,379 


Middleburg. 


8,678 
117 

79 
3,600 


153 
4,300 


*  A  Russian  weight  of  36  lbs. 


TTW  TTiV."*!'"-!," 


Pakt  III 

I  formorly  nicul 
mtiirios  VLgo,  the 
higher  ranki  ir 
(1  Enffland,  have 
I  welladnptod  to 
y  maintain  their 
)  unablu  to  with- 
ies, laccfl,  Inwni, 
unrivalled,  and 
enjoy  a  certain 
lighty  Napolcotif 

lommerce.  T1.3 
[oUam!  is  super- 

hoUands,  is  pro- 
h  ifc  universally 

continued  on  a 
;o-pipeH  at  Gouda 
ifactured,  though 
he  general  value 
),0(M,(X)U  francs; 
100,000;  cottons, 
cor,110,0(K),OflO; 
10 ;  earthenware, 
sing,  10,000,000; 

ilativoly,  but  in  a 

r.    The  total  sua- 

ion  of  Holland  to 

necessary,  as  it 

it  the  largo  capi- 

tho  centre  of  the 

0  of  their  foreign 

ir  country  affords 

ble  trade.   Since 

revolution,  was 

ports.    Holland 

produce  of  its 

ins,  coffee,  sugar, 

various  articles 

,  lawn,  and  fine 

ry  able  writer  in 
indebted,  has 
principal  articles 


Idlebnrg. 

8,678 
117 

79 
3,600 


Boor  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM 


SOB 


153 
1,300 


The  herring  fl.ihory,  which  onco  formed  so  ample  a  source  of  Dutch  wealth,  (though  in 
this  respect  its  importance  has  been  greatly  exaggerated,)  was  almost  annihilated  during  tiia 
war;  and  the  ground  having  since  been  occupied  by  neighbours  and  rivals,  Holland  has  Doen 
able  to  recover  only  a  small  portion.  Instead  of  InOO  norring  busses,  in  1816  sMe  sent  out 
onl]r  200.  Not  moro  than  sixty  ships  go  annually  to  thn  wfmlu'"  and  cod  fisheries;  and, 
during  the  lato  war,  the  English  undertook  the  task  of  supplying  tiinir  own  markets  with 
fresh  fish ;  in  which  business,  however,  the  Dutch  still  employ  about  0000  bouts. 

For  other  commercial  particulars,  M.  do  Cloot  states,  that  on  an  average  of  twenty  years, 
between  1775  and  1795,  the  number  of  vessels  entered  inwards  in  all  the  Dutch  ports  was 
4140,  and  outwards  the  same ;  making  a  total  of  8*280  a  year.  The  entries  inwardr,  in 
1822,  for  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  and  Antwerp,  were  4051 ;  which,  adding  000  for  Har- 
lingen  and  Doi^  uecomes  4551.  The  number  outwards  for  the  same  thrco  ports  was  4045, 
which  we  may,  with  a  similar  addition,  call  4545;  making  a  total  of  0006  ships.  In  1827, 
the  number  entered  inwards  was  5203,  outwards  4548,  making  0751  altogetncr.  Taking 
the  average  number,  however,  at  10,(XH)  (instead  of  0751),  so  as  to  cover  the  trifling  trade 
ef  Ostond  and  Niouport,  and  valuing  each  cargo,  with  M.  do  Cloct,  at  40,000  fhincH,  a  sum 
moderato  enough,  the  amount  of  the  trade  by  sea  will  be  400,000,000  firancs.  The  trade  by 
land  with  France  and  Germany,  which,  in  1814,  was  estimated  at  162,000,000  francs,  may 
now  bo  taken  at  10(MHN),()00 ;  so  that,  if  the  calculations  bo  at  all  correct,  the  annual  value 
of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Netherlands  is  altogether  about  560,000,000  fVancs. 

Minen.  The  south-eastern  provinces  in  tho  neighbourhood  of  Mens,  Charleroi,  and  Lidge, 
are  said  t'l  contain  !)50  mines  of  coal,  employing  20,000  men ;  but  this  number,  we  should 
think,  muirf  bo  a  good  deal  exnggernted.  Turf  is  the  fuel  chiefly  used,  especially  in  Hol- 
land. Tiie/v'  are  also  in  the  southern  district  ironworks,  supposed  by  Mr.  Jacob  to  yield 
about  1<M)G  tons.  Clay  suited  for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  is  found  in  Holland,  and 
there  are  ^cono  quarries  in  the  south. 

Canals  forn,  one  of  tho  most  remarkable  features  in  tho  economical  arrantrcmcnts  of  Hol- 
land, and  a  leading  source  of  her  prosperity.  From  the  structure  of  the  country,  these  are 
formed  with  peculiar  facility,  ana  it  is  everywhere  intersected  with  them;  every  town, 
every  village,  being  connected  by  canals  of  greater  or  less  dimensions.  They  run  through 
the  streets  of  the  cities,  enabling  vessels  to  load  and  unload  under  the  eye  of  the  merchant. 
When  frozen,  they  serve  as  hi^ways,  on  which  the  Dutch  females,  heavily  laden,  convey 
themselves  along  on  skates  with  surprising  rapidity.  In  general,  flroir  the  flatness  of  the 
country,  and  the  abundance  of  water,  canals  may  be  made  without  much  exertion  of  art  or 
skill.  There  is  an  exception,  however,  in  the  canal  of  Pannerden,  constructed  with  the 
>riew  of  drainin|;  oflT  the  superfluous  water  of  the  Khinc,  by  which  a  great  extent  of  ground 
was  converted  into  a  marsh.  It  is  two  miles  long,  and  200  feet  below  the  level  of  tho  seo, 
the  waters  being  received  into  three  different  sets  of  sluices.  It  is  considered  a  master- 
piece, and  completely  answered  its  object.  Another,  on  a  most  magnificent  scale,  connect- 
ing Amsterdam  with  the  Helder,  was  commenced  in  1819,  and  finished  in  1825,  at  an 
expense  of  10,000,000  florins.  It  is  60  miles  long,  125  feet  wide  at  the  surfiice,  .36  feet 
wide  at  the  bottom,  and  21  feet  deep.  It  is  calculated  to  admit  ships  of  war  of  46  guns,  and 
merchantmen  of  1000  tons  burden.  It  was  constructed  to  avoid  the  troublesome  navigation 
to  and  fVom  Amsterdam  tiirough  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  the  necessity  of  lightening  large  ves- 
sels before  crossing  the  Pampus. 

The  canals  in  Belgium  are  spacious  and  commodious,  connecting  all  the  great  cities, 
though  not  nearly  in  equal  number,  nor  uniting  every  village,  as  in  Holland. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  the  kingdom  of  tho  Netherlands,  though  not  comparable,  as  to  absolute 
amount,  with  that  of  any  of  the  great  states,  is  superior  to  them  all  in  one  highly  important 
particular,  that  the  country  contains  a  greater  density  of  population  on  the  same  surface 
than  any  other  in  Europe,  or  perhaps  in  the  world.  This,  in  the  Belgic  provinces  at  least, 
ia  the  more  remarkable,  as  they  are  inhabited,  not  by  a  manu^cturin^  population,  drawing 
subsistence  from  agricultural  countries,  but  by  a  population  subsisting  exclusively  on  the 
produce  of  Uie  land  itself.  The  census  of  1816  gave  a  total  population  of  5,491,945 : 
2,476,159  for  the  northern  provinces ;  3,249,841  for  those  of  Belgium ;  and  225,945  for  the 
duchy  of  Luxemburg.  This  gives  an  aggregate  average  density  of  about  212  to  the  square 
mile ;  but  the  rate  rises  much  higher  in  certain  provinces.  Throughout  Belgium  the  pro- 
portion is  296  10  the  square  mile ;  in  the  province  of  East  Flanders,  however,  it  is  as  high 
ns  560.  In  the  United  Netherlands  the  average  density  is  only  180  per  square  mile ;  and  in 
Luxemburg,  which  has  much  of  a  German  character,  it  is  as  low  as  66.  The  census  of 
1825  gives  a  population  of  6,013,578 ;  and  some  further  augmentation  has  taken  place  5ince.f 

*rin  1837,  only  one  ship  sailed  to  the  whale-flihery  (Vom  Holland,  which  in  1680  had  out  360  ahipi  manned  by 
i4,000  lailors,  engaged  in  that  branch  of  industry.— Am.  Ed.J 

tlVhe  population  of  the  two  liin(dams  in  1833,  was  0,536,000,  of  which  3,791,000  belonged  to  Belgium,  ana 
il  745,000  to  IIoUand.-AM.  Eo.J 

Vol  I  43  30 


Aoe 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PahtIIL 


Thfl  following  dotnili  with  rPBjKJct  to  llio  population  of  the  Nethoilanda  sro  extracted  (Vom 
the  publicutions  of  M.  Quetelot,  ono  of  the  al)!c8t  itatittical  writers  of  the  Continent: — 


Table  qftke  Movement  qfthe  Population  in 

Holland  and  Belgiu 

m/or  Ten  Yeare, 

tntimm 

hfuhllo*. 

MitlA 

DmiH. 

HtnUtm. 

DlTwcn 

lilt. 

■Mi. 

Zenlnnd 

111,108 

2(M,097 
291,087 
378.287 
38H.006 
107.917 
170,884 

m^ia 

138,043 
46,489 
287,013 
368,186 
104,400 
2I3..VJ7 
48H.093 
441.649 
618.CH9 
816,324 
291,868 

189,389 
8»l,3<->3 
326,017 
39:»,91fl 
4:».2()2 
117.408 
202,830 
160,937 
186,045 
83,368 
321.240 
331,101 
189,393 
298,610 
&16,I<J0 
498.4.'i5 
687,267 
663.820 
323,078 

BS,331 

90,803 

100,803 

145,7»4 

108,741 

41,038 

06,803 

61,981 

81.073 

10,723 

101,781 

113,083 

88,090 

98,842 

183,198 

169.181 

218.830 

191.139 

101,471 

48.430 

69,818 

09,807 

131,ri6 

143,880 

89,928 

38,219 

37,479 

30,839 

9.858 

70*49 

82,698 

34,134 

68,696 

118,289 

119,109 

162,834 

141,310 

70,023 

10.046 
19,337 
80,380 
34,789 
34,912 

8,982 
16,327 
11,029 
11,492 

3,964 
82,960 
24,387 
12.892 
18,740 
39,891 
30,423 
43.120 
37,882 
23.076 

87 

13 

1 

209 

118 

30 

40 

13 

37 

3 

6 

84 

8 

1 

87 

8 

0 

0 

3 

1      605 

(iiiflldorland  ....>■••■•■•••■ 

Nurlli  liralnnt 

North  Holland 

Hijiilh  llulland 

Uirecht 

Frtdlantl  ........■>>■••••* 

OvfirviBol  ...■>...■■■■•••■• 

rtrcnlhi)  ....■■■■■■•■•>■••■• 

Iiimtiiinr ...•■>•■■•■■■ 

IJ^iro            ......>>••■■••■. 

Naniur 

Liiiemburff 

South  Hrabflnt 

Eiut  Flanden 

Went  Klanden 

AntwoFD   ...•  ••..  ■■>•  •■•■ 

5,484,.'M2 

6.013,478 

8,016,040 

1,481,600 

430.247 

The  births  and  marriajros  in  the  Nctiicrlands  are  proportionally  more  niimcroiiB,  while  the 
deaths  are  about  e^iual  to  those  of  France,  and  exceed  those  of  Great  Britain  in  the  ratio 
of  throe  to  two.     The  account  stands  thus : — 

NatlwrluHtb  rnncf,  0ml  nrlUI* 

lOObirth*  to  S.HOT  inhahitanti 3.108 XKU 

inOdonthi 3.ttHl 4,U00 3.TH) 

100  marriagoi 13,190 13,400 13,UU3 

There  has  boon  a  very  material  increase  in  the  healthiness  of  the  people  of  the  Nethe^ 
lands,  and  particularly  of  Holland,  during  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years. 

The  provision  for  the  support  of  the  poor  of  the  Netherlands  is  prci  ty  ample,  and  it  ii 
applied  witli  great  economy  and  skill;  forminjEr,  indeed,  an  important  b'ancli  of  the  public 
administration.  The  following  table,  compiled  from  authentic  sources,  by  M.  Quetelct, 
cannot  fail  of  being  interesting : — 

Charitable  Institutions  of  the  Netherlands 


Nitara  of  Imlihiltoa. 


Administmtiom  for  relievinf;  the  Poor  pt  home 

Commissioiu  for  distributing  Food,  &c 

Socinties  of  Matprnal  Chanty 

Hospitals 

Fiindx  fbi  Militaiv  Service 

Royal  Hospital  of  Messine* 

Poor  Schools , 

Workhouses  of  Charity 

Depots  of  Mendicity 

Societies  of  Beneficence  for  the  Colonies.. .. 
Establishments  for  the  Deof  and  Dumb 


Monts  de  Pi^l^. 
Savings  Banks.  ■ 


Totals. 


Numbgr  of 
lulitutiont. 


5,129 

36 

4 

724 

1 

1 

883 

34 

8 

2 

4 


6,228 

184 

60 


InilivlduaU 
nllflved. 


745,662 

82,056 

1,448 

41,172 

2,277 

186 

147,2% 

6.169 

2,598 

8,.'553 

239 


977.616 


18,0.15 


of  Rclirf. 
FInriM. 

6,448,710 

82.424 

13,493 

4,091,157 

110,943 

23,290 

247,176 

406,7M 

829,887 

333,.W9 

41,994 


11,049.030 
4,208.068 
2,771,608 


Ript'iiN  for 
eacli  ludividuiJ. 


rinrlni. 

7.31 

3.73 

9.33 

99.37 

48.73 

149.30 

1.67 

65.92 

88.37 

41.33 

175.70 


Average  11.30 
AvcmsGl83.93 


The  national  character  of  tlie  Dutch  has  been  long  moulded  into  the  form  natural  to  a 
highly  commercial  people ;  solid,  steady,  quiet,  laborious,  eagerly  intent  on  the  accumulation  of 
wealth,  which  they  seek  rather  by  economy,  steadiness,  and  perseverance,  than  by  speculation. 
They  carry  the  virtue  of  cleanliness  to  an  extreme.  Outward  decorum  of  manners,  at  least, 
is  better  observed  than  among  the  neighbouring  continental  nations.  Yet  the  spiel  houses 
in  the  great  towns,  where  the  most  respectable  citizens  used  to  mingle  with  persons  entirely 
destitute  of  character,  presented  in  this  respect  a  strange  anomaly.  But  at  present  these 
can  hardly  be  said  to  exist ;  and  are  frequented  only  by  the  very  dregs  of  the  populace.  A 
traveller  in  Holland  will  rarely  meet  with  a  drunken  person ;  or  with  a  man,  womanj  or 
child,  in  Tagv.  Every  class  of  people  seems  comfortable,  the  result  of  their  great  frugality 
and  unwearied  industry.     Were  a  young  sturdy  beggar  discovered  teasing  passengersfor 


*  In  West  Flanders,  for  the  dauehters  of  soldiers  Invalided  or  killed  in  service 


IVx)i  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM 


007 


r  Ten  Ytar: 

«lH«. 

Ditwm 

lO.fi-JB 

87 

i'j.:i:n 

13 

2(),:tMo 

1 

34.78<) 

209 

34.U-J2 

118 

H.'IW 

30 

18,;!27 

4n 

11, (WJ 

13 

11,»'j2 

87 

3/J04 

3 

sa.oro 

a 

2l,:iK7 

24 

l'J,5'.ni 

8 

1H,710 

1 

3U,.'.'J1 

87 

3f.,t23 

& 

4:t,l'.20 

0 

37.8H2 

6 

a3,076 

8 

30,247 

1      COS 

I 

Eiixnn  for 

uch  IiKlliUul. 

rinrlM. 

10 

7.31 

!4 

3.73 

)3 

9.38 

)7 

90.37 

12 

48.73 

W 

149.30 

G 

1.67 

4 

C5.92 

7 

88.37 

9 

41.33 

>4 
6~ 

175.70 

Average  11.30 

U 

— 

8    'AvornRel53.93 

tian-  woniaHi  or 


aim*,  he  would  inirtantly  be  lont  to  the  workhotiie ;  where,  if  he  rcAiwM.  to  peHbrm  hit  allot- 
tml  tuk,  he  would  bo  compelled  to  nve  himeclf  fironi  drowning  by  working  at  the  pump! 
Holland  in,  and  alwoya  hoa  been,  a  country  of  abort  credit  Iknkruptcy  ia  rare.  Notwitn- 
atandinff  the  invaaion  of  the  French  in  1790.  and  the  rnnii«<]uent  intemiption  to  all  aorta  of 
biminnaa,  tlio  bankniptciea  were  not  comparatively  ao  numfroua  aa  in  England  in  ordinary 
yoarn.  Tlio  nuliflc  provincoa,  lonjr  aubjocted  to  a  foreii,'n  yoke,  and  in  conatant  intcrcourae 
with  foreigner*,  Deem  to  have  loat  m  a  groat  measure  tli<! '  iiginai  Floniiah  character,  and  to 
prcwnt  no  very  distinctive  foaturea. 

It  ia  not  very  easy,  tVom  the  diftbroncea  of  their  judicial  organization,  to  compare  the  state 
of  crime  in  diflbrent  countriea.  In  this  roapect,  however,  the  Netherlands  would  have 
nothing  to  fear  fVom  a  comparison  with  France  and  England.  In  Holland,  the  police  ia  cz* 
collont,  and  robb«'riea  very  rare. 

The  prevailing  religion  of  Holland  ia  Calvinism,  while  that  of  Belgium  is  almost  exclu* 
sivoly  Catholic ;  a  diflerence  which  contributed  not  a  little  to  that  rooted  dislike  entertained 
by  the  inhabitanta  of  the  latter  to  tliose  of  the  former.  The  Dutch  have  the  honour  of 
being  the  Hrst  people  who  established  a  system  of  unrestrained  toleration.  Even  popery, 
notwithHtanding  the  grounds  which  the  nation  had  to  dread  and  hate  it,  woa  allowed  to  be 
proroHB.Hl  with  the  utmost  (Veedom.  The  government  allows  salaries,  of  a  greater  or  leas 
amount,  to  the  clergy  of  every  persuasion,  only  making  those  of  the  Presbyterian  miniHtem 
higher  than  the  othera.  The  latter  retain,  besides,  the  old  parish  churches,  and  the  (>xclii8ive 
privilcjfo  of  uning  boils.  They  amount  to  about  1600,  and  ore  all  paid  and  appointed  by 
government,  which,  however,  respects  the  wishes  of  the  leading  parishioners.  Thoir  salaries 
aro  very  moderate;  3000  florins  m  the  great  cities;  800  to  1000,  witli  house  and  glebe,  in 
the  country.  They  are  divided  into  moderate  and  high  Calviniatic  parties ;  the  former,  which 
are  snid  to  be  the  moat  numerous,  having  the  command  of  the  university  of  Utrecht,  while 
that  of  Leyden  ia  attached  to  the  oppoeito  interest  There  are  about  300  or  400  Catholic 
congregation?,  in  general  very  small.  Tho  Armenians  or  Remonstrants,  who  originated  in 
Holland,  have  onlv  about  forty  or  fifty  ministers;  but  their  tenets  are  preached  in  many  of 
the  preebyterian  churches.  The  Anabaptists,  called  here  Mennonists,  have  about  100  con- 
gregations, composed  of  many  opulent  and  respectable  members.  The  Lutherans  have  fifty 
or  sixty  churches ;  and  the  French  Protestants  about  thirty.  [By  the  budget  of  1838, 
1,8^0,000  florins  were  voted  for  tho  support  of  the  Protestant  worship,  and  400,000  for  the 
Catholic. — Am.  Ed.] 

In  Belgium,  the  Catholic  clergy  have  shown  a  very  rooted  spirit  of  intolerance,  with  tho 
bishop  of  Ghent  at  their  head,  and  vehemently  objected  to  the  indulgent  treatment  of  the 
other  sects.  The  bishop  was  imprisoned  for  two  years  bv  Napoleon,  on  account  of  hia 
obstinacy  in  this  particular.  The  great  possessions  of  tho  church,  however,  have  been  for- 
feited, and  tho  clergy  receive  very  moderate  salaries  from  government  The  monasteries 
have  been  rooted  out,  and  generally  also  the  nunneries,  though  that  of  Ghent  still  retains 
all  its  pomp.  [There  is  an  archbishop  of  Mechlin  with  a  salary  of  21,000  francs,  and  the 
five  bishops  have  each  14,700  francs  a  year.  These,  with  64  vicara  general  and  canons, 
240  curates,  and  4,288  inferior  officers,  form  the  body  of  the  Catholic  clergy.  There  are 
only  about  6000  Protestants  in  Belgium,  with  10  ministers,  clerks,  &c.,  who  are  paid  by 
government — Am.  Ed.] 

Learning  in  the  Netherlands  no  longer  boasts  such  names  as  Erasmus,  Grotius,  and  Boer- 
liaave ;  but  the  institutions  for  its  diffusion  continue  to  be  very  ample.  Holland  retains  its 
two  famous  universities  of  Leyden  and  Utrecht  Tho  former,  which,  under  Boerhaave,  had 
once  the  reputation  of  the  first  medical  school  in  Europe,  is  still  highly  respectable.  Tho 
professors,  who  are  twenty-one  in  number,  receive  salaries  of  3000  florins,  independent  of 
fees ;  and  this  being  a  better  income  than  any  of  the  ecclesiastical  livings,  the  university 
draws  from  the  church  its  most  learned  members.  The  medical  education,  however,  can- 
not be  completed  unless  at  Amsterdam,  which  afifords  the  advantage  of  hospitals  and  other 
accommodations  peculiar  to  a  large  city.  The  university  of  Utrecht  is  not  so  considerable 
as  that  of  Leyden ;  and  that  of  Groningen  is  still  inferior.  In  1833,  the  number  of  students 
was,  in  Leyden  684 ;  in  Utrecht  476 ;  in  Groningen,  284. 

The  universities  of  Belgium,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  were  Ghent  and  Louvain,  were 
partially  stripped  of  their  ample  endowments,  first  by  Joseph  IL,  and  tlien  by  the  French. 
who  in  their  room  substituted  lyceums,  which  are  now  continued  nearly  on  the  same  footing, 
under  the  name  of  colleges.  Only  the  languages,  and  some  general  branches,  are  taught ; 
education  for  professional  purposes  being  received  in  separate  appropriate  seminaries.  Ghent 
and  Brussels  have  the  highest  reputation ;  but  the  salary  of  professors  in  tho  fomer  does  not 
exceed  1500  francs.  The  three  universities  of  Louvain,  Lidge,  and  Ghent  have  lately 
been  restored ;  and  in  1827  the  first  was  attended  by  678  students ;  the  second  by  506 ;  and 
the  third  by  404  students.  Besides  Rthen«euins,  which  are  only  colleges  on  a  smaller  scale, 
Holland  has  primary  schools  in  every  village,  by  which  the  benefits  of  education  are  com- 
inimicated  to  the  lowest  ranks.    Belgium  is  at  present  very  deficient  in  institutiona  for 


BOS 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI 


popular  education.*  But  at  an  average  of  the  Netherlands,  the  proportion  of  children  at 
school  to  the  entire  population,  in  1827,  was  as  high  as  1  to  9.5 ;  a  proportion  not  exceeded 
in  any  European  country,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  Prussia. 

The  fine  arts  were  cultivated  with  zeal  and  success  in  both  parts  of  the  Netherlands. 
Wealthy  mer<>^  ats  liberally  patronised  the  arts  of  design;  and  the  gentry  and  landholders 
being  inducou  uy  tlia  constant  wars,  of  which  ttie  Low  Countries  were  the  theatre,  to  live 
much  in  towns,  acquired  more  refined  tastes  than  could  have  been  formed  in  a  country  resi- 
dence.  Antwerp,  during  its  prosperity,  became,  in  some  measure,  a  Belgic  Athens.  Yet 
the  Flemish  and  Dutch  painters  never  attained  tliat  grandeur  of  design,  and  that  pure  and 
classic  taste,  which  were  formed  in  Italy,  by  the  study  of  Uie  antique,  and  the  rofined  toste 
of  its  nobles.  The  Flemish  school,  under  its  great  masters  Rubens  and  Vandyke,  displayed, 
however,  may  excellences  in  a  degree  not  inferior  to  any  other  in  modern  times ;  splendour 
of  colo'.'.ring,  grandeur  of  composition,  and  force  of  expression.  The  Dutch  school  has  been 
eminently  successful  in  a  lower  sphere.  Under  Rembrandt  and  his  disciples,  subjects  of 
common  life  and  vulgar  humour  were  treated  with  a  native  force,  which,  oeing  aided  by 
brilliant  eflects  of  light  and  shade,  have  rendered  this  school  exceedingly  popular,  though  it 
has  failed  in  all  attempts  at  high  and  heroic  delineation.  The  landscape  painters  have 
seldom  employed  their  pencils  upon  the  grand  scenery  delineated  by  Claude  and  Poussin ; 
but  Berghem,  Cuyp,  Ruysdael,  Hobbima,  Vandevelde,  and  others,  have  represented,  in  the 
most  natural  and  pleasing  colours,  the  pastoral  scenery  of  their  country ;  its  meadows,  its 
woods,  and  the  banks  of  its  seas  and  rivers. 

Amusement  is  far  from  being  a  primary  object  with  the  Dutch.  They  have  most  of  the 
diversions  of  the  neighbouring  nations,  though  they  do  not  follow  them  with  much  ardour. 
A  great  portion  of  their  time  is  passed  in  smoking ;  the  Dutchman  having  seldom  the  pipe 
out  of  his  mouth.  The  rivers  and  canals  passing  through  the  streets,  afibrd  the  opportunity 
of  fishing  ftom  the  windows.  The  great  Flemish  kermes,  or  &irs,  though  no  longer  sub- 
servient to  commerce,  exist  still  as  festivals,  at  which  there  is  a  great  display  of  humour 
and  character,  such  as  we  find  happily  illustrated  in  the  works  of  the  Flemish  painters. 
There  seems  nothing  peculiar  in  the  Dutch  style  of  cookery.  The  peasantry  both  of  Holland 
and  Flanders  have  their  peculiar  local  costume ;  as  the  huge  breeches  of  the  men,  and  the 
short  jacket  of  the  females;  but  the  higher  classes  dress  in  the  French  or  German  style. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

The  following,  according  to  recent  official  statements,  are  the  extent  and  population  of 
Belgium  and  Holland,  respectively : 


BELGIUM. 

ProviDCM. 

Entenl  in 
Hcctam. 

PoputaUnn  in 
iSu.  INT. 

Principal  Towm. 

South  Brabant. 

Antwerp 

Eaat  Flandnra  . 
West  Flundcra 

Hainault 

Namur 

LiSite 

338,000 
383,000 
388,000 
316,000 
373,000 
347,035 
388,000 
460,000 

499,788 
3,T8,3fl4 
708,705 
.W.'S.PO? 
507,300 
104,845 
347,625 
338,334 

Bruuels 73,800                                        Louvain 18,S80 

Antwerp 63,000  Mechlin 16,000 

Ghent 81,041  St.  Nicholai....  10,080 

nrucos 36  000  Oitend 10  500  Ynrci 15  150 

Mnns 18  400 

Wnmur 15  100  Vorvien lOflTD  Sna 3000 

I.iJiffB 45nno 

Limburg 

Tongrei 4,000 

3.876,000 

3,500,538 

HOLLAND. 
Rotterdam ...     63  033  Hnirue 4.1 144  Levden SO  045 

Holland,  South 

Holland,  North 

Zealand 

Utrecht 

North  Brabant 
Guclderland ... 

Dreiithe 

Friesland 

Overyswl 

Oroniugen  .... 

Limburg,        j 

part  oj'. ...  1 

Luxemburg.... 

1 

287,000 

345,000 

158,000 
133.000 
501,000 
509.000 
336,000 
963,000 
338,000 
904,000 

uncei 

650,000 

433,«j]t) 

391,586 

133,0.13 
133.313 
333,551 
393,306 
59,015 
300,:a3 
165,936 
153,983 

tain. 

398,655 

Dort 18,400  Delft 13  385  Gouda 10,568 

Amsterdam..  901,000  Haarlem 18.453  Zaandam 0,016 

Alkmaar  ....      8.4:15  Hoorn 8  1.15 

Middlehurg..    30,800  Fluahing 6,380 

Utrecht 34,087  Amenfoort  ....    9,395 

Boil  lo  Due  . .     13.340  Breda 13  000  Berfffln-OD>Zoom 

Nimegucn...    13,780  Arnheim 10,050 

Assen 1,100 

Leuwarden  . .    18,380 
Deventer....      9,530 
Groningen  . . .    38,851 

Maeatricht...    31,000 

Luxemburg . .    10,350 

3,654,000 
9,676,000 

3,606,000 
3,500,538 

6,330,000 

6,166,354 

•  [Tn  ISStiiere  were  5,390  primary  schoola  in  Belgium,  with  370,906  puplli,  beiide  1,318  In  the  Atbaneeumi.ind 
1.78a  ID  the  onivenitiei.  Annual  cxpenM,  7434100  franca.— Am.  Bo.'J 


Part  III. 

irtion  of  children  at 
lortion  not  exceeded 

of  the  Netherlands, 
itry  and  landholders 

the  theatre,  to  live 
ed  in  a  country  resi- 
Jelgic  Athens.  Yet 
,  and  that  pure  and 
id  thp  rr fined  taste 
Vandyke,  displayed, 
rn  times;  splenuour 
itch  school  has  been 
isciplos,  subjects  of 
lich,  oeing  aided  by 
iy  popular,  thoueh  it 
scape  painters  have 
Dlaudo  and  Poussin ; 

represented,  in  the 
y;  its  meadows,  its 

sy  have  most  of  the 
n  with  much  ardour. 
fing  seldom  the  pipe 
fiord  the  opportunity 
DUgh  no  longer  sul>> 
it  display  of  humour 
16  Flemish  painters, 
intry  both  of  Holland 
of  Uie  men,  and  the 
or  German  style. 


t  and  population  of 


Louvain 18,580 

YprcB 15,150 

Bpa 3,000 


Leyden S9,04S 

louda 10,568 

Saandam 0,016 


3ergen-op-Zoom 


in  the  AtlieiiKainf,Wi< 


fiooK  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 
SuBSECT.  1. — Belgium, 


600 


Bruiwli. 


South  Brabant,  which  nearly  coincides  with  what  was  formerly  the  Austrian  part  of  that 
largo  province,  forms  a  rich  plain  in  the  heart  of  Belgium,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  nnest  manu- 
factures carried  on  in  that  country. 

Brussels  (Jig.  358.)  is  the  capital  of  Belgium.  Considered  as  such,  it  is  small,  yet  it  is 
one  of  the  gayest  and  most  elegant  cities  of  Europe.   Its  situation  is  fine,  in  a  valley  watered 

by  the  Senne  anil  the  canal  to 
Antwerp.  The  Alice  Verte,  con- 
sisting of  three  rows  of  trees  bor- 
dering the  canal,  makes  a  beauti- 
ful approach.  The  market-ploco 
and  the  park  are  the  two  great 
ornaments  of  Brussels.  The  former 
is  of  great  extent,  and  surrounded 
by  the  town  hall,  one  of  the  most 
elegant  Gothic  structures  in  Eu- 
rope, adorned  with  a  tower,  848 
feet  high,  and  by  the  old  halls  of 
the  different  corporations.  The  park  forms  an  extensive  range  of  pleasure  ground,  inter- 
spersed with  rows  of  lofly  trees,  and  pleasing  lawns,  ornamented  with  fountains  and  statues , 
and  it  is  surrounded  by  all  the  most  spacious  and  sumptuous  edifices.  The  church  ond  chapel 
of  St.  Gudule  are  also  distinguished  for  the  elegance  of  their  ornaments.  Brussels  has'  an 
academy  of  painting,  attended  by  400  or  .'iOO  students ;  and  in  the  palace  there  is  a  library 
of  12,000  volumes,  and  a  small  but  valuable  collection  of  paintings.  It  was  on  the  plains  of 
Brabant,  near  the  little  villages  of  Quatrc  Bras,  St.  Jean,  La  Belle  Alliance,  and  Waterloo 
a  few  leagues  from  Brussels,  that  the  fate  of  Europe  was  decided  in  1815. 

Another  ancient  and  important  city  is  Malines,  or  Mechlin  (now  in  the  province  of  Ant- 
werp), still  retaining  traces  of  the  prosperity  derived  from  the  lace  bearing  its  name,  which 
is  considered  the  strongest,  though  not  the  finest,  made  in  the  Netherlands.  Another  branch 
of  industry  consists  in  the  making  of  excellent  brown  beer.  The  houses  are  ancient,  and 
very  spacious,  often  constructed  in  a  curious  and  grotesque  manner,  and  most  nicely  white- 
washed. The  tower  of  the  cathedral  is  highly  fmished,  and  rises  to  the  height  of  348  feet 
The  other  churches  contain  many  of  the  masterpieces  of  Rubens  and  Vandyke.  Louvain  is 
equally  fallen  fVom  the  period  when  its  extensive  cloth  manufactures  and  its  university,  one 
of  the  first  in  Europe,  gave  it  a  population  of  150,000.  It  is  a  large  ill-built  town,  whose 
bulky  walls,  seven  miles  in  circumference,  are  now  falling  to  decay.  Its  Catholic  university, 
an  attendance  on  which  was  once  required  as  a  qualification  for  holding  any  ofiice  under  the 
Austrian  government,  perished  in  the  French  revolution,  and  was  replaced  by  what  could 
only  be  called  a  lyceum ;  but  the  ancient  institution  has  since  been  restored.  The  town  hall, 
enriched  by  numerous  carved  figures,  and  the  collegiate  church,  whose  spire,  before  its  fall, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  rose  to  the  height  of  500  feet,  are  the  chief 
ornaments  of  Louvain. 

Antwerp  (fig,  359.),  formerly  the  port  of  Brabant,  has  now  a  province,  to  which  it  gives 
its  name.    This  territory  is  situated  along  the  Lower  Scheldt,  and  is  covered  to  a  great 

extent  with  pleasure-grounds  and 
houses,  erected  by  the  rich  mer- 
chants during  the  period  when 
Antwerp  was  in  its  glory.  That 
city,  down  to  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  was  almost  with- 
out a  rival  among  the  commercial 
states  of  Europe.  In  the  great 
struggle  which  then  arose,  Ant- 
werp embrpced  with  ardour  the 
reformed  muse,  in  support  of 
which  it  suffered  the  most  dread- 
ful calamities.  In  1570  it  was 
lacked  by  the  Spaniards ;  and  being  afterwards  wrested  from  them,  surrendered  on  fiivour- 
able  terms,  after  being  besieged  for  more  than  a  year,  to  the  Prince  of  Parma.  Subjected 
to  the  bigoted  and  tyrannic  sway  of  Spain,  and  oppressed  by  the  active  rivalry  of  Holland,  it 
lost  all  its  commerce,  and  presented  the  mere  shadow  of  its  former  greatness.  Its  renewed 
prosperity  dates  from  its  occupation  by  the  French.  Bonaparte  made  it  one  of  his  grand 
naval  arsienals,  and  erected  immense  works,  in  the  vain  hope  of  creating  a  fleet  which  might 
rival  that  of  Great  Britain.  Since  the  peace,  Antwerp,  having  been  placed  on  an  equal 
footing  with  the  ports  of  Holland,  has  availed  itself  of  the  advantages  of  its  situation,  and 
regained  <i  considerable  commerce.    Having  a  ready  navigation  into  the  interior,  and  com  - 

43* 


Antwerp. 


010 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paiit  III. 


municatin^  by  canals  with  the  principal  seats  of  manufacture,  it  is  destined  by  nature  to  be 
the  chief  emporium  of  Belgium.  In  1828  there  entered  its  port  955  vessels.  Antwerp  is 
still  a  noble  city,  containing  numerous  stately  buildings,  bopi  private  and  public,  whicli 
include  some  of  tlie  finest  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  existing.  The  catliedral,  which 
occupied  100  years  in  builduig,  is  celebrated  over  Europe.  It  is  500  feet  long,  230  wide, 
and  360  high.  The  spire  is  4^  feet  high,  of  extreme  beauty,  and  from  its  summit  is  obtained 
a  magnificent  view  of  the  windings  of  the  Scheldt,  with  the  distant  towers  of  Ghent,  Malines, 
and  Breda.  The  interior  is  adorned  with  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  Rubens  and  Vandyke, 
whicli,  after  being  carried  oft'  to  Paris,  have  been  again  restored.  Numerous  fine  specimens 
of  the  Flemish  scTiool  are  found  in  the  other  churches,  as  well  as  in  private  mansions.  Ant- 
werp has  always  been  the  centre  of  Flemish  art;  the  birth-place  of  Rubens,  Vandyke,  Jor- 
daens,  Teniers,  and  all  its  greatest  masters.  Zealous  patronage  is  still  bestowed  upon  tlin 
art;  an  academy  is  supported,  at  which  400  or  500  students  are  almost  gratuitously  taught: 
annual  prizes  are  given,  and  crowns  placed  on  the  heads  of  tlie  successful  candidates.  This 
encouragement  has  called  forth  some  respectable  talents,  tliough  none,  as  yet,  to  rival  the 
fame  of  the  old  masters. 

East  Flanders  is  chiefly  an  inland  district,  and  is  the  part  of  Belgium  in  which  culture  has 
been  carried  to  the  highest  perfection.  It  displays  an  aspect  of  uniform  luxuriant  fertility, 
resulting  altogether  from  the  application  of  art  and  capital.  Even  in  journeying  along  the 
road,  the  traveller  finds  the  wheels  of  his  carriage  sinking  in  the  sand,  while  beyond  the 
hedge  on  each  side,  the  soil  consists  of  the  richest  black  mould.  The  most  fertile  district  is 
called  the  Waesj  or  St.  Nicholas. 

Ghent,  even  in  its  fallen  state,  is  still  one  of  the  noblest  of  the  old  cities  of  Europe.  That 
vast  circuit  of  walls  which,  according  to  the  boast  of  Charles  V.,  could  contain  all  Paris 
within  them,  may  still  be  traced.  It  is  built  on  twenty-seven  islands,  most  of  them  bordered 
by  magnificent  quays,  and  connected  by  three  hundred  bridges.  The  streets,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  are  spacious  and  handsome,  and  there  are  many  fine  old  churches :  but  the  great 
cathedral  does  not  display  the  architectural  grandeur  of  that  of  Antwerp,  though  the  interior 
is  rich  in  the  extreme,  adorned  with  numerous  pillars  of  white  marble.  This  and  the  otiier 
churclies,  as  well  as  the  academy,  contain  numerous  paintings  by  the  old  Flemish  masters. 
Ghent,  though  it  can  no  longer  send  its  40,000  weavers  into  the  field,  is  still  one  of  the  most 
manufacturing  cities  of  Belgium.  Prior  to  the  revolution,  its  staple  was  sorted  lace ;  but 
since  the  great  improvements  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  several  large  fabrics  have  been 
established  at  Ghent.  The  society  is  good,  this  being  a  favourite  residence  of  the  old 
Flemish  nobles,  and  now  frequented  by  a  considerable  number  of  English  families. 

The  other  towns  in  East  Flanders  are  Dendermonde,  a  small  but  strong  place,  which  has 
stood  repeated  sieges ;  Alost,  on  the  eastern  firontier ;  St  Nicholas  and  Tokerem,  two  large 
villages,  of  more  than  11,000  inhabitants  each,  in  the  centre  of  the  Waes,  flourishing  by 
means  of  corn-markets  and  of  some  considerable  manufactures.  Sas-van-Glient  is  the  centru 
of  the  sluices  on  the  canal  to  the  Scheldt,  by  which  the  whole  country  can  be  laid  under 
water.    Hulst  is  a  strongly  fortified  little  town. 

West  Flanders  is  a  continuation  of  the  same  richly  cultivated  plain  which  has  now  been 
described ;  yet,  being  partly  mixed  with  Band  and  marsh,  and  exposed  to  the  blighting  influ- 
ence of  fogs  and  sea  breeres,  It  does  not  display  altogether  the  luxuriant  aspect  of  the  Pays 
de  Waes.  It  has  no  place  comoarable  to  Ghent,  yet  it  comprises  an  extraordinary  number 
of  ancient  cities,  which  still  ret>in  a  portion  of  ♦heir  former  prosperity. 

Bruges,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  counts  of  Flanders,  and  one  of  the  factories  of  tlie 
Hanseatic  league,  was  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  perhaps  in 
the  north  of  Europe,  till  it  was  first  surpassed  by  Antwerp,  and  then,  from  the  same  cause:=, 
shared  its  fall.  Its  situation  in  the  midst  of  so  fertile  a  country,  and  its  communications  by 
spacious  canals  with  the  sea  and  with  the  interior,  still  secure  to  it  a  considerable  trade. 
Bruges  has  the  character  of  an  old  town,  the  streets  being  narrow,  and  the  houses  lofly. 
The  town  hall  is  its  most  conspicuous  edifice,  and  it  is  adorned  also  with  many  noble  churche.s 
containing  some  of  the  finest  works  of  the  great  Flemish  painters.  The  invention  of  paint- 
ing in  oil  has  been  ascribed  to  this  city. 

Ostend  is  an  ancient  town,  early  celebrated  for  its  forUfications.  The  sie^e  by  Spinola, 
which  began  in  1601,  and  lasted  two  years,  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  modern  his- 
tory; and  upon  its  issue  the  destiny  of  the  Low  Countries  was  considered  to  depend.  But 
though  it  ultimately  fell,  the  exhaustion  of  the  Spanish  army,  and  the  time  which  had  been 
afforded  to  Holland  for  collecting  her  energies,  prevented  its  capture  from  having  the  ruinous 
effects  anticipated.  Under  Austrian  sway,  Ostend,  which  has  one  of  the  few  good  harbours 
in  Flanders,  became  the  chief  theatre  of  the  limited  trade  of  the  Belgic  provinces.  Napo» 
leon  restored  its  fortifications,  which  were  still  farther  strengthened  by  the  allies.  It  lias 
not  now  above  a  third  of  its  former  population,  but  still  carries  on  a  brisk  intercourse  with 
England,  and  has  almost  the  appearance  of  an  English  town.  In  1828,  574  vessels  entered 
its  port 

Other  largo  fortified  places,  celebrated  in  the  military  annals  of  Europe,  are  found  in  West 


Part  [II. 

ncd  by  nature  to  be 
jssels.    Antwerp  is 

and  public,  whicli 
he  cathedral,  which 
set  long,  230  wide, 
i  summit  is  obtained 
8  of  Ghent,  Malincs, 
abens  and  Vandyke, 
!rou8  fine  specimens 
(tte  mansions.  Ant- 
bens,  Vandyke,  Jor- 

bestowed  upon  the 
gratuitously  taught: 
il  candidates.  Tliis 
as  yet,  to  rival  the 

in  which  culture  has 
a  luxuriant  fertility, 
)urneying  along  tiie 
1,  while  beyond  the 
lost  fertile  district  ia 

;ies  of  Europe.  That 
d  contain  all  Paris 
ist  of  them  bordered 

Rtreets,  with  a  few 
rchoa :  but  the  great 
,  though  the  interior 

Tliis  and  the  other 
)ld  Flemish  masters, 
still  one  of  the  most 
'as  sorted  lace;  but 
e  fabrics  have  been 
residence  of  the  old 
h  families, 
ng  place,  which  liaa 
Tokerem,  two  large 
Vaes,  flourishing  by 

Client  is  the  centru 
•y  can  be  laid  under 

irliich  has  now  been 

the  blighting  inflii- 

aspect  of  the  Pays 

traordinary  number 

the  factories,  of  tlie 
es,  and  perhaps  in 
m  the  same  causes, 
communications  by 

considerable  trade. 
the  houses  lotly. 
any  noble  churches 

invention  of  paint- 

sie^e  by  Spinola, 
ble  m  modern  his- 
id  to  depend.  But 
ne  which  had  been 
having  the  ruinous 
few  good  harbours 
provinces.  Napo- 
the  allies.  It  lias 
k  intercourso  with 
)74  vessels  entered 

,  are  found  in  West 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


511 


Flanders.  Courtray,  Ypres,  and  Menin  have  the  usual  character  of  Flemish  towns.  They 
ore  large,  rather  well  built,  with  handsome  churches  and  town  halls ;  fallen  from  their 
ancient  prosperity,  yet  retaining  considerable  manufactures  of  linen  and  beer ;  and  having,  in 
the  long  course  of  the  Low  Country  wars,  been  repeatedly  taken  and  retaken.  Courtray  is 
noted  for  tiie  very  fine  flax  grown  in  its  neighbourhood.  Oudenarde,  the  scene  of  one  of 
Marlborough's  victories,  Dixmuide,  and  Furnes,  present  the  same  characters  on  a  smaller 
scale.  Nieuport  is  rather  a  noted  fishing  and  trading  town,  surrounded  by  sluices,  by  means 
of  which  the  country  can  be  inundated. 

Hainault,  to  the  east  of  Flanders  and  the  south  of  Brabant,  presents  a  long  range  of  mili- 
taiy  frontier  to  the  once  hostile  border  of  France.  It  is  watered  by  the  upper  courses  of  the 
Scheldt  and  the  Sambre;  and,  instead  of  presenting  the  same  dead  level  with  Flanders,  is 
varied  by  gentle  undulations,  still  highly  cultivated,  yet  not  with  the  same  extreme  care  or 
ample  expenditure.  In  this  province  are  rich  mines  of  coal,  a  mineral  not  found  in  any 
other  part  of  the  Low  Countries ;  and  though  Hainault  never  formed  any  of  the  great  seats 
of  manufacture,  it  is  by  no  means  deficient  in  this  branch  of  industry. 

Mens,  Toumay,  and  Charleroi  are  the  chief  towns  of  Hainault.  The  description  given 
of  the  secondary  cities  of  Flanders  may  apply  to  them.  Mons,  called  once  Hannonia,  is  very 
ancient ;  it  is  well  built,  but  appears  often  almost  buried  under  the  smoke  of  the  steam- 
engines  employed  in  working  the  neighbouring  coalmines.  It  has  a  very  extensive  found- 
ling hospital.  Toumay,  a  fine  large,  old  city,  with  a  handsome  cathedral,  has  stood  many 
sieges.  Charleroi,  besides  its  military  reputation,  has  that  of  making  very  fine  nails,  with 
which  it  supplies  all  Belgium.  In  front  of  Mons  is  Gemappe,  and  eight  miles  east  of  Char- 
leroi is  Fleurus,  both  celebrated  for  signal  victories  gained  by  the  French  during  the  revolu- 
tionary war.  Tlie  large  and  strong  cities  of  Conde  and  Valenciennes  are  now  annexed  to 
France. 

Namur,  to  the  east  of  Hainault,  presents  a  striking  variety  from  the  tame  and  flat  surfiice 
which  covers  the  greater  part  of  the  Low  Countries.  Consisting  of  the  valley  of  the  Meuse, 
which  traverses  the  whole  province  from  north  to  south,  it  contains  numerous  rugged  emi- 
nences, which  give  to  it  a  varied  and  picturesque  character.  The  banks  of  the  rjvcr,  from 
Namur  to  Li^ge,  overhung  by  wooded  rocks,  and  opening  into  deep  valleys,  abound  in  the 
most  romantic  scenes. 

Among  the  cities,  Namur  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  Low  Countries,  its  origin  being 
traced  to  the  time  of  the  ancient  Germans.  It  lies  in  a  beautiful  valley  bordered  by  high 
mountains,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse.  The  castle,  on  a  high  rock,  was 
formerly  considered  almost  impregnable,  and  stood  many  sieges,  till  Joseph  II.  dismantled, 
and  the  French  afterwards  almost  demolished  it.  The  cathedral  and  the  Jesuits'  church 
are  fine  edifices,  and,  unlike  the  other  churches  of  the  Low  Countries,  of  Grecian  architec- 
ture. Namur  has  in  its  neighbourhood  extensive  iron  mines,  which  employ  many  of  the 
inhabitants ;  the  manufactures  of  tlie  city  consist  in  working  up  this  metal  into  fire-arms, 
cutlery,  &c.  Ascending  the  Meuse  towards  the  French  frontier,  we  come  to  the  small  forti- 
fied towns  of  Dinant  and  Charlemont. 

The  provinces  of  Liege  and  Limburg,  which  are  much  intermingled  with  each  other, 
form  the  eastern  frontier  of  Belgium.  They  run  from  north  to  south  along  the  Meuse,  front- 
ing Germany,  and  are,  indeed,  half  German.  On  the  banks  of  the  Meuse,  and  in  some  par- 
ticular districts,  the  territory  is  broken  and  rooky;  but  most  of  it  consists  of  an  extended 
and  highly  cultivated  plain.  The  eastern  district  is  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  richness 
of  its  pastures,  which  produce  butter  and  cheese  of  great  value.  Its  manufactures,  also, 
especially  those  of  fine  woollens,  are  very  flourishing. 

Of  the  cities  in  these  two  provinces,  Liege,  once  the  seat  of  a  sovereign  bishop,  is  ancient 
and  large,  but  upon  the  whole  ill  built  and  gloomy ;  and  though  some  of  its  buildings  are 
large,  they  do  not  display  the  taste  conspicuous  in  other  Belgic  cities.  The  church  of  St. 
Paul  is,  however,  admired,  as  was  that  of  St.  Lambert,  till  it  was  destroyed  during  the  revo- 
lution. Liege  has  a  manufacture  of  fine  woollen  cloths,  which  sell  at  a  high  price.  The 
town  of  Limburg,  now  included  in  Liege,  has  lost  much  of  its  population  and  industry;  and 
a  great  part  of  its  precincts  is  in  ruins.  Spa,  situated  amid  romantic  rocks,  is  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  watering  places  in  Europe.  The  resort,  though  much  diminished,  is  still 
considerable,  and  composed  of  persons  of  distinguished  rank.  The  inhabitants  work  tha 
beechwood,  which  grows  in  the  neighbourhood,  into  a  variety  of  toys,  for  which  they  find  a 
ready  sale  among  the  visiters.  St.  Tron  and  Tongres  are  ancient  towns,  the  former  having 
a  celebrated  Benedictine  abbey.  Eupen,  like  Verviers,  has  flourishing  manufactures  of  cloth. 
Herve  is  the  chief  market  for  the  Limburg  cheese,  which  goes  by  its  name.  Stavelot  is 
noted  for  its  leather. 

SuBSECT,  2.— Holland. 

The  province  of  Holland  is  of  paramount  importance,  including  all  the  great  cities  and 

Erincipal  scats  of  commerce;  so  that  its  name  was  most  usually  given  to  the  vhole  republic. 
t  forms  a  long  narrow  strip,  alniof/t  everywhere  enclosed  and  penetrated  by  water ;  on  one 


619 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


side  it  is  washeJ  by  the  North  Sea ;  on  the  other,  by  the  Zuyder  Zee ;  in  its  centre  it  has 
.he  larjre  lake  called  Hoarlem-Meer ;  while  the  Rhine  and  the  Lech  intersect  its  numerous 
channels.  The  whole  country  is  so  low,  that  it  is  habitable  only  by  means  of  enormous 
dikes,  which  exclude  the  sea :  when  these  give  way,  the  waters  rush  in,  and  inundate  the 
whole  territory.  The  country  forms,  in  fact,  one  vast  well-watered  meadow  scarcely  any 
w'.ere  subjected  to  the  plough,  though  extensive  gardens  are  cultivated,  both  for  use  and 
ornament.  But  the  chief  products  are  cattle,  butter,  axu*  cheese,  for  the  supply  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  cities,  and  for  export 

Amsterdam  (Jig,  860.),  the  capital  of  the  province  and  kuigdom  of  Holland,  is  situated  at 
the  point  of  confluence  of  the  river  Amstel  with  the  Y,  an  arm  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.    It  was 

jQQ  f  a  considerable  tx)wn  in  ttm 

fourteenth  century;  but  it  was 

not  until  the  sixteenth  cen- 

*ury,  when  the  persecutions 

1  <il  k  HH  of  the  Spaniards  in  Belgium 

proved  fatal  to  the  trade  and 
navigation  of  Antwerp  and  the 
southern  provinces,  tliat  Am- 
sterdam attained  to  the  dis- 
tinction which  she  enjoyed 
till  about  the  middle  of  tiic  lost 
Amiterdun.  century,  of  being  the  first 

commercial  city  of  Europe.  It  is  but  justice,  however,  to  state  that  her  extraordinary  pro- 
gress depended  as  much,  or  more,  on  the  liberal  and  enlightened  policy  of  her  rulers,  as  on 
external  events.  Every  individual,  whatever  might  be  his  country  or  his  religion,  was 
received  with  open  arms  at  Amsterdam ;  and  acquired,  by  means  of  a  trifling  payment,  the 
right  of  citizenship,  and  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  privileges  of  a  native.  All  the  public  insti- 
tuuions  were  calculated  to  promote  commerce ;  and  at  a  time  when  trade  and  industry  in 
other  countries  were  oppressed  by  prohibitions,  in  Holland  they  were  comparatively  tree. 
When  most  prosperous,  Amsterdam  is  supposed  to  have  contained  about  240,000  inhabitants; 
but  at  present  the  population  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  200,000.  Being  built  in  a  marsh,  the 
foundations  of  the  city  are  laid  on  piles ;  and  it  is  a  common  c  mplaint  that  a  house  costs 
as  much  below  as  above  ground.  The  three  principal  streets  are  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
are  not  easily  to  be  matched  for  length,  breadth,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  houses ;  many 
of  which,  though  antique,  are  splendid,  and  are  kept  in  the  best  possible  repair.  The  city 
is  intersected  by  an  immense  number  of  canals,  communicating  by  draw-bridges,  and  having 
Bluices  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  level  of  the  water :  these  canals  are  for  the  most 
part  bordered  by  fine  trees.  The  expenses  incurred  in  keeping  the  sluices  in  order,  and  in 
clearing  the  canals  and  port  of  mud,  are  very  heavy.  The  matchless  industry  and  perse- 
verance of  this  wonderful  people,  are  in  nothing  so  signally  displayed  as  in  their  works  and 
contrivances  for  conquermg  the  difliculties  incident  to  their  situation,  and  making  the  waters, 

which  threaten  to  overwhelm  them,  con- 
361  tribute  to  their  comfort    The  stadt- 

house  (Jig.  361.),  now  the  roya)  palace, 
is  the  finest  building  in  the  city ;  and  is, 
indeed,  one  of  the  noblest  anywhere  to 
be  met  with :  it  is  of  large  dimensions, 
and  is  adorned  with  pillars,  and  with 
sculptures  emblematical  of  commerce 
and  navigation.  Above  13,000  piles 
are  said  to  have  been  employed  in  form- 
ing its  foundation.  The  harbour  is  in- 
convenient large  ships  being  obliged  tc 
lighten  before  they  can  pass  the  Pam- 
pas or  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Y,  and  the  navigation  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  is  also  difficult.  To 
remedy  these  inconveniences,  the  large  canal  to  the  Holder,  already  alluded  to,  has  been 
constructed.  The  trade  of  Amsterdam  has  increased  considerably  within  the  last  few  years; 
and  about  2200  ships  now  annually  ciear  out  for  foreign  countries.  None  of  the  water  from 
the  canals  is  made  use  of  for  culinary  purposes ;  the  town  being  supplied  with  fresh  water, 
conveyed  in  carts  from  the  Vecht,  about  five  or  six  miles  distant ;  but  most  of  the  houses 
have  cisterns,  where  the  rain-water  is  collected.  There  is  a  national  museum  of  pictures, 
which  contains  many  fine  specimens  of  the  Dutch  school.  The  various  prisons  and  houses 
of  correction  and  industry  at  Amsterdam  arc  said  to  be  managed  on  more  approved  princi- 
ples than  similar  institutions  in  most  parts  of  Fjiope,  The  police  is  excellent;  crimes  rare; 
and  no  beggars  to  be  seen  in  the  streeta.  Thr  inhabitants  seem  vigorous  and  healthy;  but 
the  mortality,  though  materially  diminished  within  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years,  is  still  greater 


Bladt-Hoiue,  Amtterdain. 


Paiit  III. 

its  centre  it  has 
sect  its  numerous 
3ans  of  enormous 
and  inundate  the 
iow  scarcely  any 
,  both  for  use  and 
iipply  of  the  popu- 

and,  is  situated  at 
^der  Zee.    It  was 
ble  town  in  the 
entury;butitwas 
le  sixteenth  ccn- 
the  persecutions 
liards  in  Belgium 
.  to  the  trade  and 
•f  Antwerp  and  the 
ovinces,  Uiat  Ara- 
ained  to  the  dis- 
lich   she  enjoyed 
5  middle  of  the  last 
'  being   the   first 
extraordinary  pro- 
'  her  rulers,  as  on 
his  religion,  was 
Bing  payment,  the 
.11  the  public  insti- 
ie  and  industry  in 
omparatively  tree. 
[0,000  inhabitants; 
ilt  in  a  marsh,  the 
that  a  house  costs 
to  each  other,  and 
the  houses ;  many 
repair.    The  city 
dges,  and  having 
are  for  the  most 
in  order,  and  in 
idustry  and  perse- 
their  works  and 
laking  the  waters, 
rwhelm  them,  con- 
fort     The  stadt- 
the  royal  palace, 
n  the  city ;  and  is, 
blest  anywhere  to 
arge  dimensions, 
pillars,  and  with 
cal  of  commerce 
)ve    13,000  piles 
employed  in  form- 
ic harbour  is  in- 
s  being  obliged  to 
an  pass  the  Pam- 
also  difficult.    To 
uded  to,  has  been 
le  last  few  years; 
)f  the  water  from 
with  fresh  water, 
lost  of  the  houses 
seum  of  pictures, 
risons  and  houses 
approved  princi- 
ent;  crimes  rare; 
,nd  healthy ;  but 
.rs,  ia  still  greater 


Boor  L 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


513 


than  in  most  European  cities;  a  consequence,  probably,  of  the  humidity  of  the  climate,  and 
of  the  effluvia  arising,  in  summer,  fVom  the  canals. 

Rotterdam  (Jig.  862.),  the  second  city  in  Holland,  is  more  conveniently  situated  for  com- 
merce than  Amsterdam,  having  a  readier  access  to  the  sea ;  and  the  Maese  on  which  it  is 
situated,  being  so  very  deep  as  to  admit  vessels  of  the  largest  draught  of  water  to  lie  close 


Rotterdam. 


Statue  of  Eraimui. 


The  Haiiue. 


to  the  quays.  Its  commerce  is  rapidly  increasing.  Its  principal  exports  are  geneva  and. 
madder ;  and  it  carries  on  the  busmess  of  sugar-refining  on  a  large  scale.  Tt  has  all  the 
characteristics  of  a  Dutch  town ;  being  neat,  clean,  uniform ;  the  houses  high,  and  built  of 

very  small  bricks.  Thp  canals  inter- 
•**'*  —  secting  it  are  numerous,  deep,  and, 

unless  in  a  few  of  the  most  crowded 
streets,  connected  by  draw-bridges. 
Rotterdam  boasts  of  being  the  birth- 
place of  Erasmus;  to  perpetuate 
whose  memory,  she  has  erected  a 
handsome  statue  (fig.  363.). 

The  Hague  (fg.  364.),  though 
ranking  only  as  a  village,  is,  in  feet, 
one  of  the  handsomest  cities  in  Eu- 
rope. The  streets  and  squares  are  well  built,  bordered  with  fine  walks  and  avenues  of  trees. 
Neither  the  old  nor  the  new  palace  can  boast  of  any  splendid  architecture ;  but  the  former 
is  large,  and  contains  some  valuable  collections.  An  avenue  of  two  miles  leads  to  the  neat 
fishing  town  of  Scheveling,  whence  the  dealers  are  daily  seen  bringing  their  commodities 

in  little  carts  drawn  by  large  dogs. 
Leyden  (^g.  365.)  is  a  fine  old  city, 
situated  m  the  heart  of  the  Rhine- 
land,  where  this  ancient  bed  of  the 
river  is  cut  into  an  infinity  of  canals, 
which  render  this  the  nchest  mea- 
dow land  of  Holland.  The  beer, 
the  butter,  and  the  bread  of  this  dis- 
trict are  held  in  the  highest  estuna- 
tion.  Leyden,  during  the  war  with 
Spain,  was  the  most  important  city 
in  Holland,  and  on  the  r  vent  of  its 
siege  the  fate  of  that  country  was 
supposed  to  depend.  The  Spaniardi*, 
by  a  lengthened  and  strict  blockade, 
reduced  it  to  the  last  extremity ;  while  the  Dutch  could  muster  no  force  adequate  to  its 
relief.  It  was  then  that  they  formed  the  magnanimous  resolution  of  breaking  down  their 
dikes,  and  admitting  the  ocean.  It  was  some  time  before  the  fiill  effect  was  produced ;  but 
at  length,  impelled  by  a  violent  wind,  the  sea  rushed  in,  overwhelmed  all  the  works  of  the 
besiegers,  and  forced  them  to  a  precipitate  flight.  The  little  fleet  of  boats  which  had  been 
prepared  for  the  relief  of  Leyden,  immediately  sailed  over  the  newly  formed  expanse,  and 
triumphantly  entered  the  city.  The  Prince  of  Orange  offered  to  Leyden  the  option  of  two 
benefits, — an  immunity  from  taxcH  for  a  certain  period,  or  the  foundation  of  a  univereity  in 
the  city.  The  citizens  crowned  their  former  glory  by  choosing  the  latter  alternative,  and 
a  university  was  accordingly  founded,  which  speedily  became  one  of  the  most  eminent  schools 
iu  Europe ;  and,  though  much  injured  by  the  numerous  rivals  which  have  since  sprung  up, 
it  continues  to  maintain  a  high  reputation,  particularly  as  a  classical  school.  Leyden  is  Jtui 
a  handsome  and  flourishing  town ;  carries  on  the  woollen  manufacture  with  success,  thovgh 
on  a  diminished  scale ;  and  is  a  great  market  for  butter  and  cheese.  Haarlem  (fig.  366.)  v 
another  city  of  ancient  importance.  In  tho  great  struggle  for  independence,  it  stood  a 
Vol.  I.  3  p 


Leyden. 


ftl 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartIII. 


Haailem. 


momorable  sicgo  of  seven  months ;  when  it  surrendered  upon  honourable  terms,  which  were 
bftBoly  violated  by  the  Duke  of  Alva.  Haarlem  is  still  spacious  and  flourishing,  and  excels 
peculiarly  in  the  bleaching  of  linen  and  cambric,  which  it  performs  for  all  the  neighbouring 

noQ  provinces.      The    matchless 

*^  and  brilliant  whiteness  of  tiie 

Haarlem  linens  has  been  im- 
puted to  a  peculiar  quality  in 
the  water,  but  is  more  pro- 
bably the  result  of  the  ex- 
treme skill  of  the  inhabitants, 
acquired  by  long  practice. 
Flowers  are  principally  raisd 
fbr  sale  in  the  vicinity  of  Haar- 
lem. Delft,  an  ancient  gloomy 
town,  was  formerly  celebrated 
fiw  the  manufacture  of  the  ware  which  boars  its  name ;  but  this,  as  already  observed,  haa 
been  almost  entirely  supplanted  by  English  earthenware.  Dort  or  Dordrecht,  enclosed  by 
branches  cf  the  Maese,  was  the  ancient  capital  of  Holland,  while  the  main  commerce  of  that 
country  continued  to  centre  in  this  its  most  natural  quarter.  It  still  retains  very  considera- 
ble traces  of  this  early  importance.  The  town-hall  and  great  church  are  magnificent  struc- 
tures. There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  goods  coming  down  the  Rhine,  particularly  floats  of 
timber,  so  large  that  ono  of  them  hds  been  valued  at  8d0,000  florins.  Gouda  is  a  large 
flourishing  villajrc,  in  a  rich  country,  and  carries  on  on  extensive  manufactory  of  tobacco- 
pipes.     It  is  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  its  cheese. 

North  Holland  forms  a  considerable  peninsula,  almost  entirely  encircled  bv  the  Zuyder 

2^e  and  the  Nortl.  Sea,  and  bordered  by  sand-hills  of  some  elevation ;  but  the  interior  is 

covered  with  rich  pastures,  on  which  are  fed  large  herds  of  cattle.    The  ancient  and  not 

ungraceful  costumes  {Jig.  267.)  of  the  Dutch  peasantry  are  preserved  with  greater  exact- 

n/17  ness  in  this  sequestered  part  of  Holland, 

than  in  any  other;  and  the  fishery,  for 

which  their  situation  is  peculiarly  adapted, 

^^^^  is  carried  on  with  great  activity.    Alt 

<i'i    {^HL^WSiSt^OU^Bt^lBAftiltlS^l^        mt""'  is  an  agreeable  town,  witii  a  great 

troflic  in  butter  and  cheese,  and  a  manu- 
'^.ii-'^frMmy  VJHWW^^ail  ■HJimilHIH  &cture  of  nets.     The  most  important 

places  in  North  Holland  are  the  Helder 
and  the  Texel,  two  grand  naval  stations; 
the  one  a  strong  fort,  comi'ianding  tiie 
entrance  of  the  Zuyder  Zee ;  the  other  an 
Peiuantry  in  Holland.  island  opposite,  in  which  the  Dutch  fleets 

used  to  rendezvous,  from  the  facility  it 
aflforded  for  their  getting  to  sea.  Along  the  coast  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  are  the  considerable 
towns  of  Hoom  and  Enkhuisen,  and  the  smaller  ones  of  Edam  and  Purmerend. 

Zealand  is  a  region  inore  completely  enclosed  by,  and  sunk  below,  the  level  of  the  water, 
than  any  other  part  of  the  United  Provmces.  It  consists  of  nine  islands,  formed  and  envi- 
roned by  branches  of  the  Maese  and  the  Scheldt,  as,  passing  from  the  state  of  rivers  into  fi-iths, 
they  unite  with  the  ocean.  The  mariner,  in  approaching,  sees  ou^  points  of  the  spires 
peeping  above  the  immense  dikes  which  defend  them  from  inundation.  Vhe  soil  is  moist 
and  rich,  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  madder.  The  damp  air,  however,  and  tlie 
exhalations  fron  the  waters,  render  these  islands  unhealthy,  and  even  fetal  to  fbrel^prs.  as 
was  dreadfully  experienced  by  the  British  troops  while  quartered  at  Walclieren ;  but  the 
natives  do  not  experience  the  same  pernicious  effects.  Middleburg  is  a  considerable  city, 
witli  a  town-hall  and  several  churches,  which  afToru  fine  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture. 
Flushuig  is  an  eminent  naval  station,  and  has  a  considerable  trade  i-nd  fishery.  The  island 
of  Schowen  has  Zierikzee,  tlie  ancient  capital  of  the  counts  of  Zealand ;  and  South  Beve- 
la  ad  has  Goes,  or  Tergoes,  with  a  considerable  trade  in  salt 

Utrecht,  a  more  inland  province  than  Holland,  forms  a  continuation  of  the  same  tract  of 
flat  meodow  land,  interspersed  with  gardens  and  country  residences.  Utrecht,  the  capital, 
is  a  remarkably  agreeable  city,  and  be'Jig  a  little  elevated,  the  view  from  its  ramparts  and  the 
top  of  its  cathedral  over  the  vast  plains  and  broad  waters  of  Holland  is  extensive  and  de- 
lightful. The  Romans  called  it  Ulpii  Trajectum,  t^  commanding  an  important  passage  over 
the  BJiine ;  and  in  the  middle  ages  it  was  held  by  the  warlike  bishops  of  Utrecht.  In  this 
city  was  concluded  the  treaty  of  confederation,  in  1597,  by  which  the  United  Provinces 
were  constituted,  and  also  the  celebrated  treaty  of  1715,  which  terniinated  the  long  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession.  Araersfoort,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Ems,  and  noted  as  the 
birth-place  of  Bameveldt,  has  considerable  febrics  of  dimity  and  bombazeen,  and  extensive 


PahtIII. 

ms,  which  were 
ling,  and  excels 
le  neighbouring 
The  matchless 
vhiteness  of  Uie 
ns  has  been  im- 
culiar  quality  in 
Lit  is  more  pro- 
9ult  of  the  ex- 
'  the  inhabitants, 
long  practice, 
rincipallj'  raised 
vicinity  of  Haar- 
I  ancient  gloomy 
(nerly  celebrated 
ly  observed,  has 
:ht,  enclosed  by 
ommorce  of  that 
I  very  considera- 
agniticent  struc- 
icukrly  floats  of 
iouda  IS  a  large 
:tory  of  tobacco- 

1  by  the  Zuyder 
t  the  interior  is 
ancient  and  not 
h  greater  exact- 
part  of  Holland, 
the  fishery,  for 
iculiarly  adapted, 
:  activity.    Alk- 
wn,  with  a  great 
!se,  and  a  manu- 
most  important 
are  the  Holder 
naval  stations; 
omi  landing  tlie 
the  other  an 
le  Dutch  fleets 
the  facility  it 
the  considerable 
nd. 

re\  of  the  water, 
brmed  and  envi- 
rivers  into  fi-iths, 
ts  of  the  spires 
He  soil  is  moist 
ovk^'wer,  andtlie 
to  forei^prs.  as 
leren;  but  the 
insiderable  city, 
ic  architecture, 
ry.  The  island 
nd  South  Beve- 

e  same  tract  of 
cht,  the  capital, 

mparts  and  the 
tensive  and  de- 
nt passage  over 
trecht.    In  this 

ited  Provinces 
;he  long  war  & 
id  noted  as  the 
,  and  extensive 


Rook  L 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


516 


bleaching  grounds.    Naarden,  a  small  town,  forms  the  key  of  all  the  water  communications 
of  Holland. 

North  Brabant,  comprisinff  that  which  was  the  Dutch  port  of  the  province,  ia  a  flat,  Mmdy, 
marshy  tract,  not  distinguished  by  either  the  natural  fertility  or  manufacturing  industry  bo 
conspicuous  in  iho  rest  of  Holland  and  Belgium.  Forming,  however,  the  barrier  by  which 
tho  Dutch  maintiiined  their  independence,  it  contains  several  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in 
Europe,  which  have  indeed  th<^  reputation  of  being  almost  impregnable.  Breda  is  one  of 
the  mo3t  conspicuous.  Ailcr  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  took  it  by  surprise,  in  1600,  its 
fortifications  were  greatly  extended,  and  the  surrounding  country,  being  intersected  by 
rivers  and  marslies,  can  be  laid  under  wat«r.  It  is  an  agreeable  city,  commanding  from  the 
ramparts  a  fine  view,  and  both  its  church  and  its  town-hall  are  admired  Gothic  edifices. 
Bois  le  Due,  or  Herzojenbosch,  on  the  Dommel,  so  named  from  an  old  hunting-wood  of  the 
Dnkes  of  Brabant,  is  a  large  town,  and  equally  strong.  It  is  so  intersected  by  canals,  that 
eighty  bridges  arc  required  to  cross  them ;  in  winter  the  place  is  entirely  surrounded  by 
water,  and  can  be  approached  only  in  boats.  Bergen-op-2^m,  farther  to  the  west,  is  similar 
as  to  strength,  and  was  esteemed  the  masterpiece  of  the  celebrated  Cohorn.  The  disastrous 
attack  made  upon  it  by  the  Britibii  in  the  last  war  is  well  remembered 

The  outer  provinces  of  Guelderland,  Friesland,  Ovoryssel,  Drei<  e,  and  Groningen, 
which  lie  between  the  Zuyder  Zee  and  the  Ems,  are  ratlier  appendages  than  integral  portions 
of  Holland,  and  form  by  their  situation  part  of  the  great  level  plain  of  northern  Germany. 
The  country  is  similar  to  Holland,  however,  in  its  aspect  and  the  general  state  of  cultiva- 
tion, though  a  somewhat  greater  proportion  of  the  land  is  employed  in  the  raising  of  grain. 
Friesland  has  a  very  fine  breed  of  horses  and  horned  cattle ;  and  the  linen  manufacture 
flourishes  to  a  considerable  extent.  In  these  provinces,  particularly  in  Guelderland  and 
Overyssel,  there  is  a  large  extent  of  sandy  and  marshy  ground,  which  is  not  forced  into  cul- 
tivation with  the  same  minute  care,  as  in  the  central  provinces.  Much  benefit,  however,  is 
expected  frc  n  the  pauper  colonies  lately  established  there. 

The  towns  of  this  region  ore  pretty  numerous  and  considerable,  though  none  are  of  thn 
first  class.  Nimegucn,  in  Guelderland,  is  ancient,  strong,  and  handsome,  commanding  a 
noble  view  over  the  Rhine.  Zntphen  is  an  old  imperial  city,  dreadfully  pillaged  in  1572  by 
tl>e  Duke  of  Alva.  It  has  a  magnificent  church ;  and  the  rens  around  it  have  b(;en  so  com- 
pletely drained,  as  to  render  the  air  no  long -!  unwholesome.  Amheim  is  a  large  and  beau- 
tiful town,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  Yeluwe,  and  forming  a  great  thoroughfare  into  Ger- 
many. Deventer,  in  Overyssel,  is  an  ancient  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  and  has  a 
venerable  cathedral.  Zwoll,  on  tho  Yssel,  is  strong,  large,  and  well  built.  Assen,  though 
capital  of  the  new  province  of  Drenthe,  is  only  a  village.  In  Friesland,  Leuwarden,  on 
the  Ee,  is  a  large  and  populous  town,  in  a  country  surrounded  and  intersected  with  canals, 
which  enable  it  to  communicate  with  the  sea,  and  to  carry  on  a  considerable  trade.  Cam- 
pen,  an  ancient  Hanse  town,  has  lost  its  importance,  the  harbour  being  now  choked  up. 
Harlingen,  Franeker,  Dokkum,  Bolsward,  are  ports  on  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  manufacturing 
places  of  some  importance.  Groningen,  capital  of  the  provinces  of  the  same  name,  is  tho 
most  important  of  all  the  towns  east  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.  It  is  well  built,  and  adorned  with 
noble  edifices ;  and  its  university  was  once  distinguished  anong  Dutch  seminaries.  Large 
vessels  can  ascend  the  Hunse  from  the  Zuyder  Zee. 

Luxemburg,  an  extensive  province,  though  political  revolutions  attached  it  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  now  to  Holland,  forms  part  of  Germany,  entitling  the  king  to  a  vote  in  tho  Ger- 
manic diet  Its  character  is  every  way  in  decided  contrast  to  the  rest  of  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium. Instead  of  a  dead,  rich  flat,  traversed  by  navigable  streams  and  canals,  Luxemburg 
presents  almost  throughout  high  mountains  and  woods,  forming  scenes  of  savage  grandeur, 
similar,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  to  those  of  Switzerland.  The  country  is  destitute  of 
water  communications,  is  imperfectly  cultivated,  a;  id  does  not  contain  a  population  of  more 
than  sixty-six  to  the  square  mile.  Its  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  of  smal.  size ;  but,  as 
usual  in  mountain  pastures,  of  delicate  f'^iom.  The  horses  are  active  and  hardy ;  and  the 
tract  which  borders  on  the  Moselle  pi/duces  valuable  wine. 

The  cities  and  towns  are  by  no  means  on  the  same  scale  as  those  in  the  rest  of  the  king- 
dom. Luxemburg,  the  capital,  situated  on  two  rocks,  whose  steep  sides  form  a  glpcis,  while 
the  river  Else,  at  their  feet,  serves  as  a  wet  ditch,  is  (,?«  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in 
Europe.  The  horse  and  cattle  markets  are  considerable.  Th^^ux  has  in  its  neighbourhood 
mines  of  a  beautiful  black  marble.  Maestricht,  the  principal  tov^n  of  Limburg,  has,  along 
with  all  the  part  of  that  province  east  of  the  Mouse,  been  assigned  to  Holland.  It  is  large, 
handsome,  and  well  fortified.  Ruremonde  and  Venlo,  also  neat  towns  of  some  strength,  are 
included  in  the  same  district  i  ....,„...,.' 


i 


616 


MAP  OP  FRANCE— wwr  part. 


Fra.  200 


tl* 


6  Loaftliiilt  WmI  4  ba>  Qimwicb 


1  LoBfltuits  Eut 


Pw.  a»     I    Ito.  2fl9. 


MAP  OF  FRANCEr-cm  past. 


817 


^\ 


,11 


R"iWt<Cj." 


^ 


^ 


'fl 


i', 


Wo        »«, 


/^.?T»"     "•. 


«i 


•n 


Ini^ 


I  Longitude  Eut 


V«y     T 


4i(n|IMiS«l     tflramannwicbf 


r 


•".I.T*!* 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER  VIIL      rft- 


PabtIU 


•■w«w 


FRANCE.       '       •    ■  ■•        .  '     ".-,,.      ■    v  -7  -.r'j 

Framoi  m  a  ffreat  and  poworfiil  kingdom,  placed,  as  it  wore,  in  the  centra  of  the  civi- 
lised world,  ana  for  several  cunturies  aistinguiahed  by  the  conspicuous  part  which  it  has 
acted  on  the  theatre  of  Europe.  lis  population,  military  power,  central  situation,  vast  re- 
sources, and  active  industry,  render  it  peculiarly  deserving  of  an  attentive  survey. 


R^erenctt  to  Ihe  Map  o/Fra  i».—\Vttt  Part. 


NORTH  FART. 

Province  of 
ARTOIS. 


Dtpartmnt  if 
I.  BlriiitorQilili. 

(Pu  d«  Caltii.) 
1.  Otlalf 
B.  BoulofM 
XBinier 
4.  Monlteuil 


.JCAR_.. 

Dtfartmmt  af 

II.  Bomni*. 

S.  CroMT 

0.  Ru« 

"  Bi.Vallery 

Abtxville 

AlruoM 


I 


[I'Aiilt 

Beletin* 

Alancon 

LtomlVoDt 

nnchebiar 

HorUin 

Avranohaa 

Pwloraon 

Projlnoa  of 
BKETAaNE. 

Dtturtmtrtt: 
X.  Ilia  and  Vi- 

laliw 
I.  North  Ooaat 
II.Finlilem 


ntt. 
«nna 


'S^^'^.  .^r&L 


Depanmtnti^ 

III.  OlM 

IV.  Beim  and  01m. 

iO.  GrandTillen 
I,  Bl. Clair 
%  Maulan 
3.  RamboulUet 

14.  Houdaa 

15.  Manlea 

Prnvlncx  of 
NORMANDY. 


71.  Antrain 
78.  Bt.  Male 


nrvartmnL 

XVI.  Martini 

XVII.  Baiiba. 

IW.  Craon 

i:iO.  Chateau  Oai>- 

I.isi  La  Plaeha 
133.  Chateau  de 

Itfili'nl? 

mfa3 
i:i8.  Ju«i(na 

14|.  Prei  en  PaU 
149.  frenar 

143.  Mamera 

144.  La  Ferle  Dei^ 


14S, 


75.1 
79 


Juingamp 
'tioipol 
Lannloo 
Bell«  ' 


)war(iiMnt>. 
.  Lo        - 


, .  Lower  Belna 
/I.  Eure 
/{|.  Oma 
JLII.Calvadoa 
~.  Tha  Channel. 
(La  Manche.) 
18.  Vernon 

17.  Andehiira 

18.  Goumay 
10.  Neufchatel 
|u.BlanfJa 
91.  Eu 


Uieppe 
3l.Vah)ry 


K.Feeamp 

95.  Havre  de  Grace 

96.  Bolbeo 

97.  Yvelot 

98.  Rouen 
9».  ElboDuf 
30.  Louviera 
9).  Brionne 

St.  Pont  Andemar 

tPnnt  I'Evequa 
Liaieuz 
Caen 
36.  Bayeux 

3S.  Carentan 

40.  Valoinea 

41.  Barfleur 

49.  Cherbourc 

43.  Lea  Pieux 

44.  Bameville 

45.  Creanca 

46.  Coutancea 

47.  Granville 

48.  ViUedieu 
4».  Vira 
90.Thoriiinr. 
51.  St.Oormain 
!».Pantd'OuU)r 
5.1.  FalaiM 

!t4.  Arteotan 

55.  Gaee 

56.  Oibee 

57.  Bernay 

58.  Ruglea 

50.  Evreuz 
eo.  »vry 
61.VeriMttU 


JIa  lie 

.orlalx 

60.  Lannilia 

81.  Breil 

83.  Landemeau 

83.  Chateaulin 

84.  Andierna 

85.  Quimper 
80.  Quimperle 

87.  Uourln 

88.  Carhaix 
80.  Roatienen 
W.  pzel 

01.  Loudeao 
03.  Broona 
03.  Montfort 
e4.Hede 

05.  Rennea 

06.  Bl.  Aubin 

07.  Fouffcrea 
OaVitre 

00.  La  Guercha 

100.  Chateaubriant 

101.  Cerin 
108.  Carenloiro 

103.  Rcdon 

104.  Maletroit 

105.  Ploeroral 

106.  Band 

107.  Pontivr 

108.  Hennnbon 
100.  L'Orient 

110.  Vannei 

111.  Roche-Bernard 
II3.Nozay 

UX  Ancenia 

114.  Nantea 

1 15.  Savenay 
liaGuerraiide 

117.  Paiuibouf 

118.  Boamnauf 
110.  Cliaaon 

Province  of 
ANJOU. 

Z}<par(iiinit  of 

XV.  Mayenne  and 

Loire. 

ISO.  Beaupreao 
131.  Chollet 
133.  Chalonne 

133.  Vihien 

134.  Saumur 
185.  Bauce 
136.  Angara^ 
m.  Ingrande 
1S8.  Begra 

Province  of 

MAINis  AND 

PEQCHE. 


MoAtmirail 

Provlnre  of 
ORLEANAIB. 
Z>ci>ar(ia«i((. 
XVIII.  Eure  and 

Loir 
XIX.Loirat 
XX.  Ixiir  and  Cher. 
140.  Brou 

147.  NogenI  le  Ro- 

lr<iu 

148.  Allien 

149.  preux 

150.  Maintenon 

151.  Charlrea 
158.  Ronneval 

153.  Toury 

154.  Arlenay 

155.  Chateaudun 

156.  Mondoubleau 

157.  Vendome 

158.  Bloia 
150.  Melun 
IfiO.  Orleana 
101.  Conon 
103.  Chambor^ 
10.1.  Romorantin 

164.  St.  Aignnn 

165.  Chaumont 

Province  of 

TOURAINE. 

T>g-aTlMtKl  of 

XXI.  Indre  and 

Loire. 

106.  Chateau  Rag- 

naull 

167.  Toura 

168.  Savigne 
160.  Langeaia 

170.  Chinnn 

171.  La  Haya 
178.  Montbaxon 

173.  Locbea 

174.  Beaulieu 

Province  of 

BERRI. 

Dnartmenl  cf 

XXII.  Indre. 

175.  Chatillon  aur 

Indre 

176.  Levroux 

177.  Valencay 

178.  Valan 
170.  Chateauroux 

180.  La  Chatra 

181.  Arienton 
IKi.  Bt.lElenoit 
183.  Le  Blanc 

Province  of 
POITOU. 

XXIir.  Vienne 
XXIV.  Two  Savrei 


XXV.  Vendee. 

181.  Lit  Roehe 

I'oaar 

185.  Chalelleraull 
1^.  Louduo 
187.  Moneontoni 
i(J8.  Thouara 
180.  Breaaura 

100,  Ciiatirian  iur 

Bevra 

101.  Pouianga 
103.  MonlalKU 

103.  Hoauvvir 

104.  Si.  Gillea  aur 

Vie 

lOS.Sablead'Olonnt 

IM.  TalmonI 

107.  Bourbon- Ven- 
dee 

196.  Lucon 

190.  Fnntcnay 

900.  Ohataiiineraye 

ani.  Parihenay 

903.  Vivonne 
9U.1.  Poitlora 

904.  St.  Savin 
Sfl.1.  Montniorillon 
ai6.  L'lile  Jourdain 
907. Ctvr  >y 
808.  Melle 
90n.  Niort 

'  910.  Mauxe 
911.  Sauxe 

SOUTH  PARI. 


33.  ITxaroha 
rrelgnao 
Tulle 
Tutanna 

37.  r 


VII.  Tarn  and  Ga- 
ronne 
VIII.  Lot  and  Oa- 

IX.  Doidogna 
X.  Bordeaux 

38.Thiviara 
3D.  Nonlion 
40.  Branlonn 

1i&'a'l!u"Il" 
iberac 
lucidaa 
ilbouma 


Air* 
MontueMaiwt 

I.  Sever 

onftirt 

It.Vlneenl 
rrahorada 
Eapiil 


-'aiielnan 


53.1 


Bueh 


Province  of 
SAINTONOE 
AND   AUNIB. 


54.  Caairea 

55.  Bordeaux 

56.  Creon 

57.  La  Reolle 
inda 


It.  I 

layonne 

'.JeanPMd* 

,'orl 

Jaulaon 

\\%  Oleron 

NavarraiiM 
114.  Orlhea 

IllPa-i"- 

Province  of 
B%^^AND 

XV.  .^eg* 
0.  T»l>ea 

^,  ,  rgellei 
J9I.  Lux 
198.  Bagnerta 
193.  BarraDcolin 


194.1 


195.1 


lagnerea  du 
ichor 


/><j)ar(iiint  of 

I.  Lower  Charente. 

9.'  La  Roehelle 
3.  Kochelbrt  . 
I.  St.  Jean  d'An- 

gely 
8.  Bainlea 

6.  Matennaa 

7.  Royao 

8.  Pona 
0.  Jnnzae 

10.  Mimmbeau 

II.  Monliou 

Provlnee  of 

ANGOUMOIB. 

Dtpartmnt  bj 

11.  Charente 

13.  Aubeterra 

13.  Barbozipux 

14.  Cognac 

15.  Angouleme 

16.  La  Rochefou- 

cauld 

17.  Manala 

18.  Rufl^o 

19.  Confolena 

Provincea  of__ 
MARCHE  AND 
LIMOUSIN. 
Dnarlmmtt. 

III.  Upper  Vienna 

IV.  Coriexe 
v.  Creuae. 

90.  Bellao 
at.  lie  Dornt 
93.  Buulerralne 
8:1.  Oueret 
34.  Bourg.ineuf 
83.  Eymontiera 
86.  St.  Leonard 
St7.  Limogee 

98.  St.  Junien 

99.  Rooheobouait 
30.  Chalua 
31.St.Yrieix 
•xt  —       —  • 


SriSirS  wuuMia 


*nt\ 


58.  Marinan-. 
SO.  Caatillonei 

60.  Bergerao 

61.  La  Linde 

69.  Miremont 
ra.  Barfat 
64.  Domma 
av  Calua 
06.  GourdoD 
CT.  Marlal 
0aSt.Ceia 

70.  Concota 
Ti.St.Antonia 

79.  Cahora 

73.  Cauiaade 

74.  Moniauban 

75.  Verdun 

76.  CaatelaaratiD 

77.  Moiiaaa 

78.  MoDcuq 
70.  Fnmel 

80.  Villenenve- 

d'Agen 

81.  Agen 
83.Nerae 

83.  (y'aitel-Geloux 

84.  Baxaa 
BS.  Captieux 

Pmvinee  of 
GA8C0NY. 
Dmartmmti, 
XI.  Landea 
XII.  Lower  Py- 

reneea 
XIII.  g"s. 

86.  Bore 

87.  Murat 

88.  Mimizan 
80.  La  Bouliera 
00.  Roquefort 
91.  Eauze 

03.  Condom 
0.3.  Leetoure 

04.  Fleuranea 

05.  IileenJoutdain 
96.  Iiombez 

07.  Aoch 

08.  Miranda 
Vie  FerenkM 

Ivi.  nagaio 


Luchon 
LGirona 

130.  Taraaoon 

197.  Ax 

198.Faix 

190.  Pamien 

Province  of 
LANOUEDOC. 

xfl?fi'pWa- 

XVII.  raS! 


l|?:f?ililS;t'' 

139.  Lavaur 
133.8l.SuTpiee 
134.  Grenade 

130.  Cazerea 

140.  St  Gaudena 

141.  St.  Beat 

RiTtri. 
a  Seine 
b  Divea 
e  Ouro 
d  Virs 
e  Ouit 
f  Vilaine 

n  Mayenne 
i  Sattha 

iLoiro 
BeauvroD 
I   LeCher 
mimiro 
n  Creuse 
o  Vienna 
p  Charente 
q  pronne 

'  «'* 

a  pordogne 
t  Veitio 
u  Lot 
T  Garcnne 
wAveyroD 
z  Tarn 
J  AdoQi,  _^ 
■  QandaPw 


])oOK  I. 
Francd 

NORTH 


y 


nnart 
I.  The 


1.  Mauliftul 

1.  Aviwieaf 

3.  Lnnilrvq 

4.UCnte_ 

8,  C'auibriil 

0.  Valcncif 

Douay  r 

St.  Amd 

V.  Lille      \ 

0.  IJazobrd 

.Cdtnil  1 

.  Dunkirid, 

,  Uravuliil 


in.  Alio 

17.  f  auquei 

18.  HM<nn 

19.  SI.  Pol 


-■»^^i»'<px-T7^T' 


PaitU 


tmfr- 

ntra  of  the  civi- 
lit  which  it  haa 
tuation,  vast  re> 
urvey. 


01.  AIra 

Mont  ila  MuMi 
1.  B«ver 
lanft)rt 

l«.Vln««i« 

I.  Eipilt 
iironae 
\  Inn  fMit 

ituboD 


07.1 

<«. 

00. 

lai 


jron 
Niyantiu 
1 14.  Otlhei 

"and 


118. 


XI 


m^.ni. 


ne« 
.  Arriec* 
rirbai 


XV. 

m-i 

}io.A„.iiM 

191.  Lui 
ISS.  Bagnem 
183.  gairagcolin 
134.  Bagiwrea  du 

Luchon 
133.  BtGiroiM 

'araaooa 

iSi.  Pamien 

Provinea  of 
LANQITEDOC. 

X^ffl'pWa. 

XVII.  ffi 

li?:?f.Sfft;?&'' 


33.  BirSulpiee 

34.  Orenads 


«vaur 


35.  Tonlaiia* 
Murat 


36. 


U: 


9.  Canrea 
0.  Sl  Oauden 
41.  St.  Beat 

Sner$, 
I  S«!ne 
I  Divea 

Ouro 

Vire 

Ouit 

Vilaine 

I^ire 
I  Mayenne 

Baitha 

Loiro 

BeauTron 

LcCher 
■Indro 


1  Cti 
I  Vii 


lenna 

'ha  rente 

'roniw 

lie 

lordogne 

ezcre 
^ot 
Qarcnna 

.TejroD 

am 

aatwdePtu 


4" 

Ti 


DOOK  I. 


.tmtJ  FRANCE. 


M  .fe-.;ui 


Aiy 


Sbot.  I. — Oeneral  Outline  au*  /jipeet. 
EVance  is  bounded  on  the  North  by  the  Channel,  whicli  ^oparates  it  fVoro  England,  and 


NORTH  PART.     J).  Youtl*™ 

Proviiii'«  111' 
pLANnKRH. 
Ucpartment  of 
I.  The  Nuilh. 
1.  Mauliniive 
8.  Aviwiaa 
3.  LnnilrnciP 

i.  Le  Cnteau 
.  I  'anibnii 
0.  Valcnclennoa 
",  bouiiy      , 
It.  Ainanu 
.ill« 


Rtferencei  to  the  Map  qf  Prance.— EaU  Part 


jaaobrouck 
;iitwl 
tunkirk 
Uravelinoi. 


Prnvinrn  of 

ART019., 

Pttinrt menl  of  tlU 

II.HtrniliirCulam. 

14.  Arili-ca 

15.  Bl.  Oinor 
1(1.  Aim 

19.  Sl.  Pnl 

80.  Batliuno 

81.  Airai 

98.  Bapaume. 

Prnvinro  of 

PlCAllDY. 

Dnnrtmrnt  of 

HI.  Summo. 

33.  Douleiia 

34.  Amioni 
.  Pcrnnno 


71.  AltiRnr 

73.  Airaiii 

74.  Khelirn 
7.t.  Oourtainon 

77'.  81.  MAnehoud 
7H.  Chalona 
7It.  Rpernay 
8(1.  Ilorinant 
HI.  Mniiiiniiail 

m':  Vilry'Iur  Marne  !'£  V^^^sTal 
M.  Sl  Rtmr  |,|fl.  (),„„„, 

HI.  Kainaiii  1,17.  Hajunnon 

m.  Arcliiur  Aube  ,m.  llui„guy 
HH.  Mnnilly  1B9.  Pule 

Hit.  Npaonl  lui         nn  i>,,ii,n. 


XX.  Douba 
XXI.  Jura. 
I.M.  Lure 
IM.  Luxeuil 
MA.  Jumiy 
1I»I.V«uul 

557.  tjhamplilte 
3t),  Uainpiarre 
ISU.  «ruy 
ino.  (!y 
IHI.  lliiumo 
108.  Muniliclinrd 
1113.  Hl.ilyixilila 
IA4. 1.0  r.uMuy 


ProvincB  of 
THR  \S\A'.  OP 

FRANCE. 
Dtv(irtm$ntt. 
IV.  Oinu 
V.  Peine 
Vl.Smneandpiioiii.  Mil 

VII.  Bflino  and       j  yi,  Ne 
Mame  ""   ~ 

VIII.  Aiino. 
89.  Breteull 
30i  Beauvaia 
31.  Clermont 
a.  Nuyoii 

33.  Compiogno 

34.  Cn»pir 
35.8anliB 

36.  Moru 

37.  Pontoiw 

38.  |t.  Donie 

39.  Luzarchoa 

40.  Dammailin 

41.  Mcaux 
48.  Coulommier 

43.  Marullea 

44.  Paria 

45.  Sceaux 
4A.  Veraallica 

47.  Ciirbeil 

48.  Ktanipea 

49.  Mrlun 

50.  Fontainebleau 
Vemoure 


Heine 
no,  Triiyoe 
01.  Chaouree 
98.  Bat  lui  tieine 
It).  (!!luirvau< 
(M.  Bar  lur  Aube 
US.  Muntieieiwui 

nn.  VaMr 

97.  jiiinvilla 
IN.  Chaumonl 
Oil.  Auberlve 
inu.  Iianirea 
101.  FuyloBillnt 

108.  Biiurbi>nne  loi 

Hnlni 

109.  Bourmont. 

Province  ol' 
I.ORKAINB. 
Dtpartmcntt. 
XIII   Voegos 

XVI.  Mowllc. 
104.  Signeville 
lUS.  Plombleroa 
100.  F.pinai 
107.  Romiromont 
IIH.  Oernrdmer 
1011.  8t.  niu 
no.  Rcmbervillor 

,jrec«urt 
eufchntoau 

113.  Gondreeouit 

114.  Bar  le  Duo 

115.  Vaocouleura 

1 16.  Cnmmoic/ 

117.  Toulon 
IIB.  Nuncy 

110.  Luniiville 

180.  Raon 

181.  Sarrubnum 


8;KI.  Hnncrm 
8:4.  Vidrn>n 
8:I.V  n.iumri 
lEIH.  Chiiiiiaiinnnf 
3J7.  Chateau  Mvil- 

lant 
8:«.  Bl.  Amend 
S30.  Tllnl 
WO.  Hanoerguaa. 

Province  of 
NIVERWAIB. 
Department  of 
XXVIII.  Nievie. 

Sll.  Novnri 
84'».  I  .a  Charlie 
U4!l.  Come 
941.  Clnmecy 
845.  (/'hninpliiml 
940.  (,'oiliivny 
947.  t^hiileauCliinxn 
848.  Miiulinn  un  Uil- 

Imrt 
940.  Doi'izo 


48.  Riom 

4i  'I'l    ■«, 


170.  Pu  Igny 

171.  B»iiiii 
ir.1.  Kdflhrjuan 

173.  Nouvd 

174.  (JIttirnvnux        ^^„  ^  -  „.        , 

17.5.  LuniluSaulnicr »«).  Su  Piorro  lo 

176.  Ooriun  Mouiicr. 


177.  Bt.  Cluudo. 

PrnvincB  of 
BURtJUNDY. 
Dtpartmtiilt, 
XXII.  AIn 
XXItl.  Baonnnnd 

Lniru 
XXIV.  Cole  (I'Or 
XXV.  Yonne. 
17H.  Nanliia  -„  ,,, 

179.  Korl.lul'Ecluio5.:>Q.  Coiwl 

180.  Bovnel  8.57.  (Janjiat 

181.  Uulivy 
1H9.  Piincin 
]8'.l.  Mount  Luol 
184. 1'rovoux 
IRS.  ChalBmont 


Prnviiipft  of 

BOI/UnONNAIB. 

J)n/nrtinrnt  of 

XXIX.  Allier. 

851.  Uourbnn-l'Ai- 

chnmlmull 
8.Vi.  Moiilina 
S.U  Donjon 
8.14.  Vaicnnoa 
a.'i.S.  l.a  Paliiao 


a-'ia  St.  Pourcain 
9.51).  Hnriiwin 
8U0.  ...ont  Lucon. 


186.  Buurg 

187.  Macon 

188.  Port  du  Vmx 
180.  Cluny 

100.  Bemur  un  Bri- 

onnoia 

101.  Charollee 

198.  Bourbon- La ncy 

103.  M.Bl.  Vincont 

104.  TournuB 

JOS.  Kumenay 
r  •    • 


IM.  Irfiuhnna 

107,  (/'halonno 

108.  Chiiluna 
100.  Nolay 
9IX).  Monicenia 
901.  Antun 
808.  Baulieu 


BOIirH  PART. 

ProvlnP.H  tti' 

MARCHB. 

JD»ar(iiini(  <if 

I.  Creuie. 

I.  BnuBino 

9.  .larnniie 

3.  Cliambon 

4.  Auinnco 

5.  AubuHon 
0.  Folieiin 
7.  Courtine. 


88.  Chateau  Sallna  303.  Arnay  le  Duo 


183.  Nomeny 

184.  Gorze 

185.  Frenna 

186.  81.  Mihiel 

187.  Vaubdcuurt 

188.  Verdun 
130.  Varcnnca 
1:10.  Katain 
VM.  Montmedr 
i:l8.  Longwy 
1:13.  Brioy 
]34.Metz    .„ 

135.  Thionville 

136.  St.  Avoid 

137.  Sarrogueminea 


Sl.  Nei..w»..   _    .  — -ii---.-- 
S3.  Hontereau  Fault  138.  Bitche. 

Yonne  Province  of 

S-  &"•""  ALSACE. 

l&lJ'Ifo'!:  XV?I?£^Whin.™^r<.uo 
t^Sle'il^-oKxVIILUpp^rRhne^^^ 


310.  joiiny 
280.  Villooe 


Province  of 

LIMOUSIN. 

Department  at 

II.  Correze, 

8.  Usael 

9.  Bort 
10.  Eglotona. 

Prnvincft  of 

r.UIENNR. 

nenartment  iif 

III.  Avcyron. 
ILPiioae 
18.  Livignnc 

13.  Villofrnncha 

14.  St.  Sernin 
1.5.  Sl.Afiiquo 

16.  Bt.  Rome 

17.  Miihau 

18.  Rodez 
1*K  Bevprno 
90.  Sl.  Genicz 
SI.  Guiollo 
88.  Rntraiguea 
93.  F.apalinn 

looeuvel'Ar-  31.  Ville  ContaL 


904.  Beaune 
90.5.  Nuita 

906.  Dijon  „, 

907.  UaurTil 

908.  Bcmur 
900.  Aviilon 
SIO.  Coulango  lea 

Vincea 
911.  Auxorre 
918.  Vermanton 
313.  Ravieroa 
914.  Montbard 

315.  Baigneux 

316.  Chatiilon  aur 
Seine 

917.  Tonnerre 

918.  St.  Floreolin 


Province  of 
LYON  N  A  IB. 
D»vartmenl§. 

VI.  Iioiro 

VII.  Rhone. 

44.  I.'llonilal 

45.  Pncudiiire 

46.  Roanne 

47.  Alaiiiiperao 

48.  1'hiz/ 
40.  VillulVanche 
.50.  Lyona 
Al.  Iieron 
.58.  Monibritinn 
M.  Bl.Rmnbert 
.54.  Hi.  KijiMinu 
,55.  Bl.Cliamond 
SO.  Urignaia. 

Prnvlnco  nf 
DAUl'lilNY. 
I Xfinrtmtnta  of 
VIII.  Iwre 
IX.  Ilppir  Alpa 
X.Droino. 
87.  Vienna 

.58.  Veatfi _ 

.50.  <;olo  Bl,  Andre  ici.  (1,1,^  d'Ap 

«0.  Iloorgoin  144.  .I,,vola 

61.  (-rcmion  14.5.  Ijiiigogna 

68.  LaTourdu  Pin  nil.  Mnrvrjola 

6.1.  Voiron  147.  Meiitio 

64  Ri.Iliirraux  |4H.  ('Boourgu* 

0.5.  Hioiiolia  141).  Y\mw. 

66.  Marccllin  ).vt.  Mcyrueia 

67. 1.n  Mure  ISI.  Lo  Viaaa 

68.  llourgd'Oyaana  i.«.  Amioza 

60.  Ilrliinron  ||V).  Oaoir.a 

70.  Montilniiphln  i.vi.  Monlpelier 

ii-  feV  """"•»  1.5S.  Baiaruo 

J?- Rio    _  1.56.  Pea-naa 

73.  Beaufort  157.  Lodevs 

74.  St.  Joan  do  Roi  |.w.  )ie<lnrrieax 
7.5.  Iiero   ...  m).  I.n  Caune 


Prnvinee  of 
LANUCBUOO. 
hepurtmntl. 
^V^Oard 

.  Ardaeha 
.  Upprr  Lolrt 
.  I.oinr* 
.Ijoraull 
\\.  Tarn 
.\XI.  Aude. 

189.  Aliuffumoitei 

vU.  Bommiece* 

181.  Niamea 

185.  Ilaca 

jiM.  foi.iBt.Eapril 

187.  Bnrjao 

188.  Alala 
180.  nKiioilhao 
liUi.  V,1l.!tiirt 
1:11.  l.'Argeiitioi* 
111'.',  Vlvii-m 
1:1:1.  Aiilienat      i-. 
1:11.  Triviia 
1:1.5.  Tiiiirnnn 
i:ifl.  Aiinonuy 
1M7.  Bt.  Airrrve 
KtH.  Yaaiiigeaux 
1:10.  Bi.JuTien  do 

Chnu 
140.  Lo  Puy 
I4l.llrmii(f 
148.  I.nnueae 


S6.  Soieaona 
90.  Laon 

60.  La  Fere 

61.  Bt.  auentin 
68.nui<o 

63.  Biiaonne 

64.  Vervina. 

Province  of 
CHAMPAGNE. 

Z)«)(irtiiient». 
IX.  Arriennoa 
X.  Mama 
.Al.  Aube 
Ail.  Upper  Marne 

65.  Rncroy 

66.  Charleville 

67.  Mczieroa 
R.  Sedan 

60.  Grand  Pre 


139.  Weiaaemburg 

140.  Haguenau 

141.  Bouquenon 
148.  Savemo 

143.  Siraaburg 

144.  Mnlahcim 

145.  BchelBtat 

146.  Sl.  Mane  aux 

Minea 

147.  Colmar  . 

148.  NeufBnaaoh 
140.  Moihnuien 
1.50.  Alikirch 
151 .  Chann 
158.  Giromagny. 

Province  of 

FRANCHB- 

COMTE. 

Dmartmmtt.      

XIX.  Upper  Baone  338. 


333.  Bt.  Julien. 

Province  of 

ORLEANAI8. 

Department  of 

XXVI.Loireu 

334.  Courtenny 
385.  Chatiilon 
986.  Monlargia 
227.  Boyne 
988.  Pilhivicra 
339.  Coinhreux 
930.  Sully 
331.  Gjnn. 

Province  of 

BERRI. 

Department  of 

XXVII.  Cher. 

AuUgny 


Province  of 

AUVERGNE. 

Dnartmmts. 

IV.  Cantnl 

V.  Dome. 

95.  Mount  Salvj 

36.  Maura 

97.  Aurillac 

38.  Chnndea  Aiguea  106.  Draguignan 


76.  I=it.  Vallior 
^7.  Vnlfnco 
"(8.  (Jroit 
70.  Monielimart 
»).  Niona 
81.  Lnrgu 
89.  Argencon 
R3.  Gap 
84.  Embrun. 


Province  of 

PROVENCE. 

Denartment*, 

XI.  Vnueluae 

XII.  liower  Alpa 

XIII.  Vnr 

XIV.  Mouiha  ofthc 
Rhone. 

8.5.  Barcelonnr.tta 

86.  Coimara 

87.  Digne 

88.  Siateron 
80.  Forcalquiec 

90.  Bnult 

91.  Vaiaon 
09.  Orange 
93,  Carpenlrai 
04.  Avignon 

95.  Orgon 

96.  Cavaillon 
07,  Lambeae 
9a  Ant 
90.  Mannaque 

100.  Lea  Mees 

101.  Riex 
103.  Caatellane 

103.  Entrevaux 

104.  Bt.  Auban 

105.  Vence 

106.  Aniibca 

107.  Oraxe 


90.  St.  Flour 

30.  Maaaiae 

31.  Murat 
38.  Mniirino 
3.1.  Beignea 
31.  Bnane 

.15     !»•»;.« 

Si;  Ambiert 

37.  Rillom 

38.  (y'lormont 

39.  Bochefort 

40.  Pont  Gibaud 
4l  Montaigu 


109.  Frciua 

110.  Sl.Tropex 

111.  Le  Luc 
118.  Hieren 

113.  Briirnolle 

114,  Bl.Mnximi 
315.Tou!..r, 
11R.  LaCiolat 

117.  Mnracilloa 

118.  Aix 

110.  Marliguea 
190.  Salon 
131,  Ailea 


160.  Alby 

161.  Caalroa 

11)8.  Puia  Lauraoi 
|li:i.  Maznmet 
164.  Bl.  Pona 
ins,  Bttziera 

166.  Narbonne 

167.  Cnunva 

168.  Carcaiaonne 
ino.  St,  Paponl 
I'll,  Fanjeaux 
171,  Alet 

179,  Itodome 
in.  auillan 

174.  La  Gtaaa« 

Province  of 

ROUBBILLON 

Department  of 

XXlf  Eaalcra  Pr* 

reneea. 

175.  Biveaaltea 
176. 1'radea 

177.  Ml.  Louia.  . 
17b,  Praia  de  Holo 
170,  CJ^rct 

180,  Porpignan. 

Kivera. 
a  Rhine 
b  Moaelle 
c  Meuie 
d  Aiane 

e  Fjcnnt  or  Scbckk 
f  Somme 

EOiie 
Marne  '  .< 

i  Seine 

J  Aube  '  •"■} 

k  Serain 
1  Yonne 
m  Loire 
n  Allier 
o  LeCher 
p  Lot 
qTarn 
r  Aude 
a  Rhone 

t    DUiBUCu 

u  Is 'ro 
v  Ain 

w  Baone 
X  f^ignon 
/  Douba 
z  Lbue. 


Sv 


fiSO 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  ni. 


by  pal  of  tho  ftontier  of  tho  Notherlandi.  On  the  eut  it  ia  bounded  by  Germany,  from 
which  t  is  divided  by  the  Uliine,  and  by  Switzerland  and  Italy,  which  lie  on  the  other  Hide 
of  the  niiffhty  barrier  of  tlio  Alps.  Ita  aoulhern  limita  are  the  Mediterranean  and  tho  bmod 
iathmus  fllled  by  the  I'yrcnuea,  on  the  other  side  of  which  extends  tlio  Spaniuh  jwninsula. 
On  tlie  woit  ia  tho  Atlantic,  and  more  ON|)ecially  tltat  vuMt  ^ulf  called  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 
The  southern  extremity,  on  tho  line  of  the  Pyrenees,  fhlls  m  42°  80'  N.  lat  the  northern 
beyond  Dtmkirk  in  01°  10',  makinjf  in  lonffth  eipht  and  u  half  uc^ees  of  latitude.  The 
breadth  may  bo  from  8°  30'  E.  long^.,  to  4°  40'  W.  loiw.  making  thirteen  degrees  of  longi 
tudo.  This  will  give  dimensions  nearly  sc^uare  of  096  miles  fVom  north  to  south,  and  MO 
fW)m  east  to  west  The  superAcial  extent  is  about  200,000  English  square  miles,  or  somewhat 
above  130,000,000  acres. 

The  surface  of  this  very  extensive  territory  ia  in  general  Invel,  although  it  borders,  and 
ia  encroached  upon  by  the  j^catest  mountain  ranges  of  Europe.  The  Alps  cover  the  fbll 
half  of  ita  eastern  fVont'ct-,  i  .id  their  branches  extending  intoDauphiny  and  Provence,  render 
them  very  rugged  and  romantic  regions.  The  Pyrenees,  which  rank  second  among  the 
chains  of  the  Continent,  range  along  the  southern  bonier,  and  cover  with  their  branches 
R^Miasillon  and  Gescony.  On  tho  east,  where  Franco  reaches  to  the  Rhine,  are  the  Vosgeg 
and  other  ciiains  o.'moderate  height,  parallel  to  that  river.  The  only  range  exclusively  French, 
ia  that  of  Auvergne.  ii  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  which  not  only  includes  all  that  province 
where  it  rises  to  the  .^  eight  of  5000  or  6000  feet,  but  stretches  by  a  winding  line  along  the 
left  bank  of  the  Allier  to  Languodoc,  parallel  to  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  is 
called  the  Cevennes.  But  by  fiir  the  greater  part  of  France,  including  tho  whole  north  and 
the  whole  west,  is  one  widely  extended  plain,  which  yields  in  very  high  perfsction  all  the 
fruits  and  products  of  the  temperate  zone. 

The  rivera  of  France,  though  not  of  the  first  magnitude,  are  noble  and  commodious. 
Traversing  almost  ev  ^ry  part  ot  tho  kingdom,  they  aiibru  ample  means  of  internal  navigation ; 
and  the  broad  plains  which  border  on  them  yield  the  most  luxuriant  harvests.  Tiie  Loire, 
which  is  the  principal,  rises  in  the  south,  on  the  borders  of  Provence,  and  flows  for  sometime 
nearly  north,  parallel  to  the  course  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Sa6nc,  though  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion. Near  Nevers  it  receives  the  Allier,  which  in  a  parallel  and  nearly  equal  stream  has 
hitherto  accompanied  it ;  it  now  gradually  bends  round  into  a  westerly  course,  which  it  fol- 
lows through  the  plains  of  Orleanais  and  Tourainc,  the  garden  of  France,  till  after  a  course 
of  700  miles,  it  falls  into  the  sea  a  little  below  the  great  commercial  city  of  Nantes.  The 
Rhone  is  not  at  first  a  French  river  :  it  rises  in  the  heart  of  Switzerland,  amid  the  eternal 
snows  and  glaciers  of  the  Grimsel  and  the  Shreckhorn,  and  rolls  ita  earliest  course  beneath 
the  mighty  mountain  walls  of  St.  Oothard,  Monte  Rosa,  and  the  Simplon.  It  now  expands 
into  the  Leman  lake,  from  whence  it  emerges  near  Geneva,  where  it  soon  enters  France, 
and  rolls  direct  towards  Lyons.  At  that  great  city,  it  i-eceives  the  Sa6ne,  bringing  down  an 
ample  stream  from  the  Vosges,  awelled  by  that  of  the  Doubs  flvm  the  Jura.  Tho  Rhone, 
now  following  the  direction  of  ita  tributary,  turns  directly  south,  and,  after  a  rapid  course 
through  Dauphiny  and  Provence,  enters  the  Mediterranean  by  several  mouths.  In  this  course, 
the  Alps  transmit  it  to  the  Isdre,  and  the  classical  stream  of  the  Duranc« :  its  entire  length 
may  be  500  miles.  The  Seine,  though  of  inferior  magnitude,  claims  dt-ttinotion  as  flowing 
by  the  metropolis :  it  rises  on  the  frontier  of  Burgundy,  and  runs  almost  du«  north  till  it 
receives  the  parallel  and  nearly  equal  Aube,  when  Oieir  united  waters  flow  west  and  north- 
west Before  reaching  Paris,  it  receives  from  the  south  the  Yonne,  and  from  the  north, 
almost  under  the  walls  of  the  capital,  its  greatest  tributary,  the  Mame.  At  Paris  it  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  considerable  burden.  Beyond  Paris,  tiio  Seine  makes  some  exU  nsive 
windings,  and  is  augmented  from  the  north  by  the  waters  of  the  Oise  bringing  those  of  the 
Aisne.    It  then  passes  the  fine  and  flourishing  city  of  Rouen,  imd,  spreading  into  an  estuary, 

{'oina  the  English  Channel  at  the  ancient  port  of  Havre.  The  Garonne  has  a  course  of  still 
ess  extent,  though  its  broad  navigable  stream,  flowing  thronsjh  n  magnificent  plain,  the  most 
productive  in  valuable  wine  of  any  in  France,  gives  it  a  hi^'li  commercial  importance.  It 
rises  near  the  eastern  Pyrenees,  and  flows  northward  to  Toulouse,  where  a  assumes  a  steady 
north-west  course,  during  which,  swelled  from  the  north  by  the  Aveyron,  the  Lot,  and  the 
Dordogne,  and  passing  the  great  haven  of  Bordeaux,  it  becomes  an  estuary,  capable  of  re- 
ceiving the  largest  vessels.  The  Rhine  is  to  France  only  a  limitary  nvoT  for  somewhat 
above  100  miles ;  but  its  great  tributaries,  the  Moselle  and  the  Mouse,  rise  and  have  most 
of  their  early  course  within  its  territory.  The  important  Belgic  river,  the  Scheldt,  also  rises 
within  the  French  territory. 
France  has  no  lakes,  which,  in  a  general  view,  seem  worthy  of  mention. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Oeography. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Geology, 
Primitive  and  tratuition  districtt.    In  ^rance  there  are  six  districts  where  the  older 
ocka,  or  those  of  the  primitive  and  transitic  ■  classes,  prevail :  viz.  Western  Normandy,  witi^ 


Pjuit  ni. 

'  Germany,  from 
m  the  other  iiido 
ui  and  the  brood 
anmh  ]M)ninNula, 
Bay  of  Biicay. 
at.  the  northern 
r  latitude.  The 
legreoa  of  lonei 
)  louth,  and  MO 
ilea,  or  aomewhat 

h  it  borders,  and 
m  cover  the  flill 
Provence,  render 
cond  among  the 
\i  their  branches 
I,  are  the  Vosget 
:luBivcly  French, 
all  that  province 
\g  line  along  the 
nean,  where  it  is 
whole  north  and 
>erfsction  all  the 

ind  commodious. 

9mal  navigation; 

sts.    The  Loire, 

>ws  for  some  time 

m  opposite  direc* 

equal  stream  has 

irse,  which  it  fol- 

till  after  a  course 

of  Nantes.    The 

imid  the  eternal 

9t  course  beneath 

It  now  expands 

enters  France, 

)ringing  down  an 

Tho  Rhone, 

a  rapid  course 

In  this  course, 

its  entire  length 

notion  as  flowing 

due  north  till  it 

west  and  north- 

from  the  north, 

Paris  it  is  navi- 

some  ext.  nsive 

fmg  those  of  the 

into  an  estuary, 

a  course  of  still 

[it  plain,  the  most 

importance.    It 

assumes  a  steady 

he  Lot,  and  the 

^.  capable  of  re» 

i}r  for  somewhat 

and  have  most 

:heldt,  also  rises 


■a. 


here  the  older 
Normandy,  with 


BnoRl. 


PRANCE. 


631 


Britany  and  Anjou;  the  northern  aide  of  the  Pyrenees;  the  ''"partmenta  of  the  Lower  Alpi. 
Upper  Alps,  and  par*  of  the  Mre ;  Central  France,  or  th  j  table-land  of  France ;  central 
part  of  the  Voeges ;  and  the  Ardennes. 

(1.)  We$tem  Normandy,  Britony,  and  Atyou.  In  this  region  the  rocks  are  partly  Nep- 
tunian, partly  Plutonian:  the  Neptunian  strata  are  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  grey< 
wacke,  quartz  rock,  and  limestone;  the  Plutonian  rocks  are  granite,  syenite,  greenstone 
and  poTDnyrv. 

(2.)  Northern  rde  ./  the  Pyreneei.  On  the  French  side  of  the  Pyrenees  the  central 
rocks  are  nf  primitive  formation,  and  consist  of  mici  slate,  clay  Hlate, •limestone,  or  marble; 
reposing  upon  these,  and  forming  the  great  body  jf  the  range,  are  rocks  of  the  transition 
class;  viz.  clay  slate,  grey  wacke,  and  transition  'imestone. 

(8.)  Departmente  efthe  Lower  and  Upper  Alp$,  and  part  qfliire.  In  this  mountainous 
region  there  are  magnificent  displays  of  many  of  the  more  interesting  formations  of  the 
primitive  and  transition  classes. 

(4.)  Central  table-land  or  plateau  qf  France.  The  centre  of  France  is  occupied  by  a 
vast  table-land  or  plateau  of  old  rocks,  in  general  granite,  which  forms  the  mountains  of 
Burgundy,  tlie  Limousin,  Aveyion,  Arddche,  and  the  Cevennes.  It  is  more  than  eighty 
leagues  m  breadth  fVom  the  heights  of  Limoges ;  but  in  proceeding  towards  the  south,  it  grv 
dually  ihiiio  off,  and  terminates  in  a  point  which  connects  it  with  the  Montagne  Noire. 
This  latter  group  of  old  rocks  forms  a  kind  of  peninsula,  which  is  separated  from  the 
Pyrenees,  by  a  longitudinal  basin  of  secondary  ana  tertiary  formations.  The  acclivities  of 
this  central  granitic  table-land,  and  some  of  its  hollows,  are  covered  more  or  less  densely 
with  newer  rocks  of  various  descriptions.  Besides  these,  there  occurs  on  its  eastern  part  a 
splendid  diitplay  of  volcanic  rocks.  The  primitive  and  transition  rocks  of  this  table-land  are 
tne  following;  viz.  granite,  porphyry,  talc  slate,  serpentine,  gneiss,  clay  slate,  grey  wacke, 
and  limestone. 

(6.)  Central  part  q/*  the  Votge$.  The  oldest  rocks  in  this  range  of  mountains,  and  which 
are  said  to  belong  to  the  transition  class,  are  the  following :  granite,  syenite,  hornblende 
rocks,  ^eenstone,  red  quartziferous  porphyry,  augitie  porphyry,  dolomite,  diallago  rock, 
serpentme,  talc  slate,  clay  slate,  greywacke,  with  anthracite,  granular  and  compact  marble 
or  limestone. 

(6.)  Ardennes.  That  part  of  this  range  of  mountains  included  within  the  limits  of  France, 
which  belongs  to  the  older  part  of  the  goognostical  series,  is  composed  of  various  clay  slates, 
with  greywacke,  all  of  which  seem  to  belong  to  the  transition  class. 

Secondary  districta.  The  lower  and  flatter  parts  of  France  which  extend  from  the  primi* 
tive  and  transition  districts,  are  composed  of  secondary  and  tertiary  depo^'it.q,  more  or  less 
covered  with  alluvial  matters;  and  in  some  quarters  intermingled  w't'  ,lcaii  rocks.  The 
secondary  formations  are  arranged  in  the  same  order,  and  exlii'  inilar  relations  with 
those  already  described  in  our  account  of  Britain.  The  mountain  limestone  and  coal  forma- 
tions form,  when  contrasted  with  their  abundance  in  Britain,  bi  '  a  amall  portion  of  the  sur- 
&ce  of  France ;  while  the  new  red  sandstones,  with  the  sones  of  the  Jura  limestone,  in- 
cluding the  oolites,  form  great  tracts  of  country.  Chalk,  or  jpperimostrock  of  the  secondary 
series,  occurs  in  vast  abundance,  forming  two  basins,  the  >ne  the  northern,  extending  in 
length  from  the  northern  extremity  of  Artoistothesouth»'rn  limit  of  Touraine,  and  in  breadth 
from  Havre  de  Grace  to  near  Bar  le  Due.  The  northern  side  of  Uie  southern  basin  extends 
fVom  Rochefbrt  to  Cahors,  and  the  southern  side  ranges  along  the  northern  face  of  Uie 
Pyrenees. 

Tertiary  diatricte.  France  is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  great  extent  of  its  tertiary 
deposits ;  of  these  the  following  may  be  considered  as  the  principal  onc<; : — 1.  That  of  which 
Paris  forms  the  central  point ;  which  extends  towards  the  north  as  high  as  Laon,  and  south- 
ward to  Blois ;  while  it  stretches  across  from  Pontoise  on  the  west  to  Epemay  on  the  east 
2.  The  great  southern  deposit,  which  extends  from  the  south  side  of  the  river  (rironde  to  the 
south  bank  of  the  river  Adour.  3.  The  south-eastern  deposit,  which  covers  part  of  the  De- 
partments of  Herault,  Gard,  Mouths  of  the  Rhone,  Var,  and  Vaucluse.  4.  The  deposit  in 
the  vallny  of  the  river  AUier,  and  that  in  the  upper  part  of  the  course  of  the  Lbire.  5.  The 
great  deposit  in  the  course  of  the  Rhine  and  Sadne,  extending  from  about  Valence  to  Dijon. 
6.  The  tract  along  the  Rhine,  extending  fVom  Basle  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Carlsrhue. 

Volcanic  districta.  True  volcanic  rocks  occur  in  France  only  in  the  great  central  table- 
land or  plateau ;  in  the  Departments  of  Loire,  Upper  Loire,  Cantal,  and  Puy  de  Ddme.  The 
volcanic  rocks  are  basalt  and  basalt  tuflk ;  trachyte  with  its  tuflk ;  and  lava,  with  its  tuths, 
scorite,  &c.  The  newest  of  these  rocks  are  the  lavas ;  while  the  basalt  and  trachytes  appear 
of  more  ancient  date,  altliough  still  not  very  old,  as  we  find  them  breaking  through  rocks 
of  the  tertiary  class. 

Attuvial  districts.  Alluvia  of  every  description  occur  in  France.  Diluvium  or  the  olij 
alluvium  ferms  extensive  tracts  iu  many  quarters  of  the  kingdom,  where  it  contains  remains 
of  extant  species  of  animals,  of  which  the  most  characteristic  are  those  belonging  to  the 
order  pachyderma.  as  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  &c.    Diluvium  is  also  found  in  caves  alocjr 

Vou  L  44*  8  0 


5i2 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAnrin 


with  bones  of  extinct  animola,  particularly  of  the  carnivorous  genera :  and  rents  and  (lasureii 
ill  RtratA  are  sometiinoa  filled  up  with  a  diluvium  also  containing  remains  of  extinct  animals, 
ot  whioit  the  most  ciiaracteristic  are  the  small  herbivora.  Bono  caves  and  bone  breccia 
occur  at  St  Antonin  and  St  Julien  near  Montpelier;  at  Billar^cs,  Vendar^ucs,  and  Pezo< 
naa-Uorault ;  at  Anduze  and  St  Hippoly to,  in  Gard ;  at  Aix,  in  the  department  of  the 
Mouths  of  the  Rhone ;  at  Villcfrancho  and  Lauraguais,  in  the  Upper  Garonne ;  and  at  Per- 

Signan,  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenooa.    Tiiis  diluvium  is  covered,  to  a  (greater  or  leas  depth,  with 
ifl  Torious  well-kno^n  kinds  of  modern  alluvium  and  of  vegetable  soils. 


WA'V 


*  . '  t.'iN/;  fe. 


Mines  and  Quarries, 

Coal  mines.  Coal  of  various  descriptions,  as  glance,  bituminous,  and  brown  coal,  are 
vined  in  the  followins  departments  in  France,  oAbrding  annually  but  a  small  return  for  so 
vast  a  country : — Auier,  Aveyron,  Mouths  of  the  Rhone,  Calvados,  Gard,  Ilorault,  Isdre, 
Upper  Loire,  Lower  Loire,  Mayeniio  and  Loire,  Moselle,  Nitivro,  Nortli,  Pas  do  Calais,  Puy 
do  D6mo,  Upper  Rhine,  Lower  Rliine,  Lower  Sa6no,  and  Tarn. 

Iron  mines.  Iron  mines,  some  of  them  of  considerable  importance,  occur  in  tho  following 
depiirtineiits : — Ardennes,  Cliarente,  Cher,  C6te  d'Or,  Dordoffnc,  Doubs,  Euro,  Euro  and 
Loir,  Forets,  Indre,  Indro  and  Loire  Is^rc,  Jura,  liowcr  Loire,  Upper  Marnc,  Moselle, 
Niovro,  North,  Orne,UpperRliine,  Lower  Rhine,  Upper  Saflno,  Sadne  and  Loire,  and  Vosges 

Mines  of  silver  and  lead.   The  principal  lead  mines  and  silver  mines  are  tiio  following  :— 

Minn*  nf  Qulittnli  of  I.A111I  Marcii  of  Silver 

.-  Flnisterre Pniilliuicn obaut   R,nnO ISOO 

.    ,   .  '        Litto lliK'lvoRt :i,(HIO IVUO  . 

Liiiire Villefort IP.OdO 1500        " 

Isiro Viuimo 1,31K) — 

Copper  mines.  These  are  situated  in  the  following  departments : — Upper  Alps,  Rhone^ 
Rliinc  and  Moselle. 

Mines  qf  manganese.  This  metal  is  mined  at  Roman^chc  and  St  Micaud,  in  the  depart* 
mont  of  the  Sa6ne  and  Loire ;  at  Suquet  in  Donlogne ;  in  the  mountain  of  Tholey  in  Mo- 
selle ;  at  Laveline,  near  Saint  Dier,  in  the  Vosges ;  and  at  Saint  Jean  de  Gardoncnque  in 
the  Covennes. 

Mines  of  antimony.  Antimony  occurs  in  the  provinces  of  Charente,  Upper  Loire,  La 
Vendee,  Cantal,  Allier,  Gard,  and  Puy  de  D6me. 

Mines  of  vitriol  and  alum.  Tho  principal  mines  of  sulphate  of  iron  or  vitriol  arc  those 
of  Saint  Julien  de  Valgargue,  near  Alais,  which  furnishes  annually  80,000  quintals ;  and 
tliat  of  Bccquet  and  of  Goincourt,  near  Beauvais,  which  in  some  years  affords  15,000  quin- 
tals ;  tliat  of  Ural,  in  the  department  of  Aisne,  and  of  Gersdorf,  in  the  department  of  Lower 
Rhine.  There  are  celebrated  manufiictories  of  alum  at  Montpelier,  and  at  Javelle  near 
Paris.  Some  considerable  beds  of  rock-salt  have  been  discovered  at  Vic,  in  the  department 
of  Meurtlic.  One  of  these  is  upwards  of  fourteen  yards  thick,  and  another  has  not  as  yet 
been  cut  through.  Although  cobalt  arsenic,  nickel,  and  tin  also  occur  in  France,  nc  consi- 
derablc  mines  of  those  minerals  have  been  established. 

Quarries.  Tho  most  extensive  quarries  are  those  of  marble,  building-stone,  slate,  gyp. 
sum,  millstone,  and  flint  Different  kinds  of  marble  are  raised  at  Givet  Brabantjon,  Mods, 
Namur,  Boulogne  sur  Mer,  Caen,  Troyes,  Montbar,  Cosne,  Toumus,  Narbonne,  Aix,  Mar- 
seilles, Tarb,  and  in  many  valleys  in  the  Pyrenees.  There  are  quarries  of  excellent  building- 
stone  in  tlie  departments  of  Iji  Manche,  Calvados,  Moselle,  Cdte  d'Or,  Yonne,  Oise,  Seine, 
Loire,  Dordogne,  and  in  many  departments  in  the  south.  Vast  slate  quarries  are  worked  in 
tlie  departments  of  La  Manche,  Meuse,  Ardennes,  Maine  and  Loire,  and  at  tho  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees.  In  many  other  places,  and  particularly  in  Champagne,  &c.,  there  are  quarries 
and  pits  of  clay  for  brick  and  tile-making.  The  gypsum  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  the 
chalk  of  the  departments  of  Marne  and  Seine,  the  talc  named  chalk  of  Briancon,  the  mill- 
stone or  buhr-stone  of  Ferte  sous  Jouarre,  are  objects  of  considerable  commercial  importance. 
The  departments  of  Yonne,  Cher,  and  Lower  Charente,  supply  all  France  and  different 
foreign  nations  with  gun-flints.  Among  the  clays  met  with  m  France,  that  of  Forges  les 
Eaux,  was  formerly  in  great  r  mte  in  Holland  for  the  manufacture  of  pipes;  the  clay  or 
earth  of  Belkeuf,  near  Rouen,  considered  an  excellent  material  in  the  purifying  of  sugar; 
and  tlie  potters*  clay  of  the  vicinity  of  Beauvais  and  Montereau,  and  the  porcelain  earu  or 
kao-lin  of  Saint  Yrieix,  near  Limoges,  are  highly  esteemed. 

SvBSECT.  2. — Botany. 
Having  devoted  already  so  great  a  portion  of  our  space  to  preluninary  remarks  upon  vegfr' 
table  geography  on  its  more  extended  scale,  and  to  that  of  Great  Britain  in  particular,  we 
must  content  ourselves  with  a  more  limited  account  of  the  plants  of  other  countries;  other- 
wise we  should  greatly  overstep  the  bounds  prescribed  to  us  by  the  nature  of  the  present 
work.  Following  the  plan  here  adopted  for  the  arrangement  of  tlie  diflerent  countries, 
France  comes  next  under  our  notice ;  and  a  more  interesting  field  for  tlie  geographical  bota- 
nist does  not  exist  in  Europe ;  not  only  because  of  its  extent  and  vast  variety  of  surface  the 


TT-'  ''^TPr»7'y'.^ 


Part  in 

onts  and  fissureti 
oxtinct  animal*, 
nd  bone  breccia 
gues,  and  Pezo* 
partRient  of  the 
ne ;  and  at  Per* 
leas  depth,  widi 

H"'  ■iit  ■:'  i,    -Jt  !«* 


brown  coal,  are 
ill  return  for  so 
,  Ilorault,  Is^re, 
a  do  CalaiB,  Puy 

in  Iho  followine 
Eure,  Euro  ana 
Marne,  Moselle, 
)irc,  and  Vosges 
Iho  following:— 

Mun  of  Silver 
1300 

imra 

1300 

per  Alps,  Rhonei 

id,  in  the  depart* 
)f  Tholey  in  Mo. 
!  Gardonenque  io 

Upper  Loire,  La 

vitriol  are  those 
)0  quintals;  and 
jrds  15,00()  quin* 
rtment  of  Lower 
at  Javelle  near 
1  the  department 
er  has  not  as  yet 
iVance,  nc  consi- 

itone,  slate,  eyp- 
rabangon,  Mens, 
onne,  Aix,  Mar- 
cellent  building- 
no,  Oise,  Seine, 

are  worked  in 

the  foot  of  the 
re  are  quarries 
kmI  of  Paris,  the 
ancon,  the  mill- 
cial  importance. 
:e  and  different 
t  of  Forges  les 

s;  the  day  or 
fyin^-  of  suMr; 

celain  eorw  or 


urks  upon  veg©' 
particular,  we 
lun  tries,  otier- 
of  the  present 
rent  countries, 
graphical  bota- 
of  surface  tlie 


Book  L 


FRANCE. 


i.lti'  '•^.^M 


628 


^at  height  of  its  mountains,  and  its  geoloffical  structure ;  but  oecause,  by  the  .abouYs  ol' 
its  naturalists,  especially  Lamarck  and  De  CandoUo,  the  vegetable  productions  of  Franco 
have  been  better  explored  tlian  those  of  almost  any  other  country  in  the  world.  All  that  we 
can  do  here,  however,  is  to  notice  in  general  those  that  |ire  Uie  most  mteresting,  flrom  Uieir 
utility,  their  beauty,  or  some  circumstances  connected  with  their  history ;  or  as  diowing  how 
vegetable  forms  or  groups  are  situated,  in  regard  to  their  distribution,  upon  the  surfhco  of 
the  earth. 

France,  extending,  as  it  does,  ftom  lat.  42°  80'  to  61°  N.,  or  nearly  to  the  latitude  of 
London,  and  flrom  9°  east  longitude,  to  5°  west,  is  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
RToat  chain  of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  south;  by  the  Atlantic  on  the  west;  by  the  British 
Channel  and  the  Netherlands  on  the  north ;  and  on  the  ejist  by  Savoy,  Switzerland,  and  Ger- 
many, which  form,  for  its  entire  length,  a  vast  mountam  barrier.  Such  an  alpine  region 
'.annot  fail  to  exert  a  manifest  influence  on  the  vegetation  of  a  country ;  not  only  because 
*"  its  own  peculiar  productions,  depending  in  part  on  their  elevation,  and  in  part  on  their 
soil  and  geological  structure,  but  by  their  exposure  even  at  the  same  elevation,  on  two  oppo- 
site sides ;  that  of  the  south  will  be  found  to  exhibit  very  different  vegetable  forms  fVom  that 
of  the  north ;  and  such  mountains  often  exercise  a  more  powerful  influence  in  limiting  the 
surrounding  vegetation,  t'lan  even  seas  and  rivers. 

Ijimarck  onaDe  Can/iolle,  in  a  very  interesting  Botanical  Map  which  accompanies  their 
Flore  Prangaige,  3d  edit^  have  divided  France  into  five  regions  :— 

(1.)  The  region  of  ma'itime  plants,  which  of  course  extends  everywhere  along  the  coast, 
from  Ostond  to  Bayonno  m  the  north  and  west,  and  from  Pcrpignan  to  Oueille  on  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  together  with  the  Salines  of  Dieuze  and  Chftteau  Salins  near  Nancy,  and  those 
of  Durkheim  and  Frankonsthal  near  Mayence  in  the  interior.  Thus  we  find  that  a  vegeta- 
tion similar  to  that  of  the  sea-shore  exists  in  the  interior,  whenever  that  interior  yields 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  marine  salt.  All  the  maritime  plants  of  the  north  of  Franco,  accord- 
ing to  M.  de  Candollo  (and  they  have  the  greatest  affinity  with  those  of  England),  are 
eaually  found  in  the  south;  but  the  reverse  does  not  hold  good;  for  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  French  Mediterranean  plants  of  the  sea-shore  grow  very  sparingly,  if  at  all,  upon  the 
shores  of  the  Ocean,  principally  indeed  on  the  coast  of  Gascuny,  and  reach  no  higher  than 
the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  or  at  most  to  the  middle  of  Britany. 

(2.)  The  region  of  mountain  and  alpine  plantt.  When  the  French,  by  their  conquests^ 
included  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alp^,  and  Savoy  within  the  range  of  the  floras  of  their  own 
country,  this  region  constituted  the  very  richest  of  any  flora  in  Europe;  for  it  included  a 
country,  not  only  of  considerable  extent,  but  mountains,  and  in  very  southern  latitudes,  monv 
of  whose  crests  rise  greatly  beyond  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  As  France  is  now  limited, 
the  mountains  of  the  Vosges  near  Strasburg,  and  of  the  Cevennes,  and  those  of  Auvergne, 
whose  origin  is  volcanic,  exhibit  its  most  alpine  scenery :  among  the  latter,  the  Puy  de  Sasi, 
one  of  the  Monts  d'Or,  rises  to  an  elevation  of  6300  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
Plomb  du  Cantal  is  estimated  at  6200,  and  tlie  Puy  de  Ddme  at  6000  feet.  If  the  summits 
of  the  Pyrenees  and  of  the  Jura  be  considered  as  formi  ,'  the  natural  barrier  of  France,  as 
constituting  her  line  of  separation  from  the  adjacent  territories,  she  will  still  possess  an 
exceedingly  rich  alpine  flora  in  the  nortliern  side  of  the  former  and  the  western  side  of  the 
latter  mountains.  But  the  line  of  demarcation  of  this  region  is  nevertheless  not  so  distinctly 
marked  as  in  the  preceding  region.  The  valleys  exposed  to  the  sun  often  pa:cicip:>^e  in  the 
vegetation  of  the  soutiiern  provinces,  while  the  cooler  valleys  exhibit  a  growth  which  has 
more  in  common  with  the  vast  plain  in  tlio  north  and  centre  of  France.  However,  it  is 
undeniable  that  these  same  districts  do  contain  a  very  considerable  number  of  plants  which 
arc  peculiar  to  them,  and  found  on  almost  all  the  more  elevated  mountains  of  France ;  for 
whatever  diflfbrences  the  chain  of  the  Vosges  and  the  Jura  may  present  from  those  of  Au- 
vergne,  the  Cevennes,  and  the  Pyrenees  in  the  south,  it  is  allowed  that  the  aepect  of  their 
vegetation  offers  considerable  traits  of  similarity,  and  that  the  greater  part  of  the  mountain 
plants  are  alike  found  on  the  dififerent  chains. 

(3.)  A  third  region,  and  a  very  important  and  interesting  one,  is  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
plants:  this,  of  course,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  stretches 
inland  till  you  come  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  or  following  the  course  of  the  Rhone, 
extending  north  as  fiir  as  Montelimart  on  that  river;  or  it  may  be  said  to  occupy  or  constitute 
the  great  basin  of  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone. 

(4.)  A  vast  region  is  occupied  by  the  plains,  whose  vegetation  is  very  uniform.  This 
comprises  more  than  one-half  of  France,  and  especially  all  the  plain  counti^  situated  to  the 
north  of  the  chams  of  mountains.  Many  of  these  plants  are  found  in  other  regions  already 
mdicated ;  but  it  wants  the  species  which  are  peculiar  to  each  of  those  respectively. 

(5.)  and  lastly — M  M.  Lamarck  and  De  Canuulle  indicate  an  intermediate  region,  which 
mcludes  plants  partaking  of  the  nature  of  the  plains  of  the  north  and  the  provmces  of  the 
south.  This  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  south-west  of  France,  and  some  districts  up  pie 
valley  of  the  Rhone  between  Montelimart  '•.nd  Lyons. 

The  map  just  alluded  to  has  these  diflercnt  regions  represented  in  diflerent  colours,  and 


AS4 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


is  attended  with  this  advantage,  that,  by  the  sligfhtest  inspection,  a  general  idea  is  conveyed 
of  the  prevailing  nature  of  vegetation  in  any  given  district  We  see  that  Uie  plants  of  the 
southern  provmoes  resemble  more  those  of  Uie  north  as  you  advance  by  the  west  side  of 
^nce  than  by  the  east;  that  tho  floras  of  Mans  on  the  border  of  Normandy,  and  of  Nantes 
.pon  the  Loire,  in  lat  47°  and  48''',  scarcely  differ  firom  those  of  Dax  and  Agen,  between  lat, 
430  and  44" ;  whilst  on  the  east  side  of  FVance,  the  productions  of  D^on  and  Strosburg  vary 
considerably  flrom  those  of  Montpelier  and  Aix,  situated  at  nearly  similar  relative  distances 
from  each  other.  All  this  is  accounted  for  on  the  principles  we  have  already  laid  down, 
namely,  that  the  stations  of  plants  are  mainly  influenced  by  temperature;  and  that  the  mean 
temperature  of  a  place  is  greatly  determined  by  distance  fVom  the  equator,  and  elevation 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  According  to  M.  de  Condolle,  an  altitude  of  460  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  aifocts  the  temperature  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as  a  degree  of  latitude 
nearer  to  the  north  in  the  eastern  jiemisphere. 

By  comparinff  the  western  provinces  of  France  with  the  eastern,  we  see  that  the  surface 
of  the  former  is  but  litUe  raised  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  for,  even  at  a  considerable 
distance  fh>m  the  coast,  tiie  hills  scarcely  exceed  300  feet;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  upon 
the  western  side,  in  tho  midst  of  a  mountainous  region,  the  plain  has  generally  an  elevation 
of  from  1300  to  1600  feet.  This  height  dimini^es,  it  is  true,  on  tho  Belgian  frontier;  but 
there  tlie  temperature  is  sensibly  affected  by  the  second  cause  adduced,  namely,  the  distance 
from  the  equator.  Thus,  there  is  nothing  but  what  is  conformable  to  physical  laws,  in  the 
southern  plants  having  a  greater  resemblance  to  those  of  the  north  upon  the  west,  than  on 
the  east  side  of  France. 

But  even  where  the  mean  temperature  is  the  same,  the  distribution  of  plants  between 
these  two  parts  of  France  may  yet  be  very  different,  on  account  of  the  different  degrees  of 
temperature  at  particular  seasons  of  the  year.  We  have  already  stated  that,  the  ktitudes 
being  the  some,  maritime  countries  enjoy  a  more  equal  temperature  than  districts  removed 
from  the  sea ;  in  other  words,  that  the  summers  are  less  warm,  the  winters  less  cold :  thus, 
the  provinces  of  the  west  of  France,  which  are  all  maritime,  experience  this  degree  of  uni- 
formity ;  which  cannot  take  place  in  the  east,  being  for  iVom  ihe  sea,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  mountains. 

Plants  now,  in  what  concerns  climate,  maybe  divided  into  two  classes:  those  which 
suffer  from  a  severe  winter  cold,  but  which,  during  summer,  do  not  require  an  excess  of 
heat ;  and  those  which  can  endure  great  severity  of  cold  in  winter,  but,  during  summer, 
require  a  mat  proportion  of  heat  m  the  first  class,  M.  de  Candolle  places  all  those  tree; 
which,  wiuiout  being  resinous,  preserve  their  leaves,  and  consequently  their  sap,  through  the 
winter;  in  fact,  the  greater  proportion  of  the  trees  of  the  south  being  found,  whether 
indigenous  or  naturalised,  towards  the  north  in  the  maritime  provinces ;  such  as  the  Live 
Oak,  the  Cork  Tree,  the  Kennes  Oak,  the  Strawberry  Tree  {Arbuttu),  the  Bay,  the  Fig, 


Dock  I. 


HwOUtb. 


ThA  Vina. 


the'  Phillyrea,  &e.    On  the  other  hand,  in  the  second  class,  that  is  to  say,  among  such  as 
can  brave  a  great  degree  of  cold,  and  do  so  because  the  movement  of  the  sap  is  interrupted 


272 


Book  I.  ""■■■'■    PRANCE.       '"■'■''*'  ^ 

by  tho  fall  of  tho  foliage,  ia  tho  Vine,  &c.,  and  thoso  that  avoid  cold  because  the  plants,  or 
at  leoet  thoir  stemB,  are  annual,  such  as  Maize.  It  may  bo  readily  supposed  that  the  indi- 
riduuU  belonging  to  tho  second  class  will  flourish  better,  and  become  more  easily  naturalised 
on  tho  cast  than  on  the  west  coast  of  France. 

Let  us  applv  this  law  to  a  peculiarity  in  regard  to  the  cultivation  of  those  most  precious 
vegetable  productions  of  France,  namely,  the  Olive  {Ag,  270.),  the  Maize,  and  the  Vine 
{fig.  271.).  Mr.  Arthur  Young,  during  his  travels  in  France,  paid  great  attention  to  agri- 
culture  and  the  mode  of  cultivation  adopted  thore,  and  published  a  map  of  the  countrv,  in 
which  he  represented,  by  tliree  nearly  parallel  lines,  the  northern  limits  of  the  three  plants 
just  alluded  to,  the  Olive,  tho  Maize,  and  the  Vine.  It  excited  the  surprise  of  many,  that 
the  linos  should  ascend  most  to  the  north  on  tho  cast  side  'f  the  country,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  tho  planfs  in  question  should  grow  farther  north  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western 
districttj ;  directly  the  reverse  of  what  takes  place  in  regard  to  the  aboriginal  native  produc- 
tions  of  the  soil.  Tliis  apparent  contradiction  is  reconciled  by  the  twofold  comparison  of  the 
physical  nature  of  the  cost  and  west  of  France,  and  of  the  character  of  the  plants  cultivated, 
as  compared  with  the  wild  species. 

The  nature  of  the  cultivated  productions  in  question  forms  a  striking  feature,  which  can- 
not fail  to  arrest  the  attention  of  a  traveller  while  journeying  through  the  districts  thus 
appropriated,  and  forcibly  to  exhibit  their  agricultural  riches.  In  the  extreme  south  of 
France,  between  a  line  drawn  from  Narbonnc,  in  lat  43°  N.  and  in  the  merdian  of  Parisi 
to  a  little  below  Grenoble,  he  will  And  the  plains,  parched  and  dry  as  they  naturally  are, 
rendered  still  more  melancholy  by  the  lurid  green  of  tho  olive-groves.  Between  that  line 
and  another  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne  rather  below  46°,  to  near  Strasburg,  in 
the  north-west,  he  will  observe,  together  with  the  vine,  which  is  by  no  means  wanting  in 
all  the  southern  provinces,  fields  where  the  gigantic  maize  (Jiff.  272.)  takes  the  place  of 

what  we  usually  term  bread-corn ;  again,  between  it  and  a 
line  pxii!  <  '  ^'om  the  mouth  of  ue  Loire  to  the  Rhine, 
passing  u>  n  equal  distance  between  the  Mouse  and 

tho  lilos   i  will  find,  intermingled  with  vuieycrds, 

fertile  fitiub  or  com,  wheat  {fig.  273.),  oats,  and  barley ; 
whilst,  north  of  that  line,  there  exists  a  most  perfect  simi- 
larity in  agriculture  with  that  which  prevails  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  England.  Fruit  trees  of  all  the  Kinds 
that  are  grown  m  Britam,  here  attain  a  much  greater  degree 
of  perfection  than  in  that  country,  because  or  the  increased 
heat  of  the  summers. 

Thus,  in  what  concerns  a  great  portion  of  the  territory 
of  France,  its  vegetable  productiona  much  resemble  those 
of  the  southern  parts  of  Great  Britain. 

It  is  not,  perhaps,  generally  known  that  that  most  useful 
root,  the  Potato,  was  cultivated  in  almost  every  part  ot 
Europe  before  its  value  was  appreciated,  and  its  culture 
became  general,  near  the  capital  of  France.  To  England 
is  due  the  credit  of  first  growing  it  upon  a  large  scale. 
Upon  the  Continent  it  was  introduced  Mtween  me  years 
1714  and  1724  into  Swabia,  Alsace,  and  the  Palatinate ; 
and  in  1730  to  the  vicinity  of  Berne.  In  1774,  potatoes 
were  known  on  the  mountams  of  the  Cevennes,  where  they 
now  constitute  a  main  portion  of  the  food  of  the  people :  but 
°    The  HaiM.  it  is  principally  to  the  famous  M.  Parmentier  mat  France 

owes  the  general  use  of  potatoes.  The  fbllowing  anecdote 
may  give  some  idea  of  the  assiduity  with  which  this  philanthropic  individual  laboured  to 
generalise  their  culture :  it  is  well  attested  that  he  farmed  some  spots  of  ground  in  the 
vicinity  of  Paris  for  this  sole  purpose,  though  the  prejudice  against  potatoes  was  tlien  so 
strong,  that  few  of  the  poor  persona  to  whom  he  ottered  the  roots  would  accept  of  Jiem. 
However,  M.  Parmentier  soon  suspected  that  people  occasionally  stole  his  potatoes  to  eat 
them :  he  was  well  pleased  at  this,  and  continued  to  plant  what  he  hoped  would  be  piirlomed, 
rightly  concluding  that  the  experience  of  the  thieves  would  contribute  to  diminish  the 
established  prejudice.  Afler  much  trouble  and  many  years,  he  had  succeeded  in  propagating 
potatoes  in  several  situations,  when  the  dreadful  scarcity,  the  consequence  and  effect  of  the 
revolutionary  disturbances,  suddenly  rendered  their  cultivation  universal;  and  now  they 
form  so  constant  an  article  of  food,  that  the  common  people  generally  believe  them  to  be 
aboriginal  natives  of  the  country. 

The  mountains  of  France  exhibit  the  British  alpine  plants,  with  many  others  that  are 
peculiar  to  themselves,  and  which  they  possess  in  common  with  the  higher  Alps  of  Switzeiw 
nnd.  Savoy,  Germany,  and  the  Pyrenees. 
Of  the  mtermediate  region,  as  De  CandoUe  terms  it,  a  great  portion  lyinv  in  the  soath- 


6i26 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III, 


west  of  France,  embraces  a  country  called  the  Lande$,  where  the  shepherd-poasantry 
whether  walking,  or  at  rest  during  the  day,  live  upon  rtUts  {xcanguet,  in  the  language  o! 


'••  Vt 


'!       278 


Wheat,  Oati,  and  Barler. 

the  country):  thip  custom  gives  them  the  opportunity  of  viewing  the  land  around  m  starch 
of  their  sheep,  for  a  great  extent,  of  wading  through  the  numerous  shallow  lakes  of  water; 

and  by  these  means  it  is  said  they  can  tra- 
verse triple  the  space  of  ground  they  could 
do  by  the  ordinary  mode  of  walking ;  wlien 
they  stop,  they  support  themselveb  by  a  long 
stick  behind.  In  this  same  district  a  vast 
extent  of  flat  land  near  the  ocean,  and  ex- 
tending from  Bayonna  in  the  south  to  the 
T^te  de  Budi  in  the  north,  and  for  a  dis- 
tance  of  from  four  to  twelve  leagues  inland, 
is  occupied  by  forests  of  Pine  {Pinus  viari- 
tima)  {jig.  274.) :  these  are  called  Pigna- 
das,  and  they  give  a  remarkable  feature  to 
the  Landes,  in  conjunction  with  the  habits 
of  the  people  and  their  dress,  the  latter 
consisting  entirely  of  sheep-skins  with  the 
hair  outwards,  little  different  in  outward 
appearance  from  the  flocks  which  it  is  the 
great  object  of  their  lives  to  tend.  The 
resinous  substances  of  the  pine  are  extract- 
ed in  immense  quantities ;  in  doing  whicb 
one  man  takes  care  of  3000  trees,  llie 
country  being  so  dry,  these  pignadas  arc 
liable  to  alarming  conflagrations;  one  of 
them  that  took  place  in  1803,  continued 
burning  for  two  months.  The  motle  adopt- 
ed for  extinguishing  them  is  remarkable : 
when  one  part  of  the  forest  is  in  flames,  it 
is  customarv  tO  set  fire  to  another  spot,  at 
a  greater  or  less  distance,  according  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  evil;  a  current  of  air 
soon  takes  place  between  tlie  burning 
masses,  which  drives  the  conflagration 
^  from  both  sides  on  the  intermediate  trees; 

'''''*  ^'"*'  these  are  shortly  consumed,  the  fire  dies 

out  fbr  want  of  fuel,  and  the  rest  of  the  forest  is  preserved. 

But  the  Mediterranean  region,  which  we  have  already  mentioned,  and  whose  vegetation 
partakes  of  what  is  found  to  characterize  the  whole  shores  of  that  vast  inland  sea,  has  many 
plants  so  different  from  those  of  the  rest  of  France,  that  it  would  be  unpardonable  did  we  not 
particularise  some  of  them. 

Almost  everywhere  in  this  region,  the  soil  is  described  as  consisting  of  the  secondary 
limestone  of  the  Jura,  extending  to  the  very  brink  of  the  sea,  forming  arid  coasts,  often 
utterly  destitute  of  vegetation,  or  clothed  with  Wild  Olives  and  the  Aleppo  Pine  iPinui 


•••■v  iiFwi^ip-T-^-;-  Mij^uhTf Ji^iyw^." ' '  -: 


Part  Hi. 

ipherd-poasantry 
the  laof^uago  oi 


Book  I. 


FRANCE. 


037 


around  in  search 
V  lakes  of  water; 
said  they  can  tra- 
Ground  they  could 
of  walking ;  when 
jmeelvefa  by  a  long 
me  district  a  vast 
lie  ocean,  and  ex- 
the  south  to  the 
rth,  and  for  a  dis* 
ve  leagues  inland, 
^ine  {Pinus  mari- 
ire  called  Pigna- 
irkable  feature  to 
with  the  habits 
dress,  the  latter 
ep-skins  with  the 
jrent  in  outward 
which  it  is  the 
to  tend.    The 
pine  are  extract- 
in  doing  which 
mo  trees.    Ihe 
ese  pignadas  arc 
grations;  one  of 
1803,  continued 
The  mode  ndopt- 
is  remarkable: 
st  is  in  flames,  it 
another  spot,  at 
according  to  the 
current  of  air 
en  tlie  burning 
■le    conflagration 
rmediate  trees; 
id,  the  fire  dies 

vhose  vegetation 
\d  sea,  has  many 
nable  did  we  not 

f  the  secondary 
rid  coasts,  often 
po  Pine  iPinus 


halepetuii),  with  Evergreen  Oal(,  PiaU  "hiivNut,  Myrtles,  and  nmnerou9  species  of  Cistus. 
Here,  too,  is  found  one  species  of  Palm,  le » .iitt..'««ropB  humilis  {Palmetto  or  Dwarf  Palm) ; 
but  it  grows  principally  )  the  environs  of  Nice.  Al  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  Medi- 
terranean region,  namely,  about  Roussillon  and  Provence,  and  there  only  in  the  hotter  parts, 
are  seen  the  Indian  Fig  {Cactus  Turux),  and  the  American  Aloe  {Agave  americana) :  the  mtro 
duction  of  these  is  due  to  the  Spaniards,  who  brought  them  to  Europe  from  the  New  World. 
Schouw  regards  the  Mediterranean  shores  in  general  as  the  kingdom  of  the  Caryophyllev 
and  Labiutm ;  this  latter  liimily  especially  abounds  in  the  south  of  France,  and  particularly 
the  genera  Phlomls,  Teucrium,  Thymus,  Lavandula,  and  others,  remarkable  lor  their  aro- 
matic qualities.  In  the  same  places,  and  always  on  very  stony  ground,  the  elegant  Coria 
mnnspelicnsis  excels  the  heaths  of  Britain  in  ber.uty.  The  mulberry  is  cultivated  through- 
^  ou*  this  territory ;  and  among  other  useful  fruits,  the  Fig,  the  Jujube,  the  Pomegranate,  the 
Date,  and  the  Pistachio,  all  arrive  at  great  perfection.  The  Orange  can  scarcely  bo  said  to 
be  cultivated  without  shelter  in  any  part  of  France.  It  is  grown,  however,  and  somewhat 
extensively,  at  the  Isles  d'Hieres,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Nice,  that  happy  climate  which  is 
probably  unequalled  by  any  part  of  Europe.  Com,  which  is  but  a  secondary  article  of  cul- 
ture, ripens  at  a  very  early  period ;  so  much  so  that  it  is  not  unfrequent  to  carry  barley  which 
has  been  reaped  on  the  coast  into  the  mountains,  where  the  seed  is  sown,  and  a  second  crop 
is  produced  the  same  year.  Many  plants  may  be  here  enumerated  which  this  country  pos- 
sesses in  common  with  Greece  and  Italy,  and  even  the  Spanish  peninsula,  and  which  seem 
to  accompany  the  Olive.  Mirbel  has  drawn  up  the  following  list  of  woody  kinds,  which 
inhabit  these  provinces : — Pinus  Pinaster,  and  Pinea,  Juniperus  phoenicea  and  Oxycedrus, 
Quercus  Ilex,  Suber  and  coccifera,  Celtis  australis,  Ficus  Carica,  Osyris  alba,  Laurus  nobilis, 
FVaxuius  Ornus,  Phillyrea  la<  blia  and  angustifolia,  Jasminum  fructicans,  Vitex  Agnus- 
castus,  Nerium  Oleander,  Diospyroa  Lotos,  Styrax  ofiicinale.  Arbutus  Unedo,  Viburnum 
Tinus,  Tamarix  gallica  and  africona,  Myrtus  communis,  Punica  Granatum,  Philadelphus 
coronanus,  Cratmgus  Azarolus,  Mespilus  pyracantha,  Ceratonia  siliqua,  Cercis  Siliquostrum, 
Rhus  Cotinus  and  Coriaria;  Pistacia  liCntiscus,  Terebinthus,  and  vera;  Rhamnus  Alater- 
nus,  oleoides,  and  infectoria ;  Zizyphus  vulgaris,  Paliurus  australis,  Capparis  spinosa,  Melia 
Azedarach,  Acer  monspessulanum,  &c. 

Hitherto  the  attention  of  naturalists  in  the  study  of  vegetable  geography  has  been  direct- 
ed to  those  plants  that  grow  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth :  Humboldt  alone,  in  his  Carte 
Oeographique  des  Planles,  has  indicated  the  station  of  some  subterranean  Fungi,  and  in  a 
275  general  way  has  marked  the  ocean  us 

the  habitat  of  Ulvte  and  Fuci  (/,^. 
275.).  It  remained  fo-  M.  d'Orbiguy 
tc  describe  to  a  certain  extent  at  least, 
the  Zones  and  Bands  inhabited  by  the 
marine  Algte  (Sea-Weeds).  This  he 
accomplished  upon  the  coasts  in  the 
Gulf  of  Gascony,  and  particularly  on 
the  shores  of  La  Vendee  and  the  Lower 
Charente,  partly  by  diving  to  consider- 
able depths  i.i  the  sea,  and  partly  by 
means  of  drag-nets  fixed  to  graduated 
cords ;  and  the  results  of  his  observa- 
tions are  given  in  tlie  Memoires  du 
Museum  SHistoire  Naturelle,  vol.  vi. 
With  extracts  from  this,  ua  we  shall 
scarcely  have  again  the  opportunity  of 
touching  on  this  beautiful  and  interest- 
ing trite  of  plants,  we  shall  conclude 
tliis  sketch,  already  too  much  extended,  of  the  vegetable  geography  of  France.    Maritime 

1»lants,  says  M.  d'Orbigny,  grow  in  the  most  opposite  temperatures :  every  country,  every 
tttitude,  and  every  situation  possessing  some  which  are  peculiar  to  itself.  Still,  climate 
and  temperature  appear  almost  alike  to  many  of  thfese  productions,  which  are  found  by 
voyagers  in  every  different  ocean,  whih)  others  require  particular  spots  and  climes :  some 
few  preferripf-'  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  the  brackish  waters  of  salt  marshes,  where  the 
bitterness  of  the  sea  is  modified  by  the  admixture  of  fresh  water,  and  in  such  situations 
attaining  to  an  enormous  size,  as  IJlva  lactuca  var.  altissima,  while  to  the  greater  number 
of  these  plants,  fresh  water  proves  absolutely  destructive. 

As  for  those  kinds  which  grow  indifferently  everywhere  in  the  sea,  they  seem  to  be 
increased  without  any  attachment  to  soliJ  bodies,  as  Fuciis  natans,  &c.  Banks  of  great 
extent  formed  by  this  plant,  are  often  found  within  the  tropics  of  such  dimensions  as  to 
retard  the  progress  of  navigation.  Some  individuals  among  these  groups  may  frequently  be 
seen  which  bear  the  appearance  of  having  been  originally  fixed  to  rocks,  their  flattened, 
disc-like  stem  yet  retaining  a  portion  of  such  substance.  There  seems  to  be  ground  for  the 
supposition  that,  though  those  sea-weeds  are  capable  of  living  and  growing  in  tlie  water, 


Ulvm  and  Fuci. 


528 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


PaktIH 


Book  I. 


unattached  to  any  soil,  yet  that  they  must  primarily  spring  from  some  lolid  body,  as  no  young 
plants  of  this  kind  are  ever  found  between  the  tropics. 

Some  of  the  Algn  prefer  the  southern  sides  of  rocks,  others  affect  an  eastt  .,  western,  or 
northerr  exposure ;  but  they  change  their  position  according  to  the  difierence  of  latitude : 
those  which  are  found  on  the  southern  side  in  cold  climates,  being  generally  seen  on  the 
northern  in  thb  warm  or  temperate  regions.  Certam  species  live  near  the  eurtace,  and  close 
to  the  sea-beach:  others,  at  -arious  decrees  of  depths:  the  first  would  seem  to  enjoy  the 
regular  exposure  to  light  abl  heat  which  they  experience  during  the  turnings  of  the  tide; 
the  second,  on  the  contrary,  shun  the  influences  of  the  atmosphere ;  and,  growing  and  fructi- 
fying in  depths  whsre  the  light  can  scarcely  ever  penetrate,  they  bear,  without  receiving 
any  injury,  both  the  enormous  column  of  water  which  constantly  presses  upon  them,  and  the 
severe  cold  which  exists  in  those  regions.  There  are  even  parasitical  Alga,  which  grow 
indifibrently  upon  all  the  others,  and  some  which  only  affect  peculiar  species. 

Many  sea-weeds  prefer  such  spots  as  are  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  waves  and  the  action 
of  the  currents,  where  they  are  perpetually  floating  in  an  agitated  medium :  othen  dwell 
in  the  hollows  of  rocks,  or  m  marme  gulfs,  where  me  water  is  generally  calm.  The  lapse 
of  a  few  da3rs  puts  a  period  to  the  existence  of  some  kinds,  whilst  the  tempests  of  successive 
winters  fiiil  to  destroy  others.  The  general  aspect  is  apt  to  change  in  several  individuals, 
80  tiiat,  were  it  not  for  more  stable  characters,  derivable  frY)m  their  fractification,  texture,  &c. 
they  might  be  mistaken  for  novel  species. 

A  number  of  the  more  delicate  marine  plants  are  quickly  destroyed  by  a  removal  from 
their  native  place  of  growth ;  but  the  greater  proportion,  being  coriaceous,  and  insoluble  in 
salt  water,  live  for  a  length  of  time  in  difierent  situations ;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find, 
upon  our  own  shores,  the  Alga  of  the  most  distant  regions,  which  have  traverbed  the  ocean, 
and  yet  remain  unchanged  in  their  general  appearance.  We  must  thence  necessarily  infer  that 
it  is  not  all  the  Alga  that  are  found  in  any  country  that  may  be  said  to  belong  to  that  country. 

The  proportions  of  marine  plants  are  as  variable  as  those  of  terrestrial  ones.  Some  ore 
barely  discoverable  with  the  highest  magii.fiers ;  while  others  rise  from  the  various  depths 
-  'the  mighty  ocean,  and,  forming  at  its  surfitce  an  angle  of  greater  or  less  acuteness  accord- 
'  .  'o  the  force  and  velo^i^  of  the  currents  and  the  tides,  then  suflbi  tbeir  long  summits  to 
'  "1  on  the  waves,  and  receive  the  benign  influences  of  atmospheric  lignt  and  heat.  During 
the  great  equinoctial  floods,  the  sea  often  forsakes,  periodically,  certain  rocks,  which  ore 
only  uncovered  at  such  times.  If,  during  that  interval,  the  sun  shines  forth,  or  the  north 
ivind  blows,  many  of  the  minute  and  delicate  Alga,  thus  exposed,  dry  up  and  die;  while 
othersj  though  equally  circumstanced,  revive  immediately  upon  the  return  of  the  genial  fluid. 

A  certain  proportion  of  marine  plants  are  natives  of  the  Prenoh  seas,  while  we  must  refer 
the  accession  of  many  species  to  the  force  of  the  winds,  waves,  and  currents,  especially  to 
that  which  generally  goes  under  the  name  of  Chty  Stream,  and  is  called  by  the  French  the 
Mexican  Current.  Ahnost  all  the  northern  Alga  grow  in  the  Gulf  of  Gascony.  It  is  not 
so  with  those  from  the  Mediterranean  and  Southern  Ocean ;  a  very  small  number  of  them 
are  there  seen  in  a  living  state,  and  their  almost  northern  limit  never  exceeds  the  mouth  of 
the  Loire,  or  at  farthest  the  rock  of  Morbihan.  Independently  of  the  influence  of  teni' 
perature,  this  circumstance  may  be  attributed  in  a  measure  to  the  current,  which,  generally 
setting  in  on  these  shores  from  north  to  south,  brings  the  seeds  and  plants  themselves  of 
northern  seas  to  these  rocks,  while  those  of  southern  growth  are  waflcd  by  the  same  current 
to  Africa  and  the  Atlantic. 

But  few  are  the  kinds  of  sea-weed  which  prefer  any  peculiar  spot,  or  show  a  predilection 
for  one  substance  above  another  whereon  to  fix.  Deriving  no  nutriment  from  their  roots  or 
points  of  attachmejit,  they  need  nothing  farther  than  a  temporary  support ;  thus,  they  cling 
mdiscriminately  to  any  solid  marine  body,  equally  to  granitic  and  calcareous  rocks,  to  floating 
or  sunken  piecesof  wood,  to  the  bones  of  terrestrial  or  marine  animals,  to  shells,  polypi,  &c. 

Notwithstanding  that  many  highly  respectable  naturalists  have  averred  that  the  growA 
of  these  plants  proceeds  with  most  vigour  on  such  and  such  substances,  on  some  or  other 
peculiar  rock,  in  the  vicinity  of  rivers,  or  in  the  open  sea ;  it  has  been  fully  ascertained,  by 
a  great  number  of  observations,  that  marine  weeds  do  grow  with  equal  vigour,  though 
planted  upon  rocks  or  substances  of  very  difierent  natures;  and  that,  if  we  except  some  few 
Viva,  which  affect  brackish  water,  those  which  vegetate  in  situations  where  fresh  water 
mingles  with  the  salt,  are  generally  bleached,  produce  little  or  no  fructification,  have  a  thin 
and  weak  texture,  and  contain  but  little  soda.  The  qualities  requisite  for  the  different  uses 
of  which  I  shall  treat  hereafter,  are  only  found  united  in  such  sea-weeds  as  grow  in  pure 
sea-water,  where  they  have  found  a  spot  which  is  sufficiently  tenacious  to  fix  them  in  that 
zone  of  habitation  which  thev  prefer. 

Some  kinds  certainly  prefer  sand  or  mud ;  but  then  their  roots  become  elongated,  and 
strike  deep,  till  they  meet  with  some  stone  or  shell  or  other  body  which  may  serve  them  ss 
a  point  of  attachment,  and  offer  the  requisite  degree  of  resistance. 

If  the  nature  of  the  bottom  appears  indifferent,  in  a  great  measure  to  maritime  plants;  it 
is  not  so  with  the  level  which  they  select  in  the  ocean,  or  with  the  distance  of  their  birth- 
olace  from  the  surface.    Every  species  of  maritime  vegetable  appears  to  affect,  to  as  great 


276 


Voi^L 


Book  I. 


FRANCE. 


82U 


Ml  extent  as  the  terrestrial  kinds,  certain  zones  or  regions  of  difTerent  depths  in  the  sea ; 
olacos  where  the  superincumbent  weight  of  water,  and  the  relative  proportion  of  light  and 
caloric  are  adapted  to  its  peculiar  organs.  Those  individuals  which  are  found  towards  the 
centre  of  their  proper  zone  contain  all  the  elements  requisite  for  their  perfect  dnvelopement, 
and  generallv  show  an  active  state  of  vegetation;  they  are  vigorous,  they  fhii.tify  at  the 
season  suitable  to  their  degree  of  immersion,  while  those  which  grow  at  the  extreme  limit, 
or  out  of  the  bounds,  of  this  same  zone,  prove  languishing,  fructify  imperfectly,  are  always 
covered  with  marine  animals  which  destroy  them,  and  live  but  a  short  time  m  comparison 
with  their  well-situated  conveners.  The  seeds  which  escape  fh>m  these  plants  would  appear, 
by  their  various  specific  weights,  to  gain  an  eq^uilibrium  equivalent  to  the  column  of  water 
which  they  displace,  or,  in  other  words,  to  float  m  that  peculiar  zone  which  the  future  Alga 
would  prefer  to  inhabit  Those  which  become  developed  either  above  or  below  it,  ore  uie< 
vitably  driven  from  their  spot  of  nature  or  of  election,  by  the  agitation  in  the  waves  at  the 
vicinity  of  the  coasts. 

Lower  down  than  a  hundred  feet  irom  the  surface  of  the  sea,  (taking  a  medium  between 
the  high  and  low  tides,)  it  is  rare  to  find  living  sea-weeds  in  the  Gulf  of  Gascony.  and  even 
these  are  attached  to  portions  of  rock  severed  from  more  elevated  rocks,  and  before  long 
they  inevitably  perish. 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  lower  we  investi^te  the  sea,  the  fewer  will  the  number  of 
plants  appear,  and  the  more  numerous  the  polypi.  For  instance,  below  forty  feet  from  the 
surface  of  the  water,  but  very  few  Ulvce  are  found ;  beyond  sixty  feet,  no  living  Ceramium ; 
and  after  having  descended  to  the  depth  of  a  hundred  feet,  not  a  Fucua  is  to  be  seen,  and 
the  vegetable  kingdom  wholly  ends. 

1st  Zone,  extending  from  one  foot  above  the  medium  height  of  the  sea  to  twenty  feet 
below,  is  inhabited  by  Ulva  compressa  var.  |3 ;  U.  intestinalis,  ventricosa,  Lactuca  var.  a ; 
Fucuspygmeeua,amphibius,  &.c. 

2d  Zone,  fi-om  five  feet  below  tlie  medium  height  to  thirty  feet : — ulva  articulata,  Nostoc, 
bullata,  fistulosa,  Lactuca  var,  3,  umbilicalis,  lanceolata,  purpurea,  Linza,  contorts,  serrata, 
dichotoma,  crispa,  pavonia,  atomaria  (1) ;  Fucus  vesiculosus,  spiralis,  ceranoides,  serratus, 
canaliculatus,  ceespitosus,  laceratus,  hybridus,  longissimus,  pinnatifidus,  viridis,  arbuscula 
festigiatUB,  tenuiseimus  (]),  confer voides ;  Ceramium  spongiosum,  rupestre,  Mertensii.peni- 
cillatum,  fucoides,  nodulosum,  gracile,  linum ;  Zostera  marina  and  mediterranea ;  Diatoma 
rigidum,  flocculosum,  &c. 

3d  Zone,  from  fifteen  to  thirty-five  feet  below  the  medium  surface.  Ulva  ocellata,  pal- 
mata,lingulata,polypodioides,caulescenB;  Fucus  longifructus,  lumbricalis,bifurcatus,ericoides, 
barbatus,  abrotwirolius,  vermicularis,  norvegicus,  obtusus,  asparagoides,  Wigghii,  verrucosus, 
helminthocortos ;  Ceramium  simplicifolium,  casuaruia,  cancellatum,  coccineum,  incurvum, 
elongatum,  polymorphum,  forcipatum,  filum,  capillare,  glomeratum,  elegans,  &c. 

4th  Zone,  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  below  the  medium  surface : — Ulva  Phyllitis,  saccho- 
rina,  digitata,  bulbosa,  ciliata,  edulis;  Fucu3  nodosus,  uvarius,  fiircatus,  ciliatus,  alatus, 
plocamium,  plumosus,  comeus,  gigartinus,  aculeatus,  plicatus;  Ceramium  verticillatum, 
equisetifolium,  sericeum,  scoparium,  &c. 

5th  Zone,  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet : — Fucus  siliquosus  var.  o,  purpurascens,  ligulatus, 
pistillatus ;  Ceramium  coccineum,  eegagropilum,  &c. 

6th  Zone,  from  forty  to  a  hundred  feet : — The  flattened  Fuci ;  F.  siliquosus  var.  3,  loreus, 
sanguineus,  fibrosus,  coronopifolius,  &c.,  and  Ulva  tomentosa,  which  is,  in  &ct,  a  polypus. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Zoology, 
The  zoology  of  France  assimilates  less  to  that  of  central  than  of  southern  Europe.  Not- 
withstanding the  narrowness  of  its  separation  from  Great  Britain,  it  possesses  many  animals 
unknown  as  natives,  or  even  as  visiters,  of  that  island.  With  re^rd  to  quadrupeds,  this 
circumstance  is  not  surprising ;  for  any  channel  of  the  sea,  however  narrow,  forms  an  insur- 
mountable obstacle  to  the  wanderings  or  migration  of  purely  terrestrihl  species:  while 
others,  of  a  semiaquatic  nature  are  too  small  and  feeble  to  effect  the  passogo.  These  con- 
siderations, however,  are  msufficient  to  explain  the  limited 
range  of  the  smaller  birds,  hitherto  found  only  upon  the 
Continent.  The  distribution  of  insects  is  dependent,  in  a 
great  degree,  upon  that  of  plants;  and  the  numbers  of  both 
common  in  France,  but  unknown  in  Britam,  are  nearly 
proportionate ;  on  the  calculation  that  has  been  made  of 
six  species  of  insects  to  one  of  plants. 

Amorg  the  wild  quadrupeds  of  France  is  the  wolf  (Jig. 
276.),  which  is  still  not  uncommon  in  the  wooded  and 
monntninous  districts:   when  pressed  by  hunger,  it  de- 
scends to  the  fiirms,  and  even  attacks  the  inhabitants. 
The  Wolf        "  The  beaver  is  said  still  to  exist  in  the  southern  parts , 

and  probably  the  wild  boar  may  not  be  wholly  extirpated 
ToiU  L  45  3  R 


^ 


I»0 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Book  I. 


from  tiie  exifltrnff  forests.     Bears  were  once  conunon,  while  three  or  four  of  tho  smaller  quad' 
"upeds  appear  peculiar  to  France. 

Several  interesting  and  beautiftil  birds,  unknown  or  but  rarely  met  with  in  Britain,  arn 
here  not  uncommon ;  such  as  the  wood-chat  {fig.  2T7.),  shrike  (Laniiw  rufiu  T.)  the  gross- 
beak  or  hawfinch,  tho  blue-throated  warbler,  and  several  others  of  the  same  famnv.  In 
short,  from  the  coni.ection  of  this  country  with  the  central  and  southern  kingdoms  of  ifurope, 
the  ornithologist  might  probably  discover  in  France  more  than  tliree-fourths  of  all  the  conti- 
nental birds. 

The  marine  productions  of  those  provinces  bordering 
on  the  Channel,  as  may  be  expected,  do  not  offer  any 
marked  difference  from  those  of  the  British  coeets ;  but 
on  tlie  warm  shores  of  Nice  and  Marseilles  the  natu* 
ralist  meets  with  numerous  productions,  indicative  of 
the  rich  stores  of  the  Mediterrarean  Sea.  The  ento- 
mology of  these  southern  provinces,  in  like  manner, 
presents  us  with  many  of  those  more  striking  insects, 
which  properly  belong  to  the  fauna  of  Italy.  The  beau- 
tiful Papilio  Podaliriua  {fie.  278.)  so  rare  m  England 
t!i8t  its  existence  there  is  still  doubted,  is  here  a  common 
insect.  France  hajs  long  stood  foremost  in  prompting  and  illustrating  the  -■♦udy  of  nature; 
and  a  society  comprising  some  of  her  most  able  zoologists  is  at  this  moment  engaged  in 
publishing  a  F^una  Oallica,  An  abie  and  inde&tigable  naturalist,  M.  Risso,  has  particu- 
cularly  illustrated  the  fishes  and  Crustacea  of  Nice.    It  was  near  this  place  that  one  of  tbs 

278 


The  Wood- 


Mitn  ZoDtla. 


Fapilio  Fodaliriui. 


rarest  and  most  beautiful  shells  of  Europe,  the  Mitra  xonata  (Jig.  279.)  was  fished  up  by 
the  anchor  of  a  vcsael ;  only  one  specimen  is  known  to  exist  in  collections. 

Among  the  domestic  animals,  the  French  horses  are  not  very  excellent ;  yet  those  used 
in  the  public  stages  are  strong,  active,  and  compactly  made ;  nor  ha:ve  their  masters  copied 
the  ridiculous  and  barbarous  custom  of  disfiguring  these  animals,  by  cutting  off  their  tails 
or  ears.  The  stallions  of  England  are  much  prized,  and  have  been  judiciously  used  to  im- 
prove the  native  breeds. 

Tho  oxen  are  of  two  races ;  the  one  called  bczufa  de  haul  crii  are  of  a  middle  or  small 
size,  with  a  fierce  look,  thick  hide,  and  coarse  hair ;  they  are  principally  bred  in  the  moun- 
tainous provinces  of  Gascony,  Auvergne,  &c.  The  others  are  called  baufs  de  nature,  and 
are  larger,  with  a  mild  aspect,  tliin  hide,  and  soft  hair :  they  fatten  easily,  and  belong  to  the 
plains. 

The  native  breeds  of  sheep,  not  in  themselves  good,  have  been  of  late  sedulously  and 
successfully  improved.  The  Flemish  breed,  common  both  to  Prance  and  the  Netherlands, 
is  generally  hornless,  with  long  legs,  and  is  derived  from  an  intermixture  with  those  of 
Barbary.  The  Solognot  are  mostly  without  horns,  and  the  wool  is  curled  only  at  the  ends. 
The  Berichonne  are  likewise  hornless,  but  are  known  by  their  long  neck :  the  iice  is  covered 
with  n"X)i;  thpt  on  the  body  being  fine,  white,  close,  short,  and  curled.    The  RoustUlonne 


le  mermo  race;  and  has  very  fine  wool,  the  filaments  of  the  piles  being 
Tjastly,  the  Ardennoise  is  homed,  and  bears  a  very  fine  fleece :  this  breed 
ver  part  of  the  Netherlands.    (Ham.  Smith.) 

»gant  variety  of  the  Domestic  Cat  is  very  common  in  some  parts  of  France; 
'  e  size  of  the  common  cat,  and  is  bearded  much  in  the  same  manner  as 


is  denvni 
twidtetl  i.'pi. 
likewif  ^  ext 
Al         -  . 
it  is  n^i^. 
the  lynx. 

^ECT.  ni. — Historical  Geography. 
Tho  Gauls,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  France,  and  uie  chief  among  the  Celtic  nations, 
were  an  active,  powerful,  and  ambitious  people.  Their  emigrant  hordes  repeatedly  crossed 
the  Alps,  poeso'saed  the  whole  north  of  Italy,  once  sacked  the  imperial  city,  and  even  pene- 
trated into  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  Both  Switzerland  and  Belgium  were  then  included  as 
port  of  Gaul.    The  people,  though  still  barbarous,  had  made  some  steps  toward  civilisation. 


paat  m. 

0  smaller  quad- 

in  Britain,  arn 
r  T.)  tho  gross, 
no  family.  In 
oms  of  Europe, 
)f  all  the  conti* 

nces  bordering 
>  not  offer  any 
ish  coasts ;  but 
lilies  the  natu< 
I,  indicative  of 
so.    The  ento- 

1  like  manner, 
triking  insects, 
ily.  The  beau- 
are  in  England 
here  a  common 
udy  of  nature ; 
jnt  engaged  in 
30,  has  particu- 
that  one  of  the 


as  fished  upb; 

yet  those  used 
masters  copied 
r  off  their  tails 
sly  used  toim- 

niddle  or  small 
in  the  moun- 
de  nature,  and 
id  belong  to  the 

sedulously  and 
le  Netherlands, 
with  those  of 
ly  at  the  ends, 
facfl  is  covered 
RoussUlonnt 
the  piles  being 
ece :  this  breed 

arts  of  France; 
ame  manner  as 


Celtic  nations, 
Batedly  crossed 
nd  even  pene« 
Hen  included  aa 
rd  civilisatioa 


Book  L 


FRANCE. 


631 


The  nobles  and  Druids  enjoyed  high  power  and  influence,  and  had  reduced  the  body  of  the 
nation  almost  to  a  state  of  vassalage.  They  combated  with  obstinacy,  and  made  a  long 
resistance  to  the  progress  of  the  Roman  arms ;  but  being  opposed  to  Cesar,  the  greatest 
of  the  Roman  captains,  after  a  war  of  twenty  years,  they  were  entirely  and  permanently 
subjected. 

The  conversion  of  Oaul  into  a  Roman  province,  though  it  humbled  the  chiefs  and  quelled 
the  martial  spirit  of  the  people,  was  attended  with  many  beneficial  changes.  Peace  waa 
established ;  cultivation  and  industry  promoted ;  Roman  and  even  Greek  literature  intnr 
duced ;.  and  the  people  finally  converted  to  the  Christian  tkith. 

The  irruption  of  the  Teutonic  tribes,  on  the  declino  of  tho  Roman  empire,  waa  early  felt 
in  Oaul,  where  the  Goths,  the  Heruli,  the  Burgundians,  and  the  confederacy  called  the 
Franks,  overwhelmed  and  ravaged  the  whole  kingdom,  and  drove  the  Celtic  population  and 
language  into  its  remote  and  mountainous  corners.  Fi'om  amid  a  chaod  of  convulsions,  the 
vigorous  hand  of  Clovis  established  the  undisputed  supremacy  of  the  Franks,  and  founded  the 
monarchy  of  France, 

The  reign  of  Charlemagne,  son  and  successor  to  Pepin,  who  from  mayor  of  the  palace  had 
occupied  the  throne,  formed  the  most  brilliant  period  m  French  history.  That  eminent  and 
powerful  prince  not  only  placed  on  his  head  the  iron  crown  of  Lombaray,  but  reduced  to  his 
dominion,  aflcr  a.  long  and  obstinate  resistance,  the  intractable  tribes  of  Germany,  who  hod 
defied  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  Roman  eagle.  He  penetrated  also  into  Spain ;  but  the  fierce 
encounter  of  the  Saracens,  and  the  disastrous  adventure  of  Roncesvalles  on  his  return,  com- 
pletely stopped  his  career  in  that  direction.  Charlemagne,  though  himself  illiterate,  made 
some  eflbrts  to  rekindle  the  declining  light  of  science  and  letters  in  Europe. 

The  contests  among  the  successors  of  Charlemagne  were  attended  with  the  most  violent 
and  bloody  convulsions,  and  with  continual  changes  in  the  position  of  the  three  great  king- 
doms which  composed  his  empire.  At  length  it  fell  entirely  to  pieces.  Germany  retained 
the  title  of  empire,  an^l  the  claim  to  the  dominion  of  Italy ;  and  m  France  the  Carlovingian 
dynasty,  or  that  of  Charlemagne,  having  become  extinct  under  Louis  Outreme  •,  the  throne 
was  seized  by  the  Capets,  the  most  powerful  among  the  noble  French  families. 

Hugh  Capet,  having  in  987  assumed  the  title  of  king,  the  real  power  attached  to  which 
had  already  been  exercised  by  his  fkther,  Hugh  the  Great,  founded  the  present  dynasty.  The 
administration,  however,  was  long  marked  by  a  strong  feudal  character,  and  a  high  spirit  of 
independence  among  the  great  nobles,  of  whom  the  counts  of  Provence  and  Britany .  and  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy,  ranked  al^  jgether  as  separate  and  often  hostile  princes.  The  feudal  age 
of  France  was  also  marked  ,iy  chivalric  and  eventful  ware  with  England,  which  long  held 
several  of  the  finest  provinces,  and  whose  king,  Henry  V.,  was  crowned  at  Paris;  but  from 
that  seemingly  approaching  downfall,  the  monarchy,  through  the  romantic  exploits  of  the 
Maid  of  Orleans,  suddenly  revived,  and  became  more  mighty  than  before. 

The  establishment  of  monarchical  power  in  its  plenitude  was  chiefly  effected  by  the  pro- 
found and  insidious  policy  of  Louis  XI.,  favoured  by  the  circumstances  of  the  age.  All 
France  was  united  under  the  sway  of  the  kings,  who  were  thus  enabled  to  form  great  armies, 
which,  under  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.,  overran  nearly  the  whole  of  Italy.  But  it  was 
under  the  gay  and  enterprising  reign  of  Fnmcis  I.  that  its  energies  were  fuUv  developed. 
It  then,  however,  came  into  collision  with  the  house  of  Austria,  whoce  extensive  possessions 
in  Germany,  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  and  Italy,  wielded  by  a  powerful  hand,  secured  to  it 
during  this  period  a  decided,  though  not  overwhelming,  ascendant. 

The  civil  wars  arising  out  of  the  persecution  of  tho  Protestants  agitated  France  ffar  a  very 
long  time,  and  produced  scenes  of  the  most  bloody  and  calamitous  description.  They  lasted 
for  a  hundred  years ;  for  the  popular  reign  of  Henry  IV.  could  scarcely  be  considered  as  more 
than  a  truce.  At  length  Richelieu,  by  the  reduction  of  Rochelle,  terminated  the  long  strug- 
gle of  the  Protestants  for  religious  liliertv,  which  in  France  alone,  of  all  the  countries  where 
It  was  maintained  upon  a  great  scale,  had  this  fatal  issue.  At  the  same  time,  this  daring 
and  despotic  minister  finally  crushed  the  power  and  pretensions  of  the  nobles,  and  formed 
l^Vance  into  a  simple  monarchy. 

The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  during  which  a  single  hand  wielded  all  the  energies  called 
forth  during  the  prior  struggles,  exhibited  France  more  powerfiil  than  she  had  been  since 
Charlemagne.  The  house  of  Austria,  now  divided  into  the  German  and  Spanish  branches, 
of  which  the  latter  had  become  weak  and  inert,  was  humbled  b^  repeated  blows,  which  at 
length  almost  threatened  her  existence.  Franco  seemed  advancing  in  the  career  of  univer- 
sal monarchy,  when  the  interposition  of  England  and  the  victories  of  Marlborough  turned 
the  tide  of  success,  and  rendered  the  lost  days  of  Louis  humiliating  and  disastrous.  The 
final  issue,  however,  by  which  a  Bourbon  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  the  conse- 
quent fiimily  alliance,  gave  to  France  an  increased  weight,  especially  in  the  maritime  con- 
cerns of  Europe. 

The  French  revolution  was  an  event  attended  with  awful  and  mighty  vicissitudes,  so  fresh 
in  the  memory  of  the  world,  ^hat  it  would  be  quite  superfluous  to  attempt  to  enumerate  them. 
Afler  tearing  up  France  by  the  roots,  and  holding  all  Europe  in  chains;  after  exhibiting 


533 


DRaCRIFTIVE  QEOORAPIIY. 


Pam  ni 


during  twonty  yetn  the  viciHitudoi  of  ropublicaniim,  total  anarchy,  and  pure  deipotiam ;  at 
length,  by  a  mtffhtr  re-action,  it  tenninatcd  nearly  at  the  noint  Irotn  which  it  cointnencnd. 
France,  however,  obtained  checkn  on  the  arbitrary  power  or  her  monarchs,  which,  notwith- 
■tanding  their  oppoaition,  ahe  rendered  more  and  more  eiToctive.  At  lenc^th  Charlca  X., 
hdvinff  rashly  attempted  to  break  throtigh  nil  tho  limitN  placed  on  bin  authority,  was  driven 
ftom  Ilia  throne,  which  waa  til'od  by  Louis-l'liilippe,  head  of  tho  collateral  lino  of  Orloaoi, 
under  the  title  of  King  of  the  French. 

Shot.  W, —  Political  Oeography, 

Tho  political  conatitution  of  France,  prior  to  the  Revolution,  was  n  I  most  purely  doapotio 
The  prwilegea  of  the  noblea  conaiHtod  iionrly  altogether  in  unjust  exemntiona  lyotit  taxation, 
and  in  eorvie$,  or  iniquitous  and  oppressive  claima  upon  the  labour  of  the  peasantry.  Tho 
only  very  salutary  limi'  to  the  royal  authority  consisted  in  the  parliumonts,  hereditary  bodies, 
by  whom  the  laws  were  very  fairly  and  honourably  administered ;  and  tho  parliament  of 
Paris  had  even  the  imprtant  privilege  of  registering  every  new  tax  before  it  could  become 
legal.  The  exorbitant  powers  veHted  in  tho  ouvcroign  being  however  inconsistent  with  the 
growth  of  national  intelligence  and  the  augnicnteu  force  of  the  tiers  etat,  a  collision  took 
place,  the  most  terrible  on  record,  which  ended  in  the  temporary  sii)>v<<riion  of  the  throne. 
When  the  Bourbons  were  restored  by  foreign  victories,  tliey  felt,  and  were  warned,  tlmt 
France  could  no  longer  be  governed  by  the  former  absolute  system ;  and  they  bvotowcd  by 
charter  a  representative  government  formed  on  tho  admired  model  of  Eiiirland.  The  nobloa 
and  parliaments,  however,  had  been  entirely  flW(>pt  away  in  tho  Ir.te  con\  ulHioP"  iind  h-fl  no 
heretlitary  aristocracy  out  of  which  an  upper  Iiounc  could  be  composed.  A  ('hanilxir  of  Peers 
was  formed,  by  the  royal  appointment,  of  a  body  of  individuals,  many  diHtinguishod  rather 
by  talents  and  influence  than  by  birth ;  and  in  tho  number  were  included  some  of  tlie  most 
distinguished  of  Napoleon's  generals.  Pensions  were  assigned  to  support  the  dignity  of  the 
Peers,  which  waa  at  firat  hereditary,  but  by  a  recent  enactment  is  to  continue  only  tor  life. 
The  Chamber  of  Deputies,  corresponding  to  tiie  House  of  Commons,  is  choeen  by  clecton 
united  in  certdn  bodies  called  electoral  colleges.  These  include  all  persons  paying  a  certain 
amount  of  direct  taxes;  which  limits  the  right  of  voting  to  the  middling  class,  and  to  an  entire 
number  throughout  France  scarcely  exce^ing  130,000.  The  numMV  of  Deputies  is  430. 
The  functions  of  the  French  chambers  are  high.  Their  annual  vote  grants  all  the  supplies  of 
the  year,  and  the  expenditure  of  the  preceding  one  is  submitted  to  their  rigorous  examina- 
tion. No  taxes  can  bn  imposed,  or  loans  contracted  for,  without  their  concurrence.  Their 
debates  ore  regularly  made  public,  and  an  arrangement  is  enacted  by  law  for  the  convenienca 
of  the  reporters.  Yet  the  chambers  want  some  of  the  functions  of  a  British  parliament 
They  caiuiot  fix  the  amount  o(  the  army,  unless  by  limiting  the  funds  to  be  employed  in  its 
maintenance ;  nor  can  they  call  in  question  the  engagements  held  by  government  with 
foreign  powers,  unless  by  withholding  the  funds  necessary  to  fulfil  them.  The  liberty  of 
the  press  was  professedly  granted  by  the  charter ;  but  tlierc  has  been  much  fluctuation  in  its 
exercise ;  it  was  even  repeatedly  made  subject  to  a  censorship :  even  since  the  last  great 
change,  its  freedom  has  not  been  established  on  as  ample  a  basis  as  in  Britain. 

The  administration  of  justice  in  France,  which,  before  the  Revolut'un,  was  still  more  com- 
plicated than  in  England,  has  been  simplified  in  a  very  remarkable  degree.  Tho  National 
Assembly  early  applied  themselves  to  form  a  new  series  of  codes,  which  might  supersede 
tliose  vast  and  voluminous  reconls  in  which  the  law  was  formerly  contained.  They  pro- 
jected five  codes,  respectively  referring  to  civil  law,  civil  procedure,  commerce,  crimuial 
aw,  and  penal  infliction.  These  were  completed  under  Bonaparte,  who  gave  to  the  whole 
the  name  of  Code  Napoleon :  it  is  comprised  in  a  moderate  volume,  sola  for  a  few  francs. 
All  the  ancient  parliaments  and  seigniorial  authorities  being  swept  away,  a  new  system  of 
jurisdiction  has  been  formed.  Of  the  judicial  authorities,  the  lowest  class  are  the  juges  de 
paix,  who  amount  to  nearly  3000.  They  have  salaries  of  800  to  1000  francs,  and  decide 
finally  on  all  cases  where  the  question  at  issue  does  not  exceed  fifly  francs.  Immediately 
above  them  are  the  tribunals  de  premiire  instance,  before  whom  all  questions  and  charges 
come  in  the  first  instance,  and  who  judge  finally  respecting  any  property  not  exceeding  lOOO 
irancs.  There  are  360  of  these  courts,  and  tiie  judges  are  supposed  little  short  of  3000. 
To  them  are  attached  the  tribunal  of  correctional  police,  which  has  cognizance  of  all  mmor 
oflTcnces.  Above  these  rank  the  cours  royales,  sometimes  called  cours  d'appel,  because  an 
appeal  lies  to  them  from  the  inferior  courts.  They  are  twenty-seven  in  uumber,  attached 
to  the  chief  cities  in  the  kingdom.  They  consist,  in  populous  towns,  of  twenty,  thirty,  and 
in  Paris  of  fifty  members;  who,  in  that  case,  are  divided  into  several  chambers.  Attached 
to  them  are  the  cours  d'assise,  or,  as  we  would  call  them,  jury  courts,  to  which  all  criminal 
ca^es  of  importance  are  referred  by  the  cours  royales.  A  French  jury  consists  of  twe've, 
and  a  simple  majority  decides.  From  the  decisions  of  the  cours  royales  an  appeal  lies  to  the 
court  of  cngsatiofii  the  highest  tribunal,  which  also  exerciBes  a  genera!  jurisdiction  over  the 
other  judicial  bodies.  All  the  judges  ars  app(>inted  by  the  crown,  but  hold  their  offices  for 
life 


Part  III 

lure  doitpotiam ;  at 
ch  it  cuiiiinnncnd. 
I,  which,  notwith- 
ongth  Charloa  X., 
Iiority,  waa  driven 
&1  lino  of  Urloani, 


t  purely  deipotic 
ona  f>oii)  taxation, 
peasantry.  Tho 
hereditary  bodies, 
ho  parliament  of 

0  it  could  becomo 
msistent  with  tho 
i(,  a  coliision  took 
lion  of  the  throne, 
'ere  warned,  tlmt 
they  bcNtowod  by 
and.  Tho  nnblci 
litionK  and  li'fl  no 

1  'hanibor  of  Peers 
tinpfuishod  rather 
some  of  the  most 
tho  dignity  of  the 
;inue  only  tor  life. 
:hoeon  by  clccton 
i  paying  a  certain 
)H,  and  to  an  entire 
'  Deputies  is  430. 
\\\  tho  supplies  of 
rigorous  oxamina'- 
currence.  Their 
ir  the  convenience 
■itish  parliament 
e  employed  in  its 
government  with 

The  liberty  of 
I  fluctuation  in  its 
ice  the  last  great 
in. 

18  still  more  com' 
).  Tho  National 
might  supersede 
ined.  They  pro- 
imerce,  criminal 
ivo  to  the  whole 
for  a  few  francs, 
a  new  system  of 
ure  the  juge»  de 
ones,  and  decide 
8.  Immediately 
ons  and  charg^ 
'.  exceeding  1000 
e  short  of  3000. 
nee  of  all  minor 
ipel,  because  an 
umber,  attached 
enty,  thirty,  and 
bew.  Attached 
lich  all  criminal 
isists  of  twe've, 
ppeal  lies  to  the 
diction  over  the 

their  offices  for 


Book  I. 


FRANCE 


sas 


[The  following  tables  flrom  ofRcial  documont«  contain  important  data  illustntirfl  not  loM 

of  the  moral  history  of  mankind,  than  of  tho  state  of  society  in  Franco. 

L  Buumtnt  of  lh«  Numbtr  o(  I'araoni  chtifed  with  CrIinlnnI  OAbncM  bafbrt  Ih*  Courti  of  AhIm,  Ib  each  ytar, 

(Viim  IHliM  til  IHai. 


Orimi  a#«liM(  tkt  Pttn, 
Aeaiiiil  thn  Htnlfl  ■ml  riihllo  Offleen  . 

Mfurdflr  and  MaiKlauibtor 

Parrirlile 

IntkntlcMs ■ 

Cuttlni  and  Wnundlnt 

AmiuIIi  upon  Woman 

'•      OhIMren , 

Parjnry  and  Buboinatlon  or  Ptrjury  . 

Bltamy 

Oiner  t'rimta 


Tolah. 


Crimtt  agaitul  Propntf, 

Coining 

Fnrgfry  nf  Cnminarclal  Papari .  ■ 

nthHr  Korierliia 

Rubliory  anil  Theft  in  Chiirchci .  ■ 

"  "  iin  lllihwayi . 

"  "  by  Domcillea . 

Othflr  klnili  of  Rnhhary 

Frailiilnnt  Bankruptcy 

Incenillnrliini 

Other  C'rIinM 


Total! 

General  Totali. 


ISIH. 


1,844 


M 
383 

47 
188 

fm 

3,51)9 
80 
06 
133 


5,559 


7,396 


lasB. 


178 

StH 

14 

Ul 

456 

184 

130 

79 

11 

04 


1,791 


78 

:•*» 

339 

07 

185 

1,313 

3,345 

05 

88 

175 


5,889 


7,373 


1830. 


305 

400 
4 

100 
300 
136 
107 

71 
7 

80 


1,666 


48 

90 

981 

*7 

135 

1,010 

3,3H) 

84 

138 

1T7 


5,996 


6,969 


1831. 


618 

005 

15 

86 

340 

lis 

103 

79 

9 

54 


9,046 


105 
73 

301 
35 

193 

CO 

3,481 

67 

199 

314 


5,560 


7,806 


1800. 


1.088 

041 

93 

88 

349 

131 

111 

104 

0 

63 


9,644 


81 

8H 
397 

38 

108 

058 

3,359 

70 

m 

343 


5,503 
8,937 


II.  Statoikent  ihowing  tbo  Degree  of  Initructlnn  of  Pnriona  chargml  with  Crimea  befbm  the  Courta  of  AaalM,  tn 

each  year,  IVum  1898  to  1839. 


Tau. 

Uiublt  to  FMd  or  wrilo. 

Able  to  ntd  or  write  Inperlbellr.                            | 

Crlnm  >(*lial 
renoia. 

Crlma  anlial 
Proi«rir. 

Totil 
4-.aMd. 

Acquitted. 

CoiKrlelad. 

Crimee  ti^lut 
Venooe. 

CrlmeeuilMt 

Totel 

Acquitted. 

CoiiTlcted. 

1,143 
1,160 
1.060 
1,047 
1,394 

1818 
189U 
1830 
1831 
1839 

1,000 
1,063 
000 
1,144 
1,333 

3,157 
3,460 
3.339 
3,450 
3,416 

4,100 
4,533 
4,310 
4,000 
4,749 

1,530 
1,606 
1,654 
1,048 
1,883 

3,097 
3,W7 
3,0«IS 

a.n.w 

505 
406 
405 
508 
850 

1,353 
1,431 
1,301 
1,479 
1,000 

1,858 
1,947 
1,886 
9,047 
8,450 

715 

787 

706 

1.000 

1,109 

rin  yon. 

1888 
1830 
1830 
1831 
1839 

5,839 

915 
185 
174 
934 

31)3 

10,818 

Alili  to  raai. 
505 
544 
514 
833 
583 

S3,3J7 

and  write  t 
780 
789 
688 
707 
775 

8,730 

«IL 
343 
32.'5 
3:10 
430 
373 

13,037 

438 
404 
358 
341 
403 

3,884 
Beceiradedei 
30 
40 
37 
98 
109 

7,350 

Tee  of  loetrudloi 
83 
134 
03 
98 
88 

10,134 
eliqtaadiM 
118 
170 

lao 

100 
357 

4,4X 

rereedUifu 

77 

80 

89 
139 
103 

5,704 

idwrlllH- 
41 
81 
47 
58 
98 

Total  In 
rifaytan. 

1,100 

3,030 

3,739 

1.790 

1,043 

386 

478 

864 

542 

399 

Financud  tyttem.  During  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  France  shook  off  the  heavy 
burden  of  debt  which  had  been  a  main  iustrument  in  bringing  on  that  catastrophe.  Yet  the 
amount  of  taxes  had  not  exceeded  550,000,000  livres,  and  tht  nation  was  crushed  rather  \rj 
the  arbitrary  and  injudicious  modes  of  levying  the  imposts,  than  by  their  actual  amount 
Napoleon,  to  support  his  continual  wars,  laid  on  large  additional  taxes,  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
land  assessment,  and  contracted,  a  debt  of  3,000,000,000  firancs.  This  was  augmented  by  the 
events  of  1815,  and  the  occupation  of  the  French  territory  by  the  allied  armies  at  the  expensp 
of  France.  The  debt  is  now  expressed  in  the  form  of  rentes  or  annuities,  which  in  the 
budget  of  1830  amounted  to  249,496,000  livres:  this,  with  other  funds  for  which  govcm- 
fflent  were  responsible,  was  considered  as  representing  a  capital  of  4,988,738,000  franctL 

The  statement  of  receipt  and  expenditure  for  the  year  1830  is  as  follows : — 

EXTEHDITORE.  Truce. 

Civil  Lilt 37,666,666 

Chamber  of  Peera 799,990 


BECEIFT.  Fnuiee. 

Dirret  Taxea,  chiefly  on  Land 200,905,819 

Registration  Btampa,  and  Domalna 187,335,038 

Ctntomhousca  anfl  Salt 154,331,103 

Liquors.  Sundry  Duties,  Tobacco  and  Gun- 
powder....   193,081,583 

Port  Office  33.469,030 

Falls  of  Timber 84,060.697 

Balt.worka 1,900,000 

Oaming-housei 4,338,888 

Hoyal  Lottery 10,042,799 

Colnaue..... 141,381 

Sundry  proceeds 11,885,418 

Ettraordinary  resoureea 48,403,341 

Deductions  on  Becalpts 35.900,000 


983,044,060 

45* 


Chamber  of  Deputies 600.000 

Legion  of  Honour. 3,655,309 

Sinking  Fund 41,663,050 

Debt 376,350,668 

Justice 19,566,030 

Foreign  Afflilra 8,778,000 

Religion  and  Public  Instruction 38,961,500 

Interior 136.129,'na 

War   ,,,.:=      233,3S3,a7 

Marine 38,537,474 

Finance 93,877,"«7 

Administration  ofRevenue 130,073,351 

RepaymeoU ■  4fl.300,l»M 


1,064,388.445 


8M 


DESCRirTIVK  OECXmAPIiy. 


Pabt  in 


Tho  army  of  France  ia  no  lonKor  Uiat  vaat  ami  terrible  maM,  which  for  n  many  yoarn 
hold  tho  whole  of  continental  Europe  in  thriill.  The  oventa  of  IHIA  having  proven  too 
•loarly  tho  attachnouit  ut'  tho  old  tnmpa  to  tlxtir  tbrinnr  master,  they  were  nearly  all  dia- 
bandud,  and  thuir  placu  Muppiicd  by  IVomIi  cunHcription.  The  ffuvornmont  Iikh  the  power  of 
Ifvyiriff  60,0(M)  men  in  tho  year.  l)y  a  roffuiatiun,  broalliin^f  atill  tho  republican  xpirit,  one* 
tliinl  of  tho  ofllieera  inu«t  be  raiaod  fVuni  tho  rankii.  The  anny  in  the  year  18:)'^  waa  on  a 
very  formidable  f(x)tin(f.  It  amounted  in  nil,  includin((  19,(KWI  offlcent,  and  HTM  children  of 
■uldiora,  to  411,H1U  men.  Uf  theao,  tho  intlmtry  conaiatcd  of  UIV)5  offlcorH  and  204)141  men; 
the  cavalry  of  UHOA  officera  and  &1,33&  men ;  tlio  artillery  of  1100  ofBceni  and  9ifi0i  men, 
boaidoa  ffondarmorio,  oni^inoora,  &.c. 

Tho  French  navy,  which,  in  17H1,  amounted  to  aeveiKiy-four  aail  of  the  line  and  aixty-two 
friffatoR,  lost  half  durinfr  ti  <  wur;  and  thoee  which  rrnmmed,  having  norer  ventured  for 
many  years  to  atir  out  of  p<ift,  lost  all  their  experience  and  effloioncy.  At  preoont,  it  coniiBta 
of  Ou  ahipa  of  the  line,  60  iVigiilua,  'M  corvottea,  103  amaller  veaaelfl,  17  ateam-veHticU, 
numeroua  armed  transports,  &c.  The  French  navy  ia  now  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency,  and 
is  rapidly  incroaaing. 

Scot.  V. — Productive  Induttry. 

France,  with  regard  to  internal  economy,  is  one  of  the  richest  and  moat  flourishing  coun* 
tries  in  tlio  world.  In  point  of  industry  she  ranks  thini  after  Britain  and  the  Nothorlandit , 
while  she  possesses  a  t^reater  extent  and  more  natural  advantages  than  either  of  thoao  great 
aeats  of  commerce  aiiii  manuiiicturo. 

Agriculture  is  the  most  flourishing  branch,  yet  is  not  in  so  odvanced  a  state  as  in  Grcn 
Britain.  It  has  gained  greatly  by  the  Fnincii  revolution,  in  consequence  of  the  abolition  nt 
feudal  rights,  corvtfei,  and  tithes.  Tho  great  possessions  of  the  nobility  wore  then  broken 
up,  and  during  the  grand  emigration,  the  iknnors,  or  neighbouring  little  proprietors  and 
capitalists,  were  able  to  purcliase  at  a  very  cheap  rate  portions  of  the  foribited  aomaina.  It 
has  become  a  rage  in  Franco  for  every  one  to  ikmbors  a  little  spot  of  land ;  and  the  division 
of  a  man's  property  among  his  cliildron,  which  tho  law  enforces,  tends  to  split  it  peri)otually 
more  and  more  into  minute  portions.  Travellers  have  even  obscrvoil  three  or  tour  pro- 
prietors obliged  to  join  in  keeping  a  common  plough.  In  vineyards  and  other  |^rden  cul- 
tures, where  nice  care  and  diligence  are  chiefly  requisite,  this  minute  partition  seems 
advantageous.  Chaptal  even  calculatuH,  that  a  small  vineyard  cultivated  by  the  proprietor'i 
own  hand  will  yield  double  the  quantity  of  that  which  is  leased  out  by  a  large  proprietor. 
But  in  com  lands,  where  a  considerable  capital,  good  machinery,  strong  and  well-fed  cattle 
are  necessary,  the  cultivation  is  thus  kept  down  to  a  much  lower  standard  than  it  would 
otherwise  reach.  Tho  little  occupants,  also,  are  by  no  means  prompt  in  discovering  any 
improved  processes,  or  in  adopting  those  discovered  elsewhere.  Artificial  grasses,  and  the 
rotation  of  crops  which  they  &cilitate,  are  by  no  means  generally  difliised ;  and  an  old 
vicious  circle,  of  wheat,  oats,  and  fallow,  is  still  very  generally  adhered  to.  In  abort,  all 
operations  on  a  great  scale,  and  requiring  a  considerable  outlay,  are  deficient  in  France. 
M.  Dupin,  in  a  discourse  on  the  efl^octs  of  public  instruction,  in  the  introduction  to  his  normal 
course  of  lectures  on  geometry,  has  drawn  a  striking  contrast  between  northern  and  southern 
France.  Although  the  former  produces  neither  the  olive,  the  vine,  nor  any  of  the  finer 
fruits,  yet  it  pays  of  taxes  127,630,000  fVancs  on  a  surface  of  18,600,000  hectares;  while  the 
■ouih  pays  only  125,410,000  firancs  upon  34,840,000  hectares.  Even  in  the  south,  the  dis- 
tricts least  favoured  by  nature  are  both  the  most  enlightened  and  the  most  industrious ;  the 
high  Alps,  the  high  Pyrenees,  and  the  departments  immediately  adjoining  to  them. 

Grain,  notwithstondmg  the  imperfection  in  its  cultivation,  is  produced  with  such  diligence 
aa  to  yield  enough  in  ordinary  years  to  supply  the  extensive  population  of  France  with  food. 
The  only  exception  is  in  part  of  its  southern  coast,  which,  when  permitted,  draws  a  supply 
from  Odessa.  France  is  not  distinguished  for  any  very  superior  quality  of  ^in,  nor  is  it  an 
exporting  country.  It  seems  to  have  attended  less  than  most  other  countries  of  Europe  to 
the  culture  of  potatoes,  which  are  still  planted  only  in  gardens,  along  borders,  or  in  tracts 
unfit  for  grain.  Maize  is  mixed  with  wheat  in  the  southern  departments.  Chaptal  has 
given  the  following  statement,  calculated  on  an  average  of  twelve  years,  firom  1800  to  1812, 
of  the  entire  products  of  this  branch  of  French  agriculture: — 


ntctolHra. 

Wheat 31,300,900 

Rye 30,390,161 

Maize 6,303,316 

Buckwheat 6,409,473 


Hectslltm. 

Bnrley 13,576,603 

Pntsloei 10,800,741 

OaU 39,066.887 

160,946,081 


A  more  recent  estimate,  in  a  memoir  read  to  the  Society  of  Statistics  in  1830,  makes  the 
average  produce  of  the  years  1825  to  1828  amount  to  60,553,000  hectolitres  of  wheat, 
114,733,000  of  other  grains ;  46,238,000  of  potatoes  aiiu  chestnuts. 

Wine  ranks  next  in  importance  to  grain,  and  forms  a  meet  valuable  part  of  French 
industry.    The  wines  of  France,  though  not  so  strong  as  those  of  more  southern  climates. 


Paht  m 

'  M  many  roaw 
in((  proved  too 
)  nearly  all  (li». 
a  tho  power  of 
lean  opirit,  ono- 
ISH'i  was  on  a 
71>4  children  of 
1201,141  men; 
nd  3:^504  men, 

B  and  aixty-two 

ir  ventured  for 

H;nt,  it  coniiista 

ateain-veiiNclH, 

efficiency,  and 


mriihinjr  coun- 

a  Nolhorlandn , 

of  thoM  great 

ato  as  in  Orcn 
tho  abolition  ot 

0  then  broken 
>ronrintorfi  and 
d  domains.  It 
id  tlio  division 
:  it  perpotunlly 
30  or  four  pro- 
ar  ^rdon  cul. 
artition  ^oGms 
;ho  proprietor'j 
[rgo  proprietor, 
veil-fed  cattle 

than  it  would 
scovorinjf  any 
'asses,  and  the 
1;  and  an  old 
In  short,  all 
int  in  Prance. 

1  to  his  normal 
I  and  southern 
y  of  the  finer 
ea ;  while  the 
luth,  the  dis« 
ustrious;  the 
>em. 

uch  diligence 
ce  with  food, 
aws  a  supply 
ii  nor  is  it  an 
Df  Europe  to 
,  or  in  tracts 
Chaptal  has 
800  to  1812, 


m 
til 

W7 
Ml 

),  makes  the 
s  of  wheat, 

of  French 
m  cliniates. 


Book  I. 


PRANCE. 


vt  generally  accounted  the  nwat  delicate  in  the  world.  Those  of  Burgundy  and  Champagno 
U9  without  a  rival,  if  wo  except  a  few  raro  specimens  of  Tokay.  Tho  winns  of  th<f  (Jaronnt 
do  not  rank  quite  so  high ;  but,  tVom  their  light,  safe,  and  ogrocable  (jUBlities,  are  drunk  more 
firefilv,  and  exported  on  a  larger  scalo.  The  Hnoat  and  strongest  of  those  wines  aro  cultivated 
chieliy  to  supply  the  consumption  of  Britain  and  thn  other  northurn  nations.  1'lie  interior 
consuin|)tion  of  Franco  consiits  chiofly  uf  tho  light  winos,  drunk  at  table,  nearly  as  our  beer. 
Two  ulalN)ratn  BttiMii|tts  have  boon  mudt-  to  ostimato  the  prcMJuco  of  tho  French  vitioyords; 
one  by  Chaptal,  in  his  "  Gonoral  TroatiHo  on  French  Imluiitry,"  and  tho  other  in  tho  report 
of  a  comrnittoo  of  Uio  Chamber  of  I'eors,  prosonti'd  in  IH'24  by  Mm  Due  do  Dodoauvillo. 
Thoy  diflbr  pretty  considerably.  Chaptal  supposes  tlint  l,(Kn,(NM)  hectares  are  employed  in 
producing  wine  to  Uie  av(>ragu  annual  amount  of  :)A,(yNMN)U  lioctulitres.  The  table,  how* 
evor,  given  bv  tho  duke,  ot  the  produce  of  each  dupartment  docs  not  exceed  U1,(KM),()00 
hectolitres.  The  difforenco  as  to  value  is  still  more  remarkable,  (/hantal,  aflor  leaving  out 
a  sixth,  as  made  into  brandy,  ostiinatos  the  romaindnr  at  078,(NN),')<X)  tVancs:  iio  Miipitosoi 
that  there  aro  H(MMMM)  worth  each  2(NMVancs;  1,(HKMMN)  worth  50;  gradually  descending 
till  ho  conies  to  l(),rt(MMHHI  worth  only  7}  francs.  Dodcuuvillo  ilm^s  not  bring  tho  amount 
to  muro  than  4H0,(HN),(XH).  Tho  highest  average  value  ho  asoigriH  to  the  wines  of  any 
department  in  to  those  of  the  Oise  (champagne),  !}0  t>ancs;  thoso  of  the  Marno,  Yonno,  and 
C6to  d'Or  (burgundy),  20  to  24 ;  of  tho  Uironde,  and  Lot,  and  Uaroiine  (chirot).  It)  to  21 ; 
tho  rcHt  from  17  to  9.  His  estimate,  however,  sooms  too  low;  since  M.  Dupin  {Fttrces  I'ro- 
ductives,  4t.  ilf.  la  Francf:)  calculates  the  value,  according  to  tho  tax  paid  to  government, 
at  r)4!},ir>r),07H  tVancs.  Tho  brandy  into  which  one-sixth  of  tho  above  produce  is  made,  ia, 
like  the  wine,  tho  finest  in  the  world,  and  a  grand  staple  of  French  trade,  ('haptul  estimates 
tlie  value  dJNtillod  at  40,000,(MN)  fi^ncs.  M.  Dupin  states  the  quantity  at  409,817  hectolitres; 
that  of  ot  liur  spirits  at  90,000.  Ho  calculates  also  8,808,218  hectolitres  of  cider,  and  2  00,%023 
hectolitres  of  strong  beer. 

Live  stock  does  not  form  the  most  approved  part  of  French  husbandry.  Chaptal  'tonciders 
that  tho  animals  are  too  few,  whothor  for  culture,  for  use,  or  for  Uio  pro<luction  of  manure; 
and  also  that  the  measures  taken  to  improve  tho  broed  have  been  very  partial  and  defective. 
Ihe  number  of  horses,  including  mules,  in  1827,  was  2,.'>r>0,(K)0.  Ot  ttioso  it  was  reckoned 
that  3(M),000  wcro  employed  in  riding,  posting,  the  artillery,  &.c..  Tho  stock  requires  to  be 
kept  up  by  an  importation,  which  in  1809  to  1812  was  valued  at  .S,.'>11,(M)0  francs  annually, 
but  according  to  M.  Senac  had  risen,  in  1822  to  1825,  to  7,5(M),(MMi.  In  return,  there  is  an 
exteuHivo  brooding  of  mules  on  the  Pyrenean  frontier,  and  they  are  exported  to  Spain  to  tho 
value  of  1,400,000  francs.  France  had  in  1812,  214,000  bulls,  1,7()1,(K»0  oxen,  3,W)9,0(X) 
cows,  850,(K)0  heifers.  The  importation  at  that  time  amounted  to  only  2,.360,000  francs,  but 
in  1825  it  \v;is  7,(J8(),000.  The  exportation  is,  however,  considerable.  Sheep  aro  a  speciea 
of  stock  very  considerable  in  amount,  particularly  in  tho  departments  bordering  on  the  Alp* 
and  Pyreneos,  in  those  which  compose  the  mountain  district  of  Auvergne,  and  on  tho  pastoral 
banks  of  tho  Euro  and  the  Cher.  The  number  of  sheep  in  1812  was  766,310  mcrinoa, 
3,578,000  mixed,  and  30,843,000  native  or  unimproved.  The  first  introduction  of  mcrinoa 
was  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Basic,  which  stipulated  that  4000  of  theso  highly  prized 
animals  should  pass  into  France.  An  experience  of  thirty  years  has  shown  that  the  breed 
might  be  preserved  and  extended  in  full  perfection ;  but  the  abovo  statement  will  show  that 
the  diffusion  of  it  is,  as  yet,  very  partial.  Pure  merinos  are  valued  at  thirty  francs,  mixed 
at  twelve  francs,  and  native  sheep  at  only  five  francs.  The  number  of  swine  in  France  is 
estimated  by  Baibi,  in  1826,  at  4,000,000.  The  ass  is  considered  by  M.  Senac  to  bo,  from 
the  poverty  of  his  owners,  in  an  almost  hopeless  state  of  degradation ;  and  the  fowls,  the 
bees,  and  the  pigeons  to  demand  a  thoroughly  improved  system  of  rearing.  Chaptal  has 
not  attempted  to  estimate  the  winged  species,  but  has  guessed  their  entire  value  at  about 
51,000,000  francs. 

Among  the  materials  of  manufacture,  tlie  most  important  is  silk,  which  was  at  first  iniro- 
duced  near  Tours,  but  was  soon  found  to  be  well  suited  only  to  thi  most  southern  districts. 
The  amount,  according  to  Chaptal,  is  about  11,400,000 lbs.,  and  the  value  1.5,440,000  francs; 
but  this  is  only  about  twcvfiflhs  of  the  quantity  consumed  in  the  manufactures,  so  that  a  large 
importation  is  necessary  from  Lombardy.  Hemp  and  flax  are  cultivated  universally,  but 
always  on  a  small  scale,  every  farmer  having  his  little  patch  fbr  domestic  use.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  estimate  these ;  but  Chaptal  guesses  the  value  of  hemp  at  80,000,000  fVancs,  and  flax 
at  20,000,000  frnncs.  Vegetable  oib  ore  produced  to  the  supposed  extent  of  1,300,000  quin- 
tals, worUi  about  75,000,(N)0  francs ;  vet  so  great  is  tlte  quantity  consumed  in  domestic 
use,  and  in  the  different  manufactures,  that  they  are  imported  to  the  value  of  nearly  twen^> 
five  millions. 

There  are  certain  tropical  and  colonial  productions  which  it  was  the  eager  wish  of  Napo- 
leon that  France  should  cultivate,  in  order  that  she  might  be  independent  of  commeroe. 
One  of  his  favourite  projects  was  the  culture  of  the  beet-root,  for  the  extraction  of  sugar, 
an  article  of  consumption  with  which  Europeans  can  least  dispense.  The  admission  of  colo- 
nial and  foreign  sugars,  under  reasonab.^  duties,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  continental  sjSf 


536 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


tem,  gave  a  severe  check  to  this  spurious  branch  of  industry.    To  prevent  its  decline,  heavy 
additional  duties  were  laiH  on  colonial  and  foreign  sugars  in  1816  and  1822;  and,  in  conse* 

Junnce  of  tliis  encouragement,  the  production  of  beet-root  sugar  has  been  rapidly  increasing 
uring  the  last  five  years,  and  is  now  supposed  to  amount  to  about  8000  tons,  or  8,060,000  lbs. 
The  art  has  been  a  good  deal  improved ;  and  it  is  8up|)osed  by  many  that  it  will,  at  no  dis- 
tant period,  be  so  much  ameliorated  that  the  beet-growers  will  be  able  to  withstand  the 
competition  of  the  WeRt  India  planters  under  the  same  duties :  but  any  such  expectation 
seems  to  us  to  be  quite  visionary.  The  entire  consumption  of  sugar  in  France  amounts,  at 
preoent,  inclusive  of  that  from  the  beet-root,  to  about  72,000  tons  a  year ;  being  not  much 
more  than  a  third  part  of  the  consumption  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which  amounts  to 
about  190,000  tons.  Tobacco,  after  the  removal  of  the  regie  or  royal  monopoly,  rose  to 
50,000,000  Ibe. ;  but  since  the  restoration  of  the  regie  in  1812,  it  has  &llen  to  5,000,000. 

Wood  is  an  important  article,  especially  in  a  country  which  is  nearly  destitute  of  any 
other  fuel.  Ghaptal  estimated  the  woodlands  at  7,072,000  hectares  (about  17,500,000  acres); 
but  ccording  to  a  more  recent  memorial  in  1824,  *»y  M.  Herbin  de  Halle,  sub-administrator 
of  the  forests,  it  is  only  6,521,000  hectares  (about  19,000,000  acres).  Of  this,  1,122,000 
hectares  belong  to  the  state,  1,896,000  to  the  communes,  65,969  to  the  crown,  192,000  to 
princes  of  the  royal  family,  and  3,243,000  to  private  individuals.  Woods  thus  occupy  a  little 
more  than  an  eighth  part  of  the  soil.  The  greatest  proportion  exists  in  the  departments 
bordering  un  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  and  along  the  Rhine,  the  Moselle,  the  Sadne,  the 
Marne,  and  other  eastern  rivers.  Chaptal  estimates  the  value  of  the  annual  cuttings  at 
about  141,000,000  francs ;  but  if  this  be  reduced  according  to  M.  de  Halle's  estimate,  it  will 
give  only  130,000,000.  Fruit  trees  are  also  of  importance,  especially  chestnuts,  cultivated 
on  a  large  scale  in  several  provinces,  and  valued  by  Chaptal  at  about  10,000,000  francs. 
He  estimates  the  fhiit  growing  open  in  orchards  at  22,500,000  francs,  and  that  on  walls,  or 
in  rows  as  single  trees,  at  68,750,000.  He  is  afraid  tliat  this  last  will  be  thought  too  low ; 
we  should  rather  apprehend  an  opposite  error  in  this  instance,  as  well  as  in  that  of  reckonuig 
the  herbs  which  grow  in  323,000  hectares  of  garden  ground,  at  200,000,000  francs. 

On  the  whole,  Chaptal  calculates  that  in  the  52,(X)0,000  hectares  cf  which  France  con- 
sists, twenty-three  are  arable;  ten  woods,  vines,  fruit-trees;  seven  pasturage;  the  rest 
waters,  roads,  buildings,  waste.  He  makes  the  annual  average  produce  of  an  acre  28  francs. 
By  this  and  other  estimates,  the  annual  territorial  produce  comes  to  about  1,500,000,000 
francs,  '"he  entire  agricultural  capital  he  estimates  at  37,500,000,000  francs.  M.  Dupin, 
in  1627,  reckons  the  territorial  revenue  at  1,626,000,000  francs. 

The  manufactures  of  France,  though  they  do  not  present  the  immense  results  of  those  of 
England,  are  considerably  more  productive  than  those  of  almost  any  other  nation.  Colbert, 
the  celebrated  minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  finding  this  branch  in  a  very  depressed  state,  com- 
pared with  its  prosperous  condition  in  some  neighbouring  countries,  bestowed  on  it  almost 
an  exclusive  attention.  Chaptal  calculates,  that  during  the  Revolution  it  made  still  greater 
progress  than  agriculture.  He  regards  as  almost  miraculous  the  advance  made  in  the  cotton 
and  other  fabrics.  The  miracle,  however,  was  wrought  solely  by  the  rigid  exclusion  of 
British  goods ;  and  amid  all  the  boasted  proofs  of  French  ingenuity,  he  is  obliged  to  confess, 
that  when,  as  minister  of  the  ulterior,  he  sought  eagerly  the  means  of  introducing  new 
manufactures,  he  could  find  no  efiectual  expedient,  except  that  of  allurmg  English  manu- 
fecturers  into  France,  and  of  copying  their  processes.  However,  these  prohibitions,  which 
have  been  continued  to  a  great  extent  under  the  royal  system,  have  in  fact  forced  a  number 
of  manufactures  which  could  not  otherwise  have  withstood  British  compef.ition. 

Silk  has  been  long  one  of  Uie  most  prominent  objects  of  French  manufacture.  Even  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  though  it  drove  many  of  the  mt^t  industrious  citizens  out 
of  the  kingdom,  lefl  that  branch  of  industry  still  very  nourishing.  It  suffered  more  from  the 
dreadful  calamities  which  befell  Lyons,  its  chief  seat,  during  the  height  of  the  revolutionary 
mania.  The  15,000  establishments  that  existed  in  1788  for  the  manufacture  of  silk,  were 
reduced  in  1800  to  3500;  but  amounted,  in  1831,  to  about  15,000,  employing  above  21,000 
workmen.  It  is  chiefly  in  cloths  that  this  city  excels  all  others,  both  as  to  the  brilliancy  of 
the  dyes,  and  the  richness  and  beauty  of  the  stuffs.  Nismes  excels  in  tafietos,  mixed  silk 
and  cotton  stuffs,  gauzes,  and  crapes ;  Tours  in  furniture  stuffs ;  Avigiion  in  satins,  levan- 
tines,  &c.  The  Cevennes  are  femous  for  bonnets,  while  almost  all  the  silk  ribands  ore  fiibri- 
cated  in  the  department  of  the  Loire.  The  entire  value  of  the  manufacture  is  estimated  at 
125,000,000  francs,  of  which  30,000,000  is  exported. 

The  woollen  manufiicture  is  still  more  extensive  and  valuable  than  thnt  of  silk.  The 
woollens  of  France  are  either  very  coarse  or  very  fine ;  the  former  are  established  chiefly  in 
i.he  hilly  tracts  of  the  southern  border,  where  the  sheep  yield  abundance  of  coarse  wool,  and 
the  shepherds  spend  the  leisure  of  winter  in  working  it  up  into  serges,  friezes,  and  Rimilar 
stuira.  On  the  other  hand,  at  Sedan,  Louviers,  Abbeville,  are  manu&ctured  finer  cloths 
tlian  any  of  those  of  Britain,  though  the  latter  produces  a  much  larger  quantity  of  good  and  sub- 
stantial cloth.  Although  France  produces  84,000,000  lbs.  of  wool,  she  yet  imports  to  the 
value  of  12,000,000  or  14,000,000  of  francs:  Chaptal  estimates  the  whole  unmanufactured 


Part  III. 

ecline,  heavy 
nd,  in  conse* 
ly  increasing 
B,90O,OOOlb8. 
ill,  at  no  dia- 
vithstand  the 
I  expectation 
!  amounts,  at 
ing  not  much 
h  amounts  to 
)poly,  rose  to 
j,000,000. 
ititute  of  any 
0,000  acres); 
administrator 
lis,  1,122,000 
n,  102,000  to 
ccupy  a  little 
!  departments 
le  Sadne,  the 
1  cuttings  at 
imate,  it  will 
ts,  cultivated 
0,000  francs, 
t  on  walls,  or 
ight  too  low ; 
of  reckoning 
incs. 

I  France  con- 
ge; the  rest 
crc  28  francs. 
1,500,000,000 
.    M.  Dupin, 

:s  of  those  of 
an.    Colbert, 
d  state,  corn- 
on  it  almost 
still  greater 
in  the  cotton 
exclusion  of 
id  to  confess, 
xlucing  new 
glish  manu- 
itions,  which 
ed  a  number 

Even  the 
citizens  out 
lore  firom  the 
evolutionary 
)f  silk,  were 
bove  21,000 
brilliancy  of 
mixed  silk 
atins,  levan- 
ids  are  fabri- 
estimated  at 

silk.  The 
sd  chiefly  in 
e  wool,  and 

and  similar 
finer  cloths 
ood  and  sub- 
ports  to  the 
anu&ctured 


Udok  I. 


PRANCK 


m 


wool  at  93,000,000  francs,  and  the  finished  work  at  238,000,000,  of  which  the  export* 
amount  to  about  25,000,000. 

The  making  of  linen  is  as  widely  scattered  as  the  culture  of  hemp  and  flax.  The  coarse 
cloths  art)  chiefly  fabricated  by  the  peasantry,  each  out  of  the  produce  of  his  own  little  patch 
of  land.  ^  There  are,  however,  large  manufactures  of  plain  useful  cloUi  in  Normandy  and 
Dauphine,  the  latter  from  hemp ;  and  great  quantities  of  sailcloth  are  made  in  the  maritime 
countries.  In  the  departments  along  the  Belgic  border  ±ere  are  extensive  fabrics  of  lawns, 
cambrics,  and  lace ;  which  last,  though  not  of  equal  reputation  with  that  of  Brussels  and 
Mechlin,  forms  yet  an  important  object  of  trade.  We  may  reckon  the  raw  material  of  hemp 
at  37,000,000  fruncs;  the  finished  manu&cture  at  nearly  110,500,000;  flax,  raw  material, 
20,000,000,  tlio  finished  &bric,  75,000,000.  The  exportation  is  about  37,500,000,  almost 
wholly  of  the  finest  kinds  of  the  manufacture. 

The  cotton  manu&cture  was  established  in  France  during  the  continental  system ;  and 
has  been  propped  up  since  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  by  the  prohibition  of  importation 
fix)m  abroad.  In  1810  the  imports  of  raw  cotton  amounted  to  above  25,000,000  lbs.,  and 
during  the  next  ten  years  they  were  more  than  doubled.  But-  the  high  price  of  machinery 
in  France,  the  scarcity  of  coal,  and  ^he  want  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  seem  to 
oppose  almost  ii  superablo  obstacles  to  the  further  progress  of  the  manufacture.  It  is  at  pre 
sent  in  a  very  depressed  state,  and  the  following  account  shows  that  it  has  been  nearly  Bta> 
tionary  during  the  last  ten  years  :— 

Imports  of  Cotton  Wool  into  France. 

Urn. 


1833 61,758,300 

1833 50,053,300 

1834 75,388,200 

1825 01,371,600 

1836 :....  00,053,800 


1837 87,185,100 

1838 61,830,600 

1880 78,669,000 

1830 84,835,600 

1831 65,517,000 

and  in  1835,  to  314,350 


Jin  1834,  it  again  rose  to  279,674  bales,  or  about  73,250,000  lbs. 
es,  or  about  94,000,000  lbs.— Ah.  Ed.] 

Of  the  secondary  oWects  of  manufacture,  that  of  leather  is  perhaps  the  most  extensive, 
though  not  peculiarly  French.  It  is  supposed  that  in  France  the  annual  product  amounts  to 
857,000  cow-hides;  110,000  horse-hides,  and  2,032,000  calf-skins.  There  are  31,000  shoe- 
makers in  Paris,  who  make  upwards  of  eight  millions  of  pairs  of  shoes  yearly,  not  only  for 
the  city  itself,  but  the  provinces,  and  even  foreign  countries.  Chaptal  reckons  the  whole 
produce  of  tanning,  currying,  shoemaking,  ana  all  processes  connected  with  leather,  at 
143,000,000  francs.  Hard  soap  was  formerly  supplied  by  Marseilles  to  alJ  France  and  the 
colonies,  but  its  produce  of  225,000  quintals  is  now  reduced  by  a  third ;  owing  partly  to  the 
reduction  of  the  colonial  demand,  and  partly  to  the  more  general  difiusion  of  the  manufacture. 
It  is  thought  still  to  amount  to  30,000,000  francs.  Starch,  including  hair-powder,  may  amount 
to  18,000,000  pounds.  There  are  sundry  little  matters  of  jewellery,  trinkets,  fiimiture,  per- 
fumery, scented  waters,  volatile  salts,  which  elsewhere  are  only  petty  trades,  but  which  taste 
and  fiishion  in  France  raise  to  the  dignity  of  manufactures,  the  whole  produce  of  which  is 
reckoned  at  upwards  of  100,000,000  firaiics.  Crystal,  glass,  and  pottery  are  branches  in 
which  the  French  have  recently  made  great  progress;  and,  fiwm  being  dependent  on 
foreigners  for  these  articles,  are  now  able  to  export  them.  The  first  two  branches  are  esti- 
mated at  21,000,000 ;  porcelain  made  at  Sevres  and  other  places,  at  5,000,000 ;  pottery  in 
imitation  of  English,  a  little  more;  coarse  pottery  for  the  lower  ranks,  15,000,000. 

Mineral  kingdom.  France  yields  in  abundance  the  most  solid  and  useful  of  all  metals, 
iron.  There  are  about  400  forges  in  the  kingdom,  chiefly  in  the  Pyrenean  and  Alpine  de- 
partments, and  along  tiie  heads  of  the  Mame,  the  Moselle,  and  the  Sadne. 

The  produce  which  M.  Chaptal  reckoned  only  81,000,000  kilogrammes,  had,  according  to 
M.  Dupin,  risen  in  1825  to  161,000,000  (about  161,000  tons),  the  value  of  which  would  be 
tbout  75,000,000  fhmcs.  Chaptal  supposed  the  workmanship  bestowed  even  on  the  smaller 
quantity  produced  in  his  time  suflScient  to  raise  the  valuo  to  200,000,000  fitincs.  Nearly  all 
^e  copper  and  lead  employed  in  France  is  imported  from  abroad.  Salt  is  extracted  on  the 
southern  coast  from  sea-water  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  in  the  north  from 
brine-springs  artificially  evaporated.  During  the  period  when  salt,  relieved  from  the  old 
oppressive  monopoly,  was  left  entirely  free,  its  production  and  use  rose  to  the  extraordinary 
height  of  upwards  of  20  millions  of  quintals.  Since  the  re-establishment  of  the  tax,  it  has 
fellen  to  not  quite  two  millions ;  upon  which  there  is  paid  a  duty  of  45,000,000  francs.  This 
astonishing  diminution  seems  chiefly  owing  to  the  disuse  of  it  in  agriculture ;  a  circumstance 
however  very  injurious  to  tliat  branch  of  industry.  Other  mineral  products,  with  their  sup- 
posed value,  are,  alum,  2,500,000;  saltpetre,  3,000,000;  nitric  acid,  6,000,000;  muriatic 


The  total  value  of  the  products  of  the  mines  and  manufactures  of  France  is  estimated  at 
2,000,000,000  francs.  The  particulars  are  about  450  millions  of  home  raw  materials ;  226 
millions  of  foreign  raw  materials;  900  millions  of  workmanship ;  225  millions  of  general  ex* 

Vol.  L  3  S 


688 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  in 


pense,  as  impiemunts,  repairs,  lighting,  interest  of  fixed  capital ;  200  millions  for  the  profit 
of  the  manufacturer. 

The  commerce  of  France,  while  all  the  other  branches  of  industry  were  thus  advancing, 
has  perceptibly  declined.  It  was  reduced,  indeed,  to  a  state  of  temporary  annihilation  by 
the  violent  policy  of  Napoleon,  who  absolutely  lined  the  coast  with  troops,  that  not  a  single 
vessel  might  enter.  Thus  all  the  commercial  ties  of  France  were  broken,  every  channel 
closed  by  which  she  was  accustomed  to  exchange  her  commodities  with  those  of  foreign 
countries.  Indeed,  the  anti-commercial  spirit  seems  to  have  become  rooted  in  the  mind  of 
the  notion ;  and  when  we  find  even  the  enlightened  mind  of  Chaptal  extolling  the  prohibi- 
tory system,  and  considering  every  thing  as  a  source  of  loss  to  France  which  she  imports 
from  abroad,  there  can  appear  little  prospect  of  any  amendment.  That  writer  considers  the 
year  1780  as  the  most  flourishing  period  of  French  commerce ;  when  the  exports  amounted 
VA  18,200,0002.  sterling,  and  the  imports  to  26,d00,000{.  This  extraordinary  excess  of 
imports,  a  result,  according  to  old  ideas,  considered  so  disastrous,  he  explains  by  observing, 
that  the  imports  include  ten  millions  from  the  colonics,  while  tlie  exports  thither  were  only 
four,  and  also  two  millions  and  a  half  in  gold  and  silver.  Whether  this  explanation  be  sound 
or  otherwise,  we  have  no  idea  that  there  could  be  any  permanent  or  extensive  difference  be- 
tween the  two  branches.  Chaptal  has,  with  grief,  declined  to  give  any  record  of  the  feeble 
efibrts  at  revival  made  by  the  French  commerce.  Since  the  appearance  of  Chaptal's  work, 
however,  it  has  considerably  improved.  In  1827,  the  import  trade  was  carried  out  by  3350 
vessels,  under  the  French  flag,  tonnage  853,000,  value  of  cargoes  2;}0,140,000  francs ;  and 
by  4439  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  474,000,  value  of  cargoes  136,041,0(K)  francs.  There  were, 
besides,  imported  by  land,  goods  to  the  value  of  199,621,000  francs;  making  the  imports  in 
all,  565,802,000  francs. 

In  the  same  year  the  export  trade  was  carried  on  by  3522  French  vessels,  tonnage 
846,000,  value  of  cargoes  235,120,000  francs ;  and  4141  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  also 
846,000,  value  of  cargoes  167,728,000  francs.  The  exports  by  land  amounted  to  156,767,000 
francs ;  making  in  all,  559,615,000  francs. 

The  following  was  the  value  of  Uie  leodbg  articles  of  import  and  export:— 


IMPORTS. 

Francs. 

Baw  hides 8,70(1,000 

Wonig 11,140,000 

Feather* 1,560,000 

Silks 32,270,000 

Tallow 8,500,000 

Fruiuto  plant 1,220,000 

Tobacco 7,850,000 

Vegetable-Juicei 2,270,000 

Oils,  not  for  food 21,430,000 

Medicines 2,130,000 

Wood 17,0(10,000 

—.ornamental 8,000,000 

Hemp 4,210,000 

Flax 36,000 

Cotton 51,^10,000 

Gems 8,200,000 

Bulphur •  1,290,000 

Coal 8,080,000 

Cast-iron 1,170,000 

Copper 0,110,000 

Tin 2,130,000 

Potash 3,420,000 

Indigo 14,880,000 

Horses 3,360,000 

Sheep 0,400,000 

Horned  cattle 2,520,000 

Butter 1,060,000 

Eggs 3,830,000 

Grain 7,150,000 

Cheese 3,140,000 

Fruits 10,900,000 

Sugar 30,000,000 

Coffbe 10,000,000 

Straw -hats 4,550,000 

liincn,  orhempstuflli, v 1S.<>80,000 

Mercery 2,170,000 


EXFORTS. 

/Hum. 

Dyostuflb 8,300,000 

Gems 3,120,006 

Horses 1,200,000 

Mules 4,840,000 

Bheep 1,420,000 

Horned  cattle 8,S20,0(X' 

Reflnedsugar 4,550,000 

Wine,  ordinary 41,510,000 

,  liqueurs 5,720,000 

Brandies 22,070,000 

etraw-hats 2,090,000 

Porcelain 3,080,000 

Glass..... 2,600,000 

French  books 3,140,000 

Paper 3,060,000 

Perf\imery 5,390,000 

Cloths,  wool 20,920,000 

,  silk 90,860,000 

,  ribands 24,380,000 

,  cotton 40,020,000 

,  linen 17,370,000 

Cambric  and  lawn 16,580,000 

Plaqui 3,170,000 

Clock  and  watch-work 4,240,000 

Tablrttrrie 3,790,000 

Merc • 0,880,000 

Modes 2,300,000 

Madcclothes 6,480,000 

Parisian  articles 5,690,000 


Mercantile  navy.    In  1827,  the  mercantile  navy  of  France  consisted  of  14,530  vessels, 
of  the  burden  of  TO0,000  tons.    Of  these  there  belonged  to — 


Shlpt. 

Bordeaux 431  •■ 

Marseilles 711. 

Havre 359. 


Tom*  j                                                 Shtpit 

.77,000        Nante ...SSt. 

.65,000        Rouen 854. 

.62,000    I    Dunkirk 289. 


Tmi. 
.56,000 
.88,000 
.17,50* 


The  inieriof  commerce  must  be  very  extensive,  though  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  its  amount, 
as,  notwithstanding  considerable  advantages  for  navigation,  the  bulk  of  it  is  carried  on  by 
land.  The  old  medium  of  fairs  has  been  not  only  preserved,  but  greatly  extended.  M.  Bottin, 
upon  documents  furnished  by  the  minister  of  the  interior,  calculates  that  there  are  20,814 


PabtIII 
B  for  tho  profit 

lus  advancing, 
nnihilation  by 
it  not  a  single 
every  channel 
ose  of  foreign 
in  the  mind  of 
s  the  prohibi- 
n  she  nnports 
r  considers  the 
lorts  amounted 
ary  excess  of 
i  by  observing, 
;her  were  only 
lation  be  sound 
difference  be- 
1  of  the  feeble 
ihaptal's  work, 
;d  out  by  3350 
)0  francs ;  and 
.  There  were, 
the  imports  in 

ssels,  tonnage 

tonnage  also 

to  15(3,767,000 


/•MM. 

8,300,000 

3,130,006 

],3!!0,000 

4,840,000 

1,430,000 

S,53O,O0<' 

4,530,000 

41,310,000 

5,730,000 

33,070,000 

3,080,000 

3,680,000 

9,600,000 

3,140,000 

3,060,000 

5,300,000 

30,030,000 

00,860,000 

34,380,000 

46,030,000 

17,.'170,000 

16,580,000 

3,170,000 

4,340,000 

3,790,000 

0.880,000 

3,300,000 

6,480,000 

5,600,000 


,530  vessels, 


Tom. 

.   .       .56,000 

.       .  .38,000 

17,500 

its  amount, 
rried  on  by 
M.  Bottin, 


1. 


are  26,814 


BookL  .       >'      PRANCE.     •        >  68U 

fairs  in  l<Vance.  Some  of  these  are  held  on  the  frontier  of  a  province  or  kingdom,  others 
round  a  great  cathedral  or  noted  place  of  pilgrimage ;  some  at  the  foot  of  high  mountains  on 
tho  melting  of  the  snows,  which  have  kept  the  inhabitants  imprisoned  for  several  months. 
Sometimes  they  open  with  burlesque  representations,  as  processions  of  giants,  of  flying 
dragons,  or  monstrous  fishes.  The  fair  of  Longchamps,  held  in  spring  at  Paris,  those  of 
Boaucaire  in  Languedoc,  and  of  Guibray  in  Normandy,  are  the  most  extensive. 

Tlie  canals  of  France  were  long  entirely  undertaken  ly  the  government,  which  carrif-d 
on  these  works  with  some  spirit.  The  earliest  was  the  Canal  of  Briare,  to  unite  the  Seine 
and  the  Loire.  It  is  about  38  miles  long,  4  feet  deep,  has  40  locks,  and  cxt  1,000,000 
francs.  The  canal  of  Languedoc  is  on  a  much  greater  scale,  and  was  considered  in  its  day 
a  stupendous  undertaking.  It  was  intended  to  unite  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic, 
and  is  170  miles  long,  6J  feet  deep,  with  100  locks.  The  cost  was  32,000,000  francs,  which 
would  have  been,  at  least,  doubled  had  the  work  been  executed  in  the  present  day.  It  was 
considered  the  largest  canal  in  Europe,  till  it  was  eclipsed  by  the  Caledonian,  which  is  threo 
times  as  deep,  and  admits  ships  of  war ;  whereas  tlie  canal  of  Languedoc  has  horded  a 
mere  inland  navigation,  along  which  pass  1900  vessels  of  100  to  120  tons.;  but  it  has  not, 
for  the  most  common  merchant-vessels,  superseded  the  necessity  of  going  round  by  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar.  The  Canal  of  the  Centre,  joining  the  Sa6ne  and  the  Loire  by  a  line 
of  70  miles,  was  completed  in  1793,  at  an  expense  of  10,000,000  francs;  but  only  5  feet 
deep.  The  Canal  of  Picardy,  from  the  Oise  towards  Lille,  remarkable  for  its  long  tunnel 
.uear  St.  Quintin,  was  completed  in  1810,  at  an  expense  of  10,800,000  francs.  Still,  France, 
in  this  grand  national  improvement,  remained  far  behind  England,  which,  by  M.  Dupm's  es- 
timate, made  a  few  years  ago,  had  more  than  four  and  a  half  times  as  much  canalization  in 
proportion  to  its  surface.  Very  recently,  however,  France  has  displayed  an  extraordinary 
activity  in  planning,  and  a  considerable  diligence  in  executing,  designs  of  tlib  nature.  This 
too  has  been  displayed  not  by  government  only,  but  by  private  associations,  asking  only  aid 
and  advances  from  the  state.  Independent  of  the  finished  wurks  above  stated,  twelve  great 
new  canals  are  in  progress.  These  are, — 1.  The  Canal  Monsieur,  joining  the  Rhine  and 
the  Rhone  by  the  Sadne  and  the  Doubs ;  length  180  miles.  2.  Of  Burgundy,  joining  the 
Sa6ne  to  the  Loire  by  the  Yonne,  145  miles.  3.  Of  Angoul^me,  making  the  Somme  navi- 
gable to  Amiens.  4.  A  lateral  canal  along  the  Loire,  to  avoid  the  difiUculties  of  its  navi^ 
tion,  from  Dijon  to  Briare,  120  miles,  6.  From  Nantes  to  Brest,  with  a  view  of  provif.oning 
the  ports  of  Britany,  220  miles.  8.  Of  Ille  et  Ranee,  joining  Nantes  to  Brest  and  Si..  Malo. 
7.  Of  Nivernais,  joining  the  Yonne  to  the  Loire.  8.  Of  the  Duke  of  Berri,  joining  the  Cher 
to  the  Upper  Loire.  9.  Ardennes.  10.  Blanet.  11.  Aries.  12.  Oise.  Several  canals,  on 
a  still  more  magnificent  scale,  have  been  recently  contemplated,  and  what  the  French  call 
tlie  studies  of  them  are  even  far  advanced ;  but  no  part  of  the  works  has  yet  been  com- 
menced. Doubts  are  even  entertained  if  they  will  repay  the  immense  expense  required  fi)r 
thriir  completion.  The  principal  of  these  are, — 1.  A  maritime  canal  firom  Paris  to  the  sea, 
avoiding  the  circuitous  navigation  of  the  Seine,  and  admitting  ships  of  large  burden  to  that 
capital.  The  estimate  is  150,000,000  francs,  and  1,500,000  francs  for  a  harbour  at  Paris. 
2.  A  canal  from  Paris  to  Strasburg ;  which  would  become,  as  it  were,  the  French  Grand 
Trunk,  and  might  easily  be  extended  to  the  Danube.  The  length  would  exceed  300  miles. 
1.  The  Pyrenean  Canal,  from  Toulouse  to  Bayonne,  forming  a  more  direct  communication 
from  sea  to  sea  than  at  present     Length,  210  miles. 

The  roads  of  France,  at  least  the  high  roads,  have  been  chiefly  supported  by  government. 

They  are  broader,  more  spacious,  more  direct,  and  on  the  whole  of  grander  aspect,  than  the 

English  roads ;  but  they  have  not  been  kept  in  such  good  condition  for  travelling.    Roads 

have  been  made  and  repaired  rather  for  political  and  military  purposes,  from  solicitation  and 

fiivour,  than  for  objects  of  real  utility.    The  system  seems  to  have  been,  to  neglect  them  aa 

long  as  possible,  till  the  clamour  of  tho  district  became  irresistible,  and  then  to  give  them  a 

thorough  repair ;  to  which  Dupin  justly  prefers  the  system  of  keeping  roads  constantly  in  a 

good  state  by  small  repairs  as  the  necessity  crises.    The  French  roads,  ho'vever,  have  been 

greatly  improved  since  1810,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  great  proportioi  of  them  has  been 

undertaken  by  the  departments ;  so  that  they  are  now  divided  into  royal  and  departmentaL 

The  royal  roads,  in  1828,  extended  8631  leagues,  and  there  was  expended  on  them 

199,000,000  fVancs ;  but  this  was  chiefly  on  repairing  and  extending  diflbrent  parts  of  them. 

It  M  as  thus  divided : — 

riuci.  • , 

To  maintain  4305  leaguM,  cost 9,349,000 

Torepair        3166    ditto 61,051,000 

Tocomplete     814    ditto 43,403,000 

Toopfln  446    ditto 34,964000.        .  ,^ 

Workiofart ,.=  ,,...,=.  =  ===.>,.. 50,696,600 

100,463,000 

The  departmental  roads,  in  1828,  extended  7704  leagues,  of  which  6040  had  been 
opened,  and  to  complete  the  remainmg  1664  would  require  an  expenditure  of  112,000,000 
francs. 


540 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  IIL 


There  are  several  rail-roads  in  France,  but  of  no  great  extent ;  the  principal  are  that  of 
Andrezieux  and  Roanne,  60  milea  in  length ;  that  of  St.  Etienne  and  the  Loire,  15  miles ; 
and  that  of  St  Etienne  and  Lyons,  45  miles. 

Of  the  bridges  of  France  several  are  liandsome,  as  those  over  the  Loire  at  Orleans, 
Tours,  tvnd  Nantes ;  over  tlie  Seine  at  Paris,  Neuilly,  and  Rouen ;  over  the  Rhone  ami 
Sadne  at  Lyons ;  and  over  the  Garonne  at  Bordeaux.  Bridges  of  suspension  have  been  con* 
structcd  at  Paris  in  front  of  the  Hdtel  des  Invalides,  and  over  tlio  Rhone,  between  Tain  and 
Tournon.    These  operations  have  been  entirely  in  tlie  hands  of  government. 

'  Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  France,  which  in  1780,  by  the  enquiries  of  Necker,  appeared  to  be 
24,800,000,  was  found  by  the  census  of  1791  to  amount  to  26,863,000;  by  that  of  1817,  to 
upwards  of  29,000,000;  and  by  hat  of  1820-21,  to  30,616,000,  including  Corsica  and  the 
brmy.  According  to  the  royal  ordonnance  of  March  15th,  1827,  it  amounted  to  31,851,545. 
There  were  in  that  year  965,634  births;  of  which  898,329  were  legitimate,  and  67,305  ille- 
gitimate. The  births  consisted  of  498,187  boys,  and  467,447  girls.  The  marriages  were 
229,613,  the  deaths  772,428.  At  an  average  the  proportion  of  male  births  in  France  to  female 
births  is  as  16  to  15;  the  marriages  are  to  the  population  as  1  to  133;  the  births  are  to  the 
marriages  nearly  as  4  to  1 ;  and  to  the  population  as  1  to  31.53 ;  the  deaths  are  to  the  popu- 
lation as  1  to  39.4.  The  extraordinary  improvement  since  1780  in  the  condition  of  the  people 
is  obvious  irom  the  fact  that  at  the  last-mentioned  period  the  deaths  were  to  the  whole  popu- 
lation as  1  to  30.2 :  so  that  while,  in  1780,  one  individual  died  annually  out  of  every  30 
individuals,  in  1832  one  only  died  out  of  about  39.'" 

The  French  national  character  has  very  marked  features,  and  has  been  the  object  of 
mingled  admiration  and  contempt  to  the  neighbouring  nations.  In  the  eyes  of  I*Venchmen, 
especially  of  the  old  school,  la  belle  Prance  is  the  centre  of  all  that  is  refined  and  polished 
in  human  existence,  and  whatever  lies  beyond  its  sphere  is  marked  with  a  deep  taint  of  bar- 
barism ;  while  tlieir  rougher  neiglibours  brand  tliem  as  artificial,  efl^eminate,  and  fantastic. 
The  art  of  living  in  society  seems  certainly  carried  to  greater  perfection  ^hon  in  any  other 
country ;  and  the  manners  aro  characterised  by  a  peculiar  gaiety,  amenity,  and  courtesy. 
The  polish  of  the  higher  ranks  seems  to  have  descended  even  to  the  lowest  circles.  "  The 
man  who  breaks  stones  upon  tlie  road  takes  off  his  hat  to  the  woman  that  leads  her  cow  in  a 
string;  the  tinker  and  the  shoeblack  whip  off  their  hats  to  each  other."  A  certain  openness 
and  kindness  of  disposition  is  certainly  evinced  in  the  custom  of  whole  families,  with  married 
Bons  and  daughters,  continuing  to  dwell  under  the  paternal  roof.  The  Frenchman  lives  as 
it  were  in  puuic :  his  house,  for  a  part  of  the  day,  is  open  to  a  large  circle  of  acquaintance. 
He  enjoys  society  without  expense  and  ceremony.  Ife  resorts  habitually  to  the  theatre, 
spectacles,  and  scenes  of  public  amusement  In  more  serious  points  of  view,  the  French 
possess  estimable  qualities.  Intoxication  is  a  vice  confined  to  the  lowest  ranks;  and  swear- 
mg  is  repelled  at  least  as  a  mark  of  barbarism.  The  I'Vench  are  ingenious,  acute,  active,  and 
intelligent  If  they  have  not  what  can  strictly  be  called  patriotiem,  they  have  at  least  a 
very  strong  national  feeling.  To  exalt  the  glory  and  promote  the  influence  of  France,  is  the 
prevailing  impulse  which  actuates  the  mind  of  almost  every  Frenchman.  It  is,  however, 
alleged,  that  there  is  a  want  of  hat  sterling  principle,  that  openness  and  integrity,  which 
forms  the  boast  of  tlie  English  character.  Dissimulatioi.  and  insincerity  seem  widely  dif* 
fiised  through  the  intercourse  of  the  higher  circles.  I'he  honesty  of  the  lower  classes  is, 
however,  remarkable;  and  the  system  of  higgling  in  shops,  is  a  consequence  of  the  contracted 
state  of  commerce.  The  deportment  of  the  feiuale  sex,  however  embellisiied  by  tournure, 
and  the  graces,  does  not  accord  with  our  ideas  of  social  and  domestic  propriety.  The  young 
ladies  are  strictly  watched,  and  held  in  almcst  monastic  seclusion ;  but  the  era  of  marriage 
is  the  signal,  if  not  of  positive  irregularity,  at  least  of  a  system  of  regular  flirtation,  which 
we  cannot  reco  ':ile  to  the  conjugal  end  matronly  character.  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
the  im*)ressior.  of  the  general  dissoluteness  of  French  manners  has  been  chiefly  derive'' 
fh)m  tiiu  opulent  circles  of  the  capital ;  while,  as  a  late  writer  has  observed,  Paris  and  the 
provinces  form  entirely  separate  worlds.  Among  the  peasantry,  and  even  among  the  trading 
class  in  the  cities,  there  appears  to  be  much  Uiat  is  respectable  and  amiable.  The  great 
activity  and  prominent  station  of  the  female  sex  are  everywhere  conspicuous:  they  are  seen 
managing  the  shops,  carrying  on  great  manufactories,  and  joining  in  the  hardest  toils  of  the 
loom  and  the  field.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  upon  a  mm  to  see  the  master  sowing,  his 
wife  guiding  the  plough,  and  a  fine  girl  filling  the  dung-cart.  Such  avocations  divest  the 
fair  sex  in  we  provinces  of  any  great  portion  of  beauty.  Indeed,  the  gay  hilarity  of  the 
French  character  does  not  seem  quite  so  universal  as  is  generally  supposed.    Travellers  in 

singular  gravity 
that  a  ve^  con- 


the  south,  from  Arthur  Young  to  those  of  later  date,  complain  rather  of  a 
end  tacitamify.    Mr.  Matthews  remarks  in  his  "  Diary  of  an  Invalid," 


Book  L 

eiderablo 
rank  hav 


Diary 
r*  The  population  in  1833  wai  3>,S00,000.-Am.  EpJ 


jBk.  '::i 


Part  IIL 

1  are  that  of 
re,  15  miles ; 

at  Orleano, 
!  Rhone  and 
ve  been  con* 
sen  Tain  and 


peared  to  be 
t  of  1817,  to 
sica  and  the 
)  31,851,545. 
1  67,305  ille- 
rriages  were 
nee  to  female 
hs  are  to  the 
to  the  popu- 
oftlie  people 
>  whole  popu- 
t  of  every  80 

he  object  of 
'  Frenchmen, 
and  polished 
I  taint  of  bar- 
md  fantastic, 
in  any  other 
md  courtesy, 
vies.     "The 
her  cow  in  a 
tain  openness 
with  married 
iman  lives  aa 
cquaintance. 
the  theatre, 
the  French 
and  swear- 
active,  and 
ve  at  least  a 
Vance,  is  the 
is,  however, 
^ity,  which 
widely  dif* 
classes  is, 
contracted 
)y  tournure, 
The  young 
of  marriage 
fttion,  which 
)wever,  that 
efly  derive^ 
iris  and  the 
the  trading 
The  great 
ey  are  Keen 
toils  of  the 
sowing,  his 
divest  the 
irity  of  the 
ravellers  in 
liar  gravity 
very  con- 


Book  I. 


FRANCE. 


Ml 


Biderable  change  of  manners  has  taken  place  since  the  Revolution.  All  the  distinctions  of 
rank  have  been  cut  down  like  the  old  trees  of  the  forest,  and  the  new  generation,  like  the 
soppicc,  are  all  on  a  level.  "  You  will  seek  in  vain,"  he  says,  "  for  that  high-bred  polish  of 
manners,  wliich  has  been  so  much  boasted  aa  peculiar  to  the  haut-ton  of  Franco.  A  re- 
publican spirit  prevails,  and  shows  itself  in  an  independent  roughness  of  manner,  savouring; 
of  sans-culottistn." 

The  Roman  Catholic  haa  been  the  ruling  religion  in  France,  ever  since  the  fetal  issue  of 
the  long  struggle  for  religious  liberty.  Previously  to  the  Revolution,  however,  a  general 
scepticiBm  pervaded  all  the  well-informed  classes,  both  as  to  the  Catholic  tenets,  and  as  to 
religion  in  general.  This  was  doubtless  one  great  cause  both  of  the  Revolution  and  of  many 
of  tlie  fatal  and  disastrous  aspects  which  it  as8um3d.  A  furious  anti-religious  fanaticism 
reigned  ;  all  form  of  public  worship  was  suspenucd,  and  even  prohibited ;  the  churches  were 
rifled  and  defeced  in  a  barbarous  manner.  At  this  time  the  vast  domains  of  the  church,  by 
which  so  many  dignitaries  and  so  m^iny  convents  were  supported  in  splendour,  were  voted 
the  property  of  the  nation,  and  sold  at  a  low  price  to  supply  its  necessities.  Napoleon  had 
the  merit  of  re-establishing  religious  worship,  and  on  a  very  liberal  footing ;  an  allowance 
being  made  for  the  support  of  the  Protestant  clergy,  proportioned  to  the  number  who  still 
hold  that  faith,  and  who  amount  to  about  1,50U,U(X).  As  all  the  former  funds  however  had 
disappeared,  the  establishment  is  supported  out  of  the  public  revenue,  and  is  frugal,  and  even 
scanty,  both  as  to  numbers  and  salary.  In  1831,  there  were  four  cardinals,  ten  archbishopB, 
and  sixty-six  bishops.  After  the  intermediate  classes  of  vicars  and  canof.s  come  the  cures, 
or  parish  priests,  amounting  to  3000,  with  incomes  of  1000  or  1500  francs ;  but  the  chief 
labour  devolves  upon  23,0(R)  desservans,  or  rcting  curates,  who  itarvo  upon  400  or  600 
francs  a  year  with  the  addition  of  only  some  small  rees.  The  whole  church  expenditure,  in 
1823,  amounted  to  1,575,000  livrcs,  but  in  1832  was  reduced  by  a  third  ;  and  the  church 
has  been  in  a  somewhat  unsettled  state.  The  Bourbons  were  supposed  to  aim  at  restoring 
it  to  all  its  former  power,  splendour,  and  privilege;  a  course  viewed  with  extreme  jealousy 
by  the  republican  party.  The  high  church  party  endeavoured  to  remedy  the  deflciency  of 
the  establishment  by  sending  sound  missionaries  who  were  listened  to  by  the  people  with 
enthusiastic  deliffht.  The  author  of  "  Four  Years  in  France"  mentions  one  w  ho  in  depart- 
ing from  a  city  liad  his  cassock  torn  off  hi!>  back,  and  cut  into  pieces  to  be  distributed  aa 
relics.  The  liberals  deride  them  as  ignorant  fanatics ;  but  some  travellers  who  cannot  be 
charged  with  superstition,  report  them  as  displaying  a  good  deal  of  natural  eloiiuence,  and 
that  their  doctrmes  appeared  really  yery  edify  ing,  since  many  persons  who  had  been  guilty 
of  thefts,  even  at  remote  periods,  were  mduced  by  them  to  come  forward  and  make  confession 
and  restitution. 

The  intellectual  character  of  the  French  has  been  brilliant,  and  since  the  age  of  Louis 
XrV.  has  hod  a  powerful  influence,  in  mutters  of  taste,  on  the  general  literature  of  Europe: 
that  prince;,  ambitious  of  glory  in  every  form,  extended  a  munificent  patronage  to  letters  and 
arts.  The  French  Academy,  though  its  endowments  were  not  vei7  splendid,  and  though 
intrigue  often  influenced  its  admissions,  gave  a  fixed  and  high  place  in  society  to  men  of 
letters ;  who,  amid  all  the  frivolity  of  French  character,  were  received  even  among  the  highest 
ranks  with  a  distinction  not  accorded  to  them  in  any  other  modern  country.  The  aim  of 
Louis  to  make  the  French  a  sort  of  universal  language  was  in  a  great  measure  euccessfbl ; 
it  became  the  established  dialect  at  all  the  courts,  and  the  chief  medium  by  which  the  different 
nations  communicated  with  each  other.  The  departments  in  which  the  writers  of  that  age 
excelled,  were  chiefly  pulpit  eloquence,  poetry  of  a  light  and  satirical  character,  and  the 
drama  in  a  somewhat  fettered  and  artificial  form.  I'he  writers  of  the  follpwing  age  took  a 
bolder  and  more  varied  flight,  and  sought  to  turn  the  opinion  of  mankind  into  new  channels 
upon  all  subjects.  The  wit  and  varied  talent  of  Voltaire,  the  eloquence  of  BufTon  and  Rousseau, 
the  comprehensive  views  of  Montesquieu,  and  the  science  of  D'Alembert,  gave  a  new  turn 
to  the  ideas  of  the  thinking  world  throughout  Europe.  These  writers,  with  th  r  successors 
of  the  same  school,  had  a  powerful  influence  in  bringing  on  this  revolution,  in  the  ruins  of 
which  several  of  them  were  buried.  Learning  was  for  some  time  almost  extinguished  in 
France ;  but  as  soon  as  the  revolutionary  frenzy  abated,  the  National  Assembly  constituted 
a  new  body  called  the  National  Institute,  round  which,  under  the  changed  appellations  of 
Imperial  and  Royal,  all  the  highest  names  in  science  have  since  continued  to  rally.  The 
French  during  this  period  did  not  shine  in  poetry  or  general  literature ;  but  in  mathematics, 
physics,  and  chemistry,  the  labours  of  Lavoisier,  Laplace,  Lalande,  Chaptal,  and  a  number 
of  others,  have,  notwithstanding  the  powerful  rivalry  on  the  other  side  of  the  Channel,  raised 
them  perhaps  to  the  very  first  place.  Recently  France  has  produced  some  very  emuient 
historians,  and  popular  poets  of  a  peculiar  character ;  there  has  been  also  a  remarkable  exten- 
sion of  the  habits  of  readiner.  The  periodical  sheets  printed  were  in  1814  only  45,000 ;  in 
1826,  they  were  144,000.  ^he  most  solid  and  useful  branches  also  are  those  which  hifiT6 
most  increased,  as  appears  fh}m  the  following  table,  formed  by  M.  Dupin  :— 

Vou  1.  46 


Mi 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Paiii  ITT. 


\r 


Th«i1of»... 
Lnnlilatlva . 

8cii!iir(! 


Phlloanphy  ,. 

IPulitirnl  fVnnomy. 


No.  ■ 


nm^rlM. 


16K. 


4,074.000 

l,a74.00O 

S,.'l'|ti,(V)0 

74;i.(MH) 

l,n.-H,(xio 


iil  ■.18,000 

jf.uos.oon 
i!i,win.O(io 
3,u;itt,ooo 

9,007,000 


Mlllury  Biil^evti 

Fiiio  ArtH 

Ih-llvii  Lettrc 

■  lllitory,  Travolri,  &!■ 

I  VnrlntinH,  Aliiif  iiara,  Ac. 


No.  of  SheMi  iirinM. 


IHU. 


441,000 

773,000 

I3,XV.i,000 

lU,!»»,(H)fl 

:i,IKMI,(KHI 


IHSO, 


1,44.1,000 

i,<imi,(KK) 

97,701,(KH) 

4II..VIS,mNI 

7.l',llll,IHNI 


The  literary  and  Bcientific  collecticns  of  Paris  are  the  most  iiijloiidid  in  Europe :  tlio  royal 
library  contains  HtHMMK)  piviitod  volmncs,  100,000  m  laiiscriptf,  ."MKH)  volumes  of  ongraviis'^H, 
and  1,0(K),000  historical  'locument.«i.  There  nro  sixlci^n  other  libraries  in  Paris,  contaii?  i  ^ 
800,000  volumes.  The  Museum  of  Natural  History  and  the  Jncdin  des  Pli  "tes  are  oquu  !y 
copious  in  their  respecti>'o  denartinents.  All  tiioso  are  open d  to  the  puMic  in  the  mo.  ♦ 
liberal  manner.  The  prcvincjal  coi'octions  are  also  rospectahi. ,  though  tiicy  <ir.  not  equal 
those  of  the  minor  princeu  of  Germany ;  and  France  is,  on  tlie  who)'?,  less  rich  in  ■'.•>.  specie.) 
of  treasure. 

Amon^  the  dstablishi.x.i'.tj  for  public  education  in  Fnmce,  the  universitie,*,  which  rr^? 
twenty-six  in  number,  hohi  !.ho  first  rank.  That  of  Paris  is  perhr.ps  the  most  cek btatc.!  s, 
Europe,  and  was,  even  :  >  tho  dark  agree,  the  pund  thentro  of  tliose  di.i)  ctic  combau^  whiih 
then  usurped  the  honours  oi'  v  Sgnce.  Thou|fh  destroy  i  during  the  fury  of  the  Revolutio/i, 
it  has  been  re-cstabli;''ic'l  qp  r.  great  scnlf^j  ."«vi  with  u  hirs^er  oppointuiout  of  professors  tluM 
any  other  in  Europe;  it  ittraci'^  fi(ndei;u  tku/  uvcry  pa»t  of  the  kingdom,  as  none  of  tli'j 
rest  enjoy  equal  repute,  and  indctii  teinn'  ;  rr  nat  >  nh  t!io  namo  of  acudemies.  The  Lycecs, 
now  called  royal  collejjoa,  are  in  inst.itulio.  -.^  /Var*.:  ii;  the  ix-vonse  of  board  and  educa- 
tion is  from  IHtO  to  75()  franci  a  year;  but  they  fi/ijuv  »  vefy  iin^tturantablo  monopoly  of  tho 
right  to  teach  Latin;  thev  wore  fiit?nde<l,  ir>  '\''^l!S,  by  KMHK)  pupiis.  Primary  schools 
intended  for  tho  general  instruftirr  of  the  ptor.:'^-  amouni  ;u  in  1825  to  22,000,  and  were 
ftttended  by  116,000  schohiro.  frfiriciisteriai!  sciiool!?  have  since  been  introduced,  und 
annunted  in  1820  to  8'y%  tttteniV.'i  by  SC.lHK)  Hchc.lars.  M.  Dupir  remarks  striking  local 
differeruos  in  this  n^apect  In  the  innh,  l;l,000,0(K)  of  inhabitant?  send  to  school  740,(K)0 
cliildren:  while  in  t!ie  south,  18,0(M»,0tH)  ucnd  only  875,000:  eveii  in  the  south,  tho  propor- 
tion is  Itivsrost  in  tho  districts  loaat  thvonred  by  nature,  the  Upper  Alps  and  tho  Upper 
Pyrenees;  vhile  in  Tourame,  eiTi;>!  atioally  called  the  garden  of  France,  it  is  only  one  in 
S29.  All  thes>^  ratahlisinnenta  are  uiuli  r  the  patronogo  and  control  of  the  government,  which 
grania  annuallv  about  5,000,000  franc?  for  their  support.* 

The  fine  urtl-i  \<-.'nj  zealously  promotoii  by  the  regent  duke  of  Orleans,  and  by  Louis  XIV- ; 
and  though  they  never  reached  the  splondojr  of  the  Italian  or  even  of  tha  Flemish  schools, 
yet  they  could  boaiii:  sovcral  masters  of  the  first  chws;  the  Pouss.is  and  Claude  Ix)rrainc, 
having  fixed  their  rcfliu< !«  o  and  even  found  their  scenery  in  Italy,  became  half  Italian.  Le 
Brun  and  I^e  Sueur  weu^  me  chief  artists  decide<lly  French:  of  whom  the  former  enjoyed 
the  fiivour  of  the  kin,'r,  a.iu  the  chief  direction  of  tho  great  works;  but  tho  latter  has  been 
pronounced  by  posterity  to  bu  his  superior.  Afler  this  the  French  s'.  hool  sunk  greatly,  nnd 
was  employed  )n  delineating  only  the  artificial  forms  of  court  society ;  but  within  tho  last 
thirty  years  a  nev,'  school  haw  .sprung  up,  in  which  David,  Gerard,  Guerin,  Girodet,  and  ilicir 
followers  hav^  soiii^'it,  not  without  success,  to  imitate  the  highest  classical  mo(lels.  Tiie 
French  school  has  pi  riduccd  a  series  of  very  eminent  engravers ;  and  the  names  of  Desnoycrs, 
Bervic,  and  Mas.jard  st'U  support  its  reputation,  though  it  no  longer  surpasses,  or  perliaps 
equals,  those  of  England  and  Italy,  The  French  galleries  of  art  have  passed  through 
many  vicissitudes;  before  the  revolution  they  were  certainly  the  first  out  of  Italy.  Durinj; 
that  convulsion,  all  the  collections  of  the  princes  and  nobles  were  put  up  to  sale ;  the  entire 
Orleans  collection  was  carried  to  England;  tho  Crozat  went  to  Russia;  various  minor  col- 
lections shared  the  same  fate.  When  the  French,  however,  over-ran  Italy  and  the  Nether- 
lands, they  were  sc'-'^d  with  the  desire  of  enriching  Paris  with  treasurcu  of  art,  and  carried 
off  what'^ver  could  bo  removed  from  among  the  masterpieces  of  the  Flemish  and  Italian 
masters,  and  of  anciei.t  sculpture.  Thus  was  assembled  in  the  liOuvre  a  display  of  all  that 
is  most  brilliant  in  art,  such  as  nothing  before  existing  in  the  world  could  have  rivalled.  But 

*[U  appcnra  Onm  offlrinl  documpnls,  thnt  in  1833  Iho  nnniber  of  children  botwcnn  the  ngeii  of  two  and  sii 
yenri,  was  2,744,,'>24,  of  wlioin  about  tUO.UOO  attimdcd  inftint  Bchool» :  of  those  between  six  and  fifteen  years,  there 
were  4,'.iS7.2()I.  of  which  2,44i),725  a  teid'-d  t/ie  primary  scliools;  '.  :  f  persons  iibove  fifteen,  there  wore  22,frt  '  ■, 
cf  whom  14,355,P5fi  could  neither  read  nor  write;— so  tha*  thor<'  nearly  10,400,000  persona  •bove  the  as'  ': 

two  yean,  who  received  no  instruction  at  all.    The  same  pn,       .-.  /e  the  following atatcmenti  of  the  «'. 
(xiiung,  anJ  of  the  number  required  to  educate  the  whole  po   :.  — 

Inflint  Scltnoli 1,000  actual  number. 

Primarydo 30.407  " 

nnmikijk  Wcrhins  do •••*■    3  CGG  ** 

Aduulio ,  aiaoi       •* 


40,000  required  numbor. 
«,284  " 

20,000  " 

64,840  " 


a  dire 

advance 

Venus, 

Antwer 

wnsoemf 

liowovc. 

CO>T)',iviK( 


Totals 34328 


160,134 


Am.  Es.] 


Pari  III. 


o(  ShMM  iirliM. 

. 

1H90. 

000 
(H)0 
(NK) 
(100 
(MK) 

l,44S,0(IO 

i.imii.iKK) 

S7,701,()(Ht 

7,iiiiii,mH) 

)po :  tlio  royal 
of  ongraviw^H, 
ris,  contaii!.i  "f 
Bsaro  oquii'ly 
k  ill  tlio  mat 
y  (1(1  not  equal 
in  tir's  Bpcciej 

ie.*,  which  nm 
'.  cckbtntcil  ti 
ombaus  wiiii'h 
le  Revolutii>;i, 
rofepsors  tl:i(,i 
IS  nono  of  th';; 
.  The  Lycei'K, 
:d  and  cduca- 
inopoly  of  the 
imnry  schools 
[KtO,  and  were 
troduced,  and 
Btrikinp;  local 
chool  740,000 
th,  tlic  propor- 
i\A  the  IJpjwr 
is  only  one  in 
nmcnt,  which 

Louis  XIV.; 

mish  sciuiolt), 

ude  Ijorruinc, 

Italian.    liO 

irmor  enjoyed 

ittor  has  been 

prcatly,  nnd 

ritiiin  the  last 

det,  and  their 

nodels.    Tiic 

of  Desnoyers, 

:s,  or  perlmpa 

ssed  throiijrh 

ily.     During; 

the  entire 

minor  col- 

the  Nothcr- 

and  carried 

and  Italian 

ly  of  all  that 

rivalled.  But 

of  two  and  sii 
een  yearn,  there 
were  32,ri  ; '  \ 
bove  the  asf  <i 
•  of  then' - 

nlwr. 


IS 


ti 


An.Ei>.} 


Book  I. 


FRANCE. 


MS 


■  dire  rovcrse  awaited  the  nation.  Tho  allied  armicn  who  conquered  at  Waterloo,  and  thonco 
advanced  to  occupy  Paris,  determined  to  exact  full  restitution  of  all  thia  brilliant  booty.  The 
Venus,  Apollo,  and  Transflfruration  wero  sent  off  for  Rome ;  the  Descent  fVom  tho  Cross  for 
Antwc>-  i  and  numberless  other  muterpicces  wore  restored  to  then-  ancient  possessors.  The 
lusoemfy  irnps  thus  left  wore  fillod  up  bv  native  productions  and  others  taken  from  the 
i>niacosi  iiii'i  !ho  (gallery  presents  e.  coup  d  ail  almost  as  brilliant  as  ever ;  the  intrinsic  value, 
Jiowovti,  is  \.ri''tiy  *;::iiiniphed;  though  since  the  purchase  of  the  Borghese  collection  it  still 
cmn.rtiscs  sonio  of  J/,  finest  specimens  of  ancient  sculpture. 

rSi  homit!^  «r  Ktiui;c  under  tho  former  regime  presented  a  j^eat  variety ;  for  while  th« 
ma;:ni  )n8  of  tho  nol'!i'>  -isnlayed  a  f  refuse  splendour  and  luxury,  and  might  be  characterised 
an  paiir.  h,  Mr  a  o*  {'<■<  !  ..dy  oi"  the  people,  compared  with  tlie  English,  wero  very  deficient 
ill  nciif.ic-js  ahd  co-n.- 1  ;  the  room  i  being  dark,  the  passages  strangling,  tho  floors  of  stone, 
the  doora  ond  wiiHto'.va  by  no  means  well  finished.  Tho  palaces,  however,  can  no  longer 
I  ri  maintained  as  such  by  their  impoverished  owners ;  and  all  the  fine  old  chftteaus  throughout 
Franco  are  converted  into  barracks,  prisons,  or  manufactories.  On  the  other  hand,  the  habitOF 
tiona  of  tho  peasantry,  a»  well  as  their  general  condition,  appear  to  bo  sensibly  improved. 


r 


various  I 
Shis  1 

Tho  I'nri' inns  go  tVom  'tome  in  search  of  amusement  much  more  than  their  neighbours ;  almost 
ail  thcii  i  ire  in  r-pt-ri  in  places  of  public  resort,  which  are  open  on  terms  that  render  them 
ac<'>«»il)lc  U.  all  clooSfts.  Dancing  is  an  exercise  peculiarly  French,  in  which,  as  to  agility, 
«nil  J)  ;riiaps  grace,  they  excel  most  nations.  Much  of  their  time  is  also  spent  in  the  open 
air ;  and  the  extensive  ranges  of  gardens  in  Paris  are  provided  with  every  recreation  suited 
to  the  tastes  of  its  citizens.  Although  many  improprieties  doubtless  minglo  with  these  enter- 
,  tainmcnts,  especially  in  Paris,  there  is  less  of  intoxication,  turbulence,  or  quarrelling,  than 
in  the  amupoments  of  the  lower  orders  in  England :  bo  far,  even  as  concerns  the  public  places, 
there  are  fewer  open  violations  of  decorum. 

Dress  is  a  particular  in  which  the  French  long  claimed,  and  were  allowed  to  give  the  law 
to  tho  rest  of  Europe.  Paris  has  been  for  ages  the  grand  maffaain  det  modes.  In  that 
capital  Rccnis  to  have  originated  the  system  which  is  termed  fashion,  and  which  consistj  in 
the  continual  change,  according  to  a  prescribed  model,  of  the  form  and  conetruction  of  every 
part  of  the  human  attire.  Such  light  and  constant  changes,  however,  while  they  indicate 
an  inordinate  attention  to  the  object,  seem  as  inconsistent  with  the  formation  of  a  pure  and 
elegant  taste,  as  the  immutable  costumos  of  our  ancestors  and  of  the  East.  The  empire  of 
Paris  seems  considerably  shaken  by  the  extinction  of  its  brilliant  societies,  and  its  long  separa- 
tion by  War  from  the  other  countries ;  but  its  influence  remains  still  very  considerable  in  this 
department. 

In  tho  jjreparation  of  food,  tho  French  equally  boast  of  a  refinement  and  recherche  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  other  European  nations.  Instead  of  plain  joints  presented  in  their  natural 
form,  French  cookery  delights  in  what  are  called  made  dishes,  stews,  fricassees,  and  rogodts, 
which  rotiin  few  traces  of  the  original  material.  On  the  merits  of  this  system  various  opin- 
ions have  been  entertained ;  but  at  present  the  fashion  of  this  cookery  out  of  France  is  on 
the  decline,  and  the  time  seems  past  when  it  was  considered  a  matter  of  state  that  the  tables 
of  the  great  should  be  covered  with  French  disheb. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Oeographtj. 
The  local  divisions  of  France,  prior  to  the  Revolution,  were  provinces,  thirty-two  in  nam- 
ber,  most  of  which  lad  formed  independent  states,  and  even  little  kingdoms,  when  they  were 
merged  into  tlie  mass  of  the  French  monarchy.  The  Nationol  Assembly,  however,  super- 
seded this  division  by  one  much  more  minute,  into  departments;  which  has  been  retained  by 
the  Bourbons,  and  is  the  basis  of  all  administrative  operations.  It  is  indeed  very  convenient, 
being  founded  upon  natural  divisions  of  rivers  and  mountains:  all  the  departments  are  toler- 
ably equal  as  to  magnitude,  and  each  had  its  :  nt  of  .nlministrat  n  nearly  in  the  centre.  All 
the  exclusive  privileges  and  restraints  upci.  tjun^i  Ciimniut'vation,  which  were  attached 
to  the  arrangement  into  provinces,  hav  u  happily  reriioved.  Yet  these  divisions  must 
Hvill  be  kept  in  view,  not  on)}  because  l:u_,-  are  necessary  for  Ki.o  understanding  of  history, 
()!it  because  they  remain  rooted  in  the  .  md  of  the  nation,  and  often  mark  striking  diff  rencea 
f  race,  of  manners,  and  even  of  laiu^uage.  It  would  not  consist  with  our  ■  nits,  or  be 
interesting  to  readers  out  of  France,  to  enter  into  a  detailed  description  of  each  uepartmcnt; 
but  the  following  tables  will  exhibit  a  very  comprehensive  view  of  their  respective  statii- 
tical  details.  The  first  °xh  liits  the  departments  m  their  relation  to  the  ancient  provinces, 
their  extent  according  U,  the  report  of  the  cc-nmission  of  the  Cadastre,  their  populatioa 
according  to  the  census  of  1827,  nnd  their  chief  cities  and  towns.  The  sqv  us  French  Ic  .'^-uo 
may  be  reduced  to  the  square  English  mile  by  multiplying  by  8,  or  more  closely,  7.84. 

The  following  t'sble  exhibits  both  the  provinces  and  the  departments  as  nearly  as  |V,ssible  in 
their  relation  to  each  other,  with  their  extent  i ;;  jijuare  leagues,  and  the  population  of  the  capi 
Jil  and  principal  towns  according  to  the  esti".c  ionned  by  the  French  government,  in  IPfT ' 


p*-i? 


644 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


UtWK 


Flnndvri... 

Artoii 

Picardy...' 

Normandy . ' 


Moor 
France  . 


Ctatmpagne 


PiovImm  ud  DqaftniMli. 


Nont 


Lorraine 
AUace . . . 


1 


Britany. 


Maine  ond 
Pcrclio. .. 

Anjoii 

Touraine ■ ■ 


Orlianais. 


Berri 

NIvornais  . 

Burgundy. 


Francho- 
couitu  . 


Poitou. 


Poi  do  Calais . 

Piunmi) 

Lower  Boino . . 

Cnlvadoi  

Manche 

Urne 

,  Rare  

Bulne 

Seine  and  Oiio 

Oiw 

Seine  and  Marno 
.  Aiaue 

Marne 

Ardennei 

Aub« 

Upper  Marne  ■  • . 

MuiliH) 

Mowllu 

Mcurtlio 

Viiagoi 

Upper  Hliino...  ■ 

Iiiiwer  Rhine  . .. 

tile  and  Vilaine. 

COteaduNord... 

.'iniatorre 

«Iorbitinr  

Lower  Ijoi.'o... . 

Mayvnne 

Hart  ho 

Maine  and  Loire 

Indre  and  Loire. 

Loire! 

Eiire  and  Ixiiro  . 

Loir  and  Cher. . . 

Indre 

Cher 

Nifivre 

'  Yonne 

Coted'Or 

Badne  and  Loire 

Ain 

Upper  Bafine. . . . 

D>iubi 

Jura 


983 

338 

31)3 
300 
381 
3U4 
8H3 
!«)3 
S4 
277 
9«7 
301 
375 


MarcheJ 
inoiisiii 

Aunia.Sain. 
tonge.  An-  \ 
goumois . .  ) 

Auvergne  .  i 
Iiyonnaia..- 


Vendue 

Two  SevTcn... 

Vienna 

Creuzo 

Upper  Vienne. 
CorrSze 


Charente 

Ijowcr  Charente 

Puy  de  Dome  ■  • . 
Cantal 


Dauphiny. 


Ouiep.ne . . .  < 


Bourbonnaia 

Gaacony      1 
and  Beam  | 


Rh6ne 

Loire 

laSre  

Upper  Alpa .., 

Drome 

Dordogne .... 

Oironde 

Lot  and  Garonne 

Lot 

Avcyron 

Tarn  and  Ga-  j 

ronne 

Allicr 

Landes 

Gen 

Upper  Pyronuaa 


336 
306 
313 
303 

•.m 

SHS 
939 
IIM 
910 
Mil 
:i75 

:uu 
3i;o 
:toH 

91)1 

;w:i 
:itui 

391 
33A 
304 
3111 

:i54 

3«0 
334 
364 
440 
900 

293 

909 
870 
934 

341 

900 
340 
203 
200 
978 

380 
307 

400 
974 

141 

934 
420 
975 
331 
470 
517 
949 

9ai 

443 
114 


Foix 

Roussillon . 


Longuedoc.  ■ 


ProTenee . 


Lower  Pyreneei. 

Arriige 

EaHtern  Pyreneei 
'  Upper  Garonne  . 

Aude 

Tarn 

Herault 

Card 

Lozire 

Upper  Loire  . . . . 

Aniecfae 

Lower  Alps 

Mouthi  or  the  { 

Rhone < 

Var 

Vaucluae 

Corsica 


439 
312 
233 

386 

987 
203 
339 
306 
900 
313 
303 
937 
230 
977 
273 

936 

368 
167 


PDlwIitlna. 


CIlin  ud  TowH,  with  Ihtir  PoiHiUlkxi  la  IH7. 


UCJ,048Lille 00,800 

048,060  Arraa 83,173 

396,989  Ainiona 49,WH 

088,91)3  Rouen 00,000 

800,U3«>Caen 38,161 

011,30(!8t.Lo 8,3011 

434,379  Alenfon 14,071 

421,(163  Evrcux ".rJB 

1,013,373  I'aria 890,531 

440,H71  Vcraallle 99,79! 

383,134  Boauvaia 19,863 

318,900  MAlun 7,199 

489,3410  Laon 7,:<34 

393,043  Chfilona 19,410 

381,694  Mezierca 4,139 

341,709  Troyca 23,387 

344,833  Chaumont....  6,037 

300,3:ig  Rar  le  Due  . . .  13,.520 

409,133  Metz 4,970 

403,038  Nancy 39,123 

37f).839  Kpinal 7,931 

408,741  (.'ohimr 1,340 

S:l5,4»7  »l  ruHhiirg  ....  40,708 

•WIMSH  Ronnea 39,377 

.Wl.dmHt.  Ilrlfiix....  9,903 

!-A)-i,M\  (tiiiinper 10.039 

427,454  Vnniiea 11,389 

457,9110  Nanlca 71,730 

:i.VI,i:iH  Liivnl 15,840 

4111.510  L«  Mana 19,477 

4.18.(174  A  n  ge  ra 99,978 

890,100  Tuura 90,990 

304,998  Orlcana 40,340 

977,782  Chnrtrea 1.1,703 

2.10.IHm  Hlola 11,337 

9:17,(198  Ohntcauroux  .  10,010 

248,.'!89  Ilourgea 19..'M)0 

971,977  Novcra 15,789 

349,116  Auxerre 19,348 

370,943  Dijon 93,843 

313,776  Maf  on 10,963 

341,098 

327,041 
234,312 
310,982 


Uouny  

Diiiikirit  ... 

Iloulogno.. . 

Ht,  Omvr  . . . 
Ahhovllle  .... 

Havre 

Baycux  

Chnrlmiirg.. .. 
Argcntan  . ..  • 

Iiouviora 

BcAaux 

Elainpea 

Coinpligne . . . 
Funtainebloau 
Bt.  Quentin  ■ . 

Rheiina 

Sedan 


19,880 

34.317 

19,314 

10,010 

10,390 

31,040 

10,000 

17,006 

0,044 

0,843 

1,390 

7,807 

7,309 

7400 

17,661 

34,803 

13,00e 


Valviiclennea. 
Cambral  . .  • 
Calala 


Bl.Quenttn 

Dieppe  

Faialae  

Cuutancea.. 


ToiSTi 
17,031 

e,eM 

19,381 
17,077 
10,303 
0,039 


Bt.Dinii 8,731 


Moaux.. 
Boiatona 
Kpernay  . 
Uocroy... 


329,896 

988,960 
267,670 
339,939 
976,331 

384,882 

333,653 
424,147 

560.373 
262,013 

410,373 

369,208 
593,984 
123,329 
385,701 
464,074 
,'t.-)8,151 
336,886 
380,515 
350,014 

341,586 

285,302 
905,309 
307.601 


Langret 7,180 

Verdun 

Thionvillo  ...    3,891 

Lunevillo 19,:r78  Toul 

SI.  Die ?,.130 

Baton 4,803 

Saverne 4,003  Weiaaemburg. 

Bl.  Malo 0,838 

Dinant 7,173 

Hreat 30,655  Morloix 

L'Oriont 15,310 

Mayenno 0,790 

Bnumur 10,314 

Choraon 4,400 

Montargia —    6,633 

Dreux 0,947 

VondAmo  ....    6,803 
Isaoudun 11,333 


Bnna 8,688 

Bcmur 4,930 

Autun 0,936  Chftloni 


7,830 
7,483 
3,080 
3,500 


7,507 
6,140 
0,701 


Gray 

Puntarlier.... 

j  Fontcnay  t 
I    le  Conite  { 


7,903 
4,340 


rZ'aar.i      «.^84 

Vosoul 3,2.59 

n<<8an{on  ....    38,793 
Lona  Ic  Saiilnier  7,864 

Bourbon-Vendie  3,130 

Niort 13,790 

Poitiera 31,503 

Guerct 3,448 

Limogea 33,613 

Tulle 8,470 

Angoulume...    13,300  Cognac 3,017 

Rochelln 11,073  Baintea 10,300  Rochefort  — 


7,403 
Ch&tellerault .    9,341 


Clermont 

Auriilac 

j  Lyona,with ) 
)     auburba     j 

Montbriaon  ■  • 

Grenoble ...  . 

Gap 

Valence 

Pirigueiix .... 

Bordeaux  .... 

Agen 

Cahor* 

Rhodez 


30,010  Rinm 13,736  Thiers  . 

0,370  St.  Flour 6,040 

170,875  Trevoux 3,459 

3,156  St.  Etienne. . .  30,615 

39,149  Vienne 13,780 

7,015  Embnin 3,300 

10,283  Montelimar  . .  7,580 

8.588  Borgerac 8,418 

93,340 

11,971  Villoneuve...  9,495 

13,413 

7,747  Villcftanche. .  9,531 


13,009 
11,613 


Montauban  -.    36,466  Moisaac 10,115 


Moulina 14.523 

Mont  de  Maraan  3,088 
Auch 10,844 


Oax. 


8,045 


322,059  Tarbes 8,713  Bajnere 7.037 

'  Bayonne  ■ .  ■  13,498  Orthes  . 
Oleron 6,433 


413,469Pru. 11,761   || 


347,g39Foix 4,038 

131,378  Pcrpignan....  15,357 

407,016  Tnulouae 33,310 

865,001  Carcassonne..  17,773 

327,665Alby 10,093 

339,360  Montpelier . . .  35,842 

347,530  Niamea 39,068 

138,778  Mende 3,445 

985,673  Le  Puy  en  Vefay  14,998 

328,419  Pri  vaa 4,100 

153,063Digne 3,055 

396,303  Marseilles ....  115,043 

311,095Toulon 30,171 

333,048  Avignon 31,180 

185,079  AJsccio INV 


Narbonne....  10,097 

Caatrcs 15,663 

Bcziers 16,813  Boden  . 

Alai 10,333 


Argentiire ...    8,797 
Biateron 3,!;90 


Aix 33,133  Aries 

Draguignan  • .    8,010  Graaae 

Orange 8.8<M  Cnrpentras  . 


6,634 


9,843 


10,868 

19,716 
9,7511 


•"'»' 


?  nJwjT    ",*'W?T7Iirrw:^""r7n"f«' 


^'"j»v?ii'!^'!"!'^'  '>  4  w* '  lyji  I V,  yav  "''■  ■  ■- 


PiiRT  III. 


lencloniiei.  ]0,H4i 

inbral  ..    .  17,031 

lain e,RM 

Qiicntin  . .  13,nst 

51>|>o n,(>77 

IbIio ]U,:i03 

utoncei....  0,038 

Dinii S, 


•aux 7,83B 

uoni 7,4^ 

cniny S.OHO 

croy 3,S(» 


rdun 0,i 

111 7,i 

lincmburg.  6,140 

rlaix 0,701 


D«)OK  I. 


FRANCE. 


54A 


iloni 


hefort  ....  12,009 
»» 11,613 


Tin  following  Btatistical  table  exhibits  a  compurative  view  cf  tbo  state  of  culture  and  pro- 
duction in  the  iTifferont  dopartmonU  of  Franco.  Tho  amounts  of  grain,  cattle  and  wool  are 
furnislied  by  Chaptal.  The  wine  is  drawn  from  the  report  prcHcntod  to  the  peers  by  the  Due 
de  Dodcouvillo,  and  the  foresto  from  tiio  memorial  ot  the  sub-administrator,  M.  Horbin  de 
Halle.  Tlio  entire  annual  amount  of  land  revenue  is  derived  from  an  estimate  of  tlie  aver- 
age produce  of  tlio  arpent  in  oucli  department,  founded  upu  tho  Cadastre  or  generai  aurvey 
ot  tlio  kingdom.    It  is  furnished  b/  Chaptal : —  '  ) 


Dtpartminti. 


Alller 

Alps  Uppw 

— —  Ijjv/eT  .  •  .  ' 

Ardeclid ' 

Jinlennc*  ...... 

Arriofa 

Aul» 

Awl 

Areymn 

Bouchet  du  Rlwna  > 

Calvadu*  

Canlil 

Chiuvnte    ■  •    >  - 

• Lower  • 

Char 

Correie  ...•.• 

Corsica 

Cole  (l'l)r  ■  •  .  . 
Colet  (lu  Nord  • 

Creuze 

Doitloftie  ■  •  >  . 

Uoubi 

DroDie 

Eure 

Eura  and  Loir  • 
rinliterre  * .  -  . 

Oard 

OAivnne,  Upper 

Oere 

Olmnde • 

Henult 

lie  tod  Vllaloe  ■     • 

Indra 

lodre  and  li>ire 

leeni 

Jun 

Laulet 

Loir  and  Cher     .  - 

Loire 

Loire,  Upper  -    .  - 
— —  Lower 

Lolret 

Lot 

Lot  iind  Oironiw  •  • 

Loiere •  • 

Maine  and  biln  -  • 

Maocbe - 

Mame 

Upper    -  -  - 

M.-irenno 

«le  ivtlie 

.4euiie • 

Mortiitian  ..---• 

Mniclle 

NIevra 

Nord 

OIm 

Orne 

Pa*  de  Calais  •  ■  .  . 
Plljr  de  Dome  -  ■  -  . 
Pyrenees,  !>iwer .  . 
•^— — .  Upper  -  - 
Eaatem   • 


Rhine,  Lnn'er 

Upper  •  •  • 

Rhone ■ 

Saono,  Upper  -  -  • 
S-ione  and  Loire  ■  • 

Bsnhe 

Seine   ....•••. 

Lower  - .  - . 

Seine  and  Mame  >  • 
Seine  and  Oise  <  >  . 
Sevra,  Two  -  -  -  . 
Somme  ....... 

Tarn 

Tain  and  QaroniM  • 

Var 

Vaucluso  .--.*. 

Verdee   

Vlenuio 

--.-Upper 

Vosga 

ToDoe  


Wh»l. 


074,000 
l,4M,i»0 
888,000 
IH),000 
1119,000 

m,oai 
M3,ono 
iHooo 
4ei),ooo 
t,auu,ono 
3ii,nuo 

387,000 
1,152,000 

«i,oon 

8»I,(XX> 
708,000 
40^000 

loilooo 

104,000 

m,ooo 

410,000 

9,000 

6M,oao 

311.1,000 

>i9,000 

l|3M,000 

l,A3i,000 

8Mi,000 

851,0110 

l|l»7,OI 

l,OII,OC>. 

4IS,000 

eo4,ooo 
aio,ooo 

457,000 
737000 
737,000 
439,000 
866,000 
634,000 
157,000 

iiro,ooo 

6»/,000 
618,000 
000,000 
t»5000 
87,000 
810,000 

'■M,000 
535,000 
480,000 

1|IOO,000 
700,000 
611,000 
860,000 
8V4000 

1,536,000 

iSlT^OOO 
640,000 

8,019,000 

euooo 

306,000 
128^000 
120,000 
602,000 
600,000 
160,000 

nafioo 

800,000 

487,000 

88,000 

1,491,000 

1,361,000 

i,9e6;ooo 

38&000 

mooa 

840^000 
780,000 
438,000 

879,000 
663,000 
617,000 
76L00O 
607,000 
401,000 


R;e. 


«SB,000 

1,040,000 

7411,000 

m,m 

108,000 

9114,000 
458,000 
189,000 
631,000 
183,000 
433,000 

13,000 
328,000 
678,000 
34l,0('O 

34,000 

9eo,ooo 

630.000 
14,000 
61 1,000 
623,000 
8'i5,<)00 

!m,uon 

I38,0<^ 
323,000 
621,000 

162,000 
479,000 

tu/loo 

47,000 

llhOOO 
3^000 

87,000 

4.50,000 

8(5,000 

015^000 

1,036,000 

Il7,m 
864,000 
379,000 

33^000 
630,000 
267  JMO 
827,000 
159,000 
118,000 

33,000 

1,186^000 

1^000 

1,118,000 

134,000 

930,000 

71,000 

32,000 
600  000 
310,000 
331,000 
501,000 
756,000 
l.''>2,000 
307,000 
1,022,000 

17,000 

88,000 
130,000 
166,000 
109,000 
817,000 
194,000 
697,000 
377,000 

79,000 
188,000 
244,000 
335,000 
373,000 
1^67,000 
650,000 
844,000 

13,000 
130^000 
370,000 
397,00» 
666,000 
168,000 
439,000 


HfMol. 


148,000 

666,000 

1,721,000 

13,000 

786,000 

39,000 

8,000 

884,000 

147,000 

30,000 

«7I',000 

120,000 

2411,000 

12.5,000 

902,000 

1,311,000 

1,501,000 

185,000 

3,046,000 

120,000 

34,000 

22,000 

42,000 

30,000 

377,000 

802,000 

e9o!5oo 

444,000 

79,000 

76)000 

116,000 

46,000 

73,000 

6)8,000 

376,000 

343,000 

810,000 

148,009 

16,000 

868,000 

89,000 

108,000 

88,000 

853,000 

40,000 

SLOOO 

16^000 

144,000 

184,000 

661,000 

686,000 

446,000 

11,084,000 

456,000 

884,000 

600,000 

830,000 

1,178,000 

1,147,000 

1,497,000 

136,000 

59,000 

82,000 

66,000 

651,000 

36,000 

297,000 

421,000 

n^ooo 

62,000 
300,000 
189,000 

84,000 
243,000 
364,000 

60,000 

60,000 

1,030,000 

728,000 

28,000 

23,000 
304,000  ' 

7»  ■0!,  ' 


CtlU*. 


Wool 


M*, 


93,000 
84,000 
IIIJIOO 
3S,\J0O 
11,000 
64,000 
80,000 
6<,000 
46,000 
36,000 
71,000 
8,000 
99,000 
100,000 
70,000 
67,000 
42,000 
86,000 

104,000 
163,000 
95,000 
|30,000 
I04,UOO 
10,000 
43,000 
66,000 
900,000 
-,000 


tiooo 

88,000 

7,000 
164,000 
llBlOOO 


uaifioo 
iia.000 

S),0«O 

69,000 
78,000 
60,008 

133,000 
78,000 
64,000 
68,000 
33i)00 

161,000 

I60.0CO 
63,000 
81,000 

139,000 
79,000 

174,000 
76,000 
98,000 
172,000 
74,000 
101,000 
146,000 
104,000 
102,000 
49.000 
15,000 
107,000 
49,000 
44,0(X) 
90,000 
1I3.00O 
108,000 
13,000 
60,000 
78,000 
117  000 
63,000 
86,000 
60,000 
39,000 
11,000 
4,000 
04,0110 
2,000 
4,000 

iooo 

37,000 


Kilo- 
inraiDfa, 
ll'tm  Its. 

siflh. 


68,000 

1,107,000 

147,000 

638,000 

384,000 
667000 
3»,000 
168,000 
1.443,000 
too  000 
686,000 

aoifloo 

425/100 
256,000 
311,000 
ba4,000 
21.1,000 
104,000 
240,000 
136,000 
331,000 
4W,000 

63,000 
963,000 
413,000 
917,000 

40,000 
701000 
660,000 
1(10,000 
438,000 
W\00O 

88,000 
816,000 
226000 
268,000 

64,000 
836,000 
661,000 
144,000 
330,000 
259,000 
t33,000 
482,000 
185,000 
72^ffi0 
tlT^n 
300,000 
936,000 
159,000 
172,000 
136,000 

68,000 
166,000 

87,000 
744,000 
832,(100 
453,000 
602,000 
846,000 
486,000 
348,000 
648,000 

86,000 
182,000 

83,000 
121,000 

76,000 
193,000 

68,000 
640,000 
1.196,000 
1,082,000 
390,000 
778,000 
634,000 
351,000 
SlifiOO 
498,000 
896,000 
661,000 


Wine. 


Hsrioll. 

MMnl- 

lo«s  secb. 


Avsrsft 
rneae  !■ 
Vraaes. 


873,000 
991,000 
888,000 
101,000 
08,000 
77,000 
86,000 
117,000 
678,000 
601,000 
891,000 
690,000 

4,000 

1,830,000 

1,701,000 

333,000 


620,000 


417,000 
139,000 
361,000 
65,000 
1, 0(14,000 

467,000 

1,094,000 

8,5«5,000 

1,713.000 

8,000 

383,000 

665,000 

153,000 

308,000 

418,009 

647,000 

876,000 

880OO 

710,000 

693,000 

240,000 

401,000 

14,000 

493,000 

432,000 

600,000 

688,000 
646,000 

360,000 
33,000 

86,000 


657,000 
819,000 
284,000 
COO 
433,000 
264,000 
693.000 
306,000 
39^000 
436,000 
81,000 
101,000 
007,000 


18 
91 

17 
18 
16 
18 
80 
16 
17 
10 
14 
14 


10 
ilU 


16 
18 
18 
38 

20 

10 
14 
8 

18 
10 
13 
13 
10 
II 
17 
12 
13 
18 
14 
10 
16 
17 
81 
18 
16 

86 

14 

13 

16 

17 
80 

36 


33 

17 
II 
16 
18 
<4 
16 
30 
18 
16 


6 
17 
13 
20 
13 

8 
II 
18 
10 
II 
17 
18 
86 


rortilt. 


Und 
Revenue. 


Use. 
laise. 


64,000 
103,000 
106,000 
74,000 
60,000 
28,000 
160,000 
66,000 
77,000 
60,000 
4.5,000 
64,000 
32,000 
30,000 
32,000 
38,000 
150,000 
13/100 
65,U« 
228,000 
18,000 
80,000 
67/100 
119,000 
92,000 
87,000 
44,000 
12/no 
81,000 
60,000 
11,000 
90,000 
70,000 
20.00 
102,000 
73,000 
IfO^OOO 
138,000 
126.000 
66,000 
36,000 
33,000 
37/I0O 
85,000 
35,000 

8% 

36/100 
318/XlO 
180,000 
18,000 
132/100 
IRi/JOO 
57,000 
8N000 
69,000 
46/100 
66,000 
112,000 
68,000 
49/100 
166,000 
169,000 

160,000 
131.000 
88,000 
4,000 
84,000 
73,009 
74,000 
39,000 
66,000 
42,000 
11,000 
118,000 
67,000 
19,000 
S7.0CO 
32,000 
316,000 
168,000 


fintt. 


10,063,000 
17,441,000 
8,23lL00O 
3,604/100 
4,664,000 
11,767,000 
12,206,000 
11,618,000 
I«,6a6/I00 
17,203^000 
13,461/100 
PJ63,000 
43,637/100 
10,012  000 
17.333,000 
30,358^ 
8^130,000 

27.396,000 
l9/IK3,0nO 

camfioo 

14,431,000 
14,464,000 
20,748/WO 

18,811^ 
13,6t8/)C0 
18,213/100 
18/lat/lOO 

■8,l8a/]0O 

ii,6eg/»o 

16,451,000 

6,438/100 

16,178/100 

33/134/100 

83,474/100 

16.986  O'V' 

l6,337,.Vj 

ll,36«/)09 

16,760,000 

15,968,000 

8,743/100 

7,936/100 

17,688/100 

6,679,000 

88^36/100 

37,650,000 

8,991/nO 

12,626,000 

19,414/100 

13,161/100 

lO/MS/ICO 

I6,63LOOO 

21,776/100 

10,189/100 

32,M!o!ln 

28,9Ri/WI 

9r,)66/100 

9  J,  1 17,000 

31,665/100 

14,729,00(1 

9,831/100 

8,587,000 

16,148/100 

9,730,000 

10,08I/»D 

19,137,000 

23,784/10(1 

18,770,000 

65/101,000 

34,200,000 

37,388/100 

32J48,0Oa 

18.741,600 

88,047.000 

12,343,000 

IO,8<5,aOO 

81,883/100 

■0.971,000 

10,868/Xn 

8,630/100 

8,677/X» 

7,H)«,00O 

86,444,000 


10,868 

HJ I9,7ia 

intraa...    O.TJil 


ITie  Jile  of  France,  now  .  vided  into  several  departments,  claims  priority  of  notice  as  con- 
tai,,i'i0'  the  capitaL  It  in  not,  strictly  spcakino^,  an  island:  but  being  situated  near  the  June* 
tic .  of  the  Oise,  Uie  Mame,  the  Aisne,  and  the  Seine,  i?  intersected' by  very  numerous  river 
channels.  It  is  in  general  level,  fertile,  and  !•  jrhly  cultivated ;  and  beneath  the  surface  are 
quarries  of  gypsum  so  copious,  that  the  substanc    is  commonly  designated  "  plaster  of  Paris.* 

Vol.  L  46  3T 


Mb 


nHSCIUl'TIVK  GEOflUAl'HY 


Part  111. 


Paria,  tho  capital  of  Fmnco,  haa  uIno  nmuo  [wtonaiona  U)  bo  conaidorcd  aa  tlio  ^mnernl 
capital  of  tho  civilizml  world,  l^)ndon  can,  in  fact,  alono  liiMputu  ita  c!iiiin,  JKinL  mora 
extondivc,  inoro  wcaltliy,  ind  tho  anat  of  u  much  moro  rxtended  commerce;  y»vt  tjio  ti'iitral 
aituation  of  Paris,  tho  peculiar  attractiona  rcnderinff  it  tho  crowded  resort  of  striinjfer.;.  and 
ita  brilliant  ami  polished  society,  especially  under  the  old  monarchy,  jjavo  to  this  city  ii  K>-y8r 
as]K!ct,  nnd  remlorcd  it  a  moro  conspicuous  object  in  lun  oyca  of  Kunjno.  Paris  is  not  only 
less  jH)i)uiouH  than  Ixmdon,  but  in  nroportion  to  ita  popu'rMi  n  't  "ovorh  loss  jjround.  It  Ibrnw 
on  both  iHiiikH  of  tho  Heino  iin  ellipso  of  about  fuf  ir  '"i.    'i  and  throe  in  lircadtli. 

The  principal  streets  nro  Ion?,  narrow,  bonlcriMl  1.>  hifjli ..  u  ■  ,  vvhicli,  like  those!  of  Kdin- 
burfrji,  uro  each  occupio<l  by  several  families.  I'i  o  st"''i  i>  of  .iiops  are  further  cncmidmrcd 
by  tho  exhibition  of  the  mcrchandiso  in  from  of  iho  dtwrs,  a  pructirc  only  tolerated  in  tho 
most  obficuro  districts  of  British  cities.  Purif  hus  presents  (jenerally  a  more  ifloomy  and 
confused  as|)ect  than  I.ond(m;  nor  has  it  any  siriicturo  which  ran  match  th(>  grandeur  of  Ut. 
Paul's,  or  perhaps  tiio  beauty  of  Wostminsier  Abbey  ;  yet  some  of  its  quarte^rs  contain  long 
ran{(es  of  superb  and  stately  edifices,  which  London  cannot  rival.  The  palarcs  of  Paris,  in 
particular,  fiir  excel  those  of  the  rival  tnitroiwlis.  The  most  distinjf'tisheil  i-  •'  l<ouvre, 
finished  with  tho  utmost  splendour  iu  tin  style  that  distinguished  th-^ '  ^'  o.  x^ouiu  ^M  V.  ^u 
front,  525  feet  long,  is  a  model  of  symmetry,  tho  efl'oct  of  which  i>  only  injureil  by  the  want 
of  BiNico  boforo  it.  The  Louvre  is  not  now  occupied  us  a  palace,  but  as  a  ^^rand  (i(>|)6t  of  tlio 
oujecta  of  taste  and  ort  Tho  gallery,  which  is  more  than  a  (piarter  of  a  nule  lopfj,  and  tho 
walla  of  which  aro  entirely  crov<l"d  with  paintings  that  are  still  line,  forms  a  majjniliccnt 
coup  iTasil.   Tho  hall  of  statuca  ih  >^till  adorned  witli  eome  of  the  llncst  specimens  of  ancient 

sculpture.     Tho  Tuileries,  which  is 
tho  present  ro  -il  residence,  w.is  be- 

fun  at  an  ea.  or  periiMl  than  the 
lOuvrc,  and  carried  on  at  successive 
times ;  whence  it  exhibits  varied  and 
sometimes  discordant  features,  but  is 
on  tho  whole  a  noble  and  venerable 
edilicc,  surrounded  with  fmo  gar- 
dens and  avenues.  The  imlncoof  tho 
Imxembourg  (/i^.  280.),  on  the  south 
of  I'aris,  and  the  Poliiis  Bourbon  on 
the  west,  are  etlilices  of  frreat  taste 
and  beauty.  Tho  former,  now  strip- 
ped of  tho  famous  series  of  paint  inga 
by  Rubena,  which  has  been  tninsferred  to  the  Louvre  gallery,  affords  in  one  part  a  place  of 
aaaembly  for  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  and  in  another  apartments  for  tlie  exhibition  of  paintings 
by  living  artists ;  while  the  Palais  Bourbon  is  in  part  occupied  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
281  ,    v^    The  Pallia  Roynl  (fir.  291.)  is  no  longer 

^  "  exclusively  a  palcce,  but  is  in  part  leased 
out  to  sundr ,  perKiis,  for  purposes  partly 
of  business,  but  much  nn  re  of  pleasure: 
it  is  filled  with  shops,  r(>  ii-e-houscs,  tav- 
■M  ,  garni"  .-tables,  oi  very  l()riii  of 
gi..oty  and  dissipation  wli  .li  can  find  ac- 
p  .  .  P  ceptance  in  such  a  city.    Notre  Dame,  the 

""■  ancient  catliedral  of  Paris,  is  somewhat 

Heavy  and  massive,  but  tho  interior  is  richly  decoratrd.  "',  he  modern  church  of  St.  Gei,. 
vi^ve,  called  during  the  Revolution  tho  Pantheon,  was  hijflily  extolled  during  its  erection 
Pi!  destined  to  eclipse  both  St. Peter's  and  St. Paul's;  ami  such  was  tho  (vpectation  enter 
lain.,.;  in  France,  till,  the  scafTolding  being  removed  and  tho  front  thrown  oh'^m,  its  inferi- 
ority became  aj ,.  'ent.  '■  'Wevcr,  it  is 
still  an  edifice  of  i  Mgh  cln-<  (Jifr.  282.) 
St.  Sulpice  is  m  •  modi  ru  structure. 
Paris  has  no  fin  ts,  m     any  of  those 

ample  squares  wi'ich  are  ,-  grrcat  an  or- 
nament of  London,  It  boa.-'s,  however, 
of  ita  places,  which,  without  having  the 
regular  form  or  dimensions  of  a  square, 
command  admiration  by  the  ranges  of 
noble  buildings  that  surround  them.  In 
particular,  the  Place  Louis  Quinze 
standing  in  a  central  situation  among  the 
.  ijaiaces,  presents  one  of  the  most  brii- 

liant  points  of  view  to  be  found  in  any  city.    This  capital  possesses  also  great  advantages  ip 


Tha  LuxembourR. 


Churrh  of  Bt  Gens?is?c. 


Part  III. 

iR  thn  (rniiernl 
II,  l)<  iiib  mora 
yoi  tlio  luntrel 
Btninj^or.:,  nnd 
m  city  ii  ((uyer 
arm  in  not  only 
ouiul.  It  tbnim 
■00  in  iiri'iKltli, 
tliosf!  of  I'Min- 
or  <'iir.iiinlH<roiI 
ilcrutcd  in  tlio 
irii  uriooiny  and 
!>Tiiii(l(!nr  of  St. 
rH  contain  lonj; 
:<'s  of  I'liriM,  ill 
'•  •'     l/)uvro, 

.OUia.'.'V.      "■. 

Oil  by  tlio  want 

lul  (lojidt  of  tlio 

t!  lonjr,  nnd  tlio 

t  n  niiijjniticent 

tinim  of  ancient 

pries,  which  is 

lonce,  Wiis  bc- 

criixi  than  the 

n  at  micc(!ssivo 

ibilH  vnriod  nnd 

f(MitnrcH,  but  is 

iinil  vrncrnblc 

\ilh   fine  gar- 

ic  palncoof  tho 

I.),  on  the  Houth 

lli^^  Bourbon  on 

I  of  pront  taste 

ner,  now  strip- 

ioH  of  paintings 

iiirt  a  place  of 

)n  of  paintings 

?r  of  Deputies. 

)  is  no  longer 

in  part  leased 

urposes  partly 

of  pleasure: 

n-houscp,  tav- 

very  form  of 

1  can  find  nc- 

jtrc  Dame,  the 

is  somewhat 

of  St.  Gei.; 

•  its  erection 

ctation  enter 

'n,  its  inferi- 

wevcr,  it  is 

a  structure, 
any  of  those 
ffreat  an  or- 
ir'H,  however, 
lit  liaving  the 
of  a  square, 
ho  ranges  of 
nd  them.  In 
ouis  Quinze 
on  among  the 
le  most  brii' 
advantages  Id 


BookL 


FRANCE. 


tho  wide  ornamented  opnii  ipacoi  \<  hicli  lie  i  thn  very  Imart  of  the  city.  The  <  mlcvardi, 
tho  ancient  ruinpart  at  I'ariN,  wIumi  it  woh  circumRcriDud  within  a  much  narrower  conipaM, 
aro  now  convortud  into  a  walk  adoriKid  with  rowH  of  tfoea,  and  filled  with  numorouH  o.hi- 
bitorH  and  vondnrH  of  overv  thing  that  can  conduce  to  public  amuaement.  Tho  gardoni  o^ 
tho  TuilorioH,  and  tho  oinbellirihed  aiKit  calloil  the  Champa  Elyiiti,  are  aim  open  to  th« 
public. 

The  stntiHticH  of  Pari*  have  been  carefully  illiiatratod  in  a  aoriea  of  intorosting  worki  by 
tho  (Jount  do  Clmbrol.  Tho  jwpulation,  in  1821,  amounted  to  713,WJfl,  but  haa  now  rinen  to 
81H),4:U.  Tho  birtliH,  in  tho  throe  yearn  ended  1821,  averaged  24,7(H);  tho  deaths  22,tlH0; 
leaving  thim  2n(K)  an  the  annual  oxceiw  of  birtha.  A  third  of  all  the  birtha  were  illegiti- 
mate, and  of  tlioMo  (dily  a  third  were  acknowledged  by  tho  parents.  Tho  atill-born  childron 
wero  averaged  1;U1.">.  'I'he  average  of  marriogea  in  tho  three  years  was  about  (KXH).  In 
tho  throe  yeara  7;)vJ  died  of  small-|xjx,  and  only  one  child  out  of  twenty-fivr,  was  vaccinated. 
The  violent  deaths  average<l  ;)o(),  half  of  whom  wore  married  persons,  and  tho  moat  com- 
mon cause  was  domestic  chagrin.  Drowning  was  tho  most  rroquont  mode :  170  personi 
wero  drowned  annually  by  accident.  The  consumption  of  Paris  consisted,  in  1823,  of 
70,(JSf)  oxen;  8142  cows;  74,7r)l)  calves;  301,U40  sheep.  Tho  taxes  paid  in  Paris  amount 
to  11(),()(H),(MK)  francs.  House-rent  amounts  to  8(),0(H),000  francs.  The  number  of  housoa, 
in  1821,  was  27,00(),  with  an  average  of  thirty-K;  :  doors  and  windows  in  each.  The  loans 
made  on  pledges  by  tin  charitable  establishment  called  tho  Mont  de  Piiti  amount  to 
19,r)00,{KK)  francs,  iqion  1,(K)(),(KK)  articles,  of  which  14,50(),0(K)  are  redeemed.  There  are 
fourteen  hospitals  for  tho  sick,  und  eight  lionpices  for  tho  infirm.  The  tornicr  received 
annually  42,.')()0,  of  whom  about  40,000  went  out  cured;  tho  latter  IH'iH).  The  annual 
cxpenso  is  about  7,000,(K)0  fr.mcs.  There  is  besides  an  office  of  chai  y  in  each  of  the 
twelve  arrondisscmenn,  tho  aids  of  which  arc  adminintered  by  "sisters  of  charity,"  who 
divide  tin  poor  among  thcriiMelviH,  make  regular  lists  of  them,  nnd  pay  frequent  visits. 
They  m  iko  an  annual  collcctio;i  in  their  district,  the  produce  of  which  is  transmitted  to  the 
office.  The  annual  distributions  made  by  the  olfices  of  charity  amount  to  1,250,000  francs 
in  money;  747,000  quartern  loaves;  270,00011)8.  meat;  10,000  ells  of  cloth,  &c.  The 
manufactures  of  Paris  aro  considerable.  Tho  principal  are  of  works  in  gold  and  silver, 
which  employ  7000  or  8000  workmen,  and  yield  a  value,  according  to  M.  Dupin,  above 
12.'),(H'(),000  francs.  Tho  are  manufactured  al«),  by  2000  workmen,  80,000  gold  and  40,000 
silv-  .atclies,  with  15,0«K.  ''ks,  which  miiy  he  worth  10,(HK),000  francs.  Sugar  refinery 
is  also  supposed  to  prtKliice  21 1  '(O.tHWlbs.,  wi '  :  12,000,000  francs.  Eighty  printing-offices 
employ  000  presses  and  3001'  -kmen,  u  nd  annually  280,000  reams  of  paper ;  supposed 
value  8,75(),00()  francs.  Of  th  various  artu  les  above  enumerated,  there  are  exported  to  the 
value  of  nearly  .')(), <MX),000  francs  T'aris  is  visited  by  12,000  or  13,000  boats,  of  which  1000 
ure  from  the  lower  Seine,  and  th'  t  from  the  upper.  Twenty  are  steam-boats.  The  city 
has  1000  boats  of  its  own. 

Tho  environs  of  Paris  aro  not  covered  with 
which  have  been  constructed  to  gratify  the 
ately  beyond  the  gates  they  present  a  flat  op 
tho  royal  palaces  ;_8uperb  fabrics,  i.ia  works  oi 
been  expended. 


hose  numerous  villas  and  country  residences 

taste  of  the  citizens  of  London.     Immedi- 

orn  country.     They  aro  chiefly  marked  by 

Hucces.sive  kings,  and  on  which  millions  have 

The  most  elaborate  and  most  splendid  is  Versailles  {jig.  283.).     It  was 

283 


icncm9x 


niirr:nr' 


jrrgJOTMiOT  / 


Chateau  at  VeiMilloi. 

oegun  by  Louis  XIIL  who  found  it  little  more  than  a  village ;  but  its  chief  ornaments  are 
due  to  Louis  XIV.,  who,  during  twelve  years,  expended  immense  ^ums  in  surrounding  it 
with  every  kind  of  magnificence.  The  front  is  highly  elegant,  built  of  polished  stone,  and 
approached  by  three  great  avenues.  The  interior  consists  of  spacious  apartments  embel- 
lished in  the  most  costly  manner,  and  many  pa.rts  of  them,  and  of  the  staircases,  are  covered 
with  frescoes  executed  by  eminent  French  painters.  The  interior  and  the  gardens  are  filled 
with  crowds  of  statues,  partly  antique  and  partly  the  work  of  French  sculptors.  Water 
was  at  first  deficient ;  but  it  has  been  conveyed  in  such  abundance  as  to  be  lavished  in  fan- 
ciful and  fantastic  forms, — fountains,  jets  d'eau,  cascades,  with  which  Versailles  is  more  pro- 
fiisely  embellished  than  any  other  royal  residence.  The  two  palnr.  ^  called  the  Great  and 
Little  Trianon,  are  in  the  vicinity,  and  are  celebrated,  particularly  the  last,  for  gardens  laid 
out  in  the  English  style.  The  long  residence  of  the  court  at  Versailles  assembled  round  it 
a  splendid  city  formed  by  the  courtiers  and  great  nobles,  who  considered  it  necessary  to  have 


MM 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOGRAPHY, 


Pakt  III 


at  leant  a  tnaniiion  thore.  Hinco  tho  tmjfic  sconoa  of  October,  1789,  the  palace  haa  novot 
been  inhabited  j  thoui;h  tho  Hoiirlxnis,  after  their  return,  nlaced  it  in  repair.  Hence  the 
city  ban  declined  in  population,  and  the  late  manoiona  of  the  nobles  are  in  a  great  nieaaure 
occiipiod  by  Envliiih  roaidenta.  8t.  Clnud,  four  or  Ave  milea  iliatant  tVom  Pari*,  ia  purticu- 
'arly  admired  tor  its  gardena  and  extonMivo  wooda,  an  excuraion  to  which  forma  a  popular 
amusement,  enpecially  on  festival  days.  It  waa  the  favourite  roHidenco  of  Napoleon,  whoae 
court  waa  tlience  called  the  cabinet  of  St.  Cloud.  Fontainebloau  ia  the  huntinff-aeat  of  the 
monarchy,  being  aurronnde<l  by  a  forest  of  nearly  30,(M)()  acres.  The  palace,  built  by  auc- 
ceaaivo  munarcha,  iVom  Francia  I.  to  Louia  XV.,  la  chiefly  noted  for  ita  long  and  numerous 
gallerioH.  Amonfi^  the  few  towns  in  this  country,  Meaux  ia  distin^iHhed  not  only  by  the 
beautitUl  choir  of  its  cathedral,  but  by  having  been  tho  see  of  the  celebrated  Boesuet,  whose 
tomb  it  containa,     Melun  ia  a  conaiderablo,  but  ill-built  and  gloomy,  old  town. 

The  northern  departments,  comprising  the  provinces  of  French  Flanders,  Picardy,  and 
Nonnandy,  compose  together  nn  extensive  j)lain,  the  richest,  most  flourishing,  and  most 
highly  cultivated  in  tho  kingdom.  Tho  farms,  though  of  various  size,  are  generally  larger 
than  in  the  rest  of  France ;  the  improved  English  procesbts  are  gaining  ground,  and  tho 
introduction  of  artificial  grasses  haa  in  a  great  iiieasuro  Fjpplanted  tho  routine  of  wheat, 
oatH,  mid  fallow.  This  region  is  also  the  chief  seat  of  maiaifuctures.  These  provinces  have 
produccil  many  men  of  distinguished  tiiUmt,  and  knowlo<lge  is  very  generally  diflbscd  in 
tliem.  The  Flemings  retain  their  national  character,  distinct  from  that  of  the  French; 
heavy,  i»hlegmatic,  industrious,  addicted  to  pretty  close  drinking  and  long  rustic  festivals. 
Tho  Norman  still  partakes  the  adventurous  spirit  of  his  forctathers ;  ho  loves  expeditions 
and  journeys,  readily  engages  in  any  enterprise,  and  eagerly  pursues  it. 

The  cities  throughout  all  this  port  of  France  are  large  and  flourishing.  Those  of  French 
Flanders,  or  the  Nord,  rank  among  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Europe,  and  are  the  bulwarks 
of  the  monarchy.  Lille  perhaps  holds  among  these  the  very  first  place,  being  considered 
the  master-piece  of  Vauban.  It  was  reduced  by  Marlborough  only  after  a  long  blockade, 
and  is  considered  in  any  other  way  almost  impregnable.  It  is  also  well  and  regularly  built, 
and  the  Rue  Royale  is  a  very  splendid  stn  nt.  Lille  has  also  a  very  considerable  variety 
both  of  manufacturing  and  commercial  industry,  with  institutions  both  for  literature  and  the 
arts.  Douay  is  an  ancient  and  strong  town  on  the  Scarpe,  and  enjoys  some  celebrity  as  a 
seat  of  rather  antiquated  and  scholastic  learning.  Its  university  consists  of  three  colleges, 
now  united,  one  of  which  is  called  the  English  college,  and  is  resorted  to  from  all  the  three 
kingdoms  as  a  place  of  Catholic  education.  Cambrai  is  a  very  ancioiit  and  celebrated  city, 
the  capital  of  the  Nervii  in  Ciesar's  time,  and  afterwards  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 
Here  was  concluded,  in  1597,  tho  league  of  Cambrai,  which  caused  the  downfall  of  Venice ; 
and  it  waa  the  scene  of  other  important  diplomatic  transactions ;  but  perhaps  the  name  ia 
best  known  from  ita  having  formed  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Fenelon.    It  ranks  still  as  a 

fortress  of  the  first  class,  and  was  one  of  those  held 
by  the  arrnv  of  occupation,  after  the  peace  of  Paris, 
m  1815.  Valenciennes  is  another  ancient  bulwark 
of  the  kingdom,  which  yielded  to  the  allies  in  1793, 
after  a  long  siege ;  but  they  did  not  derive  any  advan- 
tage from  their  success.  It  has  some  fine  manufac- 
tures of  lace,  gauze,  and  cambric. 

In  Picardy  and  the  part  of  the  Isle  of  France  bor- 
dering on  it,  there  are  several  large  and  flourishing 
cities.  Amiens  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  manu- 
ftcture  of  coarse  woollens,  as  serges,  plush,  velveta 
for  furniture,  and  carpets;  also  coarse  linens.  Here 
was  concluded  the  peace  of  1801,  between  Britain 
and  France.  Its  cathedral  (Jig.  284.)  is  one  of  the 
mMt  spacious  and  most  highly  ornamented  in  Franco 
or  in  Europe.  Abbeville  is  celebrated  as  one  of  the 
few  seats  of  tlie  manufacture  of  very  fine  woollen 
cloth,  which  surpasses  even  the  English ;  it  deals  meet 
extensively  in  sailcloth,  sheeting,  and  other  coarse 
fabrics  from  hemp  and  flax.  St.  Qucntin,  the  scene 
of  the  great  victory  of  Philip  IL,  enjoys  a  more  hum 
ble  and  useful  distinction  as  one  of  the  most  thriving 
manufacturing  places  of  France.  Its  manufkctures 
eonsist  in  lawns,  cambrics,  and  still  more  of  late  in  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton ;  all 
which  employ  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood  up^wards  of  50,000  persons.  The  citizens  ot 
St.  Quentin  display  an  enterprise  and  an  activity  in  pushing  every  new  and  promising  branch 
of  industry,  which  are  not  usual  in  France.  A  canal  is  here  cut  firom  the  Oise  to  that  of 
Douay,  remarkable  for  its  extensive  tunnels.  Laon  is  an  ancient  town,  witli  a  stately  cathe- 
dral.    SoisBons  is  distinguished  in  French  history,  and  ita  bishop  had,  second  to  that  of 


Amieiu  Cathedral. 


Pant  III 

o  palace  has  nevot 
epoir.  Hence  the 
in  a  ^cat  measure 
m  Paris,  is  porticu- 
ich  forms  a  popular 
if  Napoleon,  whose 
luntinff-seat  of  the 
sloce,  built  by  sue- 
long  and  numerous 
)d  not  only  by  the 
ted  BoBsuet,  whose 
own. 

ders,  Picardy,  and 
irishing,  and  most 

0  generally  larger 
g  ground,  and  the 

routine  of  wheat, 
eso  provinces  have 
[jerally  diflbscd  in 
It  of  the  French ; 
tig  rustic  festivals. 

loves  expeditions 

Those  of  French 

1  are  the  bulwarks 
>,  being  considered 
'  a  long  blockade, 
nd  regularly  built, 
nsiderable  variety 
literature  and  the 
Dmo  celebrity  as  a 

of  three  collegen, 
from  all  the  three 
id  celebrated  city, 
m  of  the  Franks, 
wnfall  of  Venice; 
haps  the  name  is 
It  ranks  still  as  a 
one  of  those  held 
le  peace  of  Paris, 
ancient  bulwark 
the  allies  in  1793, 
derive  any  advan- 
me  fine  manufac- 

lie  of  France  bor- 
e  and  flourishing 
■ated  for  its  manu- 
es,  plush,  velvets 
»e  linens.     Here 

between  Britain 
4.)  is  one  of  the 
nented  in  France 
ted  as  one  of  the 
3ry  fine  woollen 
ish;  it  deals  most 
ind  other  coarse 
uentin,  the  scene 
joys  a  more  hum 
he  most  thriving 
ts  manufactures 
ng  of  cotton ;  all 

The  citizens  ol 
Jromising  branch 
0  Oise  to  that  of 
'  T  stately  cathe- 
L'cond  to  that  of 


B0*M    I 


FRANCE. 


Calau  Hsrbour. 


Rhouns,  the  right  of  crowning  the  king  of  France.    It  docs  not  now  present  any  striking 
fettures.     Beauvais  ia  thriving  and  industrious. 

The  ports  of  IMcardy  and  ( rench  FlandurM  are  also  very  deserving  of  notice.  DunkirK, 
being  tlie  only  one  which  opens  into  the  North  tioa,  was  always  cimsidorod  of  great  import* 
ance.  Louis  XIV.  having  definitively  obtained  this  place  m  UW2,  made  it  one  ot  tiie 
strongest  harbours  in  Europe.  It  soon  became  so  annoying  to  British  trade,  that  oil  vantage 
was  token  of  the  triumphs  of  the  war  of  succession,  to  require,  at  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  its 
entire  demolition.  By  canals  and  other  means,  the  French  contrived  always  to  replace  it  in 
an  effective  state ;  but  by  successive  treaties,  the  demolition  of  the  fortifications  on  the  side 
of  the  sea  was  again  and  again  stipulated,  till  the  circumstances  of  the  peace  of  1783  obliged 
England  to  cease  from  exacting  it.  From  ttiat  time  Dunkirk  became  the  main  centre  of  the 
privateering  system.  It  has  also  a  considerable  share  of  fishery  and  of  the  Baltic  trade.  A 
memorable  era  in  its  history  was  its  siege  by  the  British  in  1793.  They  were  compelled 
abruptly  to  raise  it,  and  this  formed  the  commencement  of  a  long  series  of  reverses  sustained 
by  the  allied  arms.  Dunkirk  has  a  good  harbour  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  entered  by  a 
canal  of  a  mile  and  a  half;  it  is  rather  well  built,  but  for  want  of  springs  the  inhabitants  are 
obliged  to  use  rain-water.  The  neighbouring  territory  is  low  and  marshy,  only  preserved 
from  the  inundation  of  the  sea  by  a  ridge  of  downs,  and  only  cultivated  by  means  of  numer- 
ous draining  canals.  Calais  is  well  known  as  the  point  of  communication  with  England, 
which  so  long  held  it  as  tiie  key  of  France,  even  atlcr  her  aims  at  the  entire  conquest  of 

that  monarchy  had  ceased.    At  present, 
it  is  chiofiy  supported  by  the  packet 
intercourse,  its  indifferent  harlx)ur  {fiff. 
285.)  unfitting  it  for  any  commerce  on 
a  great  scale.    Calais  is  in  a  very  flat 
country,  intersected  by  canals,  by  which 
it  might  be  even  inundated.    Boulogne 
has  more  maritime  importance ;  though 
its  port,  choked  with  sand,  will  no  longer 
receive  vessels  of  any  size,  unless  at 
high  tide.     It  has  lost  altogether  the 
forced  consequence  given  to  it  by  the 
construction  of  the  grand  flotilla,  des- 
tined to  subdue  the  British  empire,  but 
now  abandoned  to  rot     Its  proximity,  h  wover,  to  the  coast  has  rendered  it  a  great  resort 
of  English  fiimilies,  who  inhabit  it  to  the  amount  of  several  thousands.     The  fishery  of 
herring,  mackerel,  &c.  varies  in  value  firom  1,()(X),0(X)  to  2,000,000  francs. 
The  cities  of  Normandy  are  larger  and  more  important  than  those  already  described. 

Rouen  is  one  of  the  noblest  m  France.  Its  manu- 
factures  are,  perhaps,  the  most  enterprising  and  indus- 
trious in  the  kingdom,  and  from  their  vicinity  to  Eng- 
land have  had  peculiar  facilities  in  borrowing  her  pro- 
cesses. The  main  staple  is  cotton-spinning  and  weav- 
ing, which  8je  supposed  to  occupy  two-thirds  of  the 
55,000  workmen,  and  so  to  constitute  the  same  pro- 
portion of  the  two  millions  sterling  of  manufactured 
goods  annually  produced.  The  cathedral  (Jig.  286.), 
conunenced  by  William  the  Conqueror,  was  considered 
one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ecclesiastical  architect 
ture  in  France,  till  the  late  disaster,  which  overthrew 
a  great  part  of  it.  The  streets  are  excessively  narrow 
and  dirty,  though  those  adjoining  to  the  Seine  are 
agreeable.  That  river  was  long  crossed  only  by  a 
pontoon,  composed  of  nineteen  large  barges,  strongly 
moored  together  by  iron  chains ;  but  as  this  had  many 
inconveniences,  a  handsome  stone  bridge  has  been 
lately  substituted.  At  ElboDuf,  near  Rouen,  is  a  manu* 
factory  of  fine  cloth,  almost  equal  to  that  of  Louviers. 
Caen  is  a  very  ancient  city,  of  great  historical  name^ 
the  favourite  residence  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and 
the  frequent  head-quarters  of  the  English  armies.  It 
is  still  a  considerable  place,  rather  unusually  well  built  for  a  French  town,  contaming  a 
handsome  castle,  the  only  remaining  part  of  its  fortifications,  and  some  fine  old  churchea 
Its  mar^ufactures  are  numerous-,  but  none  of  t.hpm  very  eminent,  exceot  that  of  lace,  which 
gives  employment  to  about  20,000  females  in  this  place  and  the  neighbourhood.  It  is  of 
some  eminence  as  a  seat  of  literature,  gave  bir'h  to  Malherbe  and  Huet,  and  has  a  university 
of  considerable  '•eputation,  which,  though  suppressed  during  the  Revolution,  has  been  restored 


Roum  Cathedral. 


650 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAaTin, 


in  full  lustre,  Havre,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  is  the  port  of  Paris,  and  one  of  the  mort 
active  eeats  of  French  commerce.  The  custom  duties,  in  1824,  amounted  to  somewhat  above 
a  million  sterling,  and  its  trade  has  since  been  greatly  augmented.  The  chief  febric  of  the 
town  and  neighbourhood  is  that  of  printed  cottons.  It  is  a  gloomy  town,  the  streets  narrow, 
and  the  houses  often  built  of  a  framework  of  wood  filled  up  with  mortar.  Dieppe,  StValery, 
Fecamp,  and  Honfleur  are  very  active  stations  for  fishing ;  which  is  not,  however,  carried  on 
witli  the  same  energy  and  adventare  as  before  the  Revolution.  The  immense  efforts  made 
to  render  Cherbourg  a  naval  station  of  the  first  rank,  have  proved  nearly  abortive.  Tha 
French  govemn.<?nt,  after  the  peace  of  1/8;),  began  to  erect  a  series  of  cones,  with  the  view 
of  breaking  the  force  of  the  waves;  but  these  were  overwhelmed,  and  retain  no  vestige  of 
their  original  form :  they  lie  under  water,  a  shapeless  ruin,  which  Bonaparte  in  vain  attempted 
to  make  the  foundation  of  a  regular  breakwater.  Afler  two  millions  had  been  spent  in  this 
undertaking,  he  employed  other  five  millions  in  forming  an  interior  basin  and  a  wet  dock; 
but  all  these  mighty  works  remain  unfinished. 

Britany  forms  a  peninsula  distinguished  by  many  marked  features  from  the  rest  of  Franre: 
its  rude  surface,  composed  in  a  great  measure  of  forests,  marshes,  and  heaths,  enabled  it  not 
only  to  preserve  a  large  pction  of  its  original  Celtic  population,  but  to  give  shelter  to  fugi- 
tives from  Britain,  whence  it  received  its  name.  After  being  long  a  separate  duchy,  it  was 
united  to  FVance  by  the  marriage  of  its  heiress  with  Louis  XII.  It  retained,  however,  down 
to  the  era  of  the  Revolution,  its  feudal  states,  which  assembled  every  two  years.  The  Bas 
Breton  is  a  Celtic  dialect.  The  people  ure  very  numerous  and  very  poor.  The  country  is 
divided  into  small  properties  or  farms,  seldom  exceeding  twelve  acres,  cultivated  by  the 
manual  labour  of  the  occupants,  according  to  antiquated  and  unskilful  processes,  to  which 
they  adhere  with  the  most  fixed  determination.  The  peasantry  reside  in  small  huts,  gloomy, 
dark,  and  damp;  they  are  strongly  attached  to  their  homes;  ignorant  and  superstitious,  but 
at  the  same  time  frank,  brave,  hospitable,  constant  in  their  friendsiiips,  and  faithftil  to  their 
word.    Ti  ay  are  stubborn  and  hanfy,  and  those  on  the  coast  make  bold  sailors.      ^ 

Of  the  cities  of  Britany,  Rennes,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Rhedones,  is  the  first  m  dignity, 
and  was  the  place  of  meeting  for  the  states,  the  discontinuance  of  which  has  diminished  its 
importance.  It  is  still  rather  a  fine  and  handsome  city,  having  been  regularly  rebuilt  since 
a  great  fire  in  1720 ;  and  Its  cathedral  of  St.  Peter  is  adorned  with  lofty  towers.  There  is 
a  library  of  30,000  volumes,  a  fine  botanic  garden,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  and  extensive 
collections  in  the  fine  arts.  It  carries  on  some  trade  by  the  river  Vilaine,  which  admits 
barges  of  considerable  size.  Vannes,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Veneti,  is  a  much  smaller 
and  poorer  town,  though  its  vicinity  to  the  sea  gives  it  some  commerce  and  fishery.  Morlaix 
and  Quimper  (ire  rather  good  towns  in  the  western  departments :  but  the  finest  city  in 
Britany  is  undoubtedly  Nemtcs,  which  seems  almost  to  belong  to  the  rich  provinces  on  the 
Loire ;  it  is  situated  on  a  hill  above  that  river,  twenty-seven  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  has 
the  advantage  of  deligiitful  walks  and  environs.  Its  situation,  at  the  mouth  of  the  greatest 
river  in  France,  is  very  favourable  to  commerce,  which  was  carried  on  to  a  vast  extent,  till 
ruined  by  the  disastrous  influence  of  Napoleon's  continental  system ;  but  Nantes  is  begin- 
ning again  to  rear  its  head.  The  West  India  trade  and  the  cod  fishery  were  the  most 
extensive  branches.  Much  ship-building  is  carried  on  for  the  merchant  service,  and  vessels 
of  1000  tons  are  occasionally  built.  Its  manufactures  are  various,  and  were  formerly  exten- 
sive, especially  sugar  refinery,  cotton,  woollen,  and  linen  cloths,  nnd  earthenware.  It  is 
connected  with  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  by  a  noble  bridge,  which,  uniting  five  different 
islands,  extends  in  its  entire  length  more  than  two  miles.  In  its  construction  Nantes  exhibits 
the  usual  faults  of  old  cities ;  the  most  agreeable  parts  are  the  suburbs,  and  the  islands  are 
thickly  planted  with  trees  and  houses. 

Brest,  on  the  western  coast  of  Britany,  is  the  chief  naval  station  of  France  on  the  ocean, 
as  Toulon  is  on  the  Meditenrnean.  It  was  selected  for  this  purpose  in  1631  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  in  consideration  of  ifci  harbour,  which  is  secure  from  every  wind,  and  of  a  spacious 
roadstead,  affording  anchorage  co  500  ships  of  war.  From  Brest  issued  the  fleet  which  was 
totally  defeated,  in  1792,  by  Lord  Howe ;  and  during  tlie  whole  of  the  subsequent  wa; 
between  England  and  France,  this  port,  wi^  the  navy  which  it  contained,  was  held  in 
almost  constant  blockade.  The  works  of  Brest  are  very  strong,  and  the  attempt  made  in 
1694  to  carry  them  by  storm,  was  repulsed  with  considerable  disaster.  The  town,  though 
modern,  having  been  built  in  haste,  and  with  a  sole  view  to  utility,  is  crowded  and  dirty ;  but 
within  the  last  half-century  thero  has  been  built  a  handsome  suburb,  called  La  Recouvrance. 
Brest,  besides  l^s  navel  importance,  carries  en  a  considerable  fishery. 

There  are  other  maritime  stations  of  considerable  magnitude  in  Britany.  L'Orient  has 
been  made  a  depdt  for  naval  stores,  and  strongly  fortified ;  it  derived  much  importance  from 
being  the  almost  exclusive  seat  of  the  commerce  of  the  East  India  Company ;  but  since  that 
trade  has  been  nearly  annihila'ced,  this  poi  t  has  greatly  declined.  St  Male  contains  a  race 
of  bold  and  hardy  mariners,  actively  employed  in  the  Newfoundland  and  other  fisheries :  and 


Book 

sideral 
of  the 
Th< 
Toura 
north, 
espcci 
wood 


who.  in  time  of  war,  exercised  briskly  the  trade  of  privateering.    RIorlaix  carries  on  a  con* 


Wi 


PAftTin, 

one  of  the  moet 
somewhat  above 
lief  &bric  of  the 
B  streets  narrow, 
eppe,  St  Valery, 
vever,  carried  on 
nse  efforts  mode 
f  abortive.  Tha 
M,  with  the  view 
Eiin  no  vestige  of 
n  vain  attempted 
een  spent  in  this 
and  a  wet  dock; 

3  rest  of  Franre: 
IS,  enabled  it  not 
e  shelter  to  fugi- 
ite  duchy,  it  wed 
,  however,  down 
years.  The  Bas 
The  country  is 
iultivated  by  the 
jccsses,  to  which 
all  huts,  gloomy, 
superstitious,  but 
faithful  to  their 
ors. 

e  first  m  dignity, 

as  diminished  its 

irly  rebuilt  since 

)wers.    There  is 

ry,  and  extensive 

le,  which  admits 

3  a  much  smaller 

[fishery.  Morlaix 

finest  city  in 

rovinces  on  the 

mouth,  and  has 

of  the  greatest 

vast  extent,  till 

Vantes  is  begin- 

were  the  most 

ace,  and  vessels 

formerly  exten- 

henware.    It  is 

five  different 

Vantes  exhibits 

the  islands  are 

e  on  the  ocean, 

31  by  Cardinal 

id  of  a  spacious 

Heet  which  was 

lubsequent  wa; 

d,  was  held  iu 

tempt  made  in 

town,  though 

and  dirty ;  but 

Recouvrance. 

L'Orient  has 
iportance  firora 

but  Since  that 
:ontains  a  race 

fisheries ;  and 
rries  on  a  con* 


fiooK  L 


PRANCE. 


5U1 


siderable  trade  with  the  north  of  Europe.    Quimper,  though  ranking  above  Brest,  as  capital 
of  the  department  of  Finisterre,  is  now  only  an  old  town  of  little  importance. 

The  provinces  on  the  Loire,  in  its  course  from  east  to  west,  comprehending  Orlcanais, 
Touraine,  Anjou,  to  which  may  be  added  those  of  Maine  and  Perche,  adjoining  on  the 
north,  are  the  most  central  and  perhaps  the  richest  in  the  khigdom.  A  great  part,  indeed, 
especially  of  Anjuu  and  Maine,  is  covered  with  lihose  wide  wastes,  overgrown  with  brush- 
wood and  heath,  which  occupy  so  much  of  tlie  French  soil.  But  tlie  banks  of  the  Loire 
around  Orleans  are  generally  considered  the  garden  of  France ;  they  consist  of  unbounded 
plains,  through  which  the  magnificent  Loire  winds  its  stately  course,  and  which  are 
variegated  witli  rich  meadows,  vineyards,  gardens,  and  forests.  On  this  theatre  were  acted 
many  of  the  greatest  events  in  the  histofy  of  the  monarchy,  particularly  its  rise  fi-om 
the  apparent  peril  of  total  subjection,  through  the  inspiring  influence  of  Joan  the  Maid  nf 
Orleans. 

The  cities  of  this  region  are  celebrated  and  magnificent,      Orleans,  in  former  times, 
ranked  almost  as  a  second  capital :  though  it  exhibits  the  usual  characters  of  antiquity,  it  is 
a  superb  and  beautiful  city.  A  very  fine  stone  bridge  of  nine  arches  opens  to  the  rue  roi/ale, 
spacious  and  handsome,  which  extends  to  the  fine  square  in  the  centre ;  here  is  placed  a 
stacuc  of  Joan,  the  sculpture  of  which  is  not  altogether  so  elegant  as  might  be  desired.    The 
cathedral  is  a  very  fine  edifice,  the  choir  of  which  was  raised  by  Henry  IV.   From  its  steeple 
is  an  almost  unbounded  view  over  the  magnificent  plain  of  the  Loire.     Situated  in  the  centre 
of  France,  and  dividing  as  it  were  the  Lower  from  the  Upper  Loire,  Orleans  enjoys  a  great 
transit  trade.     Blois  is  almost  equal  to  Orleans  in  historical  celebrity ;  its  ancient  edifices, 
placed  on  a  hill  above  the  Loire,  have  a  most  commanding  appearance.    The  castle,  on  a 
rock  overhanging  the  river,  is  an  immense  and  lolly  pile,  full  of  windows  of  all  shapes  and 
sizes,  balconies,  galleries,  buttresses,  and  "a  strange  incongruous  assemblage  of  buildings 
destined  for  ornament  in  peace  and  defence  in  war."    All  the  parts  are  little ;  but  the  whole 
is  so  vast  as  to  be  almost  sublime.    In  this  edifice  the  states-general  once  asE'>nibled.    The 
glory  of  Blois  has  now  entirely  passed  away :  its  streets  are  narrow,  gloomy,  and  dismally 
dirty.    Tours,  equally  ancient,  is  now  much  more  flourishing ;  its  plain  is  pre-eminent,  even 
among  the  other  districts  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire.    The  silk  manufacture,  first  introduced 
here,  has  been  in  a  great  measure  transferred  to  Lyons,  but  it  still  employs  7000  or  8000 
persons.    Happily  for  the  beauty  of  the  city,  a  great  part  of  it  was  consumed  50  years  ago, 
and  occasion  was  taken  to  build  a  new  street,  running  its  whole  length,  of  fine  hewn  stone, 
broad,  and  on  an  elegant  design;   it  is,  perhaps,  the  finest  in  France.    It  is  connected 
with  a  bridge  of  14  arches,  which  till  of  late  was  considered  equally  unrivalled ;  and  also 
with  a  fine  promenade  bordered  with  trees.    The  metropolitan  church  was  almost  entirely 
demolished  during  the  revolutionary  excesses;  only  two  of  its  lotly  spires  remain.     The 
beauty  and  abundance  of  the  country  around  Tours  have  attracted  such  numbers  of  English 
residents,  that  Mrs.  Carey  was  asked  on  the  road  what  great  convulsion  was  agitating  Eng- 
land, that  her  people  were  flying  i'rom  it  in  such  crowds.     Sau;^ur,  once  highly  flourishing 
and  industrious,  lost  two-thirds  of  its  population  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
Angers  is  a  large,  old,  steep,  ill-built  town,  but  has  a  considerable  trade ;  its  monuments 
have  been  dreadfully  shattered  during  the  Revolution.     Le  Mans,  capital  of  Maine,  on  the 
Sarthe,  is  very  old,  but  large  and  clean,  with  a  spacious  market-place  and  some  considerable 
manufactures. 

The  provinces  between  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne,  Poitou,  Berri,  Limousin,  and  the 
Marche,  are  of  diversified  and  somewhat  peculiar  aspect:  they  present  none  of  those  bound- 
less plains  which  characterise  France  north  of  the  Loire ;  they  are  everywhere  traversed  by 
valleys  and  ridges  of  hills,  never  rising  into  mountains,  but  giving  to  the  country  a  broken  and 
variegated  aspect.  This,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  is  sometunes  rude  and  dreary, 
sometimes  gay  and  smiling.  Mr.  Young  ranks  the  Limousin  as  the  most  beautiful  district 
in  all  France,  such  is  the  variety  of  hills,  dales,  streams  and  woods  which  compose  its 
landscape.  Mrs.  Carey  describes  Marche,  beyond  Argonton,  as  singularly  pastoral;  the 
hills  covered  with  "heep,  goats,  kids,  and  lambs,  the  last  of  which  at  evening  come  down 
bleating,  and  are  received  into  the  houses.  Poitou,  a  part  of  which  is  so  fatally  celebrated 
under  its  new  name  of  La  Vendee,  is  a  rough  country,  a  great  part  of  which  is  covered 
with  a  forest  called  the  Bocage.  All  these  districts  are  more  productive  of  cattle  than  of 
grain,  though  tliey  are  cultivated  by  a  simple  peasantry  with  hardihood  and  vigour,  but  quite 
m  the  antique  style,  and  with  a  strong  antipathy  to  all  modern  improvements.  In  Poitou, 
the  proprietors,  being  small,  and  residing  much  on  their  estates,  excited  feudal  feelings  and 
attachments,  that  were  extinct  in  the  rest  of  France ;  hence  the  formidable  war  which  they 
waged  single-handed  in  defence  of  the  ancient  regime. 

The  cities  in  this  range  of  provinces,  though  ancient,  are  neitlier  large,  nor  distinguished 
■;y  much  industry.  Poitiers  is  of  high  antiquity,  and  presents  some  interesting  Roman  re- 
riiMiiia:  in  modem  times  it  is  distinguished  by  the  signal  victory  gained  here  by  the  Black 
Prince.  Tha  oily  is  of  great  extent,  but  comprises  many  empty  spaces  and  gardens.  Limogea 
18  on  ill-built  to'vn,  with  many  houses  of  timber,  roofed  with  tiles,  and  projecting  eaves,  but 


Ir 


Kfi 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pajit  III. 


there  are  several  handsome  squares  and  fountainn,  and  the  public  walks  command  a  beautifu 
view  of  the  Vienna  flowing  clown  a  charming  valley.  Its  cathedral,  said  to  have  been  built 
by  the  English  during  their  temporary  possession  of  this  part  of  France,  suffered  much  during 
the  revolution,  and  has  only  one  tower  lefl  standing.  Bourges,  the  ancient  Biturgiee,  is  very 
ill-built,  but  adorned  with  a  fine  cathedral,  and  distinguished  for  its  university,  and  as  the 
birth-place  of  fiourdaloue,  and  of  the  Jesuit,  Father  d'Orleons.  Chftteauroux  is  gloomy,  but 
has  a  large  woollen  manufacture. 

The  two  departments  of  the  Charente,  watered  by  the  fine  river  of  that  name,  form  a 
region  different  in  character  from  those  now  described ;  level,  and  extremeljr  fertile,  though 
in  some  parts  marshy  and  unhealthful.  A  great  part  of  the  produce  of  its  rich  vineyards  is 
at  Cognac  converted  into  brandy,  which  bears  an  unrivalled  reputation,  though,  probal  ly, 
the  name  is  applied  with  a  fraudulent  latitude  to  inferior  liquors.  The  yellow  tingd  so 
generally  given  to  brandy  is  the  consequence  of  a  local  custom  at  Cognac.  Saintes  is 
ancient  even  as  a  French  city.  An  ample  theatre,  an  aqueduct,  and  a  triumphal  arch  of 
white  marble,  attest  its  ancient  importance  as  a  Roman  city ;  and  the  cathedral  is  said  to 
belong  to  the  age  of  Ciiarlemagne.  But  the  most  conspicuous  features  of  the  Charente  are 
Rochelle  and  Rochefort.  The  former  is  renowned  as  the  grand  and  last  bulwark  of  the 
Protestant  cause ;  and  its  reduction,  effected  by  the  almost  incredible  efforts  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  fixed  the  downfiiU  of  civil  and  religious  liberty  in  France.  Thoug'h  no  longer  a 
haven  of  tlie  first  magnitude,  its  colonial  trade,  prior  at  least  to  the  late  war,  was  very  con- 
siderable. The  town  is  handsome,  with  broad  streets,  many  of  the  houses  built  on  arcades, 
with  shops  beneath  as  in  Chester.  Rochefort  has  little  trade,  but  is  one  of  the  principal 
French  naval  stations.  It  has  a  secure  harbour,  with  very  safe  and  extensive  docks. 
Being  one  of  the  few  towns  in  Prance  that  are  not  much  more  than  a  century  and  a  half 
old,  it  is  built  on  a  reg(i!ar  pl»«,  with  brood  open  streets.  Angoul^me,  in  the  interior, 
stands  on  a  rock  in  the  centre  of  a  charming  valley,  through  which  winds  the  silver 
stream  of  the  Charente.  It  is  a  clean  well-built  town,  having  a  cathedral  with  five  cupolas, 
and  displaying  other  marks  of  historical  importance.  Tliere  is  a  large  manufacture  of 
paper. 

Guienne  is  a  most  important  province,  which  for  !«»'veral  ages  formed  an  oppanage  of  the 
English  crown.  It  conHistH  of  a  magnificont  and  highly  cultivated  plaiUj  watered  by  the 
Garonne,  whose  broatl  stream  here  resnmblfjs  an  arm  of  the  sea,  and  by  its  ample  tributaries, 
the  Tarn,  the  Lot,  and  the  Dordogne.  It  is  distinguished  by  various  rich  productions,  but 
more  especially  by  the  wines  bearing  the  name  of  claret,  which,  though  not  quite  so  rich  and 
highly  flavoured  as  some,  are  so  light  and  agreeable  thot  a  greater  quantity  is  drunk  at  the 
tables  of  the  opulent,  than  of  any  other.  M.  Frank,  in  a  late  work  published  at  Bordeaux, 
estimatos  the  entire  produce  of  claret  at  250,000  tuns.  The  wines  of  the  farms  Laffitte  and 
Ch&teau-Margaux  are  the  most  esteemed ;  but  much  is  sold  under  these  names  which  has 
no  title  to  them. 
Bordeaux  (Jig.  287.),  near  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne,  is  one  of  the  grandest  emporia  in 

France,  and,  indeed,  in  Europe. 
287  Situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 

Garonne,  which  here  allows  the 
largest  vessels  to  ascend  to  its 
port,  it  exports  all  the  vol  liable 
produce  of  this  great  southern 
plain,  of  which  the  wines  are 
said  to  amount  to  100,000,  and 
brandy  to  20,000  pipes  annually. 
It  is  engaged  also  in  colonial 
trade,  and  in  the  cod  and  whale 
fisheries.  Recent  travellers  re- 
mark a  greater  display  of  wealth 
and  prosperity  in  this  than  in 
Borduaui.  ^ly  other  of  the  French  com- 

mercial cities.  Every  thing  is 
on  a  ^nd  scale,  aijdJiyiildings  are  in  progress  which,  when  finished,  will  leave  it  without  a 
rival  m  France.  The  theatre,  designed  after  that  of  Milan,  is  considered  a  model  of  archi- 
tectural beauty.  Many  of  the  ecclesiastical  structures  were  founded  by  the  English.  A 
very  republican  spirit  is  said  to  prevail  at  Bordeaux. 

The  other  towns  of  Guienne  are  not  of  the  first  mognitude.  Montauban  embraced  witli 
ardour  the  Protestant  cause,  and  had  a  distinguished  university,  which  was  suppressed,  when 
the  place  was  taken  in  1629,  by  Louis  XIII.,  and  the  fortifications  razed.  This  seminary, 
however,  was  restored  by  Napoleon  in  1810.  Montauban  is  well-built,  of  painted  brick, 
with  wide  and  clean  streets ;  and  an  elevated  walk,  which  commandH  a  most  extensive  view, 
reaching  to  the  Pyrenees.  Agen  is  a  very  dirty  ill-built  town,  but  famous  for  the  plums 
raised  in  its  vicinity,     Cahors  has  some  thnvmg  manufactures,  and  its  vicinity  produces  the 


Book  I. 


FRANCE. 


m 


irin  de  Grave,  which  is  held  in  high  estimation.  Rhodez,  on  the  Aveyro.1,  ia  a  gliomy  old 
town,  but  the  seat  of  a  distinguished  bishopric. 

Gascony  is  a  large  province,  extending  to  Uie  Pyrenees,  and  consisting  c'iefiy  of  a  wide 
Level  surface,  of  peculiar  character,  called  the  landes.  These  are  plains  jf  sand,  in  some 
places  loose  arid  blowing,  but  mostly  covered  with  pine  trees,  sometimes  affording  pasturage 
for  sheep,  and  more  rarely  detached  tracts  fit  for  cultivation.  The  Gascons,  long  an  inde- 
pendent  people  under  their  dukes,  tire  a  peculiar  race,  fiery,  ardent,  impetuow,  and  prover- 
bially addicted  to  boasting ;  hence  the  term  gasconade.  Bayonne,  Uiough  not  very  large,  is 
one  of  the  strongest  and  prettiest  towns  in  France.  Situated  at  the  broad  mouth  of  the 
Adour,  it  has  a  considerable  trafiic  in  exportmg  the  timber  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Landes, 
and  sends  also  vessels  to  the  cod  and  whale  ^heries.  Mont  de  Marsan,  the  capital  of  the 
Landes,  is  but  a  small  and  poor  place. 

The  Pyrenean  departments  comprehend  some  interesting  features ;  Beam,  the  little  ori- 
ginal principality  of  Henry  IV.,  which  he  governed  with  ptemal  kindness ;  and  Roussillon, 
which  underwent  several  revolutions,  alternately  belonging  to  France  and  to  Spain,  before 
it  was  finally  annexed  to  the  former.  Young  gives  a  delightful  view  of  the  state  of  this 
mountain  district.  T«  ig  divided  into  a  number  of  small  properties,  which  are  well  enclosed, 
well  cultivated,  each  comfortable  cottage  being  surrounded  by  its  garden  well  stocked  with 
fruit  trees ;  the  inhabitants  snii^ly  dre.ised,  like  Highlanders,  in  red  caps.  The  subdivision 
of  property,  though  great,  seems  not  to  have  gone  so  far  as  to  lead  to  misery.  Pau  is  a  con- 
siderable town,  in  a  romantic  situation,  and  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  Henry  IV., 
whose  cradle  is  still  shown  in  the  ancient  palace,  now  converted  into  a  prison.  It  irakes  a 
good  deal  of  linen,  and  is  nolcd  for  its  excellent  hams,  which  are  exported  from  Bayonne. 
Tarbes,  capital  of  the  upper  Pyrenees,  and  Bagneres,  with  its  mineral  hoi  springs,  a  place 
of  crowded  and  fiishionable  resort,  are  delightfully  situated,  affording  an  approach  to  the  fine 
valleys  of  the  highest  Pyrenees.  The  slopes  of  the  neighbouring  mountains  are  richly  cul- 
tivated, and  often  well  enclosed,  lioussillon  ia  Spanish  as  to  language  and  customs ;  but  the 
magnificent  roads  sfl^ected  in  defiance  of  natural  obstacles,  and  the  thriving  industry  of  the 
people,  mark  tiie  influence  of  a  moie  active  and  enlightened  government.  The  extensive 
fortifications  of  Petpignan  render  it  a  barrier  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  g,ioomy  and  ill-built, 
but  has  some  manulactures. 

Languedoc,  the  ancient  Gallia  Narbonensis,  end  afterwards  the  domain  of  the  counts  of 
Toulouse,  is  the  pinle  of  France  in  regard  to  climate,  soil,  and  scenery.  The  air  along  its 
coasts  is  generally  ■considered  the  most  salubrious  in  Europe.  The  plains  of  Languedoc  are 
celebrated ;  yet  th(  v  ire  encroached  upon  not  only  by  the  Pyrenees  on  the  east,  but  by  the 
Cevennes,  which  fou-'.  their  constant  northern  boundary,  and  in  many  places  reduce  them  to 
a  breadth  of  a  few  miles.  But  on  the  line  from  Beziers  by  Montpelier  to  Nismes,  the  plain 
is  of  much  greater  breadth,  and  displays  a  luxuriant  fertility  scarcely  rivalled  ia  any  other 
part  even  of  this  happy  region.  Every  thing  flourishes  here,  even  what  is  most  strictly 
denied  to  other  provinces ;  not  only  grain  and  the  vine,  but  the  silk-wonn  and  the  olive. 

The  cities  of  Tjanguedoc  are  not  of  the  very  first  magnitude ;  but  they  are  handsome  and 
finely  situated ;  and  they  present  some  interesting  Roman  monuments.  Toulouse  covers  a 
great  extent  of  ground,  but  it  has  suffered  in  consequence  of  the  discontinuance  of  its  par- 
liament, whicli  was  one  of  the  most  important  in  Franco.  Tlie  cathedral  is  very  largo,  but 
not  very  beautiful ;  and  many  of  the  churches  were  destroyed  during  the  Revolution.  There 
is  an  university  attended  by  1500  students,  and  two  large  libraries  open  to  me  public, 
Castrcs  is  a  well-built,  hidustrious,  large  town,  the  birth-place  of  Rapin  and  Madame  Dacier. 
Carcassonne  still  retains  some  of  the  bastions  and  towers  of  the  custle  on  its  hill ;  but  this 
ancient  quarter  is  almost  deserted  in  fiivour  of  the  neat  pleasant  town  built  beneath.  Beziers 
is  ugly  and  dirty,  but  has  a  handsome  cathedral,  and  is  important  from  its  site  on  the  canal 
of  Languedoc.  Naibonne,  though  celebrated  as  a  Roman  capital,  presents  few  monumenla 
of  that  people;  these  are  said  to  have  been  taken  down  at  the  building  of  the  walls.  Mont- 
pelier enjoys  an  unrivalled  fame  for  its  mild  and  salubrious  air ;  but  late  travellers  have 
declared  themselves  unable  to  discover  on  what  that  renown  is  founded.  It  is  subject  to 
alternations  of  heat  and  cold ;  cloth  pelisses  must  be  worn  the  whole  winter,  ano  fires  can- 
not be  discontinued  till  May.  It  ia,  however,  an  agreeable  residence ;  the  public  walk  crna. 
mands  a  view  over  the  Mediterranean  and  the  surrounding  country,  scarcely  equalled  in 
Europe ;  there  is  a  flourishing  medical  school,  with  good  practitioners,  and  a  library  of  40,000 
volumes.  Montpelier  is  not  uniformly  well-built ;  but  it  presents  a  noble  Roman  aqueduct 
a  fine  cathedral,  and  other  public  buildings.  Nismes  is  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  flour- 
ishing cities  in  the  south  of  France.  The  silk  manufacture,  as  already  noticed,  flourishes 
there  to  a  great  extent.  More  than  half  the  inhabitants  are  Protestant,  who,  as  may  be  well 
remembered,  were,  on  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  exposed  to  violent  outrages  on  the 
part  of  their  Catholic  fellow-citizens ;  but  these  disorders  were  disavowed  by  Uie  French 
court,  and  have  ceased.  The  city  is  ill-built,  iil-pa.vcd,  ill  laid  out ;  but  there  is  a  fine  bou- 
levard bordered  with  trees;  and  it  is  particularly  illustrious  for  the  magnificence  of  its  Ro- 
man monuments.    The  amphitheatre  is  nearly  entire,  and,  thcigh  rather  smaller  than  that 

Vox.  I.  47  3U 


654 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Font  dv.  Gard. 


of  Verona,  from  ita  massive  ^ndeur,  and  the  enormous  stones  of  which  it  is  constructedr 
suggests  the  idea  of  an  imperishable  fabric.  But  the  edifice  called  the  Maison  carree^  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  temple  of  Augustus,  is  that  which  has  excited  the  admiration  of  alt 

travellers,  from  ita  extreme  elegance 
and  graceful  proportions,  which  ren 
der  it  almost  a  perfect  model  of 
architectural  beauty.  It  remains 
after  so  many  ages  quite  entire,  "  as 
if  savage  and  saint  had  been  alike 
awed  by  its  superlative  beauty." 
Near  Nismes  is  the  Pont  du  Gard 
(Jiff.  268.),  an  ancient  bridge,  or 
rather  aqueduct,  forming  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  monuments  now 
extant  of  Roman  grandeur. 
Provence  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  and  interesting  of  the  French  provinces,  first,  as 
the  earliest  seat  of  wealth,  civilisation,  and  poetry ;  next,  ns  containing  the  ecclesiastical 
capital,  Avignon,  near  which  is  Vaucluse,  the  favourite  residence  of  Petrarch ;  lastly,  as 
including  Toulon  and  Marseilles,  the  greatest  naval  and  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the 
kingdom.  The  classic  stream  of  the  Durance,  though  it  crosses  the  whole  region  from  its 
alpine  boundary  to  the  Rhone,  and  too  often  overflows  its  banks,  does  not  preserve  the  exten- 
sive tracts  covered  with  rude  calcareous  hills  from  the  evils  of  aridity.  Although,  there- 
fore, the  products  of  this  province  are  various,  and  many  of  tliem  fine,  it  does  not  yield  corn 
sufficient  for  its  own  consumption,  nor  can  it  boast  of  extensive  manufactures,  but  dopendf 
chiefly  upon  commerce. 

The  cities  of  Provence  rank,  in  all  respects,  among  the  greatest  and  most  interesting  of 
ihe  kingdom.  Aix  is  not  the  largest,  but  'a  reckoned  the  capitr.l,  and  was  formerly  tiie  seat 
of  tha  parliaments  of  Provence.  Its  name  is  contracted  from  that  of  Aquoe  Sextim,  given  to 
it  by  the  Romans  from  the  copious  warm  baths,  in  whose  vicinity  numerous  medals  and 
inscriptions  have  been  discovered.  It  is  pleasant,  airy,  well  built,  in  a  fine  plain  encircled 
by  lofty  mountains.  Th'i  cours  is  very  beautiflil,  formed  by  two  rows  of  trees,  with  hot 
fountains  bubbling  up,  at  which  v/omen  are  seen  washing  clothes.  Greater  celebrity  attaches 
to  the  name  of  A''ignon,  for  some  time  an  ecclesiastical  capital,  and  still  more  illustrious  by 
tssociation  witli  the  names  of  Laura  and  Petrarch.  It  is  finely  situated  on  the  Rhone,  with 
many  hanrlsome  houses;  but  the  streets  are  crowded  and  ill-paved.  In  the  centre  rises  an 
insulated  rock,  separated  by  the  river  from  a  rango  of  hills  on  the  other  side,  and  in  which 
are  the  remains  of  the  palace  of  the  popes,  now  converted  into  barracks  and  prisons.  The 
cathedral  had  accumulated  immense  wealth  in  silver  and  other  offerings,  of  all  which  it  was 
rifled  at  the  Revolution ;  an  event  more  fatal  to  Avignon  than  to  any  other  city,  ex''*>pt 
Lyons.  Avignon  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  built  only  for  fiscal  purposes,  and  the  Rho  is 
crossed  by  a  handsome  bridge  built  by  St.  Benezet  in  the  twelfth  century  fi-om  the  produce 
of  alms,  and  which  yields  .50,000  fi-ancs  of  annual  toll.    It  would  be  profane  for  a  traveller 


289 


Fountain  of  Vaucluie. 


to  leai'e  Avignon  without  visiting 
the  tomb  of  Laura  in  the  church 
of  the  Franciscans,  and  making  an 
excursion  to  the  beautiful  fountain 
of  Vaucluse  (Jig.  289.),  the  scene 
of  inspiration  to  Petrarch.  Aries 
was,  in  early  times,  one  of  the  most 
important  cities  in  the  south  of 
France ;  under  the  Romans  it  was 
the  seat  of  the  prmtorian  prefect ; 
in  the  ninth  century  it  was  the 
capital  of  a  separate  kingdom,  and 
afterwards  the  seat  of  an  archbi- 
shop, and  of  thirteen  successive  councils.  It  is  still  a  large  city,  and  presents  the  vestiges 
of  a  Roman  amphitheatre  (of  which  the  interior  area  is  now  built  upon),ojice  capable  of 
containing  30,000  persons.  Tarascon  is  still  a  flourishing  place,  above  which  rises  the 
ancient  castle  of  the  counts  of  Provence,  now  converted  into  a  priwn.  On  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Rhone  is  Beaucaire,  distinguished  for  its  great  annual  fair,  at  which  are  still 
sold  goods  of  vaiious  descriptions  to  the  value  of  about  7,500,000  francs.  Digne  and  Car- 
pentras  are  of  some  importance  as  capitals  of  districts. 

Mai-seilles  and  Toulon,  tiie  two  great  southern  havens,  form  now  the  most  important  fea- 
tures of  Provence.  The  commercial  fame  of  Marseilles  dates  from  early  antiquity,  when 
it  was  a  Greek  colony,  ond  carried  on  almost  all  the  commerce  of  Gaul.  In  modem  times 
it  has  been  the  chief  centre  of  the  trade  to  *he  Levant ;  and  though  its  prosperity  suffered 
a  total  eclipse  under  the  regime  of  Napoleon,  it  has  since  regained  much  of  ita  ft/rmef 


Part  III. 

;  is  constructed,, 
ion  carree,  sup- 
dmiration  of  all 
[treme  elegance 
ions,  which  ren 
rfect  model  of 
y.  It  remains 
[uite  entire,  "  aa 
had  been  alike 
lative  beauty." 
!  Pont  du  Gard 
lent  bridge,  or 
ning  one  of  the 
lonuments  now 
andeur. 

ovinces,  first,  as 
le  ecclesiastical 
arch;  lastly,  as 
ircial  city  in  the 
( region  from  its 
serve  the  exten- 
Mthough,  there- 
;s  not  yield  corn 
res,  but  dcpendr 

st  interesting  ot 
jrmerly  tlie  seat 
Sextim,  given  to 
ous  medals  and 
;  plain  encircled 
'  trees,  with  hot 
clebrity  attaches 
)re  illustrious  by 
the  Riionc,  with 
!  centre  rises  an 
and  in  which 
prisons.     The 
all  which  it  was 
ler  city,  ex'*ppt 
nd  the  Rhc  •    is 
om  the  produce 
for  a  traveller 
vithout  visiting 
in  the  church 
ind  making  an 
uitiful  fountain 
89.),  the  scene 
etrarch.     Aries 
one  of  the  most 
the   south  of 
Romans  it  was 
torian  prefect; 
ry  it  was  the 
kingdom,  and 
of  an  archbi- 
ts  the  vestiges 
nice  capable  of 
hich  rises  the 
)n  the  opiwsite 
vhich  arc  still 
)igne  and  Car- 
important  fca- 
ntiquity,  when 
modom  tim?? 
perity  suffered 
of  ita  f(;rmer 


Book  I. 


FRANCj:;. 


506 


splendour.  The  harbour  is  spacious  and  secure,  but  it  is  somewhat  narrow  at  tho  entrance, 
and  shallow.  It  is  bordered  by  extensive  quays  of  hewn  stone,  with  spacious  warehouses ; 
and  is  filled  with  all  the  shipping  peculiar  to  the  Mediterranean,  among  which  arc  galleys, 
and  beautiful  pleasure-boats  with  silk  awnings ;  it  is  crowded  with  all  the  nations  of  that 
eea,  Greeks,  Turks,  Jews,  Spaniards,  Italians,  and  loaded  with  the  produce  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
It  is  compared  by  a  late  writer  to  Liverpool :  the  districts  round  the  port  are  a  nucleus  ot 
trade  and  dirt ;  but  in  the  exterior,  the  streets  are  handsome,  airy,  and  well  built  Among 
other  fine  public  buildings  is  the  hdtel  de  ville,  with  its  magnificent  marble  staircase.  The 
coMrs  is  formed  by  two  rows  of  fine  trees  bordered  by  handsome  houses,  and  the  central 
walk  is  crowded  like  a  fair.  The  neighbouring  plain  is  finely  cultivateo,  but  is  bounded  by 
bold  and  rugged  mountains  that  rise  above  the  range  of  vegetation.  Toulon,  though  not  a 
seat  of  commerce,  is  the  chief  naval  station  of  France  on  the  Medilerronean.  It  has  two 
porta,  the  old  and  the  new :  the  latter  alone  receives  ships  of  war,  and  is  bordered  by  most 
extensive  arsenals,  in  which  5000  men  are  constantly  employed.  This  port  can  contain  200 
sail  of  the  line ;  and  without  is  a  very  spacious  and  well-sheltered  roadstead.  It  is  defended 
by  two  strong  forts,  which,  however,  were  occupied  in  1793  by  the  British,  who,  at  the  end 
of  the  year,  were  obliged  to  evacuate  the  place.  This  was  the  first  occision  on  which  Bona- 
parte's military  talents  became  conspicuous.  Toulon  is  a  clean,  pleasant  town,  refreshed  by 
streams  of  water,  running  through  the  streets.  The  adjacent  country  is  wild  and  romantic, 
and  interspersed  with  some  cultivated  valleys. 

QQQ  -  Dauphiny  is  a  region  completely  alpine,  the  two  depart- 

"  *  ments  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Alps  occupying  the  greater 

part  of  its  surface.  The  mountains  are  chiefly  calcareous, 
and  broken  into  the  most  picturesque,  peculiar,  and  ro- 
mantic forms.  Young  even  considers  the  scenery  of  Dau- 
phiny, particularly  along  the  Isere,  as  surpassing  that  ot 
any  other  part  of  the  Alps.  In  one  of  the  most  awful  re- 
cesses of  these  rocks  and  wilds,  at  a  distance  from  all  tho 
smiling  scenes  of  earth,  St.  Bruno  erected  the  monastery 
of  the  Chartreuse  (Jig.  290.),  of  which  Gray  has  drawn 
so  sublime  and  imposing  a  picture.  There  are  other  scenes 
emphatically  termed  the  wonders  of  Dauphiny;  as  the 
burning  fountain,  the  grottoes  of  Sassenage,  &c.  Although 
this  part  of  the  kingdom  cannot  be  considered  as  productive, 
yet  great  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared  on  its 
high  slopes  by  a  simple  race  of  meii  resembling  the  mountaineers  of  Switzerland ;  and  even 
the  silk-worm  is  bred  in  its  lower  valleys. 

The  cities  do  not  require  very  particular  notice.  Grenoble  is  a  considerable  place,  not  ill 
built,  with  a  library  of  60,000  volumes,  and  some  other  literary  establishments.  It  took  a 
conspicuous  part  in  promoting  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  also  tlie  first 
town  that  opened  its  ^ates  to  Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Elba.  Gap  is  a  pretty  large  but 
poor  old  town,  in  _  ueep  hollow,  amid  barren  mountains.  Vienne  is  a  Roman  city,  and 
presents  a  temple,  with  several  other  interesting  remains  of  that  people.  It  has  also  a  fine 
modern  cathedral  with  a  very  lofty  spire.  Valence  has  a  military  school,  at  which  Bonaparte 
was  educated.    Near  Tain  is  produced  the  celebrated  wine  called  Hermitage. 

The  Lyonnais  is  a  small  territory,  penetrated  by  branches  of  the  Alps,  in  some  places 
rough  and  stony,  in  olhers  finely  diversified  with  hill  and  dale.  Its  chief  interest,  however, 
cenlicc  is  tlie  great  city  which  is  its  capital. 

Lyons  (Jig.  291.)  is  generally  con- 
sidered £s  the  second  city  in  France, 
and  t'S  foremost  in  regard  to  com- 
merce and  industry.  It  is  on  the 
whole  a  noble  city.  The  quays  along 
the  Rhone  are  superb ;  the  hdtel  de 
ville  is  held  to  be  second  only  to 
that  of  Amsterdam ;  the  cathedral  is 
highly  ornamented  in  the  florid 
j^.^,^  Gotliic  style ;  and  the  squares,  espe- 

cially the  Place  de  Bellecour,  witii 
its  fountains  and  statues,  are  nowhere  surpassed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  old  streets  are 
narrow,  bordered  by  lofty  and  gloomy  walls,  and  divided  by  a  muddy  stream.  To  turn  into 
them  fh)m  the  quays  has  been  compared  to  entering  subteiraneous  passages,  watered  by  tho 
sluices  of  Cocytus.  Lyons  suffered  dreadfully  under  the  sway  of  the  jacobins,  who  made  it  a 
chief  theatre  of  those  atrocities  that  rendered  them  the  horror  of  mankind.  To  say  n'  thing 
of  the  massacr,?a  nernetratod  under  the  appellatior.  o^  fusillades  and  noyu  ies,  they  studiously 
broke  in  pieces  all  the  manufdctuviiig  machinery,  while  with  barbarous  hands  tney  defaced 
all  the  ornaments  of  the  city,  fill^  up  the  .ountams,  broke  the  statues  in  pieces,  and 


Grande  Cliatlreuae. 


sse 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  hi. 


cunous  cave. 


demoliiihed  the  whole  of  the  cathedral  except  the  walls.  Her  citizens  have  made  diligent 
offorts  to  restore  her  prosperity,  and  not  without  success ;  still  the  want  of  capital  and  the 
etagnation  of  trade  are  serious  obstructions,  and  cause  the  evils  of  poverty  among  a  lurfre 
population  to  be  severely  felt.  The  Lyonnese  have  the  propensities  usually  observed  in 
manufacturing  places :  they  dislike  the  Bourbons,  and  the  sight  of  an  Englishman  is  worm- 
wood to  them. 

Auvergne,  to  tlie  west  of  the  Lyonnais,  is  the  only  mountainous  and  pastoral  tract  which 
France  has  peculiarly  its  own.  It  consists  of  a  continuous  rango  of  mountains  which  have 
evidently  been  in  a  state  of  volcanic  action,  tlie  country  being  covered  with  lava,  and  the 
houses  built  of  it.  From  an  elevated  and  extensive  plain  rises  the  great  Puy  de  D6me, 
nearly  5000  feet  high,  with  about  sixty  attendant  mountains,  called  in  the  country  the 
ciantess  and  her  children.  The  country  is  diversified  with  many  rugged  and  precipitous  rocks, 
having  caatles  and  eveu  i-'wns  built  on  them.  Yet  Auvergne  is  not  a  barren  country.  The 
Puys  are  mostly  covered  with  herbage,  and  have  large  level  plains.  The  natives  are  labo- 
rious, and  rear  large  herds  of  cattle,  whicli  ore  almost  wild ;  they  are  oven  said  to  beat  off 
the  wolf,  the  low  of  the  animal  attacked  summoning  all  the  rest  to  its  assistance ;  but,  in 
return,  they  cannot  be  milked  unless  the  calf  be  on  the  other  side.  The  people  are  homely, 
and  very  republican  ,  tlioy  form  themselves  into  a  number  of  societies,  of  which  the  princi- 
ple is  a  common  tatilu,  attended  however  by  the  men  only.  In  winter  they  take  up  their 
abode  under  the  same  roof  with  the  cattle  which  occupy  each  end,  and  by  their  heat  save 
fuel  which  is  scarje.  Clermont  is  a  considerable  town,  perched  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  and 
built  of  lavn.  It  is  oxlremely  dirty,  and  Mr.  Young  compares  several  of  its  streets  to  chan- 
nels cut  in  e  dv-iTuill ;  however,  the  mountain  breezes  purify  the  air.  The  cathedral,  which 
was  fine,  wls  '  iy  destroyed  during  tlie  Revolution.  In  the  surrounding  country  are  many 
etrifying  wells,  warm  springs,  cascades,  &c.    Aurillac  also,  Riom,  and 

Thiers  are  elevated  towns,  com- 
manding striking  views  of  the  rocks 
and  cones  of  this  remarkable  chain. 
Towards  Puy  en  Velay,  which  na- 
turally belongs  to  Auvergne,  the 
rocks  become  still  more  steep  and 
romantic;  and  among  the  castles  seat- 
ed in  them,  Mr.  Young  especially 
distinguishes  that  of  Polignac  (Jig. 
292.),  the  form  and  site  of  which 
appears  to  him  so  striking,  as  to 
c«UoofPolig«.e.  cause  all  the  feudal  ages,  by  a  sort 

of  magic  influence,  to  rise  before  the  mind.  St.  Michael's  church,  in  the  centre  of  tiie  town 
of  Puy  itself,  stands  on  the  top  of  a  very  striking,  almost  precipitous  rock,  of  tower-like  form. 
Burgundy  and  Champagne,  witli  the  small  adjoining  provinces  of  Bourbonnais  and  Niver- 
nais,  form  a  vast  plain  extending  north  of  the  provinces  last  described.  Burgundy,  however, 
is  traversed  by  branches  from  the  Vosges,  forming  hilly  tracts  of  moderate  elevation.  This 
is  the  great  country  of  wine,  producing  the  finest  in  France,  and,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
in  tho  whole  world.  The  surface  of  the  wine-district  is  chiefly  red  sandstone  rock,  with 
very  little  soil.    The  vineyards  are  cultivated  by  small  proprietors,  who  do  not  usually  hold 

more  than  twenty  or  thirty  arpents.  It  costs  500  francs  ti 
plant  an  arpent  in  vines,  and  30  annually  to  keep  it  in  repair. 
Three  years  elapse  before  it  yields  any  wine,  and  six  before 
it  yields  good  wine.  Common  vineyards  sell  at  1500  francs 
an  acre ;  and  there  are  some  that  sell  so  high  us  10,000. 
The  precariousness  of  the  crop,  however,  and  the  want  ot 
capital,  render  this  branch  of  industry  a  poor  employment; 
and  the  cultivators  of  Burgundy  are  the  least  flourishing  of 
any  in  France.  Few  new  viney nrds  are  now  laid  down ; 
though  the  capital  invested  in  tii'=-  old  ones  is  a  tofficient 
r'>ason  for  keeping, them  up. 

Of  the  chief  towns,  tlie  first  in  dignity  is  Rheims,  a  no- 
ble and  ancient  city,  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  France, 
where  the  kings  were  crowned  and  anointed.  The  cathe- 
dral (Jig.  293.)  has  been  considered  the  most  splendid  spe- 
cimen of  Gothic  architecture  existing,  though  some  of  its 
ornaments  are  not  in  tlie  purest  taste.  The  H6tel  de  Villo 
is  also  fine;  and  the  streets,  unlike  what  is  usual  in  old 
towns,  arc  broad,  straight,  and  well  built.  Rheims  is  still 
the  chief  mart  of  that  fovourite  wine  called  champagne, 


CSttlicdnlat  Bheimi. 


and  from  thence  the  connoisseurs  of  Paris  take  care  lO  |«o- 
cure  their  supplies.    Troyes,  once  celebrated  for  its  great 


Paiit  III. 

3  modo  diliiTGnt 
capital  amftho 
among  a  lur(i;e 
illy  observed  in 
ihman  is  worm- 

tral  tract  which 
lins  which  have 
th  lava,  and  the 
;  Puy  de  D6me, 
he  country  the 
recipitous  rnclo, 

country.  The 
latives  are  kbo- 
said  to  beat  off 
istance ;  but,  in 
pie  are  homely, 
hich  the  princi- 
jy  take  up  their 
their  heat  save 
)p  of  a  hill,  and 
streets  to  ciion- 
athedral,  which 
untry  are  many 
tlso,  Riom,  and 
d  towns,  i,om- 
ws  of  the  rocks 
narkable  chain, 
jlay,  which  na- 
Auvergne,  the 
More  steep  and 
the  castles  seat- 
sung  especially 
*  Polignac  (Jig. 

site  of  which 
striking,  as  to 

ages,  by  a  sort 
itre  of  tlie  town 
>wer-like  form, 
nais  and  Niver- 
undy,  however, 
levation.  This 
few  exceptions, 
one  rock,  with 
lot  usually  hold 

500  francs  h. 
eep  it  in  repair. 

and  six  before 

at  1500  I'rancs 

gh  us  10,000. 

the  want  ot 

employment; 

flourishing  of 

lOW  laid  down ; 

is  a  &officient 

Rheims,  a  no- 
ital  of  France, 
The  cnthe- 
t  splendid  spe- 
rh  some  of  its 
Hdtel  de  Villo 
is  usual  in  old 
Iheims  is  still 
champagne, 
ie  care  to  pro 
d  for  its  great 


id 


Book 


FRANCE. 


55"? 


fairs,  and  noted  as  having  given  its  name  to  the  Troy  weight,  ranks  as  capital  of  Champagne, 
and  is  still  a  large  and  nourishing  town  on  the  Seine,  Chftlons  sur  Marne  is  also  consioera- 
ble,  and,  by  a  seemingly  capricious  choice,  is  the  capital  of  the  department  of  the  Marne, 
instead  of  Rheims.  Mezieres  and  Sedan  are  strong  mntier  towns ;  the  latter  celebrated  for 
its  manufacture  of  fine  woollen  cloth,  aa  well  as  for  one  of  arms.  Rocroy  is  only  distin- 
guished for  the  signal  victory  of  1643,  which  first  established  the  superiority  of  tlie 
French  arms.  In  Burgundy,  Dijon  {jSg.  294.),  with  its  numerous  and  lofty  spires,  presents 
a  noble  appe&idnce  to  the  approaching  traveller ,  but  it  has  lost  much  of  its  ancient  impor- 


Autun   Cathedral. 


Dijon. 

l&nce.  Its  churches,  now  too  numerous  for  the  place  in  its  reduced  state,  were  dreadfully 
detiiced  and  mutilated  during  the  Revolution :  one  has  been  converted  into  a  market  for  fish, 
another  into  one  for  corn.  The  streets,  however,  are  wide  and  clean.  Dijon  has  a  distin- 
guished university,  and  can  boast  of  giving  birth  to  Bossuet,  Bufibn,  and  Crebillon.  Autun 
attracts  notice  by  a  temple  and  otlier  remains,  which  indicate  its  importance  as  a  Roman 
city,  also  by  a  fine  modern  cathedral  (Jiff.  295.)    Auxerre  still  flourishes  by  the  excellent 

wine  produced  in  its  neighbourhood,  and  is  adorn- 
ed with  a  cathedral  and  several  lofly  spires. 
Chfilons  sur  Sa6ne  is  a  good  country  town.  Sens, 
the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  formerly  the  seat 
of  scverol  councils,  presents  still  some  noble 
monuments  in  decay.  Moulins,  capital  of  the 
rich  plain  of  the  Bourbonnais,  though  not  hand- 
some, is  busy  and  clieerful,  having  a  considerable 
traffic  upon  the  Seine.  Nevers,  m  Nivemais,  ia 
finely  situated  on  the  Loire,  but  is  an  ill-buUt  and 
dirty  town. 

The  provinces  of  Lorraine,  Pranche-comt^,  and  Alsace  are  less  an  integral  part  of  France 
than  a  series  of  appendages  obtained  by  conquest  chiefly  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
They  remain  still  in  many  points  connected  with  Germany.  They  are  watered  by  the 
Meuse  and  the  Moselle,  tributaries  of  the  Rhine ;  they  are  traversed  by  the  chain  of  the 
Vosge:?,  connected  with  the  Swiss  Alps  and  the  Black  Forest ;  their  surface  is  rude  and 
irregular ;  their  wines  have  the  same  agreeable  acid  quality  as  the  Rhenish.  Even  yet 
Alsace,  both  aa  to  language  and  manners,  is  altogether  German. 

The  cities  are, — Nancy,  capital  of  the  dukes  of  Lorraine,  a  race  of  gallant  and  accom- 
plished princes.  It  is  said  to  be  the  most  elegant  city  in  France,  especially  the  new  town, 
built  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  gates  appear  almost  like  triumplial  arches ;  the  public 
buildings  are  numerous ;  che  place  royale  and  the  adjoining  area  are  superb.  The  place  is 
lighted  in  the  English  manner.  Metz  is  a  larger  town,  and  now  more  important,  being  one 
of  the  strongest  of  the  French  fortresses,  ft  is  nearly  enclosed  by  the  Moselle  and  the 
Seille,  and  entered  by  successive  drawbridges.  The  usual  complement  of  its  garrison  is 
10,000  men.  Metz  is  celebrated  for  its  long  and  triumphant  defence  under  the  Duke  of 
Gi'isp  ngainst  the  army  of  Charles  V.  It  is  still  a  flourishing  town,  with  numerous  manu- 
fectures,  and  contains  a  library  of  60,000  volumes.  Luneville  was  fur  some  time  the  resi- 
dence of  Stanislaus,  the  ex-king  of  Poland,  who  considerably  embellished  it ;  and  it  was  the 
scene  of  Bonaparte's  first  triumphant  treaty  in  1801.  It  is  now  rather  a  poor  place,  having 
few  manufactures.  Another  strong  fortress  is  Verdun,  a  name  familiar  to  English  ears,  as  the 
scene  of  the  detention  of  their  countrymen  in  1803.  It  is  well  situated  on  the  Meuse.  SalLoa 
flourishes  by  means  of  the  salt  extracted  from  the  brine-springs,  which  aie  found  also  in 
other  parts  of  this  territory.  Besan^on,  in  Franche-comte,  was  a  city  of  the  German  empire 
till  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  Spaniards,  from  whom  it  was  wrested 
by  Louis  XIV.  It  is  a  large  and  industrious  place,  particularly  distinguished  by  a  manufac- 
ture of  clocks  and  watches,  introduced  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  empioving 
about  1800  persons.  It  has  also  valuable  scientific  and  literary  establishments.  D61e  ia 
likewise  a  very  onciont  town,  once  the  capital  of  Franche-comte.   Vesoul  and  Lons  le  Saul- 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


nier  are  pretty  good  towns,  and  capitals  of  departments.  In  approachinfi;  Switzci.and,  the 
country  becomes  elevated,  and  the  towns  occupy  picturesque  sites.  Ornans  lies  in  a  deep 
dell,  skirted  by  preen  rocky  hills,  like  Matlock.  Pontarlior  stands  on  a  height  having  a  strong 
castlp  which  guards  tlio  paE-sago  into  Switzerland.  Nantua  is  placed  in  a  nook  between  two 
ngg  enormous  mountains.  On  crossing  the  Vosges  appears 

~  ■  the  rich  and  fruitful  plain  of  Alsace,  more  highly  cul- 
tivated than  any  other  part  of  the  kingdom  except 
French  Flanders.  Here  Coirnar,  Ilaguenau,  Saverne, 
Wcisemberg,  are  agreeably  situated  and  rather  thriving 
towns.  But  by  far  the  most  important  place  in  Ihii 
part  of  France  is  Strasburg  {fiff.  296.).  It  was  early 
celebrated  as  an  imperial  city,  enjoying  extensive 
privileges,  and  enriched  by  the  navi,gation  of  tiie 
Rhine.  Its  prosperity  was  still  farther  promoted  in 
consequence  of  the  zeal  with  which,  along  with  tiic 
rest  of  Alsace,  it  embraced  the  reformed  doctrines. 
Strasburg  and  Alsace  suffered  a  severe  misfortune,  by 
being,  in  1689,  subjected  to  France  by  Louis  XIV. 
Yet  the  city  retained  privileges  beyond  any  other  in 
France,  and  continued  to  be  distinguished  both  by 
wealth  and  intelligence.  Its  schools  were  considered 
second  only  to  those  of  Paris,  till  the  Revolution,  when 
siraiburj.  thpy  ^^ere  severely  injured,  and  have  not  yet  been  fully 

restored.  Strasburg,  however,  has  still  valuable  institutions,  both  literary  and  economical, 
and  is  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  flourishing  cities  of  France.  Its  ancient  importance  ia 
attested  by  its  cathedral  or  minster,  one  of  the  most  splendid  existing  monuments  of  the 
Gothic.  Its  tower,  470  feet  high,  is  said  to  be  the  most  elevated  structure  in  the  world,  with 
tlie  exception  of  the  Great  Pyramid  of  Egypt. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


SPAIN. 


Spain  forms  the  principal  part  of  a  very  extensive  peninsula ;  the  most  southern,  and  also 
the  most  western,  portion  of  Europe.  It  ia  only  connected  by  an  isthmus  about  a  hundred 
niles  broad,  traversed  by  the  Pyrenees,  a  chain  liolding  the  second  rank  among  Uie  moun- 
dins  of  Europe.     Spain  is  thus  almost  insulated  from  the  rest  of  the  continent. 

Sect.  I. — Grncral  Outline  and  Aspect. 

The  boundaries  of  the  Peninsuk  in  j^eneral  are,  on  the  north,  the  Bay  of  Biscay ,  on  the 
west,  the  Atlantic;  but  this  coast  for  more  th.in  half  its  extent  is  occupied  by  I'ortutffili 
whose  interior  frontier  forms  to  that  extent  the  western  boundary  of  Spain.  The  most  south- 
em  point  near  Gibraltar  is  only  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  opposite  shore  of  Africn. 
Eastward  from  this  strait  is  the  Mediterraneun,  alon;,'  which  the  coast  wmds  in  a  nnrtli- 
easterly  direction,  gradually  receding  from  Africa,  and  facing  at  a  great  interval  the  western 
coast  of  Italy.  From  its  termination,  the  Pyrenees  stretch  across  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and 
form  the  lofty  limit  between  Spain  and  France. 

The  extent  of  Spain,  north  and  south,  is,  from  Tarifa  Point  in  the  straits,  in  36°  N.  lati- 
tude, to  Cape  Ortegal  in  Galieia,  43°  46' ;  about  540  English  miles.  From  east  to  west,  tiio 
extreme  points  of  the  peninsula  are  Cape  Creus,  in  Catalonia,  3°  17'  E.  longitude,  and  Cape 
La  Roca,  9°  30'  W.  longitude ;  implying  twelve  and  three  quarters  degrees,  which,  in  f liis 
latitude,  amounts  to  about  560  miles.  Thus  the  Peninsula  forms  almost  a  square ;  allownnro 
being  made  for  the  irregularity  of  its  outline ;  and,  the  entire  extent  of  Portugal  being  taken 
off,  Spain  is  reckoned  to  contain  183,600  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  Spain  is  strikingly  irregular.  It  is  traversed  by  long  and  lofly  ranges  of 
mountains,  having  plains  of  vast  extent  between  them  and  the  sea.  These  mountains  may 
be  considered  as  part  of  the  great  range  which  crosses  Europe  from  the  Black  Sea  to  tlie 
Atlantic.  The  Pyrenees  common  to  France  and  Spain,  form  a  long  continuous  line  of  lolly 
summits,  the  most  central  and  elevated,*  of  which  is  Mont  Perdu  near  the  source  of  the 
Cinc^,  which  the  accurate  measurements  have  fixed  at  upwards  of  11,160  feet.  Towards 
the  sea,  on  both  sides,  the  mountains  sink  into  a  more  moderate  elevation,  and  the  barrier 
Detween  the  two  kingdoms  is  less  formidable.    This  great  chain  shoots  lower  branches  into 


thi 


*  [The  hiKhest  point  of  the  Pyrenees  ia  now  known  to  be  La  Maladetta,  11.434  feet  in  height.  The  highest  peak 


nf  thn    ft'iprm     Vavn/ln     «<nlloH    thn   ^nfr< 


tea.— Am.  Eo.] 


pa«t  in. 

Lzct.and,  the 
ies  in  a  deep 
ling  a  Htrong 
between  two 
isges  appears 
c  highly  cul- 
jdoin  except 
lau,  Saverne, 
itherthrivinp 
place  in  lliij 
It  was  early 
ig  extensive 
ution  of  the 
promoted  in 
ong  with  tlic 
icd  doctrines, 
uisfortune,  by 
f  Louis  XI\. 
I  any  other  in 
shed  both  by 
!re  considered 
olution,  when 
yet  been  fully 
id  economical, 
importance  is 
uments  of  the 
le  world,  with 


hem,  and  also 
3ui  a  hundred 
S  the  moun- 


iiscay ,  on  the 

by  PortufTiil, 

most  south' 

lore  of  Africa. 

ids  in  a  north- 

the  western 

of  Biscay,  and 

36°  N.  lati- 
3t  to  west,  tlio 
ude,  and  Cape 
which,  in  this 
re ;  allowance 
il  being  taken 

ifly  ranges  of 
ountains  may 
ck  Sea  to  llio 
B  line  of  lofty 
source  of  tlie 
et.  Towards 
nd  the  barrier 
branches  into 

The  higtiest  peak 

-    1*      mVnva     tllfl 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


5.W 


Catalonia  and  Navarro,  presenting  also  some  striking  insulated  peaks,  among  which  that  of 
Montserrat  is  the  most  conspicuous.  From  tho  western  extremity  of  tlie  Pyrenees,  a  great 
ciiain,  which  has  been  called  tho  Iberian,  reaches  almost  due  south,  forming  the  boundary 
of  the  fine  plains  of  Aragon  and  Valencia,  All  tho  other  ranges  run  from  east  to  west.  Tho 
Cantabrian  is  nearly  a  continuation  of  the  Pyrenees :  it  stretches  across  tho  whole  north  of 
Spain,  covering  tho  provinces  of  Aaturias  and  Galicia,  and  leavir  •  dy  a  narrow  and  rugged 
plain  along  the  sea-coast.  Parallel  to  this,  on  tho  opposite  side  o'  •  ist  plain  through  which 
tho  Duero  flows,  is  another  transverse  range,  bearing  in  its  higiiost  points  tho  names  of 
Guadarrama  and  Somosierra,  and  enclosing  with  its  rugged  and  romantic  clifft  the  elevated 
palaces  of  San  Ildofonso  and  the  Escurial.  On  tho  opposite  side  of  the  Tagus  and  of  tho 
plain  of  Madrid  is  another  parallel  chain,  the  Sierra  of  Toledo.  It  borders  tho  wide  elevated 
plain  of  La  Mancha ;  on  tho  soutiiern  boundary  of  which  is  the  more  celebrated  chain  of 
Sierra  Morena,  the  lofly  barrier  of  the  rich  plams  of  Andalusia.  Beyond  these  rises  another 
longitudinal  chain,  of  a  peculiarly  bold  and  lofty  character,  called  the  Sierra  Nevada,  from 
the  snow  which  perpetually  covers  many  of  its  summits ;  between  which  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean only  a  narrow  though  beautiful  plain  intervenes.  These  long  and  lofty  ranges,  an 
observed  already,  are  separated  by  very  extended  plains,  which,  in  the  interior,  are  of  great 
elevation,  and  even  Madrid  is  2170  feet  above  the  sea:  the  plains  along  the  Mediterranean, 
and  almost  on  a  level  with  it,  display  a  profuse  fertility,  and  abound  in  all  the  choicest  fruits 
of  a  southern  climate. 

The  rivers  of  Spain  form  as  important  and  celebrated  a  feature  as  its  mountains.  Tho 
Tagua  and  the  Duero,  rising  in  the  Iberian  chain,  on  the  frontiers  of  Aragon,  roll  alonjjthe 
two  grand  central  plains,  receiving  numerous  though  not  very  larj^e  tributaries  from  the 
mountains  by  which  they  arc  bordered.  Unfortunately  for  Spain,  they  term.inate  in  the 
somewhat  hostile  realm  of  Portugal,  and  are  scarcely  navigable  above  its  frontier ;  so  that 
the  commercial  benefits  arising  from  them  are  of  little  importance.  The  Guadiana  belongs 
to  La  Mancha,  and  on  its  approach  to  Portugal  forms  the  boundary  of  the  two  kingdoms ; 
but  tlio  high  tract  through  wiiich  it  flows  is  only  distinguished  for  its  rich  pastures,  and  does 
not  ronder  its  port  of  Ayamonte  a  place  of  any  importance.  Beyond  th^  Sierra  Morena,  the 
Guadalquivir  waters  the  plain  of  Andalusia,  and  has  on  its  banks  the  noble  cities  of  Cordova 
and  Seville ;  while  Cadiz,  not  far  from  its  mouth,  forms  the  chief  emporium  of  Spain. 
Though  its  navigation  is  now  much  impaded,  and  practicable  for  large  vessels  only  to  Seville, 
it  is  the  only  river  in  Spain  of  much  commercial  importance.  The  Ebro,  which  derives 
from  its  position  a  greater  liistorical  celebrity  than  any  other,  rising  in  the  Cantabrian  moun- 
tains, nearly  crosses  tho  breadth  of  north-eastern  Spain,  and  separates  Catalonia  and  Ara- 
gon from  the  extensive  regions  of  the  interior.  Its  banks  at  present  afford  few  materials  for 
trade,  except  a  large  quantity  of  timber.  The  Guadalaviar  and  Xucar  in  Valencia,  and  the 
Miilo  in  Galicia,  are  also  rivers  of  some  magnitude. 

The  moiintains  of  Spain  enclose  no  lakes,  their  waters  finding  a  ready  issue  along  tli  i 
vast  plains  on  which  they  border. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Oeography, 
SuBSECT.  1. — Geology. 

The  principal  mountain  chains  in  Spain  differ  not  only  in  their  external  aspect,  but  also 
in  their  internal  composition ;  they  appear  more  as  different  individuals  t!ian  as  members  of 
a  single  system.  They  have  this  in  common  with  one  another,  that  their  nucleus  consists, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  of  primitive  and  transition  rocks ;  but  not  only  the  species,  but  also  the 
relations  of  these,  vary  in  tlie  different  chains.  A  great  botly  of  granite,  which  selttoin 
reaches  tho  highest  points  of  the  country,  and  containu  subordinate  beds  of  gneiss  and  oth^r 
primitive  rocks,  ranges  through  the  Pyrenees  properly  so  called.  It  is  surrounded  by  pre- 
dominating ma.s3  of  crystalline  slate  and  of  transition  rocks,  among  which  the  most  abundant 
are  clay  slate  and  limestone.  On  the  contrary,  on  the  v/estern  continuation,  in  the  Biscayan 
mountains,  the  older  rocks  are  not  widely  distributed,  and  appear  first  in  Galicia,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  northern  mountain  chain,  where,  according  to  Humboldt,  granitr 
accompanied  by  crystalline  slates,  appears  again,  and  in  great  extent.  The  principal  mass 
of  the  mountain  chain  which  separates  Old  from  New  Castile  is  composed  of  gneiss  and 
granite.  In  the  chain  of  mountains  extending  between  the  Tagus  and  the  Guadiana,  accord- 
ng  to  Link,  the  principal  rock  is  granite.  The  long  ridge  of  the  Sierra  Morena  contains 
principally  transition  rocks ;  granite  breaks  out  on  its  southern  foot  towards  the  Guadalquivir. 
This  rock,  so  frequent  in  the  Iberian  peninsula,  appears  to  be  wanting  in  tlie  highest  southern 
chain.    The  middle  mountain  ridges  consist  of  mica  slate,  abounding  in  garnets,  which,  in 

■  lay 
vjne, 
"ke 


the  ridges  lying  before  them,  passes  into  less  crystalline  mica  slate,  chlorite  sL 
slate,  which  sometimes  enclose  beds,  at  times  of  vast  magnitude,  of  compr.c    . 
marble,  dolomite,  and  serpentine.  On  the  south  coast,  newer  transition  slate  and  £    ^ 
slate,  with  beds  of  flinty  slate,  lie  here  and  there  on  the  older  slate.     The  basis  or 
mental  oart  of  the  rock  jf  Gibraltar  is  of  these  rocks. 


',  '   kr  'a. 


560 


MAP  OP  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 


Pro.  297 


JO.«p,| 

«  Peir 


w 


Vol. 


Fro.  297 


Book  1. 


SPAIN 


Ml 


Jl 


(ft 


"Q^h 


\A 


J'" 


<»ed 


\ 


nJi 


>' 


The  structure  of  tho  iiains  of  mountainfl  corrrsiionda  in  pcnoral  with  their  chief  dirrrtion. 
Not  only  tho  alternation  of  the  dttforent  rucics,  but  aloo  tho  direction  c\t'  the  atrata,  art-  con- 
formablo  with  tho  direction  of  the  chainM:  honce,  in  tho  prroator  part  of  Spain,  the  principal 
direction  of  thn  Hlaty  rocks  is  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  or  VV.S.W.  to  E.N.E.  But  the  inclina- 
*'?n  uf  the  strata  varies.     In  the  PyrencoH,  proporly  so  called,  the  din  o**  the  strata  is  con- 

'  lable  with  tho  two  acclivities  of  tho  range.     In  the  Bomosierra  and  Uuadarraina  ranj^es, 
...■J  principal  mass  of  gneiss  dipa  S.E.  towards  tho  granite  lying  before  it.    in  tho  Sierra 
Morena,  the  prodominatinj;;  dip  of  the  slaty  strata  in  towards  the  N.W.,  so  that  they  appear 
to  rest  oil  the  granite  which  breaks  from  under  them.     In  tho  Sierra  Nevada,  tho  dip  of  tli 
strata  is  conformable  with  tho  two  acclivities  of  the  chain.     It  is  worthy  of  remark  now  Mte 
curvature  of  tho  south  coast  of  Spain  obeys  the  direction  of  the  strata,  und  ho     'he  formation 
of  tlie  far-projecting  southern  point  of  the  land  also  stands  in  connection  wiili  die   luv'    n 
of  the  strata.     At  the  foot  of  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  the  slaty  strata  run  nearly   lort' 
south  with  a  rapid  dip  towards  the  east    The  Gut  of  Gibraltar  is  therefore  neary  at  ujj 
(piffles  to  the  direction  of  tho  strata.     Tho  rocky  wall  between  the  Mediterronr   n  a- 
Atlantic  Seas,  by  this  direction  of  tho  strata,  must  have  opposed  the  strongest  rcsi^ 
the  currents.     The  primitive  and  transition  rocks,  in  very  different  places,  are  rid 
Tho  present  mines  are  confined  principally  to  the  south-west  and  south-east  parts  oi 
The    .liglity  lead-glance  veins  of  Linares  occur  in  granite;  the  colossal  deposit  of  luae 

5 lance  in  tlio  Sierra  do  Oador,  which  afforded,  in  the  year  1828,  600,000  cwt.  of  lead^  it, 
istribulod  in  masses  (putzen),  in  a  limestone  which  moy  be  referred  to  the  oldest  transition 
rocks,  and  the  rich  mercury  mines  of  Ahnaden  are  contained  in  clay  slate.  The  secondary 
r  '  ks  uInii  assist  in  forming  the  principal  Spanish  mountain  cliains,  but  in  a  diflcrcnt  manner. 
'1  iiey  ascend  to  a  great  height  on  the  Spanish  side  of  the  Pyrenees ;  "ven  some  of  the 
highest  summits  are  of  secondary  rocks.  Tlie  western  continuation  of  tlie  Pyrenean  chain 
consists,  in  the  Biscayan  provinces,  principally  of  secondary  rocks;  ond  it  is  probable  that 
the  lofly  limestone  mountain  ridges  which  separate  Asturias  from  Loon  are  a  continuation 
of  the  Biscayan  secondary  formation.     On  both  sides  of  Somosierra  the  primitive  rocks  are 


NORTH  PART. 

Oalicuu 
].  CuiDArinu 
9.  Coniiina 

3.  Bemnzo* 

4.  Fertiil 

5.  Mera 

?.  Lugn 
,  La  Ontla 
8.  Snniiago 
0.  Yifo 
lO.Tuir 
ll.Kiknilavia 
IQ.  Abahidci 
13.  Orenio 
U.  La  Rub. 

Asturias. 
iS.  Illano 
10.  Ovicdo 
17.  Oijon 
in.  Rivuilacella 
10.  Lanea. 

I,r<m. 
90.  Afuilar  de  Cam- 
pot 
21.  Ilorrera 

tHnldnnn 
Alinanza 
94.  Lnun 
S5.  .^itoraia 
96.  I3aa  Jumo 
27.  La  Mi-zquila 
88.  Cot»ijal 
2U.  Mayuma 

30.  Anuicn 

31.  Palencia 

33.  Villaconancia 
33.Vallailolid 

34.  Tordeaillaa 
aV  Toro 
■%  Zamnra 
37.  FuenteliAuca 
3H.  Salamanca 
3!l.  Malilla 

40.  Ciudad  RodriKO 

41.  Cetpcdoaa 

42.  Pennranda 

43.  Medina  del 
Campo. 

Old  CiutUt. 


44.  Arevnio 
4S  Bonllla 
4A.  Ktpinar 

47.  Sefovia 
48  Pedriza 

48.  Cuella 

50.  Tjerma 

51.  Froanillo 
SS.  Bairona 

H  Soiia 
S3  Arnedo 

Vol.  I. 


.W.  Lncrono 
SI.  Niijera 
.V.  KriM 
5U.  Kiiiivieioa 
OO.  I    irKna 
fli.  I    lenzuela 
61*  Mlea 
62.  Varitaa 
6:i.  Sanlander 
(M.  Orduna. 

Diieay, 
6.1.  nilboa 

66.  I)«ba 

67.  Tolota 

6H.  8t.  Bobailian 
m.  Vitloria. 
JVauarr*. 

70.  Piiriipeluna 

71.  Tuilula. 

72.  Verdun 

73.  Jaca 

74.  AInra 
71).  Ilueaca 

76.  SnrnguBaa 

77.  (iarincna 
7a  Calatayud 
70.  Luco 

80.  Munlalban 
ei.Teruol 

82.  Sarrion 

83.  liar 
64.  Pina 

Catalonia. 
eH.  Lerida 

86.  Bsiaiuer 

87.  Oigaina 

88.  Uruef 

89.  Figuerai 

00.  Canlona 

01.  Oerona 
99.  Barcelona 

03.  Tarragona 

04.  Cemra 

05.  Kapital 

06.  Flix 

07.  Torloia 

SOirrH  PART. 
Estremadura. 
1.  La  Cliva 
9.  Placnntia 

3.  Galiatea 

4.  Coria 

5.  Alcantara 
G.  Caesrea 

7.  El  Teraorero 

8.  Badajne 

9.  giiva 
jG.  Xerox 
11.  Lleiena 
13.  M«iacella 


Refrrencei  lo  the  Map  of  Sjxiin  and  Portugal, 


M.  Merida 

14.  Acadi'ra 

15.  Truxillo 
10.  Almaraz. 

Jfew  Ca»lile. 

17.  Oiiudalupu 

18.  Aziitan 

19.  Oriipeaa 
aO.Tolavoradola 

Reyna 
21.  Toledo 
2v!.  Caypcra 
9:).  K.l  Prado 
94.  Mottnlea 
9.V  Madrid 

96.  F.I  F.9curinl 

97.  El  Pardo 

98.  Ouadnlaxara 
ijuez 
Aula  de  Bel- 

mont 

31.  Secadon 

32.  Canavara 
33.Vnltabladodel 

Rio 
34.  Hinoion 
Xi.  Friaa 

36.  Cuenea 

37.  La  Parra 

38.  Ynioata 

39.  Koquena 


90.  Aranju 
30.  La  Mu 


_Valmcta. 

40.  Tu^ar 

41.  Adcmux 
49.  Forcali 

43.  Morolla 

44.  Zurila 
^H.  PeniKola 

46.  Ft.de  Sal 

47.  Oropeaa 

48.  Ahnedixar 

49.  Murviedro 

50.  Valencia 

51.  Alcira 
59,  Felipa 
53  Denia 
54,  Xitana 
5S.AIicanM 

JMtircia. 

56.  Rafat 

57.  Carthaircna 

58.  Almazanon 

59.  Tolana 
(10.  Mnreia 
61,  Cebegin 
03.  Hellin 

63.  Velannera 

64.  U'hinchilla 

65.  Ayna 

66.  Chielana 


/>/!  Mancha, 

67.  8.  Lorenza 

68.  Almauro 
60.  Ciudad  Real 

70.  Madridrjoi 

71.  MalaKon 

79.  Lehornia 

JIndaluiia. 

73.  Drmiicar 

74.  Andujur 
7.1.  Linaro* 

76.  liaeza 

77.  Hucacar 

78.  Ablox 
70.  Oullar 

80.  .lodar 

81.  Monaaterio 
89.  Jnen 

83.  Mnnlilla 

84.  Bujalanca 

85.  Cordova 

86.  OMuna 

87.  Carmona 

88.  EciJB 

89.  Araoena 
UO.  Axiarcollar 
91.  Almpndro 
IK2.  Ayamonta 
m.  Huelva 

04.  Seville 

05.  S,  Lucar 
96.  Rola 
97. <?adiz 

98.  Xrrez 

99.  Tarifa 

100.  Gibraltar. 

Granada, 

101,  Gnocin 
103.  Marbella 

103.  Ronda 

104.  Antcquora 
VXi.  Mnlatrn 
1U6,  Vuler.  Mniaga 

107.  La  Herradura 

108.  Mnlril 

109.  Granada 

110.  Aira 

111.  Almetia 
113.  Purchena 
113.  Mujacar, 

PORTUGAL, 

1,  Entre  Douro  < 

JUinho. 

I.  Viana 
9.  Rraga 

3.  Amarants 

4.  Oporto, 

II.  TVoiT  If  Mnrntrm, 

5.  Cazabranca 

6.  Braganta 

7.  Miranda  de  Vita 


8.  Aldea 
0.  Mirnndolla. 
IK.  lleira, 

10.  Almeida 

1 1 .  Lamego 
19.  Aloarcal 
1.3.  Villanova 
14.  Feira 

1,5.  Avi'iro 

16.  Coimbra 

17.  Vioou 

18.  Trancoao 

19.  Gunrda 
90.  Salviilierra 
9I.Caalello  Branco 
99.  Sardonl 

S3.  Abrantes. 
IV.  Ettrcmadura. 
94.  Arega 
9.5.  Porta 

96.  Iioiria 

97.  Bantarem 

98.  Ohidoa 

90.  Villaftanca 
:t0.  Benevenle 
31.  Cinlra 
:19.  Lisbon 

33.  Almada 

34.  Setiibal  or  St, 

Ubea 

35.  Alcaccrdo. 

V.  Jllumtejo. 

36.  Portalegro 
:<7.  Elvnt 

38.  Olivencat 

39.  Povoa 

40.  Sorpa 

41.  Beja 

49.  Ourique 

43.  Mclidea 

44.  a.  Andre 
4.5.  Villa  Nova 

46,  Serdao, 

VI,  Jllgarve. 

47,  Seyja 

48,  Lngna 
40.  Albofoira 

50.  Caatro  Marino, 
Rivera  of  Spain. 
a  Tambre 

b  ITIla 
e  Minho 
d  Sil 

Navia 

Nalon 

Beaaya 

Ebro 

T).jran,»Q 

Arngon 
Gallego 
CInca 


m  Rihagorzano 
n  Rdgro 
o  Miiga 
p  Tet 

q  Llobrerat 
r  Francoli 
a  Martin 
t  Xiloca 
u  Douro 
T  Arlanza 
w  Arlanzon 
X  Piauerga 
y  Carrion 
x  Fjila 
a*  Orvlego 
b*  Tormea 
c»  Coa 
d*  Ziiera 
e*  Tagua 
f*  Alberch* 

E*  Ereaina 
*  Ilenarea 
(•  Tiolar 
j*  Guadlana 
1i*  Odiel 
I*  Tinto 
m*  Guadalquivir 
n*  Janduin 
n*  Guadalimar 
p*  Guadix 
q*  Giguela 
r*  Xucar 
a*  Ccbriel 
t*  Guadalaviar 
u*  Begura 
»*  Lorca 
w*  Guadojoi 
X*  Genii 
y*  Guadiaro, 
Rivtra  of  Portugal 
a  Luna 
b  Tumaga 

0  Baiior 
d  Vouga 

e  Mondego 
e*  Tagua 
f  Coa 

KZezore 
Loura 

1  Saldn 

J  Guadlana. 
BALEARIC 
ISLANDS, 
fvica, 

1.  Iviea 

Majorca 

2.  Palma 

3.  Boiler 

4.  St.  Lcrsnss. 

Minorea 

5.  Mahon 

6.  Ciudadela. 


t  aiviBei  it  vMhiD  the  Sjaiiiih  limits 


A^o. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


l»v/         LS  ^^    " 


I.I 


125 


m  ^^ 


12.2 

Hf    lis,    12.0 


ll 


11.25  11111.4 


I 


1.6 


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9: 


7 


Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)872-4503 


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DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartIIL 


■bitted  by  those  of  the  ^'econdary  class;  but  they  are  fiur  fttmi  the  middle  and  higher  parts 
•jt  the  tnountain  chain.  When  we  follow  the  road  from  Madrid  to  Andalusia,  we  meet  with 
■econdary  rocks  n^ar  the  transition  clay  slate  of  the  passes  of  the  Sierra  Morena ;  but  we 
mast  descend  very  low  on  the  south  side  before  we  meet  with  similar  rocks.  The  high 
mountains  of  Jaen  are  formed  of  secondary  rocks.  In  the  northern  vorgebirge  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  between  Granada  and  Guadiz,  there  are  secondary  deposits,  which  are  not,  how* 
ever,  so  considerable  and  extensive  as  to  reach  to  the  high  ridges.  Also  in  the  vicinity  of 
Itlalaga  new  seco:idary  rocks  lie  on  the  foot  of  older  mountain  masses ;  and  the  ridges  ^ 
■econdary  rocks  extend  from  the  hills  of  Ronda  towards  the  southern  extremity  of  Spain. 
The  wonderfbl  isolated  rock  of  Gibraltar  is  also  principally  composed  of  new  secon^aiy  rock. 
The  distribution  of  the  rock  is  not  confined  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  higher  moun- 
tain chains,  but  it  extends  firom  the  one  to  the  other,  rises  or  fidls  in  the  intermediate  spaces, 
■nd  forms  in  this  way  the  widely  extended  high  table-land. 

The  most  important  of  the  Spanish  secondary  rocks  are  the  following ;  viz.,  variegated 
■andstone  and  marl,  gryphite  limestone,  and  the  white  limestone  or  Jura  limestone.  The 
first  of  these  exhibits  the  errne  p-lations  as  in  Britain,  where  it  is  known  under  the  name  of 
new  red  sandstone  and  red  marl.  The  shell  limestone,  which,  in  Germany,  is  enclosed 
between  Werner's  variegatf;d  sandstone  and  the  younger  marl  formations,  is  wanting  in 
Spain,  as  is  also  the  case  in  England.  The  sandctone  and  marl  is  rich  in  gypsum  and  masses 
of  rock  salt  At  Vallecas,  near  Madrid,  and  in  some  other  places,  there  rests  upon  it,  in 
■ingle  hedu.,  that  rare  deposit  consisting  of  meerschaum,  with  nests  of  siliceous  minerals.  It 
is  to  this  formation,  which  occurs  widely  spread  over  the  high  table-lands  of  Old  and  New 
Castile,  that  these  countries  owe  the  reddish-brown  colour  of  their  soil,  and  the  tiresome 
oniformity  of  their  surface.  The  lias  formation  is  widely  distributed  in  the  northern  pro- 
vinces of  Spain.  It  appears  to  reach  a  considerable  height  on  the  Spanish  side  of  the  PyreneeiL 
In  the  Biscayan  provinces  it  exhibits  the  same  characters  as  the  gryphite  limestone  of  the 
Weser,  and  is  so  widely  distributed  that  nearly  all  the  older  rocks  are  covered  by  it.  Here 
it  is  remarkably  prolific  in  an  excellent  iron  ore.  The  immense  mass  of  sparry  iron  ore,  con- 
verted by  decomposition  into  brown  and  red  iron  ores  of  Sommorostro,  near  Bilboa,  and  which 
probably  forms  the  ironstone  hills  mentioned  by  Pliny  in  the  34Ui  book  of  his  Natural  Hit- 
tory,  belongs  to  this  formation.  Probably  also  the  vast  beds  of  coal  in  the  Astunas  are  sub- 
ordinate to  it  The  white  Jura  limestone,  wb'oh  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  for- 
mations, is  also  of  great  geognostical  importance  in  Spaiu.  It  forms,  in  most  places,  the 
immediate  cover  of  the  variegated  sandstone  and  marl,  and  occurs  in  the  north,  and  also  m 
the  south  of  Spain,  in  single  ridges  and  great  mountain  masses.  This  formation  is  exhibited 
in  its  most  characteristic  forms  in  the  narrow  pass  of  Pancorbo  in  Old  Castile,  in  the  lacerated 
mountains  of  Jaen,  and  the  isolated  rocW  wall  of  Gibraltar.  Wherever  it  occurs,  its  presence 
is  announced  by  the  yellowish-browr.  colour  of  the  soil  with  which  it  is  covered. 

Some  members  also  of  the  chalk  formation  occur  in  Spain.  The  sandstone  of  the  rocky 
ridge  of  the  southern  coast,  between  Caaiz  and  Gibraltar,  and  the  limestone  in  the  district 
of  Los  Barios,  bring  to  our  recollection  the  rocks  of  the  Saxon  Switzerland.  The  first 
agrees  with  the  German  quader-sandstein,  the  latter  with  the  Saxon  planer  limestone,  an 
equivalent  for  impure  chali . 

Tertiary  deposits  occur  in  different  parts  of  Spain.  In  the  south,  particularly  near  the 
sea-coast,  there  is  a  deposit,  filled  with  marine  organic  remains,  in  which  calcareous  sand 
and  pebbles  occur,  parUy  in  a  loose  mass,  and  partly  more  or  less  firmly  compacted  by  means 
of  calcareous  cement  Judging  from  the  included  petrifactions,  among  which  are  beds  of 
oyster-shells,  this  deposit,  on  which  Cadiz  stands,  and  which,  in  some  places,  rises  into  hil- 
locks and  low  hills,  belongs  to  the  upper  tertiary  searwater  formation.  Probably  the  ter- 
tiary deposit  mentioned  by  Brongniart  as  occurring  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Barcelona 
belongs  to  the  same  deposit  That  fresh-water  limestone  occurs  in  Spain  has  been  sufiiciently 
proved  by  the  observations  of  Baron  Ferussac.  The  deposit  very  much  resembles  that  so 
generally  distributed  in  Germany,  and  is  found  in  different  parts  of  Spain,  both  in  the  inte- 
rior and  on  the  coast  and  at  different  heights.  The  calcareous  breccia,  generally  with  a 
ferruginous  basis^  which  occurs  principally  m  the  south-west,  where  it  is  widely  distributed, 
belongs  to  the  latest  of  the  antediluvian  deposits.  It  not  only  incrusts  limestone  rocks  c^ 
difierent  formations  more  or  less  thickly,  but  also  fills  up  rents  md  fissures  in  them :  thus  it 
abounds  among  the  calcareous  rocks  of  Gibraltar,  where  it  sometimes  contains  bones  of  quad- 
rupeds no  longer  met  with  there.  The  formation  of  the  breccia  is  ascribed  to  a  catastrophe 
which  affect^  difierent  parts  of  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  sea.  As  Professor  Haus- 
mann,  to  whom  we  owe  the  preceding  details,  had  not  an  opportunity  of  travelling  in  Mur- 
cia,  he  was  not  able  to  confirm  or  reject  the  accounts  of  Spanish  geologists,  who  maintain 
tliat  it  contains  true  volcanic  rocks.  The  occurrence  of  other  rocks,  which  are  conjectured 
to  have  come  fi-om  below,  has  been  noticed  in  but  few  places.  Characteristic  basalt  occurs 
in  Catalonia.  The  porphyritic  and  basaltic-looking  rocKs  extending  firom  CtLbo  de  Gata,  and 
from  Avila,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Guadarrama  range,  are  still  problematical.  Hypersthone 
rock  iiBs  bof  n  found  by  Professor  Garcia  in  the  vicinity  of  Salinas  de  Pcza,  in  Old  Onstilc, 


BooeL 


SPAIN. 


sn^ 


in  contact  with  Jura  limestone.  Profeflsor  Hausmann  found,  in  the  mountains  of  Jaeu,  near 
to  variegated  marl  containing  maasea  of  gjrpeum,  rocks  of  greenstone.  CoL  Silv6ttop 
describes  tertiary  deposits  in  (nanada. 

It  may  not  be  improper,  from  Professor  Hausmann,  to  point  out  the  influence  of  soil  and 
climate  on  the  other  departments  of  nature,  as  also  on  the  peculiarities  and  occupations  of 
man.  A  glance  at  the  whole  nature  of  Spain  discovers  a  threefold  principal  difierence. 
The  northern  zone,  which  extends  to  the  Ebro,  differs  entirely  in  its  characters  from  the 
middle  zone ;  and  this  again  is  completely  difierent  ftom  the  southern  zone,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  a  part  of  the  Ostrandes.  The  northern  zone,  which 
includes  Galicia,  Asturias,  the  Biscayan  provinces,  Navarre,  the  northern  part  of  Aragoik- 
and  Catalonia,  is  a  widely  extended  mountainous  and  hilly  country.    The  snow-fields  and- 

fflaciers  of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  one  side ;  and  on  the  other  the  north  and  north-west  winds, 
lave  a  marked  influence  in  lowering  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  in  increasing 
the  supply  of  water.  The  increas^  humidity  is  favourable  for  vegetation,  which,  on  the 
whole,  very  much  resembles  that  of  the  south  of  France ;  and  the  variety  of  rocks  contain- 
ing  lime,  clay,  and  sand,  and  also  their  frequent  alternations,  operate  beneficially  on  the  soiL 
The  soil  everywhere  invites  to  cultivation,  and  the  Catalonians  and  Biscayans  are  active 
cultivators  of  the  ground.  The  middle  part  of  Spain,  to  which  belongs  Old  and  New  Castile^  , 
a  part  of  Aragon,  Leon,  and  Estremadura,  is  not  so  &vourably  circumstanced.  In  general, 
we  rarely  meet  with  either  beauty  or  variety  of  aspect,  The  extensive  and  lofty  table-lands, 
destitute  of  trees,  are  dull  and  tiresome ;  their  uniform  and  monotonous  surfiice,  ibrmed  bjr 
vast  deposits  of  horizontally  disposed  secondary  strata,  is  swept  across  by  the  wind,  and  burnt 
up  by  the  sun's  rays.  Whichever  way  the  eye  turns,  it  meets  with  scarcely  any  thing  but 
wretchedly  cultivated  cornfields  and  desert  heaths  of  cistus.  Seldom,  in  general,  more  in 
the  southern  than  in  the  northern  districts,  plantations  of  olive-trees  affi>rd  a  meagre  shelter, 
anJ  vary  the  scenery,  although  in  an  inconsiderable  degree.  Nothing,  certainly,  has  so 
great  an  influence  on  these  properties  of  nature,  with  which  many  of  the  peculiarities  and 
modes  of  life  of  man  harmonise,  than  the  high  situation  of  the  widely  extended  table-lands; 
and  the  uniformity  of  the  rock  which  forms  the  support  of  the  soil.  It  is  owing  principally 
to  the  horizontal  stratification,  and  the  want  of  water,  that  the  great  Spanish  table-lands  are 
so  widely  extended,  and  so  little  intersected  by  deep  valleys.  The  rivers,  in  most  cases, 
carry  but  little  water  in  comparison  with  the  magnitude  of  the  land,  and  the  number  of  C(hi- 
siderable  mountain  chains ;  and  it  is  fiirther  surprising  how  insignificant  the  waters  of  most 
of  the  Spanish  mountain  groups  are,  even  when  the  qualities  of  the  rocks  favour  the  forma- 
tion of  springs.  The  cause^i  of  this  great  deficiency  of  water  are  principally  the  great  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere,  the  inconsiderable  cover  of  snow  on  the  mountains,  and  its  short 
continuance ;  the  absence  of  forests,  and  the  want  of  great  moors  on  the  heights,  and  the 
comparatively  inconsiderable  breadth  of  the  mountain  ranges.  The  southern  and  south- 
western part  of  Spain,  which  comprehends  Andalusia,  with  Granada  and  Murcia,  is  very 
difl^erent  from  that  jiist  described.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Sierra  Morena  the  whole 
land  has  a  more  southern  and  foreign  aspect,  a  breathing  of  that  African  nature,  which  an- 
nounces itself  not  only  by  the  world  of  plants,  but  also  oy  the  animal  world,  and  man  him- 
self. The  great  difference  of  climate  is  produced  hy  the  southern  situation,  the  exposure  of 
the  acclivity  on  the  south  and  south-west  tc  the  African  winds,  and  the  strong  reflection  of 
the  solar  rays  from  the  lofty,  naked  mountain  walls.  Tb'^  mountain  ranges  are  more  closely 
aggregated,  the  valleys  more  deeply  cut :  there  is  no  room  for  very  extensive  table-lands, 
and  the  more  limited  ones  that  occur,  as  those  of  Gra.-iada,  are  more  amply  supplied  with 
water  than  those  in  the  middle  of  Spain.  Along  witli  this  arrangement,  there  is  greater 
difference  among  the  rocks,  and  also  of  their  position.  The  south  of  Spain,  therefore,  pos- 
sesses not  only  a  much  higher  temperature,  one  fit  for  the  orange  and  the  palm,  but  also  a 
more  varied  and  a  more  fiivourable  soil  for  cultivation.  But  these  relations  would  have  acted 
more  beneficially  if  the  air  had  been  more  humid,  and  moisture  had  been  everywhere  more 
abundant  The  deficiency  of  moisture  is  the  principal  cause  not  only  of  the  striking  mea- 
greness  of  phenogamous  vegetation,  on  most  of  the  mountain  acclivities,  but  also  of  the 
remarkable  paucity  of  lichens  and  mosses  on  the  mountains  on  the  coast ;  and  in  connection 
with  this  is  the  fact,  that  the  weathering  of  the  rocks,  and  the  refbrmmg  of  the  original  sur- 
face of  the  mountams,  assume  there  a  somewhat  different  course  firom  what  is  otnerved  in  , 
place:  which  are  moister,  and  provided  with  a  more  powerfiil  vegetaticm. 


iv^,  .<f 


SuBSKCT.  2. — Botany, 


'»r^;  -K  I  ir 


t 


"Oht  Chriiitl  it  ii  b  goodly  light  to  lee 
What  H«aven  liatli  done  for  this  delicioui  land  I 
%Vhat  fruilR  of  (Vagranco  bluah  on  every  tree  I 
Wliat  itoodly  prospect*  o'er  the  hills  expand  I 
(But  man  would  mar  them  with  an  impioui  hand). 


.  W 


■j^r 


"  Europeaii  Spain,"  says  M.  de  Humboldt,  "  situated  in  latitudes  under  which  Palm  trees 
(Phcmix  dactylifera  am  Chameerops  humilii)  grow  upon  the  plains,  presents  ths  majeatie 
spectacle  of  a  chain  of  mountains;  the  tops  of  which  shoot  up  into  the  region  of  everlasting 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  HI. 


now.  By  a  lovelling  Burve/  executed  with  the  ffreatest  care,  it  has  been  aocertained  tliat 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Granada,  the  Pico  <Ie  Veleta  rises  about  11,385  Enclish  feet,  and 
the  Mulhacen  11,660  English  fe«t,  above  tho  level  of  the  ocean.  None  of  the  mountains 
of  the  Pyrenees  are  of  so  great  a  height ;  fur  Mont  Perdu,  tlio  lofliost  of  the  Spanish  Pyre< 
noes  is  only  11,168  fbet,  and  the  highest  of  the  French  Pyrenees  only  1722  fathoms.  The 
peak  of  Mulhacen,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Granad?^  wants  only  70  fathoms  of  heina  as 
nigh  as  the  Peak  of  Teneriflb.  Yet  even  this  summit,  if  situated  in  the  same  latitude  as 
the  town  of  Mexico,  would  not  be  perpetually  covered  with  snow :  for  the  never-melting 
mows  begin  under  the  equator  at  3460  &thonis;  under  the  twentieth  de^preo  of  latitude  at 
SS60  ikthoma;  under  the  forty-fifth,  at  l^HX)  ftUunna;  and  under  the  sixty-second,  at  000 

fkUKHnSL" 

Thus  circumstanced  in  regard  to  climate,  and  the  elevation  of  its  mountains,  how  neatly 
is  it  to  be  regretted  that  no  country  in  Europe  has  been  so  little  investigated  in  regara  to  its 
botanical  productions  I  Enough,  however,  is  known  for  our  purpose,  which  may  be  collected 
tVom  the  different  travels  in,  and  accounts  of,  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  ih>m  the  Recherchet 
tur  la  DiMtribuHon  Oiograpkiqve  de»  Yegiiaux  Phanirogames  dans  VAncien  Monde, 
already  alluded  to,  by  M.  de  Mirbel.  This  author  considers  the  whole  of  this  peninsuliL 
witli  the  exception  of  the  northern  part  of  Spain,  which  forms  tho  shores  of  the  Golf  of 
Qaacony,  and  which  belongs  to  the  temperate  zone,  as  entering  into  the  transition  zone.  If, 
therefore,  its  vegetation  has  any  afilnity  with  that  of  France,  it  is  only  where  its  mountainous 
parts,  especially  the  Pyrenees,  resemble  the  mountains  of  France,  and  its  warm  districts  are 
tike  tbe  extreme  south  of  France.  In  East  Valencia  and  Murcia,  in  the  south  of  Andalusia 
and  the  Algarves,  in  Western  Alemtejo  and  South  Estremadura,  the  rich  and  varied  vege* 
tation  c^s  to  mind  the  fertile  plains  of  Syria.  In  Andalusia,  ^toata  are  unknown,  and  the 
snow,  if  it  ever  fUls,  melts  the  moment  it  touches  the  soil :  so  that  it  is  not  surprising  that, 
in  the  cultivated  parts,  the  Spaniards,  long  fiunous  for  their  voyages,  should  have  introduced 
many  veffetablea  trom  remote  parts  of  the  world ;  thus  giving  a  perfectly  tropical  appear- 
ance to  the  country. 

The  Erytkrina  CordUoiendron,  or  Coral  tree,  with  its  brilliant  scarlet  blossoms,  the 
8ckiHU$  AfoUe,  with  its  gracefiilly  pinnated  foliage,  and  the  Phytolacca  dioka,  are  intro- 
duced, with  many  other  plants,  from  South  America.  Even  tiie  bananas  are  conunon  to  the 
south  of  the  Guadalquivir;  as  are  also  the  Cayenne  Pepper;  and,  in  gardens,  the  Con^oivu- 
*QB  Batatas,  or  Sweet  Potato.  Everywhere  about  the  rural  habitations  of  the  Speiiish  pea- 
santry, the  Date,  the  Orange  (Jig.  206.),  the  Lemon,  the  Olive,  the  Pomegranate,  Uie  Fig 


Boox 


{Jig.  209.),  and  the  Mulberry,  flourish  nearlv  as  well  as  in  the  native  soil  Link  notices  the 
trees  growing  about  Lisbon ;  "  they  are  chieny,"  he  says,  "  Olive  and  Orange  trees.  Cypress, 
Judas  trees:  Elms  and  Poplars  appear  too.  But  of  Oaks,  Beeches,  and  Lime,  there  are 
Done,  and  very  few  Willows;  so  that  one  may  instantly  perceive  how  difl&rent  is  the  char- 
acter of  a  Lisbon  view  from  that  of  Grermany."  The  Onnge  is  the  most  striking  of  these . 
for  there  are  many  plantations  in  quintas,  where  they  form  compact  groves,  and  also  scat- 
tered in  open  spota  These  trees  require  much  artificial  watering,  and  they  are  propagated 
by  seed,  and  afterwards  by  grafting  upm  those  seedling  trees.  In  December  and  January 
me  fruit  begins  to  turn  yellow ;  and  at  the  end  of  January  and  in  February,  before  tiiey  arc 
ripe  and  sweet,  they  are  gathered  for  exportation.  Towards  the  end  of  March  and  April, 
the  oranges  are  very  good,  but  they  are  not  in  perfection  till  early  in  May.  In  July  and 
August,  Uiey  are  scarce,  and  over^ripe.  At  the  end  of  April  and  May,  the  new  flowers  ap- 
pear, the  firagrance  of  which  extends  fiur  and  wide,  and  at  this  time  the  quantity  of  glitteriiig 
flntit  •mboaomed  amid  the  dark  foliage,  ''like  golden  lamps  in  a  green  night,*^ relieved  still 


301 


(Mfy. 


Book  T. 


■f\^^,^^(i^^'| 


SPAIN. 


S6S 


moro  by  the  Bnowv  blosMins,  presents  an  object  which  continually  excites  new  admiration, 
though  it  is  one  or  daily  occurrence.  One  single  tree  frequently  bears  ISOO  oranges,  ttui 
examples  are  not  wantmg  of  their  bearing  2000,  and  sometimes,  though  rarelv,  3m)0.  In 
the  provinces,  they  sell  for  half  a  fkrthing  apiece.  Figs  are  exported  largely  mm  the  cil/ 
of  Furo;  they  are  the  most  important  pr^uce  of  the  Algarve,  and  are  brougnt  down  by  the 
country  people  to  the  merchants  in  immense  quantities.  They  are  thrown  in  heaps  in  a 
building  prepared  for  the  purpose,  where  a  syrup  flows  from  them,  which  is  used  to  advan- 
tage in  makiiyf  brandy.  They  are  then  spread  to  dry  ib  he  sun,  in  an  open  situation,  where 
they  are  left  for  a  few  days,  in  proportion  to  the  heat  of  the  weather;  after  which  they  oro 
paclced  into  small  baskets  made  of  the  leaves  of  the  Fan  Palm,  and  exported.  "Greece  and 
the  Alrarves,"  M.  Link  observes,  "  are  the  only  countries  where  caprification  is  practised , 
for  in  the  latter  country  are  some  varieties  of  Figs,  and  those  very  excellent,  that  fall  to  the 
ffround  immature,  unless  punctured  by  gnats."  Two  ideas  prevail  respecting  the  effect  of 
this  operation;  the  general  opmion  being,  that  the  little  insect,  on  entering  the  Fig,  (which 
is  known  by  botanists  to  be  a  fleshy  receptacle,  including  many,  and  often  omy  barren 
flowers,)  carries  with  it,  firom  other  figs  that  it  has  visited,  and  tnm  which  it  comes  loaded, 
the  farina  necessary  for  fertilisation :  while  others  maintain,  and  among  them  M.  Link,  that 
the  puncture  caused  by  the  insect  gives  a  fresh  stimulus  and  a  new  movement  to  the  sap  or 
juices  of  the  fhiit,  thereby  not  only  preventing  the  fall  of  the  fVuit,  but  rendering  it  sweeter 
and  better  flavoured ;  and  it  is  certam  that  many  of  our  common  fruits,  when  pierced  by  in- 


tora ;  and  branches  of  them  are,  at  the  proper  season,  broken  off,  and  suspended  over  those 
intended  to  be  fertilised,  when  the  little  animds  come  forth,  alight  upon  the  fruits,  puncture 
them,  and  aid  their  ripening. 

,    Formidable  fences  are  made  of  the  Cactus  Tuna  {Jig.  300.),  and  the  Agave  americona, 
gOQ  or  American  aloe.    The  former  is  often  mixed  with  the  Pome- 

granate, but  of  itself  it  constitutes  a  hedge  almost  impervious  to 
cattle.  In  Portuguese  it  is  called,  on  account  of  its  prickles, 
Fijo  do  ir\ferno:  tl>e  flowers  are  yellow  ond  the  fhiit  esculent; 
the  latter  is  by  no  means  unpalatable,  and  is  regularly  sold  in 
Lisbon.  Of  the  Agave  americuna  we  have  already  spoken,  and 
shall,  therefore,  simply  mention  here,  that  its  leaves  undergo  a 
process  by  which  a  valuable  thread  is  extracted,  known  in  Por- 
tugal by  the  name  of  Filo  da  pita.  The  largest  and  most  per- 
fect leaves  are  cut  off,  laid  upon  a  board,  and  scraped  with  a 
square  iron  bar,  which  is  held  in  both  hands,  until  all  the  juices 
and  pulp  are  pressed  out ;  the  nerves  only  remaining,  whep 
these  are  found  easily  separable  into  threads.  Where  pasturage 
is  scarce,  as  in  Algarve,  the  cattle  eat  the  foliage  of  Uiis  plant, 
if  cut  into  thin  transverse  slices. 

In  La  Mancha  grows  the  Esparto  grele  (Stipa  tenacissima), 
of  which  cords  are  made,  and  the  foliage  is  sent  in  large  quan- 
tities into  Portugal  for  this  purpose.    To  prevent  the  careless 
destruction  of  these  valuable  plants,  penalties  are  inflicted  on 
any  person  who  ventures  to  gather  them  before  the  month 
of  May,  when  they  ore  in  perfection. 
The  Carob  tree  {fig.  301.)  Link  reckons  the  most  beautiful  of  European  trees.    It  attains 
2Qi  a  considerable  height,  forming,  with  its  large  evergreen  pinnated 

'"***  foliage,  a  head  of  considerablf.  dimensions,  and  yielding  a  welcome 

shade.  Among  the  foliage  hang  down  the  numerous  long  pods, 
which,  when  ripe,  are  used  as  fodder  for  cattle,  especially  the 
mules,  and  as  meat  for  swine,  though  inferior  to  the  acorns  of  the 
Evergreen  Oak.  Before  the  expiHsion  of  the  Moors,  the  Sugar 
Cane  was  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  lately  it  has  been 
re-introduced,  at  San  Lucar,  into  a  garden  "d'acclimation,"  to- 
gether with  Coffee,  Indigo,  and  Gum  Arabic.  A  vast  extent  of 
country  is  covered  by  the  Chamerops  humilis  (Dwarf  Palm  or 
Palmetto),  growing  in  waste  places.  This  vegetation,  in  port  ex- 
otic, follows  the  coasts  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  to  the  east  and  to 
the  west  It  is  difiused  in  all  its  luxury  in  the  delicious  territory 
of  Valencia,  where  the  agriculture  of  the  Moors  is  still  held  in 
respect  With  the  species  already  named,  are  here  cultivated  tho 
Aloe  perfoliata,  Yucca  aloifolia.  Cassia  tomentosa,  Melia  Azeda- 
OirobTrM.  j^^j,_  rnany  kjads  of  Mlmoso,  Annoua,  &c.    In  the  environs  w 

41icant,  tho  Date  harvest  is  very  abundant    This  Palm  there  grows  in  large  plantatiooi. 
VOL.L  48 


Caottu  Tana. 


«e 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  HI 


•nd  often  attains  the  height  of  120  feet  It  reaches  along  the  entire  coast,  to  the  40th  de- 
gree, and  perhaps  higher.  The  Agave  abounds  in  the  environs  ot'  Tarragona,  in  the  4Ist 
r^gree ;  and  the  Olive  continues  to  the  sliore  of  France. 

In  general,  the  vegetation  of  the  east  of  the  Peninsula  difibrs  little  ftom  that  of  the  other 
■hores  of  the  Mediterranean.    The  coasts  of  the  Ocean,  on  the  west,  are  less  hot,  according 

;  to  M.  Bory  de  St  Vincent,  than  corresponding  latitudes  on  the  east  sides ;  so  that  the  south- 
ern vegetation  does  not  extend  so  far  to  the  north.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Date,  the  Lemon, 
the  Orange,  abound  in  Algarve  and  Alemtejo.  The  Orange  grows  plentifully  in  the  envi< 
rona  of  Oporto,  in  41° ;  a^  the  Olive  extends  to  42°.  A  great  number  of  American  plants, 
the  seeds  having  been  probably  brought  in  ballast,  are  mingled,  and,  as  it  were,  confounded, 
with  indigenous  species.  Upon  the  whole,  however,  the  vegetation  may  be  considered  as 
having  more  in  common  with  that  of  the  Atlantic  than  with  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 

.  neaa  Link  thus  pictures  the  climate  of  Portugal,  and  its  effects  upon  vegetation : — "  A 
heat,  equal  to  06°  of  Fahrenheit,  is  not  uncommon  in  this  country ;  and,  from  comparative 

,  observations,  it  appears  that  the  climate  is  warmer  here  than  in  wazU,  though  the  heat  does 
not  continue  near  so  long.  From  Midsummer-dav  to  the  middle  of  September,  ram  is  ex- 
tremely uncommon,  and  even  in  the  beginning  of  that  month  very  scanty ;  the  drought  often 
continues  much  longer.  Immediately  after  the  first  rains,  follow  the  autumnal  flowers,  the 
Meadow  Saffixm  (CS/cAtcff,  two  species  but  little  known) ;  Saffiron  (Ooctw  sativiu) ;  the 
Autumnal  Snowdrop  {Leucqjum  atitutnnale) ;  the  sweetpsmelling  Ranunculus  bullatus,  and 
many  others.  These  appear  in  the  higher  lands  around  Cintra,  where  the  rains  are  earlier 
than  in  the  low  parts  near  Lisbon.  Immediately  after  the  autumnal  flowers,  come  the 
■pring  plants,  owmg  to  which  the  interval  between  spring  and  autumn  is  scarcely  percep- 
tible. In  October  the  young  gross  springs  up,  and  Uie  new  leaves  dioot  out,  rendering  it 
the  pleasantest  month  of  the  year.  In  November  and  December  fall  heavy  rains,  with  ire- 
quont  storms.  Days  of  perpetual  silent  rain  are  very  rare,  for  in  general  it  comes  down  in 
torrents.  The  brooks  round  Lisbon,  which  it  was  a  little  while  before  easy  to  step  over,  and 
which  wholly  disappear  in  summer,  now  rush  like  torrents  down  the  hills.  This  swelling 
of  the  streams  renders  travelling  difficult  at  that  season,  and  would  retard  the  operations  o? 
war  as  much  in  winter  as  the  drought  m  summer.  In  January,  cold,  clear  weather  often 
prevails,  but  becomes  milder  in  February,  which  is  generally  a  venr  pleasant  month." 

The  most  common  vegetables  of  the  plains  of  Spain  are  tho  dork  tree  (Jif[.  802.),  the 
Ilex,  and  Kermes  Oak  (figt  808.),  the  Bay  tree,  the  Myrtl^ii  the  Philyrea  media  imd  angus- 
302  i  K .:         ^.  ,4UM  803 


CoikTne. 

tifolia,  JuniperuB  Sabin:*.  Celtis  australis,PistaciaTerebinthus  and  Lentiscus;  RhamnusAIop 
temus,  and  many  other  species  of  this  genus ;  Viburnum  Tinus,  Osyris  alba,  Paliurus  aus- 
tralis,  the  Strawberry  tree,  the  common  and  shrubby  Jessamines,  the  Caper  plant,  and  a  great 
number  of  Cisti  (Jig.  804.)  with  other  shrubs,  whose  foliage  is  of  an  evergreen  and  coriace- 
ous nature.  Immense  plains  are  clothed  with  Lygeum  Sportum,  and  the  running  streams 
are  bordered  with  Bupleurum  spinosum  and  Nerium  Oleander. 

But  it  has  been  justly  remarked,  that  no  country  in  Europe  presents  a  more  sorrowful 
aspect  than  the  interior  of  the  Peninsula.  "  No  man,  perhaps,  saving  a  botanist,"  says  Link, 
"could  travel  with  any  pleasure  in  the  barren  tracts  of  Old  Castile ;  but  this  pursuit  can 
render  travelling  both  instructive  and  interesting,  even  in  these  apparently  sterile  wastes. 
Where  forests  luive  existed  there,  they  have  yielded  to  the  stroke  of^the  axe ;  and  the  jaked 
•oU  remains  without  any  culture.  Vast  cliains  of  mountains  spread  out  in  all  directions,  and 
between  them  are  extended  the  Parameras,  more  or  less  elevated  plains,  frequently  as  naked 
as  ^e  steppes  of  Siberia."  M.  Bory  estimates  at  from  1800  to  2000  feet  the  elevation  of  the 
Potamera  which  divides  the  sources  of  the  Douro  and  the  Ebro.  In  the  valleys  formed  by 
UiMe  rivers  and  their  tributary  streams,  a  vegetation  of  grest  beau^  is  found,  partsksg  <k 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


NT 


that  in  the  more  temperate  climatea  of  the  north.  Here  are  leen  small  flelda  of  Maiio,  and 
even  of  Rye  and  Barleyt  more  rarely  of  Wheat,  surrounded  by  lofly  Oaks,  Chestnuts,  and 
Poplars,  every  tree  supportinff  a  Vine,  which  spreads  over  it  and  not  unfrequently  reaohM 
to  the  very  summit  of  the  highest  Oaks. 


;  I, 


*» 


'ki  > 
'.)'»«  ••■ 

^v-H,^-*v/Ki-^.»  rt.'.ij  t*m^  f''i>iMi''irniixi';ii>'it:!^'Mii,iim^''fi-      ^^^g  ^*-«.i.t(.  (la.■ 

The  threat  mass  of  die  fivesto  which  have  escaped  destruction  are  mostly  fermed  of  Svatp 
snreen  Oaks ;  among  which,  besides  the  other  species  already  enumeratdl,  are  found  the 
Quercus  Ballota,  cp^ilopifolio,  fegmea,  prasina,  crenata,  rotundifolia,  humilis,  du;.  The  latter 
does  not  exceed  six  inches  in  height  In  the  valleys  and  on  the  mountains  also,  grow  Tilia 
europma  (^platyphyttos?),  Fagus  ayl/atica,  Castanea  vesca  (fig.  S05.),  Taxus  baccata,  Pinua 
sylvestris,  Fraxinus,  Omus,  &c.  The  commonest  forest  tree  on  the  plains  of  Uie  temperate 
zone,  nai^ly  the  Oak  (Quemte  Robur),  inhabits  the  southern  slope  of  the  Pyrenees.  It  is 
■aid  that  this  tree  occurs  also  in  some  puts  of  the  Peninsula. 

The  vegetation  which  prevails  on  the  lofly  mountains  in  the  interior  of  Spain  is  almost 
wh'illy  unlcnown  to  us.  M.  Ramond  has  made  some  interesting  observations  cm  that  of  the 
Pic  du  Midi,  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Pyrenees ;  and  has  compared  the  plants  of  its  most 
elevated  summit,  estimated  at  about  10,000  feet,  with  that  of  Melville  Island,  as  described 
by  Mr.  R.  Brown.    The  similarity  is  very  striking. 

mLTILLK  nLANS. 

Cryptogatma. 


sPMurr  or  the  no  du  midi 

Cryplsgemtia. 

Fungi 0 

Licbeni SI 

HepaticiB 1 

MnsHea •  • 0 

Form 4 

■  '■'     Phatu)gmuu$. 

(lyperaees S 

<iras6o« 7 

Junci 0 

Polygonea 1 

Plantagineo 1 

riumbaginea 1 

IjyiimachlB 4 

Tedioularina 3 

lAbiata 1 

Beropbularln* 1 

Borafinea 1 

Gcntianea S 

Campanulacea > 1 

Cicboracea 3 

Corymbiftra 10 

RubiaeeB S 

Papaveraeea J 

Orucifens • 

Caryophyllea 8 

Pieoldim 4 

BaxifVagea  v"-"  4 

Rotaeea 4 

LegumlnoM 4 

AmentaoM i_ 


Fungi 9 

Licbeni IS^ 


Hepatic*  ■ 
Monei. 
i^rnf .. 


Cyperaeec. 
Granea...! 

Junci 

FolygoDMa . 


9 

30 

0 


4 
14 
9 

B 


hot 

'"ill- 


Serophulsrina i'lfiS^^lV 


ErtcMB. 


■'^'^'"^ 

CampanulacflCM > 1   "fit- 

Cichoraeea • 1      i^i) 

Corymbiftna 4      '  ^ 

Ranuncalaeea 8    :M.fu 

Papaveraeec I 

CrueiflmB • 

CaryophyllMB i 

Baxifragea 10 

Rosacea 4 

LcguminoMB 9 

AmenUeea 1 

■■•   •      ■  ■„  ■  ^       — « 

'  -'  ■  .i  ?>  .A  ■';.,,•:';,../  -V^::El :  >.     — 


568 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PiunUl 


EnropMii  Ba»-E»tar. 


Of  thf  \  eight  of  the  Melville  Islands  lickeiu  and  one  of  iU  mot$«a  are  found  on  the  (Mun* 
mit  of  wie  Pic  du  Midi ;  five  othen  of  the  Ueheof ,  and  one  of  iti  two  *«pa(ica,  and  six  of  itc 
SMMMS,  grow  on  the  cng»  of  the  peak,  or  in  ita  immediate  vioinity.  • 

SmnoT.  9. — Zoolo^. 
The  native  xoolo^  haa  been  ao  little  invettigated,  that  nothing  beyond  a  meagre  list  could 
be  fiimished  of  indi^noua  animala.  In  the  mountaina  of  Aaturiaa  the  Ibex  ia  not  uncommon, 
and  the  Alpine  Squurrel  (Sciurtu  alpinu$)  ia  onljr  found  in  the  Pyrenees.  In  the  southem 
parts,  bordering  on  the  African  shore,  a  few  species  of  warblers  have  recently  been  found, 
whioh  arp  as  yet  unknown  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  European  Bee-eater  (Jiir.  306.)  fVe- 
^9*^  '  •' ''       806'  quents  the  vicinity  of  Gibraltar  in  large  nocka during 

tne  season  of  migration. 

Among  the  domesticated  animals,  the  horse  and  sheep 
of  Spain  deserve  particular  notice,  as  having  been  long 
celelmted  throughout  Europe.    The  best  horses  are 

Encurally  about  four  feet  six  or  eight  inches  high ;  they 
ve  all  the  fire,  docility,  grace,  and  action  of  the 
beautifiil  Ambians  of  Barbsjy  (generally  called  Barbs), 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  these  noble  animals  having 
been  mtroduced  by  the  Moors,  and  crossed  with  the 
native  breed :  those  of  Andalusia,  Granada,  and  Estre- 
madura  are  the  most  distinguished.  At  Xeres  are  found 
two  perfectly  distuict  races;  the  one,  which  possesses  the  fine  qualities  above  mentioned,  is 
still  preserved  in  all  its  purity  at  Uie  Chaurtreux.  The  other  race  ia  larger,  stronger,  less 
elegant  and  used  for  common  purposes.  Latterly  but  little  care  has  been  bestowed  in  keep- 
ing up  the  more  noble  breed,  so  that  fbie  horses  are  not  so  common  in  Spain  as  formerly. 

The  mule,  in  so  mountainous  a  country,  is  particularly  usefiil,  and,  with  the  ass,  is  prin- 
cipally used  for  conveying  goods  in  the  interioi- ;  the  breeds  of  the  latter  are  very  fine,  and 
are  hardly  excelled  by  those  of  Egypt  Spain  ia  still  famous  for  its  merino  race  of  sheep 
(Jig.  307.).  The  flocks  are  kept  constantly  travelling  during  the  greater  part  of  the  sum- 
mer, but  are  carefiilly  pent  up  m  winter.    This  race,  subdivided  into  breeds,  is  extended 

over  tiie  greater  part  of  Spain ;  but  those  of  Cavage,  and 
Negrate,  are  the  best  A  third  breed,  the  Souan,  appears 
more  hardy,  and  pawes  the  winter  in  Estremadura,  Anda- 
lusia, and  New  Castile :  these  three  constitute  the  Transhit- 
tnante,  or  travelling  race,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Estante*,  or  those  of  a  somewhat  inferior  breed,  who  do  not 
migrate.  The  best  fleeces  are  those  which  appear  almost 
black  on  their  surface,  caused  by  the  dust  adhering  to  the 
peculiar  greasy  pile;  for  it  is  mvariably  found  that  such 
Meiioo  Siwep.  fleeces  are  of  the  purest  white  beneath.     The  merinos,  dis- 

persed by  Georgo  ill.  over  England,  have  incalculably  im- 
proved the  native  races.  By  great  care  and  expense  on  the  part  of  the  native,  graziers,  this 
valuable  race  has  likewise  been  introduced  in  the  distant  regions  of  Australia  with  equal 
■uccess.  There  is  a  very  large  breed  of  oxen  in  the  countiy  round  Salamanca ;  but  the 
cattle  of  Spain  have  been  much  neglected ;  the  mountaineers  deriving  all  their  milk  and 
butter  frcHn  goats.  The  spaniel  appears  to  be  a  breed  of  dogs  originating  from  this  coimtiy; 
and  the  Spanish  pointer  is  considered  to  have  a  greater  acuteness  m  scent  than  that  of 
Britaini 
';.,  I  •-.  ....,fi,^;i.>-..,       atfTt.UL— Historical  Geography.       •-•••.•--%.-.  v.'^      ,. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Spain,  like  those  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  were  of  the  Celtic  race, 
and  from  the  river  Ebro  (Iberus)  were  called  Celtiberl  The  whole  country  was  by  the 
Greeks  called  Iberia,  and  sometimes,  from  its  western  position,  Hesperia.  The  people,  like 
those  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  were  divided  into  a  number  of  small  tribes,  hardy  and  warlike, 
who  often  showed  a  peculiar  attachment  to  national  independence,  and  obstmacy  in  ita 
defence. 

The  Carthaginians  were  the  flrst  civilised  people  who  occupied  Spain,  which,  for  several 
centuries,  was  considered  as  theirs.  Thoy  founded  colonies  on  the  most  advantageous  points^ 
worked  its  rich  silver  mines,  and  easily  allured  many  of  its  brave  but  poor  inhabitants  into 
their  mercenary  armies ;  they  were  fiir,  however,  from  having  thoroughly  subdued  the  Pen- 
insula, the  people  of  which,  on  the  rise  of  the  Roman  power,  endeavoured  by  its  alliance  to 
emancipate  themselves  fh>m  the  Punic  yoke.  The  siege  and  fall  of  Saguntum  seemed  to 
have  extin^fuished  these  hopes,  and  to  have  secured  the  ascendency  of  Carthage ;  but  the 
events  which  marked  the  close  of  the  second  Punic  war  completely  humbled  that  proud 
republic,  and  put  an  end  to  its  dominion  over  Spain. 

The  Romans,  by  the  capture  of  Numantia  in  b.  o.  134,  established  tlieir  supremacy  over 
Spain,  undisputed  by  any  other  nation ;  but  the  complete  subjugation  of  its  inhabitants  wax 
%  kng  and  arduous  task,  to  which  the  utmost  exertions  cf  Cesar  and  his  lieutenants  were 


BooxL 

notfUUy 
tusinto 
Portuga 
Rome,  s 
their  I 
that  pou 

The  I 
fiillyest 
expelled 
in  some 
destined 

The 
establish 
andopei 
theGotli 
the  exc( 
shelter ; 
But  Cha 
days,  the 
Meantim 
in  the  m 


on  the  MUD* 
md  six  of  it! 


rra  lilt  could 
i  uncommon, 
he  southern 
been  found, 
g.  306.)  fre- 
locks  durinjf 

'se  and  sheep 
ig  been  long 
I  horses  are 
9  high ;  they 
;tion  of  the 
died  Barbs), 
mals  having 
9d  with  Uie 
1,  and  Estre- 
es  are  found 
lentioned,  is 
Wronger,  less 
fed  in  keep* 
brmerly. 
ass,  is  prin« 
iry  fine,  and 
.ce  of  sheep 
o(  the  sum* 
is  extended 
lavage,  and 
tan,  appears 
dura,  Anda> 

0  TVonsAt*. 

1  from  the 
who  do  not 
)ear  almost 
ring  to  the 

that  such 
lerinos,  dis> 
culably  im- 
uziers,  this 
with  equal 
;  but  the 
milk  and 
is  coimtry; 
lan  that  of 


leltic  race, 
rAB  by  the 
eople,  like 
d  warlike, 
acy  in  its 

or  several 
)us  points, 
itantsinto 
the  Pen- 
.lliance  to 
wemed  to 
but  the 
lat  proud 

lacy  over 
tants  wa. 
ints  were 


IIookL  SPAIN.  tW 

not  ftilly  adequate.  Spain,  however,  wu  at  length  reduced  to  a  provinoe,  divided  by  Augus- 
tus into  three  parts : — ^Tarraconensls,  the  north  and  east ;  Betiea,  the  eouth ;  and  Lusituiii, 
Portugal.  The  Spaniards  even  became  civilised  and  peaceable  subjects;  so  that  when 
Rome,  sinking  under  its  own  weight,  was  unable  to  defend  them,  they  could  not  resume 
their  early  independence,  but  fell  a  prey  to  the  Vandals,  Qoths,  and  other  barbarous  hordee 
that  poured  in  from  the  nrarth  of  Europe. 

The  Goths,  in  Uus  terrible  struggle,  finally  prevailed ;  and  in  418  a  Gothic  dynasty  wai 
flilly  established  over  Spain.  These  barbarous  invaders  appear  here,  as  elsewhere,  to  have 
expelled  or  extirpated  the  native  people,  whose  features  ana  language  are  recognised  only 
in  some  of  the  higher  mountain  districts.  After  a  sway  of  three  centuries,  the  uoths  were 
destined  to  yield  to  a  new  people,  coming  from  a  remote  quarter. 

The  Arabs,  rendered  invincible  bv  fimaticism,  had  over-run  all  the  north  of  Africa,  and 
established  a  powerful  kingdom  hi  Fez.  The  vengeance  of  Count  Julian  invited  them  over, 
and  opened  the  way  for  them ;  their  unmense  host  covered  the  plains  of  Andalusia ;  Roderick, 
the  Crothic  king,  was  totally  defeated.  The  invaders  then  over-ran  the  whole  kingdom,  witii 
the  exception  of  some  mountain  recesses,  in  which  a  remnant  of  the  Gothic  chiefs  found 
shelter ;  they  even  passed  the  Pyrenees,  and  seemed  about  to  over-run  all  western  Europe. 
But  Charles  Mortel  met  them  on  the  plains  of  Aquitaine ;  and,  after  a  dreadful  battle  of  three 
days,  they  were  siffn&lly  overthrown,  and  never  arain  attempted  to  pass  the  Spanish  frontier. 
Meantime  Don  Pelayo,  and  other  chiefs  of  the  GoUiic  race,  again  raised  the  national  standud 
in  the  mountains  of  the  Asturias :  then  commenced  a  contest  of  700  years,  distinguished  by 
numerous  heroic  achievements  and  memorable  events,  which  gave  to  the  Spanish  character 
that  romantic  and  adventurous  cast  which  it  has  never  wholly  lost  The  Arabs  or  Moon 
■tUl  retained  the  finest  provinces,  and  the  courts  of  Cordova  and  Granada  were  the  most 
splendid  and  polished  in  Europe.  The  Spaniards,  however,  under  a  succession  of  able  chiefh 
and  particularly  of  their  great  hero  the  Cid,  gained  ground :  new  kingdoms  were  successive!} 
founded ;  which  all  merging  into  those  of  Castile  and  Aragon,  comprehended  the  whole  ot 
Spain,  except  the  extreme  southern  kingdom  of  Granada.* 

Spain  was  a^in  fi)rmed  into  one  neat  kingdom  by  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  Castile  and 
Aragon,  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  in  1474,  and  by  the  final  overthrow  and  expulsion  of 
the  Moors.  From  this  period  commences  the  most  brilliant  era  of  her  annala  The  dis- 
covery of  America,  the  conquest  of  the  golden  regions  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  of  other 
dominions  so  extensive  as  to  make  it  a  plausible  boast  that  the  sun  never  set  on  them,  threw 
an  almost  unrivalled  lustre  around  the  Spanish  crown.  Under  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II., 
Spain  continued  the  most  powerful  kuigdom,  and  her  armies  the  most  formidable,  of  any  in 
Europe.  The  throne  derived  even  an  addition  of  apparent  lustre  from  the  subversion  of  the 
popular  part  of  the  government,  and  the  conversion  of  a  body  of  grandees,  once  the  proudest 
in  Europe,  to  the  condition  of  humble  vassals. 

The  decline  of  Spain,  though  its  causes  had  begun  to  operate,  did  not  become  perceptible 
till  after  the  death  of  Philip  if.  A  gloomy  indolence  and  degrading  superstition  now  marked 
her  councils ;  her  armies  were  vanquished  by  the  French  imtler  Conde  and  Turenne ;  sho 
lost  her  place  and  rank  in  Europe.  The  trade  with  her  '  '  colonies,  fettered  by  absurd 
restrictions,  became  profitable  only  to  the  industrious  natiobA  v>  nich  supplied  its  materials. 
The  war  of  the  succession  drew  notice  towards  this  country,  a.  id  called  forth  some  displays 
of  national  energy ;  but  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  which  it  placed  on  the  throne,  soon  relapsed 
into  tlie  characteristic  indolence,  and  Spain  became  little  more  than  a  dependency  of  France. 
We  know  not  whether  to  designate  as  an  era,  the  train  of  remarkable  events  which  have 

*The  Arabs  in  Spain,  lilce  the  Saxoni  in  Enfland,  eitabliilied  a  lasting  memorial  of  llieir  dominion  byennraft- 
inc  tlieir  own  laniuage  on  that  of  the  country  which  they  aubdued.  Of  thii,  the  topography  of  the  Peninnila 
exbibiii  innumerable  initancei.  The  namei  of  rivem,  moiintaini,  towni,  and  placet,  were  either  totally  or  par. 
tially  chanced,  by  the  vlctorioui  Invaden;  and  after  the  expulsion  of  their  deacendania,  thoae  names  were  per* 
petuated,  tliough  with  alterations  in  some  instances  as  arbitrary  as  those  which  were  made  in  the  ancient 
topography  of  the  country:  thus,  the  Roman  station.  Pax  ^fuita,  was  translbrmed  by  the  Arabs  into  Bmtalh, 
and  afterwards  by  the  Spaniards  into  Baiajn ;  OnarJtugvsta,  by  an  abbreviation  less  violent,  became  Saragnn; 
and  BmtHta  Anfutti  was  contracted  into  Mtrida. 

The  Arabic  term  JHMna  (citv)  survives  in  two  eminent  instances  among  the  titles  of  the  Spanish  nobility: 
MtUna  SeUm  (the  city  of  Selim)  is  recognised  in  the  dukedom  of  JHM<im-OiU  ;  and  the  colony  probably  called  New 
Bidon,  ic  that  of  Medina-Sldenia.  From  the  generic  term  gvad,  a  river,  and  ttla  or  tiM,  a  landed  estate  or  dialtiet, 
many  names  may  be  explained  which  at  first  view  appear  capricious  and  arbitrary  :— 

Ht,    Ouad-al-aviar The  white  river, 

Ouad-al-quivir, > The  great  river. 

Ouad-al>higiara,  now  Guadalaxara, Theriver  of  rocks. 

FUm  and  FeUd  are  often  coi^oined  with  proper  names,  r«{<i  Malaga,  FVtd  VUd.  now  Valladolid :  thus,  Navane 
and  Leon,  their  confines  never  having  been  occupied  by  the  Arabs,  were  called  by  them  Vilid  Jlrroum,  the  land 
of  the  JtomaiM.  OiHra  was  applied  indifferently  to  an  island  or  a  peninsula ;  hence  Algnira.  Jlldta  means  what 
It  eomnichended  under  the  English  term  a  farm.  It  is  of  common  occurrence  in  itineraries,  as  JIU*a  M  KU, 
Mita  Oalltga,  JlUUai  it  fimito.  From  ehntara,  a  bridge,  we  account  fbr  the  emphatic  name  Jlleintara.  OalifUt, 
•  castle,  enters  more  or  less  prominently  into  the  composition  of  various  names ;  as  CaUat  Afot,  the  castle  of 
Ayat,  is  now  Calatapui;  CaUal  Kahah,  the  castle  of  Rabah,  is  now  Osiatrova ;  M  CaUat,  simply  the  castle.  Is 
now  AUalU.  Mcatar,  a  word  of  firequent  occurrence  in  Spanish  topography,  is  a  fortified  house  or  small  castle ; 
Ahatria  is  an  observatory.  Bee  Deieriptien  iifSpat*,  by  Gerif  Albeoris,  in  the  translation  of  Don  Joti  Antonio 
CAindi,  whose  Mstory  ^tkt  DomhuMt*  cfOt  Artta  to  Spain  is  esteemed  ane  of  the  most  masterly  works  that 
Otve  appeared  in  the  present  age. 

Vol.  L  48*  3W 


"m 


DESCRIPnVB  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1)1, 


Book 


/ 


Mourred  b«tween  1806  and  1822.  The  Spaniardi  excited  the  admiration  and  aatoniihnionl 
of  Europe  by  theii  daring  deflanoe  of  the  power  beneath  which  the  jfreateet  aovereigni  had 
been  reduced  to  the  rank  of  vaaaali.  Their  subeequont  exploit!  did  not  altogether  corre> 
■pond  to  thia  beginnini.  Still,  their  rosiatanco,  conaidered  aa  that  of  a  people,  wan,  on  Uta 
whole,  obatinate  and  glorioua ;  it  even  appeared  that  there  had  been  formed  a  body  attached 
to  popular  ffovemment,  and  eager  to  redrcsa  the  political  grievance!  under  which  Spain 
jibourod.  Ultimately,  however,  the  eagerness  with  which  the  majority  of  the  nation  acqui- 
•■oed  in  the  syatem  of  absolute  power,  re-established  by  foreign  mterforenco,  tarnished  ita 
inonour,  and  reduced  it  again  to  that  imbecile  and  degraded  atate  in  which  it  had  existed  fbr 
Mveral  centuriea. 

Skt.  TV,— Political  OeograpKy. 

The  constitution  of  Spain,  ever  aince  the  downfall  of  her  liberties  under  Charles  V.,  hfta 
been  the  moat  despotic  of  any  in  Europe,  except  Russia  and  l\irkey.  The  Cortes,  that 
powerAil  asaembly,  whoae  privileges  were  greater  than  those  of  any  other  European  repre< 
■entative  body,  have  aince  that  period  been  rarely  assembled,  and  then  only  partially,  on 
occasions  of  more  form.  The  only  two  bodies  which  possess  any  influence,  are  the  council 
of  state  and  the  council  of  Caatile ;  but  as  these  aio  entirely  under  the  appointment  and 
direction  of  the  monarch,  they  form  little  more  of  a  check  upon  absolute  power,  than  the 
Turkisii  divan. 

Two  attempta  to  restore  a  representative  form  of  government  have  lately  been  made, 
under  circumstancea  which  must  oe  familiar  to  our  readers.  Unluckily,  the  leading  or  liberal 
party  were  hurried,  on  thia  occasion,  into  an  opposite  extreme ;  adopting  the  system  of  uni« 
versaL  sufthige,  forming  themselves  into  one  house,  and  allowing  onlv  a  temporary  vote  to 
the  monarch.  This  system,  which  excluded  the  nobles  and  clergy,  the  most  wealthy  ond 
influential  bodies,  was  iVom  the  first  decidedly  unpopular ;  and  Ferdinand  found  it  easy,  first 
without,  and  afterwards  witJi,  foreign  aid,  to  subvert  it,  and  to  re-establish  in  fiill  plenitude 
the  despotic  sway  excreised  bv  his  predecessors, 

[The  Cortes  were  convoked  anew  in  1634,  with  some  modifications  of  their  ancient  orga> 
nization.  The  body  now  consists  of  two  houses ;  that  of  procoresor  peers,  composed  in  part 
of  hereditary  members,  in  part  of  members  named  by  the  king  fbr  life,  and  the  procurodores 
or  deputies,  elected  by  colleges  of  electors,  who  are  chosen  by  the  principal  citizens.  The 
Cortes  have  extensive  legislative  powers,  but  their  existence  and  authority  have  emanated  fctm 
the  royal  will. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  grandees  and  other  privileged  orders  in  Spain  are  distinguished  for  their  pride  beyond 
any  others  in  Europe.  Even  Charles  V.  was  baffled  in  his  attempt  to  retrench  the  right 
of  wearing  the  hat  m  the  royal  presence.  The  Spanish  nobles  imfmir  their  fortunes  less  by 
extravagance  than  those  of  the  same  rank  elsewhere ;  and  as  they  mtermarry  only  with  each 
other,  the  number  of  titles  or  hats,  as  they  are  called,  continually  accumulates  upon  single 
heads.  The  dukes  of  Medina-Celi,  of  Alba,  of  Infkntado,  of  San  Estevan,  of  Ossuna,  luid 
some  others,  hold  possessions  truly  immense,  covering  whole  provinces.  They  are  adminis 
tered,  indeed,  in  the  worst  possible  manner,  being  kept  in  their  own  hands,  managed  by 
tribes  of  factors  or  intendants,  of  whom  some  nobles  keep  300 ;  so  that  it  is  truly  astonishing 
that  they  should  sometimes  yield  $25,000  or  $40,000  a  year.  As  these  grandees,  however, 
live  not  on  their  estates,  but  in  the  cities,  in  secluded  pomp,  they  have  lost  all  their  feudal 
influence,  and  the  ties  which  united  them  with  the  greater  body  of  the  people.  The  hidalgoi, 
elaiming  nobility  by  descent  firom  the  members  of  great  femilies,  are  much  more  numerous, 
and  form,  in  some  provinces,  a  lar^e  proportion  of  the  inhabitants.  They  are  often  reduced 
to  great  poverty ;  in  which  th^  display  that  union  of  pride  and  indolence  which  has  been 
supposed  characteristic  of  the  Spaniard.  Mr.  White  mentions  a  species  of  illustrious  birth 
quite  peculiar  to  tlis  country,  consisting  in  a  pure  Christian  descent,  wltliout  any  mixture 
of  Jewish  or  Moorish  blood,  which  last  is  supposed  to  produce  so  deep  a  stain,  that  no  time 
can  eflkce  it  The  clergy,  moreover,  exercise  a  paramount  influence  over  the  minds  aa- 
ticularly  of  the  lower  orders,  and  have  been  the  main-spring  in  all  the  movements,  good  or 
bad,  which  for  a  long  time  past  have  taken  place  in  the  Peninsula. 

The  revenue  of  Spain,  though  levied  with  little  regard  to  the  comfort  and  v/ell-being  of 
the  subject,  has  never  risen  to  any  great  amount  Yet  she  is  the  only  power  which  ever 
derived  any  firom  her  colonies;  as  the  quinta,  or  royal  fifth  of  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru, 
after  every  deduction,  brought  home  considerable  treasure;  but  this  souree  of  wealth  is  now 
withdrawn.  The  other  taxes  were  the  most  ruinous  to  industnr  and  trade  ever  contrived 
by  any  government  The  alcavala,  or  impost  upon  each  transference  of  commodities  from 
one  hand  to  another,  seems  expressly  destined  to  impose  fetters  upon  commerce ;  while  the 
royal  monopolies  of  salt,  lead,  powder,  tobacco,  and  other  articles  in  general  use,  have  the 
usual  pernicious  efTecta  Combined  with  those  prohibitory  clauses,  by  which  Spain  endea* 
Tourea  without  success  to  prevent  her  industrious  neighbours  from  supplying  the  wants  of 
her  American  colonies,  they  gave  rise  to  a  vast  contraband,  carried  on  in  almo^  open  defiance 
of  government    Hence  the  taxation  of  Spain,  though  highly  oppressive  to  the  nation,  yields 


Book  L  SPAIN.  IRl 

very  litlla  to  the  crown ;  being  in  a  great  meoauro  abeorbed  by  the  tupport  of  the  (ndividuala 
employed  in  iti  collection,  who  arc  aaiU  to  amount  to  16,680.  Althougn,  therefore,  the  entire 
■um  tal(en  flrom  tlio  people  haa  boon  luipected  not  to  fUl  ihort  of  18,000,000/.  itorlin^f,  the 
receipt  by  (rovorument  in  1828  did  not  exceed  6,960,000i.  The  expenditure  in  that  year 
wtu  tor  the  armv,  2,000,000/. ;  navy,  400,000/. ;  marine,  1,445,000/. :  iiutice,  146,000/. ;  itate, 
lOH.lHX)/. ;  royal  hoiiBchold,  005,000/.  At  the  same  time,  Spain  is  burdened  with  a  debt  of 
16(MKH),000/.  sterling,  of  which  the  revenue  would  be  whioUy  inadequate  to  defray  the  inte* 
rest,  had  not  mure  tlian  half  consisted  of  the  ro^al  vaU>$,  which  do  not  bear  any.  Under  the 
constitutional  govcmmont  a  considerable  addition  of  debt  waa  incurred,  which,  however, 
Ferdinand  VII.  cleared  off  by  refusing  to  acknowledge  it;  while  he  himself  ineffectually 
attempted  to  raise  a  loan  to  any  amount 

The  navy,  at  the  commencement  of  the  lato  war,  was  at  least  respectable,  and  a  formi* 
dablo  auxiliary  to  France.  Tho  fatal  days  of  St.  Vincent  and  Trafalgar,  and  the  fhiitleii 
expeditions  to  Soutli  America,  reduced  it  to  a  feeble  state.  In  1890  it  consisted  of  ton  shipe 
of  tho  lino,  sixteen  frigates,  and  tliirtv  smaller  vessels. 

The  army  of  Spain,  which  under  Charles  V.  and  Philip  waa  the  bravest  and  moat  formi- 
dable in  Europe,  nos  for  a  century  and  a  half  enabled  her  to  rank  very  low  among  military 
nations.  It  is,  however,  at  present  the  beat  organised  part  of  her  establishment.  According 
to  tho  author  of "  A  Year  in  Spain,"  it  consiste  of  S5,000  roval  guards,  and  55,000  troops 
of  tho  lino  and  provincial  militia,  which,  being  commanded  by  experienced  officers,  formed 
during  a  period  of  protracted  warfare,  poasesa  a  conaiderable  degree  of  efficiency;  and  their 
discontent  being  an  object  of  dread,  every  eifort  ia  mode  to  pay  them  regularly.  The  royaliat 
volunteers,  amounting  to  about  300,000  men,  formed  a  band  of  armed  fanatics  almoat  entirely 
under  the  command  of  Uie  priests  and  monks,  and  aeeking  in  their  fkvour  to  lord  it  both  over 
king  and  people. 

'  '     Skjt.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

In  respect  to  industry  and  wealth,  Spain,  which  had  every  opportunity  within  and  without 
of  becoming  the  foremost  nation  of  Europe,  is,  in  fact,  the  poorest  and  the  moat  uncultivated. 
The  insecurity  of  property,  and  the  multiplied  restrainte  imposed  by  an  unenlightened  govern- 
ment, appear  to  be  the  main  causes  which  have  paralyzed  all  branches  of  industry.  The 
fiirioua  bigotry  of  its  monarchs,  in  particular,  led  to  the  most  suicidal  acts  against  the  public 
weal.  At  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  country  contained  a  numerous 
population  of  Jews  and  Moors,  who  formed  ite  most  industrious  and  wealthy  inhabitants,  and 
rendered  it  the  most  flourishing  kinjpfdom  in  Europe.  The  Jews,  unleaa  in  the  alternative  of 
feigned  conversion,  were  expelled  from  the  kingaom  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  Moon 
by  Philip  III.  Although  it  appears  to  be  upon  exaggerated  estimates  that  Spain  has  ever 
been  suppoeed  to  have  previously  contained  20,000,000  of  people,  yet  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  emigration  of  mercantile  communities,  with  their  capital  and  machinery,  must  have 
struck  deeply  at  the  root  of  the  national  prosperity. 

Spanish  agriculture,  it  must  be  confessed,  has  some  obstacles  to  struggle  against  The 
territory,  bs  we  have  had  occasion  to  observe,  is  traversed  in  every  direction  oy  chains  of 
rugged,  and  often  barren,  mountains.    Yet  these  elevated  provinces  being  the  seats  of  com 

¥irative  liberty  and  industry,  are  on  the  whole  the  beat  cultivated  and  the  moat  populous 
he  great  extent  and  continuity  of  these  chains  certainly  present  aerioua  difficulties  to  the 
transport  of  grain.  Wua  government  were  bringing  a  supply  from  Old  Caatile  to  the  capital, 
it  was  found  that  d0,000  beasts  of  burden  were  necessary  to  carry  2000  quarters.    Another 

Sreat  impediment  to  effective  agriculture  consiste  in  the  habit,  purtly  oriental,  partly  formed 
uring  a  long  internal  war&re,  which  leads  the  fanners  to  crowd  into  towns,  and  thus  live 
often  at  many  miles*  distance  fh)m  the  fields  which  they  cultivate.  In  many  cases  they 
merely  piteh  their  tento  during  seed-time  and  harvest,  and  at  other  seasons  pay  only  occa- 
sional visite.  They  are  also  very  poor,  destitute  of  capitel,  and  oppressed  by  the  burden  of 
tithes  and  other  exactions. 

The  grain  produced  in  Spain  ia  of  admirable  quality ;  the  wheat  of  Andalusia  bearing 
a  price  often  or  fifteen  per  cent  higher  than  that  of  any  foreign  wheat  brought  to  the  maiw 
kets  of  Cadiz.  But  a  deplorable  defect  appears,  when  it  is  stated  that  Spain,  a  country 
purely  agricultural,  does  not  grow  com  for  her  own  use,  but  makes  a  regular  importation. 
This,  however,  according  to  Bourgoing,  amounte  only  to  2,000,000  fknegoa  or  400,000  quar- 
ters ;  a  smallproportion  of  the  entire  consumption,  which  may  be  estimated  at  12,000,000 
of  quarters.  The  agriculture  of  Spain,  however,  produces  three  valuable  articles ;  wool,  wine, 
and  barilla. 

The  wool  of  the  merino  is  of  almost  unrivalled  fineness,  though  dearly  purchased  by  the 
system  upon  which  it  is  produced.  Vast  flocks,  amounting  to  20,000, 30,000,  or  even  60,00(^ 
tielong  to  the  grandees,  convents,  and  dignitaries  of  Spam.  After  being  pastured,  during 
summer,  on  the  sides  of  the  mountainb  of  Leon  and  Old  Castile,  they  descend,  in  winter, 
chiefly  to  the  plains  of  Estremadura.  According  to  the  rules  of  the  powerfiil  society  of  the 
metta,  composed  of  the  above  high  members,  they  must  pass  freely,  and  be  allowed,  en  pay- 


573 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


Booh  I. 


iMnt  of  a  vtn  iMdoqiwto  rent,  to  putura  upon  til  tho  unenoloMd  Itndi,  which  forni  th« 
bulk  of  thoM  in  Snua  The  entire  number  of  aheep  in  nil  theNo  wandering  flocki  ii  rcrkonnl 
ftt  &,000,000(  MM  there  are  a  ipreat  numbur  whion  remnin  ■utionary,  and  oi\joy  privilu^fpi 
nearly  aimilar.  The  annual  ihoaring  takoa  place  on  a  fffoat  icaie,  and  with  much  cclobrv 
tion;  and  the  wool  ia  careflilly  aoitsd  into  three  kinJa,  acconlinif  to  the  part  of  the  body 
ftom  which  it  ia  taken. 

The  winea  of  Spain  are  produced  on  tho  fine  plaina  of  the  aouthem  provincea.  The 
moat  important  ia  the  Xerea  or  aherry,  which  haa  como  into  auoh  general  uae  with  the 
Engliah  nation.  Mr.  Jacob  rookona  that  40,()U0  pipea  are  produced  in  the  plain  of  Xcrea; 
of  which  15*000  are  exported,  almoat  the  wholo  to  Bnifland.  Around  Malaga  ia  mado 
wine  atill  more  valued,  tnough  not  in  auch  quantity ;  which,  when  white,  ia  culled  moun- 
tain, when  red,  ttnt  (tinto).  The  northern  and  central  provincea  yield  wine  only  of 
inferior  value. 

Barilla,  the  ftneat  known  apeciea  of  aahea,  and  highly  uaeAil  in  glaae>making,  bleaching, 
and  other  procoaaea,  ia  procured  bv  burning  varioua  apeciea  of  aahne  and  aromatic  planta 
in  the  provincea  of  Muroia  and  Valencia,  and  ia  one  of  the  fbw  articlea  which  other  iiutioni 
can  nowhere  elae  procure  of  equally  good  quality.  Silk  and  oil,  in  the  Mediterranean  pro* 
vincea,  are  only  limited  by  the  want  of  culture  or  demand. 

The  manufticturei  of  Spain  have  been  of  little  importance  aince  the  expulaion  of  the 
Moora.  That  induatrioua  people  introduced  the  ailk  manufacture ;  a  branch  entirely  suited 
to  a  country  where  the  material  ia  produced  in  the  greateat  perfection ;  but  it  ia  now  gene- 
rally decayed,  unleaa  in  Valencia,  where  it  waa  auppoaed  lately  to  employ  SOOO  people. 
The  bladea  of  Toledo  were  once  fiunoua  over  Europe,  and  the  city  haa  atill  a  royal  manu- 
fiustory  of  aworda,  though  of  little  importance.  The  Spanish  government  has  devoted  rather 
an  extraordinary  attention  to  manufactures,  but  unfortunately  socks  to  promote  them  by  the 
king  becoming  nimaelf  tlie  producer.  He  haa  eatabliahed  a  great  factory  of  broadcloth  at 
Guadalaxara,  which,  having  fino  materiala  at  hand,  ia  rather  thriving.  Yet  Spain  does  not 
■upply  herself  with  fine  cloth.  Other  royal  works  are  those  of  porcelain,  at  Son  Ildefonso; 
paper,  in  Segovia ;  cards  and  tapestry  at  Madrid :  all  rather  for  ahow  than  use. 

Commerce,  for  which  Spain  seemed  to  have  monopolised  the  moat  extensive  materials, 
haa  long  been  in  a  state  at  least  as  low  and  depressed  as  any  other  branch.  It  has  suffered 
■everely,  indeed,  fhim  the  immense  importance  attached  to  it  by  the  government,  which 
actually  crushed  it  to  pieces  in  the  attempt  to  prevent  any  portion  fVom  escaping.  To  ab- 
sorb within  their  own  circle  the  entiro  treaaurea  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  was  the  first  pcJey 
of  the  Spanish  aove-^igna.  The  gold  and  ailver  of  thoae  regiona  were  to  be  brought  exclu- 
•ively  to  Spain,  never  to  be  taken  out  of  it,  and  only  the  prrauce  and  manufkcturea  of  that 
country  to  be  sent  in  exchange.  By  a  sad  fktality,  the  commerce  of  the  colonies  was  ca^ 
ried  on  almost  entirely  by  French  and  Elngliah  merchants ;  nearly  all  the  goods  exported 
thither  were  foreign;  and  Spain,  of  all  her  neighbours,  was  the  most  doatitute  of  the  wealth 
accruing  fh>m  this  trade.  These  colonies,  with  the  exception  of  Cuba  and  the  Philippines, 
are  now  gone,  and  with  them  the  greatness  of  Cadiz,  which,  by  the  absurd  monopoly  giunted 
to  her,  became  one  of  the  principal  emporia  of  Europe.  The  trade  of  Spain  consists  now 
in  the  export  of  wines,  fhiits,  brandies,  wool,  silk  raw  and  manufkctured,  lead,  quicksilver, 
barilla,  and  a  few  other  articles,  which,  according  to  a  very  imperfbct  document,  issued  by 
the  Spanish  government,  amounted  in  1626  to  about  1,584,0007.  Of  tliis,  241,000/.  was 
stated  to  be  to  the  colonies.  Her  imports  consist  of  sugar,  cocoa,  aalt  fish,  spices,  wood, 
rice,  butter  and  cheese,  hides,  cotton  wool,  and  almost  every  species  of  manufkctured  com- 
modity. They  are  stated  for  the  same  year  at  about  3,267,000{.,  of  which  724,000?.  wu 
flrom  the  colonies. 

Internal  communication  is  a  particular  in  which  Spain  actually  labours  under  natural  dis- 
advantages, firom  the  obstructed  navigation  of  its  rivers,  and  its  long  and  steep  chains  of 
mountains.  These  obstacles  the  government  has  endeavoured  to  surmount  by  vast  but  ill- 
executed  projects  of  improvement  They  had  conceived  the  plan  of  a  grand  canal,  which, 
passing  through  Asturias,  Old  Castile,  aiid  Aragon,  might  join  Uie  Mediterranean  with  the 
my  of  Biscay.  Of  this  inighbr  undertaking,  only  two  small  portions  exist ;  the  canal  of 
Aragon,  running  parallel  to  the  Ebro  from  Saragosn,  and  that  of  Old  Costile  along  the 
Pisuergai  and  Carrion  by  Placencia ;  but  as  neither  of  them  makes  any  approach  to  the  sea, 
their  benefit  is  very  limited.  The  main  roods  maintained  by  government  between  Madrid 
and  the  other  great  cities  are  good,  and  the  mails  well  conducted ;  but  moet  of  the  other 
communications  are  mere  tracfai  worn  by  the  feet  of  mules,  which  are  chiefly  employed  in 
the  conveyance  of  goods. 

Sbct.  VL— Ctsfl  and  Social  State.  ""''' "">'  "'''    '  '''  '^  '*'' ^ 

The  population  of  Spain,  according  to  a  census  made  in  1796,  amounted  to  10,851,000. 
It  was  generally  undentood,  however,  that  the  jealousy  of  the  people,  and  all  the  obstacles 
osually  encounttted  in  such  undeitakings,  operated  to  a  peculiar  extent  in  diminishing  the 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


m 


niea  was  ca^ 


tinount.  The  cenmii,  in  ITRT-^  (pivfl  only  10,268,000,  of  which  1RR,600  w««  ihtiroh* 
men  ;  and  nmtmg  Uiom,  01,U0()  wore  iimnk*,  aiul  8S,n00  nuns.  Thora  wan  480,000  hU 
dalgoo;  34,(N)U  inerchanU;  40,000  manuflicturorfl  i  371,0(N)  artimnii;  007,000  peaMnte| 
060,(100  dny-labourera ;  'i80,000  domoitic  male  lervanta.  A  cnnmin  waH  iindorUken  in  1890, 
which  waa  not  tUlly  comploted,  but  carried  to  fkr  as  to  prove  tiint  Iho  nuii)bor  of  inhabitant! 
muat  bo  coniidorably  greater  than  tho  above :  it  ia  oitimatod  by  Miimno  at  18,782,000 ,  by 
Ilaaaul  at  18,0S3,(X)0. 

Tho  national  character  of  the  Spaniard  ii  marked  by  itriking  featurea.  The  genuine 
Spaniard  ia  grove,  proud,  adventuroua,  romantic,  honourable,  ana  generous.  It  haa  been 
inainuoted  that  thia  ia  tho  Spaniard  of  the  aixteenth  century,  of  whom  tho  Spaniard  of  the 

[ireaont  day  is  only,  aa  it  wore,  the  ahadow.  But  though  tne  higher  ranks  nave  cortalnlj 
oat  the  original  stamp,  and  become  firivolous  and  diaaipetod,  the  body  of  the  people,  and 
especially  tho  poamntry,  form  a  very  flno  race.  Even  among  the  fbnner,  the  lato  troublee 
brought  forward  nignal  displavs  of  heroism,  though,  as  too  oflen  happens  in  such  casea, 
equally  base  examples  of  troachnry.  In  the  virtue  and  wisilom  of  tho  best  Spaniards,  there 
is  apt  to  be  immcthing  speculative  and  theoretical,  not  applicable  to  the  practical  pnrpoaee 
of  life ;  a  want  of  tho  wisdom  of  action.  In  |)roflporn)is  circumstances  they  readily  give 
way  to  supinenoHs  and  false  confidence ;  but  in  sudden  and  overwhelming  vicissitudes, 
which  sink  the  spirit  of  others,  tlieir  latent  energies  arn  rouncd,  and  they  display  unexpected 
and  surprising  resources.  Although  assasaination,  which  was  once  the  reproach  of  Spain, 
is  greatly  diminished,  yet  a  promptitude  to  fight  and  to  shed  blood,  characteristic  of  all  na< 
tioris  imperfectly  civilized,  is  still  prevalent.  It  ia  accompanied  with  a  readiness  to  rise  in 
tumultuary  insurrections,  and  an  unwillingness  to  submit  to  the  restraints  of  discipline. 
The  jealousy  which  was  wont  to  dwell  so  deep  and  dark  in  the  mind  of  the  Spanish  hua> 
band,  has  been  superseded  by  a  general  laxity  of  morals.  The  custom  ia  (  i .  to  prevail,  that 
every  married  lady  should  have  a  corttjo  or  gallant,  corresponding  to  the  Italian  cicitbeo; 
and  though  tho  usage  mav  not  bo  so  decidedly  criminal  as  it  appears  to  strangers,  it  is  cer* 
tainly  inconsistent  with  those  habits  and  feelings  which  form  tne  felicity  of  the  matrimonial 
state.  In  this  singular  relation,  fixed  rules  are  observed,  and  a  certain  fidelity  is  exacted ; 
the  jealousy  of  the  husband  ia  assumed  by  the  cortejo ;  and  the  lady  who  changes,  at  least 
with  any  frequency,  this  object  of  attachment,  loses  eatte  in  the  eyes  of  the  public. 

The  religious  state  of  Spain  need  only  be  mentioned  to  suggest  the  dark  and  gloomy  fea^ 
tures  by  which  it  is  marked.  That  bif[otry  and  superstition  which  the  Romish  faith  con- 
tracted during  agea  of  darkness,  and  which  in  all  other  countries  is  so  much  abated,  retaina 
nearly  its  fuU  force  in  Spain.  The  Inquisition,  that  firightibl  tribunal,  the  disgrace  of  modem 
Europe,  which  here  helu  its  central  seat,  kept  alive  its  fires  against  all  who  exercised  their 
reason  on  a  subject  connected  with  the  national  faith.  The  order  of  Jesuits,  who  have  been 
called  the  militia  of  the  Romish  church,  originated  also  in  this  country.  The  Inquisition 
per'shcd  in  the  lote  struggle;  yet  a  numerous  body  still  call  aloud  for  its  re-establishment ^ 
and  the  most  liberal  rulers,  whom  the  revolution  raised  to  power,  durst  not  attempt  any  ap> 
prooch  to  toleration,  or  to  trench  upon  the  "  Catholic  religion  one  and  indivisible."  Thu 
spirit  of  bigotry  and  superstition  is  deeply  difllised  through  the  nation,  who,  if  they  no  longer 
demand  that  heretics  snail  be  committed  to  the  flames,  never  doubt  at  least  of  the  future 
tortures  to  which  they  are  destined.  All  the  childish  and  absurd  customs  which  marked  ite 
prevalence  during  the  dork  ages,  are  preserved  nearly  unaltered  ;  the  processions  and  ex- 
hibitions, in  whi<3i  the  events  of  sacred  history  are  represented,  often  in  a  fiuniliar  and  ludi- 
crous manner ;  the  endless  festivals,  which  impoverish  the  nation,  and  fiivour  its  natural 
indolence ;  and  the  zeal  of  multitudes,  who  are  induced  by  mistaken  piety  to  withdraw 
themselves  iVom  their  families  and  the  world.  Mr.  Blanco  White  haa  given  a  striking 
account  of  the  artifices  by  which  the  young  female  is  led  to  make  the  irrevocable  sacrifice ; 
the  respect  and  importance  attached  to  her  during  the  period  of  noviciate ;  the  ceremooiefl, 
which  resemble  those  of  marriage,  even  the  name  of  bride  being  given  to  her;  and  the  die- 
grace  attached  to  a  retractation.  Yet  it  appears  evident,  fi^m  the  same  author,  that  this 
profession  ia  often  deeply  sincere ;  that  it  aids  in  producmg  that  strong  moral  feeling  which 
prevails  throughout  the  nation;  that  many  are  even  tormented  by  minute  conscientiooa 
scruples ;  and  that,  with  such  persons,  absolution,  founded  on  false  pretensions  to  penitence, 
is  considered  as  aggravating  the  guilt  At  the  same  time,  there  is  a  combination  of  deep 
devotion  and  diasdute  conduct,  which  not  only  rapidly  succeed  each  other,  but  actoalW  co> 
exist,  in  a  manner  never  seen  in  anjr  Protestant  society.  It  mav  be  Observed,  that  amid  thie 
thick  darkness  which  covers  the  nation,  a  body  of  men  has  lately  arisen,  of  active  and  en- 
quiring mmds,  who  have  discerned  the  errors  of  the  national  creed,  and  have  possed  to  the 
opposite  extreme.  They  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  however ;  and,  as  already  ob- 
served, even  in  their  greatest  triumph,  although  they  considerably  reduced  the  conventual 
ettablishraents  of  Spain,  they  never  durst  attempt  to  introduce  the  toleration  of  any  ibrm  of 
worship  different  from  the  Catholic.  ^ 

Spanish  literatue,  during  the  era  of  the  national  gloiy,  supported  itself  at  leeat  on  t 


74 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


lOTol  with  that  of  any  other  nation  in  Europe.  Spain  had,  as  it  were,  a  literature  to  itself, 
■carcely  any  of  the  productions  of  which,  if  we  except  the  inimitable  satire  of  Cervantes, 
became  familiar  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  During  the  middle  age,  she  was  rich  in  chivalric 
'X>mance,  the  taste  for  which,  however,  was  banished  by  tiie  appearance  of  Don  Quixote,  a 
change  which  some  lament,  as  having  led  to  the  decline  of  the  national  spirit.  The  poetry 
of  Spain,  roused  by  so  many  vicissitudes  of  internal  revolution  and  transmarine  triumph, 
took  a  somewhat  lolly  flight.  The  Araucana  of  Ercilla,  celbrating  her  conquests  in  the 
New  World,  is  named  together,  though  not  on  a  level,  with  the  best  modern  epics.  Gar- 
cilasso  de  la  Vega,  Viilegas,  Mendoza,  and  others,  chiefly  officers  in  the  army  of  Charles  V., 
introduced  a  style  formed  on  the  Italian  model ;  and,  having  the  advantage  of  a  noble  and 
aoiiorous  language,  worked  up  their  verses  to  the  highest  polish.  But  it  is  in  the  drama, 
that  the  Spaniards  have  been  chiefly  distinguislied.  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon,  indeed, 
construct  their  plots  with  an  entire  disregard  of  the  unities,  filled  with  extravagant  incidents, 
and  strained  and  artiflcial  sentiments.  But  tliey  display  an  inexhaustible  fertility  of  inven- 
tion, and  oilen  strong  traits  of  character ;  so  tliat,  though  they  never  could  be  transferred 
entire  to  any  other  stage,  they  furnished  useful  hints  both  to  the  French  and  English  dra- 
matists. Mariana's  History  ot  Spain  ranks  among  classical  productions;  while  Herrcra  and 
Solis,  though  of  inferior  merit,  have  produced  valuable  histories  of  the  Spanish  transactions 
in  the  New  World.  To  Don  Antonio  de  Solis,  the  Spaniards  are  willing  to  ascribe  that  in- 
imitable satire  on  human  character  and  manners,  Gil  Bias,  which  must,  tliey  say,  have  been 
written  by  a  Spaniard  and  a  courtier.  As  such,  he  might  rejoice  that  it  had  amply  fulfilied 
his  intentions  without  compromising  his  security,  and  could  very  well  afford  to  dispense  with 
the  fiimc  which  redounded  to  its  reputed  author,  Le  Sage.  These  writers  belong  to  the 
classic  age  of  Spain,  which  nearly  expired  with  the  seventeenth  century ;  but  of  late,  the 
intellectual  spirit  which  has  spread  so  actively  throughout  Europe,  has  penetrated  into 
Spain,  and  made  vigorous  struggles  against  the  night  of  ignorance  and  prejudice  in  which 
that  country'  was  involved.  Canipomanes,  Ustariz,  Jovellanoe,  and  Arguelles,  have  endea- 
voured to  trace  the  causes  which  have  paralysed  Spanish  industry,  and  to  discover  tlie  means 
of  reviving  it ;  Feyjod  has  done  much  to  rouse  a  spirit  of  reflection ;  Yriarte,  Isla,  ond  Me- 
lendez  Valdez,  have  produced  agreeable  miscellaneous  writings;  and  Moratin  has  adopted  a 
more  regular  drama,  farmed  on  the  French  model.  There  are  extensive  pulilic  libraries ; 
one,  the  royal  library  in  Madrid,  consisting  of  130,000  volumes,  with  valuable  manuscripts, 
and  a  rich  collection  of  medals ;  and  others  in  the  great  provincial  towns ;  but  the  preva- 
lence of  monkish  legends,  and  the  prohibition  of  many  of  the  most  important  standard  woriiei, 
greatly  limit  their  value.  The  universities  are  numerous,  and  that  of  Salamanca  once  per- 
haps the  most  celebrated  in  Europe  ;  but  education  being  conducted  upon  obsolete  and  scho- 
lastic principles,  and  impregnated  with  the  national  bigotry,  they  have  long  ceased  to  attract 
students  from  any  place  out  of  Spain.  Some  of  the  younger  members  were  supposed  to 
have  embraced  novel  ideas  in  regard  to  religion  and  government ;  whence  they  have  become 
objects  of  jealousy  to  ttic  government,  which  will  probably  be  little  anxious  to  rescue  them 
from  that  decay  into  which  they  were  thrown  by  the  events  of  the  revolution. 

The  fine  arts,  especially  painting,  could  boast  in  Spain  of  adis- 
tihguishcd  school,  marked  by  featuics  strikingly  national  and 
original.  It  is  characterised  by  depth,  force,  great  truth  of  nature, 
and  a  warm  expression  of  devotional  feeling.  Murillo,  Riteira 
(self-named  Spagnoletto),  and  Velasquez,  are  those  alone  whose 
works  are  diffused  throughout  Europe ;  but  by  those  who  have 
visited  Spain,  Cano,  Juanes,  Ribalta,  and  Morales  are  mentioned 
in  terms  of  equal  praise.  The  Escurial  and  other  royal  palaces 
are  likewise  adorned  W  some  of  the  finest  pieces  of  Raphael, 
Titian,  and  Rubens.  This  taste  seems  to  have  declined  with 
that  of  literature ;  and  Townshend  observed  that  the  nobles  set 
little  value  on  the  magnificent  collections  with  which  their 
palaces  were  adorned.  Of  late  the  efforts  to  revive  painting 
have  been  considerable,  but  without  producing  any  artists  of  much 
celebrity.  The  Spaniards  are  fond  of  music,  but  delight  rather 
in  detached  airs  for  the  serenade  and  ball,  than  in  that  higher 
class  in  which  the  Italians  and  Germans  excel.  The  guitar  (Jig.  808.)  as  an  accompaniment 
for  song,  and  the  castanets  for  the  national  dance,  arc  characteristic  Spanish  instruments. 

The  Spaniards  have  &vourite  and  peculiar  diversions.  They  are  most  passionately 
attached  to  the  bull-fight :  a  large  space  is  enclosed,  sometimes  the  great  square  of  the  city, 
around  which  the  people  sit  as  in  an  amphitheatre.  The  bull,  ^ing  introduced,  is  first 
attacked  by  the  picadores,  or  horsemen  armed  with  spears:  a  desperate  conflict  ensues;  the 
horse  is  fi-equentiv  killed  or  overturned  with  his  rider,  wlien  persons  on  foot  run  in,  and 
distract  the  animal,  by  holding  up  different  kinds  of  coloured  stuflb.  He  is  next  attacked  by 
banderilleroM,  or  footmen  armed  with  arrows ;  and  not  only  their  skill,  but  ^eir  dexterity  in 


^^ 


The  Guitar. 


BooeI. 


SPAIN. 


ns 


escape,  are  the  subjects  of  admiration 
SOO 


at  last,  when  the  animal  ia  completely  covered  with 
wounds,  the  matador  or  slayer  appears,  and  closes 
the  scene.  Tumultuous  applause  or  hisninfif  from  the 
populace  accompanies  evei^  part  of  this  savage  per- 
formance, according  to  the  respective  merits  of  the 
bull  or  his  assailants.  The  comparative  exoellenco 
of  different  matadores  becomes  often  a  party  question, 
and  the  su^cct  of  keenly  agitated  discussion  in  tho 
circles  of  Madrid.  Wounds  frequently,  and  death 
sometimes,  are  the  result  to  the  actora  in  this  exhi- 
bition, for  whose  benefit  a  priest  with  holy  water  is 
in  regular  attendance.  Not  less  is  the  fondness  for 
the  dance,  particularly  under  its  national  forms  of 
the  fandango  (Jig.  309.),  the  bolero,  and  the  guan- 
ackOf  performed  with  the  castanet  in  the  hands ;  and 
The  Ftodinio.  •  jjjg  j^^q  former  especially  consisting  chiefly  in  move- 

ments expressive  of  passion,  but  so  little  consonant  to  the  rules  of  decorum,  that  the  indul  ■ 
^ence  shown  to  these  amusements  by  the  church  cannot  but  be  regarded  as  a  matter  of  sur- 
prise. 

The  dress  of  the  Spaniards  is  antique,  and  varies  much  according  to  the  different  provinces ; 
that  of  the  ladies  consists  chiefly  of  a  petticoat  and  a  large  mantilla  or  veil,  covering  the 
upper  part  of  the  person.  The  grandees,  and  the  opulent  m  general,  display  a  profusion  of 
jewels ;  the  dress  of  the  men  is  slight,  and  closely  fitted  to  the  body,  with  the  exception  of 
a  loose  cloak  thrown  ov-ir  the  whole.  The  minister,  Squillace,  under  Charles  III.,  having 
conceived  that  these  cloaks,  by  concealing  the  person,  served  as  a  cover  to  deeds  of  violence, 
stationed  persons  at  the  comers  of  the  streets,  who  seized  the  passengers,  and  forcibly  cut 
down  this  part  of  their  dress  to  the  legal  dimensions ;  but  this  measure  raised  so  violent  and 
general  a  clamour,  that  the  king  was  forced  to  appease  it  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  minister 
who  had  attempted  such  an  obnoxious  curtailment. 

Both  in  eating  and  drinking  the  Spaniards  are  temperate ;  the  only  noted  national  dish  ia 
the  olla  podrida,  in  which  various  meats,  vegetables,  and  herbs  are  mixed  together  in  a 
manner  which  even  foreigners  admit  to  be  palatable.  The  pleasures  of  society  are  chiefly 
sougiit  at  tertulias  or  evening  parties,  where  only  slight  refreshment  is  presented ;  but 
refrescoa  or  dinner  parties  are  given  on  a  large  scale  upon  very  special  occasioi.'ci. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

Of  the  divisions  of  Spain,  tho  most  prominent  is  into  kingdoms  or  principalities,  each  of 
which,  ot  some  period  of  its  eventful  history,  enjoyed  an  independent  existence,  though  they 
are  now  merged  unto  one  monarchy.  More  recently  the  country  has  been  split  into  a  number 
of  smaller  departments  or  jurisdictions;  but  the  original  distinction  into  kingdoms,  being 
founded  upon  natural  limits,  and  maintained  by  feelings  and  impressions  derived  from  former 
independence,  is  still  the  most  interesting.  The  kingdoms  are  New  Castile,  Estremadura, 
Old  Castile,  Leon,  Galicia,  Asturias,  Biscay,  Navarre,  Catalonia,  Aragon,  Valencia,  Murcia, 
Granada,  and  Andalusia. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  Spain,  with  the  extent  and 
population  of  each,  according  to  Hassel : — 


(Madrid 
Toledo 
Oiiadalaxara . 
Cuenca  
La  Mancha  ■ . 

Eatremadura 

IBatfioa 

Old  Castile   )i?"j;,, 


1  Segovia 


Leon 


Avila  ■ 

Leon 

Palencia . .  ■ 

Toro 

Valladolid  . 
Zamora.... 
Salamanca. 


Squara 


110 
734 
163 
045 
031 
1100 
643 
341 
900 
SIS 
403 
14S 
163 
871 
133 
471 


Pnpulltioo, 


208,000 
4R5.000 
li3,m 
363,000 
357,000 
556,000 
013.000 
367.000 
331,000 
153,000 
311,000 
153,000 
136,000 
343,000 
03,000 
273,000 


Asturias . . 
Golicia  ... 
Catalonia- 
Navarre  .  • 


(  Biscay . 


Biscay <  Ouipiiacoa  . 

(  Alava 

Arngon  

Valencia  

Murcia 

Granada  

(Seville 

Andalusia. .  ■  <  Jaen 

(Cordova  ... 


Sqtura 
LMgua. 


3083 

1330 

1003 

SOS 

100 

53 

009 

13,333 

643 

650 

80S 

753 

808 

348 


Fopulalloil. 


565,000 

1,585,000 

1.116,000 

388.000 

145.000 

1:10,000 

0.^000 

856,000 

1,355,000 

403.000 

1,007,000 

BTfl.OOO 

377.000 

335,000 


With  New  Castile,  the  central  and  metropolitan  province,  we  commence  our  survey ;  it 
consists  chiefly  of  an  extensive  plain  enclosed  between  two  of  the  long  parallel  mountain 
ranges,  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama  and  the  Sierra  de  Toledo.  Along  this  plain,  and  parallel 
to  both  ranges,  the  Tagus  flows  in  a  deep  rocky  bed.  Beyond  the  Sierra  de  Toledo,  the 
district  of  La  Mancha,  which  we  include  also  in  New  Castile,  extends  to  a  third  paralle 
mountn'n  range,  the  Sierra  Morena,  dividing  it  from  Andalusia  and  the  southern  provinces 


819 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  III. 


The  plain  of  Castile  Proper  is  elevated  and  naked ;  and  being  thus  exposed  to  the  sun's 
direct  rays,  presents  a  bare  and  parched  appearance.  It  includes,  however,  fertile  valleys, 
producingf  wine,  oil,  grain,  and  fVuits  of  various  kinds;  but  the  inhabitants  are  extremely 
deficient  in  every  species  of  indust^. 

Madrid  (Jig.  310.),  the  capital  of  Castile,  and  of  "  all  the  Spains,"  stands  on  several  low 
hills  on  the  immense  Castilian  plain,  which  on  the  north  appears  bounded  by  the  high  distant 
range  of  tlie  Guadarrama,  but  on  every  other  side  has  no  visible  termination.  A  small  rivulet, 
itie  Manzanares,  flows  past  the  city,  and  falls  into  the  Tagus.   Madrid  is  a  superb  but  some 


Madrid. 


what  gloomy  capital ;  the  houses  are  high,  well  built  of  good  stone,  not  de&ced  by  smoke , 
the  streets  are  well  paved,  and  have  broad  footpaths.  The  main  street  of  Alcala,  long, 
spacious,  and  bordered  on  each  side  by  a  row  of  princely  houses,  attracts  particular  admirar 
tion.  The  Prado,  a  wide  public  walk,  bordered  by  trees,  and  connected  with  gardens  all  open 
to  the  public,  is  equally  conducive  to  ornament  and  pleasure.  There  are  many  public  foun- 
tains, supplied  with  pure,  light,  and  salubrious  water,  filtered  through  beds  of  gravel  and 
sand,  from  a  distance  of  seven  or  eight  leagues.  The  gates  built  bv  Charles  III.  are  uncom- 
monly beautiful,  particularly  that  of  Alcala ;  but  in  a  miserable  wall  which  might  be  battered 
down  by  a  three-pounder  in  half  an  hour.  The  royal  palace,  built  by  Philip  V.,  is  a  spacious 
and  magnificent  structure,  though  the  taste  displayed  in  it  is  a  subject  of  controversy.  It 
contains  numerous  fine  paintings,  which  do  not  equal,  however,  those  of  the  Escurial.  The 
Retiro,  with  its  fine  gardens,  was  defaced  b^  the  French,  who  made  it  a  military  poet ;  an 
extensive  and  costly  menagerie  is  now  formmg  within  its  precmcts.  The  museum  of  sta- 
tuary and  painting,  a  new  and  elegant  building,  has  recently  been  enriched  with  some  of  the 
finest  pictures  from  the  royal  palaces.  The  cabinet  of  natural  history,  supported  by  the 
government,  is  also  a  handsome  structure,  and  its  contents  valuable.  The  environs  of  Madrid 
are  not  remarkable  for  beauty ;  they  are  much  broken  into  hills  and  hollows ;  so  that,  of  the 
200  villages  situated  in  them,  only  three  or  four  can  be  seen  at  once.  Population,  201,000. 

Toledo,  even  in  its  present  decay,  excites  an  interest  equal  or  superior  to  Madrid.  Once 
the  proud  capital  of  Spain,  it  has  a  commanding  site  on  a  lofty  rock,  almost  insulated  by  tha 
Tagus.  A  position  so  strong  rendered  it  a  grand  national  bulwark  during  the  long  ages  of 
internal  warfare,  but  occasioned  its  desertion  during  peace,  when  it  was  felt  as  extremely 
inconvenient,  the  streets  being  so  steep  that  a  carriage  can  scarcely  drive  safely  through 
them.  Its  manu&ctures  of  wool  and  silk,  which  are  said  once  to  nave  employed  nearly 
40,000  men,  have  disappeared ;  and  government  has  in  vain  attempted  to  revive  that  of 
Bwords,  of  which  those  formerly  manufactured  at  Toledo  were  valued  above  all  others.  Its 
population  of  200,000  has  been  reduced  to  25,000 ;  and  it  presents  a  mere  mass  of  narrow, 
deserted,  winding,  and  dirty  streets.  Toledo,  however,  still  exhibits  two  grand  monuments; 
the  Alcazar  or  palace,  and  the  cathedral.  The  former  is  a  noble  and  extensive  pile,  in  a 
pure  style  of  architecture,  and  the  granite  columns  of  the  Corinthian  order  which  adorn  the 
mner  court  are  particularly  admired.  The  grand  staircase  and  spacious  gallery,  no  longer 
crowded  with  guards  and  courtiers,  are  now  dirty,  deserted,  and  silent  The  edifice,  lliough 
neglected  and  decaying,  still  wears  a  stately  and  imposing  aepect;  "and  its  handsome  front, 
immense  quadrangle,  and  elegant  colonnade,  declare  it  to  have  been  the  pride  and  ornament 
of  a  happier  peri(M."  The  cathedral  is  also  one  of  the  grandest  edifices  in  the  Peninsula. 
It  was  originally  a  mosque,  built  m  a  grand  style ;  but  its  simplicity  has  been  much  impaired 
by  tasteless  additions,  and  by  the  profusion  of  gilding,  relics,  and  statues,  with  which  its 
interior  has  been  filled.  It  retained  its  wealth  and  splendour,  however,  till  the  late  war 
when  its  treasures  became  the  prey  of  the  invader,  and  its  six  hundred  ecclesiastics  were 
dispersed,  leaving  only  a  few  to  perform  the  sacred  functions. 

X  wo  other  considerable  towns  in  New  Castile  are  Guadalaxara,  to  the  east  of  Madrid, 
<vhere  the  government  has  established  a  manufiicture  of  fine  cloth  on  a  great  scale ;  it  is  of 
rourse  an  ill-conducted  and  unprofitable  concern ;  yet  it  supports  the  population  of  12,000 


Boo- 

or 
ca;iLi 
plain 
mom 
La 
fJrom 
secto 
greoi 
open 
Pefln 
irivcn 


Boo- 


■\) ... 


SPAIN. 


577 


itics  were 


or  '  H)  in  a  dej^oe  of  comfort  not  usual  in  Spanish  towns:  and  flirther  east,  Cuen^o,  th<> 
ea;iiu.I  of  a  mountain  district  of  the  same  name,  interposed  oetween  Valencia  and  tlio 
plain  of  Castile.  It  is  a  small  ancient  city,  distinguished  by  a  cathedral  and  some  other 
monuments. 

La  Mancho,  sometimes  reckoned  a  separate  province,  is  the  most  southern  part  of  Castile 
from  wliich  it  is  separated  by  the  Sierra  do  Toledo.  It  is  an  immense  table-plain,  inter- 
sected by  different  ridges  of  low  hills  and  rocks,  without  a  tree  except  a  few  dwarf  evei- 
grecn  oaks ;  or  an  enclosure,  except  mud  walls  round  the  villages.  AH  this  vas^  tract  of 
open  country  is  cultivated,  and  produces  corn  or  vines:  its  wine,  especially  tliat  of  Val  de 
Pefias,  enjoys  a  high  repute.  Its  name,  however,  is  chiefly  familiar  to  the  public  as  having 
given  an  appellation  to  the  celebrated  here  of  Cervantes.  The  names  of  Don  Quixote  and 
Sancho  Panza  are  familiar  to  the  district ;  and  the  dress  of  the  peasantry  presents  still  an 
exact  model  of  that  of  the  doughty  squire.  There  are  a  number  of  large  villages ;  and  Ciu- 
dad  Real,  the  capital,  is  well  built  in  a  fine  plain,  though  it  has  lost  much  of  its  former  pros- 
perity.    Almagro  and  Ocafia  are  also  pretty  considerable  towns, 

Estremadura  forms  a  continuation  to  the  west  of  the  same  plain  as  New  Castile,  traversed 
like  it  by  the  Tagus,  and  bounded  by  the  same  ranges  of  mountains.  It  is  a  fine,  wide, 
wild  province,  diversified  by  rugged  mountains,  deep  valleys,  and  almost  boundless  plains. 
The  depopulation  generally  complained  of  in  Spain  seems  more  remarkable  here  than  m  any 
other  province ;  and  vast  tracts  may  be  passed  without  seeing  a  human  habitation.  This 
seems  chiefly  owing  to  the  pernicious  laws  of  the  Mesta,  whicn  assign  it  almost  entirely  for 
the  occupation  of  the  merino  flocks,  when  they  descend  from  the  mountains  of  Leon.  Estre- 
madura, therefore,  forms  a  vast  pastoral  district ;  only  a  small  proportion  of  its  surface  bemg 
necessary  to  furnish  grain  for  its  scattered  population.  Yet  the  Romans  mode  it  one  of  the 
chief  seats  of  their  dominion ;  and  no  part  of  the  Peninsula  exhibits  more  striking  works 
and  monuments  of  that  great  people.  The  Estremenos  also  retain  much  of  the  antique 
Spanish  aspect  and  character ;  and  no  province,  during  the  late  crisis,  made  more  striking  dis- 
plays of  patriotic  energy. 

Tije  cities  are  no  longer  considerable.  Badajos,  the  capital,  a  strange  corruption  of  the 
Roman  name  Pax  Augusta,  is  a  considerable  and  strong  town,  but  much  shattered  by  the 
successive  sieges  it  sustained  in  the  late  war  from  Soult  and  Wellington.  Merida,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Lusitania,  excites  more  interest,  from  the  striking  remains  which  it  pre- 
sents of  Roman  magnificence.  The  amphitheatre,  baths,  a  lofly  triumphal  arch,  three  votive 
altars,  and  a  handsome  stone  bridge,  are  all  magnificent  monuments,  and  in  wonderful  pre- 
servation. Truxillo,  an  old  city,  of  small  extent,  was  the  birth-place  of  Pizarro,  whose 
splendid  mansion  is  still  to  be  seen,  adorned  with  barbarous  trophies  of  his  conquest.  Alma^ 
raz  is  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  very  noble  modern  bridge  adjoining  to  it.  Talavera  de 
la  Rcyna,  once  splendid  but  now  decayed,  has  acquired  recent  lustre  from  being  the  theatre 
of  one  of  the  greatest  battles  fought  during  the  peninsular  war.  In  the  extensive  plain 
north  of  the  Tagus  are  the  two  pleasant  little  cities  of  Corio  and  Placencia ;  the  latter  of 
which  was  the  scene  of  the  singular  monastic  retirement  of  Charles  V.  In  the  mountains 
separating  this  part  of  the  province  from  Leon  is  a  rocky  region,  of  the  most  savage  and 
desolate  character,  called  Batuecas. 

Old  Castile  is  situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  chain  of  mountains  which  forms  the 
nortliem  boundary  of  New  Castile.  It  presents  a  high  variegated  table-land,  separated  on 
the  north  by  the  Cantabrian  chain  from  Asturias.  Some  parts  are  rugg^ed ;  but  it  is,  upon 
the  whole,  a  fertile  well-watered  region,  traversed  by  the  Duero  in  its  early  course. 
There  are  many  tracts  of  rich  pasturage,  and  others  equally  fitted  for  the  growth  of  com. 
It  is,  however,  one  of  the  provinces  in  which  the  marks  of  decay  are  most  striking.  The 
capitals  are  neglected  and  ruinous;  large  portions  are  left  uncultivated;  and  of  the  fine 
manufactures  of  cloth  from  the  merino  wool,  only  a  remnant  is  now  supported  by  the  aid  of 
government  Castilian  pride  and  indolence  have  fixed  here  their  old  and  central  seat :  the 
hidalgos  belonging  to  Old  Castile  amount  to  146,000,  a  much  larger  proportion  than  in  any 
other  province. 

Burgos,  the  once  magnificent  capital  of  the  kings  of  Castile,  and  the  highest  in  rank  of 
any  city  in  the  kingdom,  is  dwindled  into  a  poor  place,  not  containing  above  10,000  inhabit- 
ants. Amid  its  gloomy  and  decayed  st'sets,  however,  towers  the  cathedral,  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  existiv./  in  Europe,  and  the  form  of  which  bears  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  that  of  York  minster.  The  strong  ancient  castle,  which  had  fa.llen 
into  decay,  was  so  far  re-established  by  the  French,  that  it  successfiilly  stood  a  long  siege 
from  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Of  the  other  towns  of  Old  Castile,  Segovia  presents  some  interesting  monuments  of 
Roman  and  Moorish  grandeur.  Its  aqueduct  {fig.  311.),  of  159  arches,  nearly  half  a  mil(» 
long,  and  in  one  place  94  feet  high,  is  a  stupendous  Roman  work,  ranked  by  Swinburne 
above  the  Pont  du  Gard.  The  Alcazar,  or  royal  castle,  was  erected  by  the  Moors  oiva 
•wk  overlooking  a  wide  range  of  country.    After  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Chris- 

Vol.  L  49  '^  3X 


Km 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  01 


Eicarial. 


tians,  it  was  employed  as  a  state  prison,  and  is  now  a  military  school.  Five  centuries  affo, 
Segovia  had  very  extensive  manufactures  of  fine  cloth;  but  these,  notwithetanding  tlie 
„,,  honour  of  having  the  king  for  a  part- 

•i**  Itdi    ner,  have  dwindled  to  a  very  small 

amount.  Population  15,000.  Avila, 
capital  of  a  small  province  of  the 
same  name,  is  a  city  of  ancient  diB< 
tinction;  and  its  mossy  walls,  itj 
towers,  its  Alcazar,  and  the  dome  of 
the  old  cathedral,  render  it  imposing 
at  a  distance ;  but  it  is  in  a  state  of 
wretched  desertion.  The  attempt  to 
establish  manufactures  of  cloth  and 
cotton  has  not  been  successful.  Soria, 
near  Uie  site  of  the  ancient  Numantia, 

its  source,  is  a  tolerable  country  town,  capital  of  one  of  the  smaller  provinces  into  which 

Old  Castile  has  been  subdivided. 

The  palaces  of  the  Escurial  (^Jig.  312.)  and  San  Ildefonso  are  striking  objects  in  Old  Cas< 

. ..     ,.  tile.    The  "royal  monastery"  of  the 

"**  Escurial  was  founded  by  Philip  II.  on  a 

plan  entirely  congenial  to  his  gloomy 
mind.  It  unites  the  characters  of  a 
palace  and  a  convent ;  and  has  the  form 
of  a  gridiron,  tlic  instrument  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Lorenzo,  to  whom  it 
is  dedicated.  Attached  to  it  is  the  Pan- 
theon, a  classic  and  somewhat  profane 
structure,  in  which,  however,  are  in- 
terred all  the  crowned  kings  and  queens 
of  Spain  since  Charles  V.  The  wealth 
of  the  Spanish  monarchs  has  been  con- 
tinually employed  in  adding  new  ornaments  to  this  favourite  residence,  which  is  considered 
by  the  nation  as  the  eighth  wonder  of  the  world;  and  large  volumes  have  been  filled  with 
descriptions  of  it.  The  church  and  the  great  altar  have  scarcely  a  rival  for  magnificence 
and  grandeur  of  effect  The  librm  is  not  extensive,  but  contains  manuscripts,  especially 
Arabic,  that  are  of  great  value.  The  collection  of  paintings,  it  is  probable,  yields  only  to 
that  which  covers  the  walls  of  the  Vatican.  Besides  select  productions  of  Murillo  and 
other  masters  of  the  Spanish  school,  it  contains  several  of  the  greatest  works  of  Raphael, 
Titian,  and  others  of  the  first  Italian  masters.  The  environs  are  wild  and  naked  in  the 
extreme,  witliout  shelter  from  the  cold  blasts  of  winter,  or  the  intense  heats  of  summer. 
On  the  opposite  declivity  of  the  same  mountains,  looking  towards  the  north,  San  Ildefonso, 
without  any  pretensions  to  equal  magnificence,  is  finely  surrounded  by  woods,  gardens,  and 
beautiful  jets  d'eau.  Aranjuez  stands  in  quite  a  different  situation,  on  the  lowest  plain  of 
Castile,  at  the  junction  of  the  Tagus  and  the  Xarama.  It  is  cliiefly  admired  for  its  mag- 
nificent woods  and  gardens ;  the  former  carried  in  long  and  spacious  avenues,  the  latter  con- 
taining in  profusion  the  finest  native  and  exotic  plants. 

Leon  forms  a  continuation  of  the  plain  of  Old  Castile,  along  tl  i'  lower  course  of  the 
Duero,  and  bounded  by  the  same  ranges  of  mountains.  For  several  centuries  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  kingdom,  comprising  the  chief  Christian  power  in  Spain,  until  it  was  united  to  that 
of  Castile.  It  is  almost  entirely  within  the  domain  of  the  mesta,  and  thus  devoted  princi- 
pally to  pasturage.  The  consequent  depopulation  has  been  very  great;  insomuch  that, 
according  to  Townshend,  the  bishopric  of  Salamanca,  which  once  contained  748  townships, 
is  now  reduced  to  333.  The  vast  extent  of  open  plain  which  forms  the  centre  of  this  pnv 
vince  has  been  found  highly  favourable  to  an  invader  who  possessed  superior  cavalry ;  such 
as  the  Moors  once,  and  more  latterly  the  French. 

The  cities  of  Leon  are  almost  solely  interesting  from  the  traces  which  they  present  of 
ancient  grandeur.  Leon  itself,  by  its  highly  ornamented  cathedral,  its  nine  convents,  and 
its  ancient  palace,  testifies  the  remote  period  when  it  was  the  seat  of  royalty ;  but  a  hetero- 
geneous assemblage  of  dirty  streets  filled  with  beggars,  splendid  churches,  and  half-ruined 
Runily  mansions,  are  all  that  it  now  presents.  Salamanca,  by  its  university,  has  acquired  a 
much  greater  fame.  This  seminary,  one  of  the  first  in  Europe,  was  founded  in  1200,  and 
extended  during  the  same  century  by  Alfonso  the  Wise,  celebrated  for  the  progress  which 
astronomy  made  under  his  auspices.  From  the  medical  knowledge  of  Avicenna,  Averroes, 
and  other  Arabian  sages,  it  derived  a  character  superior  to  those  of  the  other  monkish  univer- 
sities during  the  middle  ages.  Salamanca,  however,  remained  stationary  in  the  fourteenth 
century ;  and,  while  sound  science  was  spreading  through  the  rest  of  Europe,  continued  tu 


BOOE  ll 

occupy  I 
Its  studi 
crowde 
made  < 
was  alt 
streets  i 
city;  oil 

Saced  til 
Ir.  Wh| 
liberal 
French  i 
or  batteil 
must  no| 
giving  1 
"alh 


Book  I.  !"•'      SPAIN.        •'<•■.■■?.■.;  j^j<t 

occupy  its  students  with  dogmatic  theol  gy,  and  with  the  worship  of  Aristotle  and  Aquinaa.  ' 
Its  students,  once  reckoned  at  16,000,  have  been  reduced  to  less  than  2000.  Salamanca  i»  ' 
crowded  with  sacred  edifices,  to  enrich  which,  all  the  four  comers  of  the  world  have  been  '' 
mode  to  contribute ;  and  on  days  of  high  festival  the  display  of  silver  and  precious  stones  | 
was  altogether  dazzling.  The  cathedru  and  principal  square  are  very  magnificent,  but  thA 
streets  are  narrow  and  gloomy.  Captain  Sherer,  in  1818,  found  Salamanca  quite  a  deserted 
city ;  only  a  few  of  the  old  professors  and  youthfiil  students  still  lingered  in  the  colleges,  or 

Saced  the  spacious  aisles  of  the  ele^nt  cathedral.  Of  the  latter,  some,  as  appears  firom 
fr.  White,  notwithstanding  the  antiquated  course  of  instruction,  had  adopted  modern  ana 
liberal  ideas,  and  in  the  late  crisis  obeyed  the  call  of  their  country  and  of  liberty.  The 
French  having  made  Salamanca  a  military  position,  a  great  part  of  the  place  was  levelled 
or  battered  down ;  and  subsequent  events  have  not  been  favourable  to  its  restoration.  We  "' 
must  not,  however,  dismiss  Salamanca  without  noticing  the  new  lustre  it  has  derived  from 
giving  name  to  one  of  the  most  splendid  of  Wellington's  victories. 

Valladolid  has  a  great  name  in  history.  Charles  V.  made  it  his  capital,  and  it  continued 
to  be  the  residence  of  the  Spanish  court  until  Philip  IV.  removed  it  to  Madrid.  In  these 
splendid  days  Valladolid  was  supposed,  perhaps  with  some  exaggeration,  to  contam  200,000 
inhabitants,  now  reduced  to  a  tenth  of  that  number.  Yet  it  covers  a  very  large  space  of 
ground ;  and  the  numberless  spires,  domes,  and  turrets  of  its  sacred  edifices  give  it  still  the 
appearance  of  a  large  metropolis.  Its  university  is  attended  by  2000  students,  and  taught 
by  forty-two  professors  and  fifty  doctors.  After  a  very  marked  period  of  decay,  Valladolid 
experienced  lately  a  considerable  revival.  Its  environs  are  particularly  healthy  and 
agreeable. 

Several  other  large  decayed  towns  attest  the  former  grandeur  of  Leon.  Zamorn  and  Toro, 
both  on  the  Duero,  are  capitals  of  two  of  the  small  provinces.  Benavente  is  distinguished 
by  its  castle,  which  has  been  described  as  one  of  the  grandest  monuments  of  the  age  of 
chivalry ;  and  Tordesillas  was  a  royal  residence  in  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  Astorga,  once 
capital  of  the  Asturias,  and  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  the  Peninsula,  has  lost  its  strength  and 
magnitude.  Palencia  is  also  a  small  capital,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Carrion,  having  a 
little  inland  trade.  Ciudad  Rodrigo  is  a  national  barrier  on  the  Portuguese  frontier,  still 
kept  up  as  a  strong  fortress,  which  sustained  successive  sieges  during  the  peninsular  war. 

Galicia,  separated  by  its  mountain  boundary  from  Leon,  forms  the  north-western  comer 
of  the  Peninsula.  It  is  entirely  a  highland  and  alpine  region,  broken  into  rugged  rocks  and 
narrow  passes,  though  with  valleys  of  great  fertility  and  of  peculiar  beauty  interspersed. 
The  Gallegos  are  industrious;  and  the  country  is  better  peopled  than  many  of  the  more 
favoured  regions  of  the  Peninsula.  Tliey  are  hardy  and  enterprising,  and  often  leave  thia 
barren  territory  to  seek  employment  in  the  cities  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  where,  like  the 
Scottish  highlanders,  they  act  chiefly  as  porters  and  servants.  The  shores  and  ports  of  Ga- 
licia are  celebrated  in  naval  history,  forming  as  it  were  the  outer  coasts  of  Europe,  beaten 
by  the  waves  of  a  tempestuous  ocean,  and  where  fleets  from  the  distant  quarters  of  the 
globe  often  made  their  first  appearance  in  Europe,  and  met  with  hostile  fleets  on  the  watch 
for  them. 

The  interior  towns  of  Galicia  have  for  their  capital,  St.  Jago  de  Compostella,  the  most 
celebrated  shrine  of  the  Peninsula,  supposed  to  contain  the  body  of  St.  James,  its  patron. 
In  the  chapel  dedicated  to  him  is  his  statue,  two  feet  high,  of  pure  gold,  illuminated  every 
night  by  2(X)0  wax  tapers.  Twenty-two  other  chapels  have  been  enriched  by  the  offerings 
of  pilgrims  from  every  part  of  the  Peninsula,  whose  numbers  have  diminished.  Lugo  pre- 
sents the  poor  remains  of  an  ancient  city  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  towers,  once  of  great 
strength,  but  now  mouldering  into  ruin.  Orense,  a  little  city,  formerly  celebrated  for  its  hot 
springs,  and  Tuy,  a  strongly  situated  fortress,  are  on  the  Portuguese  frontier. 

Of  the  seaports  of  Galicia,  Vigo  had  the  greatest  reputation,  several  great  naval  actions 
having  been  fought  near  it ;  particularly  that  of  1702,  when  the  whole  fleet  of  Spanish 
galleons  was  sunk  or  taken  by  the  Englisli.  It  has  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  Spain ; 
which,  however,  since  Ferrol  became  the  chief  naval  station,  is  only  employed  for  a  limited 
coasting  trade.  Corunna  on  the  Groyne  is  now  the  most  trading  place  in  the  province,  and 
packets  sail  from  it  to  England  and  America.  It  is  a  steep,  dirty,  but  well-paved  town,  of 
no  strength,  being  commanded  by  the  neighbouring  heights.  Population  23,000.  Fem>l, 
since  1752,  has  been  made  the  chief  naval  station  of  Spain.  Its  harbour,  besides  being  one 
of  the  safest  and  most  spacious  in  Europe,  has  the  advantage  of  being  accessible  only  by  a 
narrow  wmding  passage  which  can  be  rendered  almost  impassable  by  a  chain  efforts.  A 
considerable  city  has  been  formed,  and  very  extensive  docks  and  arsenals  built ;  but  since 
the  extinction  of  the  Spanish  navy,  these  have  of  course  fallen  into  considerable  neglect, 
rcpuiatiun  xo,uuu. 

The  Asturias  form  a  long  narrow  strip  between  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Cantabrian 
mountains,  which  extend  along  its  whole  length.  It  is  celebrated  in  history  as  the  sacred 
retreat  in  which  the  hero  Pelayo  raised  again  the  national  standard,  after  it  seemed  for  ever 
trampled  under  foot  by  the  Saracen  invaders.    Since  the  tburteenth  century  the  Asturiu 


wo 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  111. 


hiive  ffivon  the  title  of  prince  to  tlio  heirs  of  tho  Spanisli  throne.  The  province  is  approached 
only  by  narrow  ravines  and  posses,  througii  wiiich  torrents  dasii,  and  whicii  are  ovorimn^  by 
Bteep  clifls  and  luxuriant  woods.     There  are,  however,  a  number  of  valleys,  and  tlie  whole 

Slain  of  Oviedo  is  distinguished  both  for  fruilfulness  and  beauty.  Instead  of  wine,  a  good 
eal  of  tolerable  cider  is  made  and  exported :  amber,  jet,  and  coal  abound,  but  tlio  la^t 
strongly  impregnated  witli  sulphur.  Tiic  Asturians  ure  brave  and  proud,  boasting  that  their 
country  was  never  conciuered,  even  by  the  Romans ;  and  more  than  a  third  part  of  the  p<>,)u- 
lation  IS  composed  of  hidalgos. 

Oviedo,  the  only  lar^e  town,  has  mora  magniiiccnce  tlian  its  situation  might  lead  us  Ui 
expect:  the  cathedral  m  particular,  long  tho  only  shrine  secure  from  the  rage  of  tl>e  invader, 
aflorded  an  asylum  to  many  pious  treasures  scattered  through  the  Peninsula.  These,  how- 
ever, consist  chiefly  of  relics,  valuable  only  to  devout  and  believing  eyes.  Among  them  are 
the  rod  of  Moses,  the  mantle  of  Elias,  the  olive-branch  borne  aloti  m  entering  Jerusalem; 
thorns  from  the  sacred  crown ;  the  milk  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  &c.  Oviedo  is  still  a  con- 
siderable town,  with  a  rich  bishopric,  and  many  religious  houses,  of  which  the  principal  is  a 
convent  of  Benedictine  nuns.  Population  1U,0()0.  Gijon,  though  with  a  costly  and  not  very 
complete  harbour,  carries  on  all  the  little  trade  of  the  province.  Avila  and  Santillana  arc 
large  villages,  giving  their  name  to  districts.  Siintander  and  Santona  are  sea-ports  of  some 
little  consequence,  in  the  district  of  Montana,  on  the  borders  of  Biscay. 

Biscay  is  a  small,  high,  rugged  province,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Pyrenees.  Streams 
descendmg  from  its  numerous  iieights,  combine  in  forming  the  channel  of  the  Upper  Ebro. 
The  Basques  are  a  peculiar  race,  preserving  tlio  only  remnant  which  revolutions  have  lelt 
in  the  Peninsula,  of  Celtic  language  and  aspect.  Under  tlie  name  of  Cantabria,  this  region 
presented  a  barrier  even  to  Roman  conquest ;  and  though  the  Saracens  penetrated  through 
It  into  the  plains  of  France,  it  is  still  boasted  tliat  they  never  could  reach  the  mountains  of 
High  Cantabria.  The  Basques,  amid  the  geheral  slavery  of  Spain,  have  still  preserved 
some  portion  of  their  original  rights.  They  have  a  cortes  of  their  own;  and  the  taxes,  levied 
by  provincial  authority,  are  presented  to  the  sovereign  in  the  form  of  a  free  gitl.  Every 
native  Biscayan  is  an  hidalgo  or  noble,  scarcely  owning  a  superiority  of  birth  in  the  proudest 
Costilian.  With  all  this  they  are  excessively  industrious ;  tho  mountain  declivities  are  cul- 
tivated OS  high  OS  the  plough  can  reach ;  and  while  the  finest  plains  of  Castile  arc  nearly  a 
desert,  Biscay's  rude  vales  are  covered  with  a  numerous  population. 

The  cities  in  sucli  a  district  cannot  be  large :  yot  Bilboa,  the  capital,  situated  on  the 
Ybaizabal,  which  admits  large  vessels  up  to  the  town,  is  one  of  the  most  commercial  places 
in  Spain,  with  15,000  inliabitants.  Most  of  the  merino  wool  from  the  plains  of  Castile  in 
brought  hither  for  exportation.  Biscay  Proper  contains  also  Orduna,  a  neat  little  city,  and 
numerous  villages.  Guipuscoa  is  another  district,  lying  more  to  the  east,  and  in  closer  con- 
tact with  France.  Its  capital  is  St.  Sebastian,  an  indillbrcnt  port,  but  a  neat,  tolerably  large 
city,  and  so  strongly  fortihed  as  to  bo  considered  one  of  tho  four  keys  of  the  kingdom ;  the 
others  being  Pamplona,  Barcelona,  and  Figucras.  Fontarabia,  close  to  tlie  frontier,  has  a 
great  name  in  history,  but  little  else  is  now  left.  Tho  small  village  of  Irun  stands  on  the 
immediate  bank  of  the  Bidassca,  whose  broad  clear  stream,  descending  from  the  Pyrenees, 
forms  the  boundary  between  two  rival  and  long  hostile  nations.  More  in  the  interior,  and 
on  a  lower  level,  is  the  district  of  Alava,  having  for  its  capital  Vittoria,  a  somewhat  well- 
built  modern  town,  and  celebrated  as  the  theatre  of  the  complete  victory  there  gained  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  over  the  French  army  under  Joseph  Bonaparte,  which  was  thence 
finally  expelled  from  the  Peninsula. 

Navarre  is  a  small  province  or  kingdom,  lying  immediately  beneath  the  highest  and 
steepest  Pyrenees.  Eight  very  difficult  passes  penetrate  through  them  into  France,  but 
scarcely  any  one  passable  for  tiie  artillery  and  train  of  an  army.  The  principal  is  that  of 
St  Jean  Pied  de  Port ;  on  the  French  side  of  which  is  Roncesvalles,  or  Roncevaux,  cele- 
brated in  history,  and  still  more  in  romance,  for  the  disaster  which  there  befell  Charlemagne 
and  his  knights.  For  many  centuries  it  formed  a  separate  littlo  kingdom  connected  with 
France,  until  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  succeeded  in  annexing  to  Spain  all  the  part  south  of 
rhe  Pyrenees.  Navarre  retains,  however,  privileges  and  customs  peculiar  to  itself,  and  '*b 
governor  bears  the  title  of  viceroy.  The  population  is  active,  hardy,  and  brave.  The  banaa 
of  guerrillas  under  Mina  proved  the  most  formidable  irregular  force  with  which  the  French 
had  to  contend  in  the  Peninsula.  Pamplona,  or  Parapeluna,  the  capital,  the  foundation  of 
which  is  ascribed  to  Pompey,  is  one  of  the  chief  bulwarks  of  the  Peninsula,  and  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  Europe.  It  was  reduced  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  bv  thi 
French,  in  their  last  invasion,  after  a  long  blockade.  There  are  also  Tudela  and  Calahorra, 
ittle  towns  on  the  Ebro.    Pampeluna  has  10,000  inhabitants. 

Aragon,  south  from  Navarre,  is  an  extensive  province,  extending  along  the  greater  part 
of  the  course  of  the  Ebro ;  whence  it  reaclies  on  one  side  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  on  the  other 
to  the  chains  which  shut  in  the  Castiles  and  Valencia,  A  great  part  of  it  is  rugged  and 
barren ;  though  other  tracts  in  the  central  plains,  and  along  the  rivers,  are  very  suKceptib'r 
of  culture.    Aragon,  during  the  middle  ages,  was  a  powerful  kingdom,  comprising  Catalonia 


Book  I. 


SPAIN.     ':Oi-  '1 


661 


and  Valencia,  forming  the  half  of  Christian  Spain,  then  divided  between  it  and  Castile. 
Even  after  tlio  union  of  the  crowns  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  it  still  enjoyed  its  consti- 
tution and  its  cortes,  which  oxcruiscd  lii};her  prcrogntivi^B,  and  kept  the  power  of  the  kings 
under  stricter  limitations,  than  any  Bimiiar  assembly  in  Europe.  Of  these  it  was  deprived 
by  the  unfortunate  issue  of  the  civil  war  under  Charles  V.,  and  more  completely  by  the 
Ikiurbon  succession,  after  Ara^on  had  espoused  the  cause  of  Charles  of  Austria.  The  pea> 
santry  of  this  province  are  a  hno  body  of  men,  stout,  brave,  and  honest.  Culture  and  popu- 
iation  are  generally  in  a  backward  state ;  yet  the  canal  of  Aragon,  conducted  parallel  to  the 
course  of  the  Ebro,  though  it  has  not  yet  reached  the  sea,  according  to  its  destination,  has 
given  a  considerable  impulse  to  the  agriculture  of  the  district  thro  gh  which  it  is  led. 

Saragossa,  or  Zaragoza,  the  capital  of  Aragon,  is  a  large  and  celebrated  city,  situated 
amid  a  lino  plain,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ebro  and  of  the  canal  of  Aragon.  From  Augustus, 
who  enlarged  and  improved  it,  the  city  was  called  Ctesar- Augusta,  corrupted  into  Sarogossa. 
It  is  not  well  built,  the  streets  being  narrow  and  crooked ;  but  tiiere  are  several  open  market- 
places, and  some  verv  splendid  religious  edifices.  The  principal  is  that  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin,  under  the  title  of  "  Our  Lady  of  the  Pillar ;"  an  object  of  the  most  profound  venera- 
tion to  the  citizens,  and  enriched  by  offerings  from  every  part  of  Spain.  The  church  of  St, 
Engnicia  is  also  filled  with  relics  and  gifts ;  and  each  of  the  forty  convents  of  Saragossa  has 
its  peculiar  boast,  A  stone  bridge,  and  the  finest  wooden  bridge  in  Europe,  are  thrown  over 
the  Ebro,  The  university  has  2()0()  students,  but  not  much  literature,  Sarogossa  has  ei..med 
an  immortal  name  by  her  heroic  resistance  against  the  unprincipled  mvasion  of  Napoleon,  in 
1808.  Without  walls,  except  an  old  one  of  earth,  which  could  not  resist  for  an  hour  an 
attack  conducted  on  modern  principles ;  without  army,  arms,  or  artillery,  it  maintained  a  long 
and  finally  successful  conflict  witli  the  French,  in  their  first  invasion.  Afterwards,  when 
assailed  by  an  immense  and  overwhelming  force,  the  flower  of  the  French  armies,  without 
hope  of  relief,  it  made  a  mighty  resistance ;  and  it  was  only  by  mining  operations,  blowing 
up  successively  house  after  iiouse,  that  the  French  finally  became  its  masters,  after  having 
reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  ruins.     Population  43,000. 

Aragon  has  some  other  small  ancient  towns,  ranking  even  as  cities;  Jaca  and  Huesca  on 
the  northern  firontier  among  tlie  Pyrenees,  both  episcopal  seats;  Daroca  and  Calatayud  in 
tlie  plain  bordering  on  Castile ;  the  former  enclosed  witli  large  ruined  fortifications,  the  latter 
industrious,  and  surrounded  by  a  smiling  country. 

Catalonia,  to  the  east  of  Aragon,  is  one  of  the  finest  and  most  extensive  provinces  of  Spain. 
It  presents  a  remarkable  variety  of  surfiice,  from  the  steep  and  rugged  heights  of  the  higher 
Pyrenees,  to  the  elevated  valleys  of  Upper  Catalonia,  and  the  luxuriant  though  not  very 
extensive  plains  tliat  border  on  the  Mediterranean,  The  Catalans  redeem  to  a  great  extent 
the  Spanish  national  character,  uniting  with  its  loftiness  and  energy  a  spirit  and  au  activity 
which  are  elsewhere  wanting.  They  have  been  always  commercial,  industrious,  and  fond 
of  liberty.  After  bearing  successively  the  yoke  of  the  Romans,  the  Gotlis,  and  the  Sara^ 
cens,  Catalonia  was  long  ruled  by  counts  of  French  descent,  whose  posterity  extended  their 
sway  over  Aragon,  and  finally  over  the  whole  Peninsula,  in  which  this  principality  merged. 
The  Catalans,  however,  bore  more  impatiently  than  other  Spaniards  the  loss  of  their  privi- 
leges ;  and  duruig  the  war  of  tiie  succession,  on  receiving  a  pledge  for  their  restitution, 
espoused  with  extraordinary  ardour  the  couse  of  the  Archduke  Charles.  Even  after  its 
unfortunate  issue,  when  deserted  by  Britain  and  all  the  other  powers,  they  made  a  last  dread- 
ful struggle,  which  ended,  however,  in  the  loss  of  all  those  rights  for  which  they  had  so 
nobly  contended.  In  the  last  two  wars,  Catalonia  acted  a  most  conspicuous  port ;  maintaining 
an  unremitted  resistance  to  France,  notwitlistanding  the  close  vicinity  of  that  kingdom,  and 
in  the  late  constitutional  struggle  making  efforts,  both  for  and  against  liberty,  much  greater 
than  any  other  province. 

Barcelona  is,  after  tlie  capital,  the  largest  city,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  industrious 
and  flourishing,  of  all  Spain,  containing  150,000  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  about  the  centre 
of  the  Catalonian  coast,  and  draws  its  subsistence  from  a  fertile  and  extensive  plain  behind. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  originally  a  Carthaginian  town,  founded  by  Hamilcar  Barcas ;  but  rose 
to  little  distuiction  under  the  Romans,  who  made  Tarraco  the  capital  of  all  eastern  Spain. 
It  was  not  till  the  twelfth  century  that  Barcelona  began  to  be  distinguished  for  its  commer- 
cial spirit.  It  suffered  severely  during  successive  wars,  particularly  that  of  the  succession; 
but  in  the  course  of  the  last  century,  the  exertions  of  its  patriotic  governor,  the  Marquis  of 
Mina,  enabled  it  to  retrieve  all  its  losses,  and  become  more  prosperous  than  ever.  The  port 
is  artificial,  formed  by  solid  and  convenient  moles,  but  has  a  bar  at  its  entrance,  which 
excludes  vessels  drawing  more  than  twelve  feet  of  water.  It  carried  on  a  great  and  various 
traffic ;  had  woollen,  silk,  and  cotton  manufactories,  all  on  a  considerable  scale ;  about  a 
thousand  vessels  annually  entered  its  port :  and  the  whole  amount  of  exports  was  reckoned 
by  Laborda  at  1,750,000^.  According  to  the  latest  account,  however,  by  the  author  of  "A 
Year  in  Spain,"  the  late  disasters  and  misgovernment  have  caused  a  great  declension  in  the 
ahovo  branches  of  manufacture ;  and  instead  of  the  ranges  of  tall  masts  assembled  within 

49* 


668 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaiitIII 


its  mole,  thoro  are  to  be  seen  only  a  paltry  oiigeniblago  of  fishing-boata  and  feluccas.  The 
ecclesiastical  odiAcoa  of  Barcelona  are  handoonio,  particularly  the  catliedral,  thouffh  not  of 
■0  grand  a  character  aa  those  in  some  otlior  parts  ot  Spain.  The  convent  of  the  Dominicana 
has  a  singular  series  of  ornaments,  the  sentonccs  of  tive  hundred  heretics  decreed  by  the 
Inquisition,  and  under  each  sentence  a  representation  of  tlio  suflbrer,  whom  the  demons,  in 
various  shapes,  are  torturing  and  devourmg.  The  walls  of  Barcelona  are  strong,  but  its 
chief  dependence  is  upon  the  citadel  of  Montjuich,  which  commands  it,  and  is  considered 
almost  impregnable,  though  the  Earl  of  l'ctcrborou|j;h  took  it  by  surprise.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  ot  the  succession,  when  Barcelona  was  besieged  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  a  terrible 
and  almost  frantic  rcsisLince  was  niude  in  the  streets,  not  bv  troop,  but  by  priests,  students, 
tradesmen,  and  even  won  en :  the  consoqiionccs  were  terrible.  Bonaparte,  m  1BU8,  obtained 
by  treachery  and  threats  tno  cession  of  this  and  the  other  keys  of  the  kingdom ;  but  in  the 
late  invasion,  its  resistance  against  Moucey  was  most  gallant. 

There  are  several  ether  largo,  ancient,  and  strong  towns  in  Catalonia.  Tarragona,  the 
Roman  capital  of  the  east  of  Spain,  has  fallen  into  groat  comparative  decay,  ana  has  but 
12,000  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  on  a  rocky  peninsula,  and  presents  many  traces  of  Roman 
antiquity,  as  of  the  palace  of  Augustus,  the  amphitheatre,  ana  an  extensive  aqueduct.  Mure 
recently,  tlie  harbour  has  been  improved,  and  somo  new  streets  built ;  and  in  the  war  of 
1808,  the  fortitications  wore  restored,  and  the  city  made  a  brave  defence  against  Marshal 
Suchet,  who  at  length  carried  it  by  storm,  with  circumstances  of  groat  cruelty.  Tortosa  is 
also  a  considerable  and  ancient  city  near  the  moutii  of  the  Ehro,  which  is  there  broad  and 
navigable.  It  made  a  distinguished  figure  during  the  wars  with  the  Moors,  chiefly  through 
the  exploits  of  its  heroines,  to  commemorate  whoso  valour  a  military  order  was  instituted  by 
Raymond  Bercngcr.  Its  position  on  tlie  river  affords  scope  for  a  considerable  trade ;  and 
during  tlie  last  war  its  fortifications  were  restored  by  the  Spaniards.  It  contains  16,000 
inhabitants.  Between  tlie  two  last-mentioned  cities  has  arisen,  within  the  last  half  centurr, 
Reus,  a  large,  flourishing,  industrious  town,  carrying  on  various  manufactures,  particularly 
of  brandy  and  leather.  Population  25,000.  All  these  are  on  the  coast  west  of  Barcelona. 
To  the  east  the  chief  place  is  Gerona,  a  largo  gloomy  town,  in  a  fine  situation.  It  is  well 
fortified ;  and  its  resistance,  protracted  for  moro  than  half  a  year,  to  the  unremitted  efforts 
of  Bonaparte's  generals,  formed  one  of  the  most  glorious  events  of  the  peninsular  war. 
Rosas,  a  little  town,  prettily  situated  in  a  fine  bay,  exports  cork  and  other  timber.  In  the 
interior,  Lerida,  distinguished  as  a  Roman  station  under  the  name  of  Ilerda,  is  a  large  and 
strong  town,  situated  in  a  most  delightful  country  on  the  banks  of  the  Segre.  A  consider* 
able  stand  was  made  here  by  tlie  patriotic  armies  during  the  French  invasion.  Mequinenza, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Segre  with  the  Ebro,  is  also  an  important  military  post.  Cervera,  the 
seat  of  a  considerable  university,  and  Igualada,  are  pretty  large  interior  towns,  supported  by 
the  produce  of  the  rich  vales  in  which  they  arc  situated.  But  the  most  striking  feature  in 
all  Catalonia  ia  the  single,  lofly,  and  precipitous  mountain  of  Montserrat  {fig.  313.).    It  con* 

„.„  sists  of  a  crowd  of  conical  hills  piled  over 

^^°  each  other,  broken  into  steep  walls  of  white 

and  variously  tinted  limestone  cliffs,  the 

interstices  of  which  are  filled  with  ever- 

Sccn  and  deciduous  trees  and  plants.  The 
tncdictino  monastery,  an  ancient  and  re- 
markable structure,  stands  on  a  cleft  at 
the  top  of  a  high  rock,  where  space  is 
scarcely  left  for  the  edifice,  while  fer  be- 
neath roars  the  Llobregat  Numerous  her- 
mitages pitched  on  the  top  of  precipices, 
or  in  cavities  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  increase 
the  singular  and  romantic  appearance  of 
the  scene.  Thin  mountain,  in  tlie  last  war,  was  converted  into  an  almost  impregnable  mili- 
tary position.  On  the  highest  of  all  the  Catalonian  vales,  which  is  extensive,  and  rich  in 
^in,  stands  Urgel,  a  small  episcopal  see,  and  a  strong  military  post,  the  roads  being  almost 
impassable  to  artillery. 

Valencia,  beginning  from  the  border  of  Catalonia  and  Aragon,  occupies  an  extensive  coast 
running  from  north  to  south,  and  is  the  first  of  the  southern  provinces.  The  plain  ranks  as 
the  garden  of  Spain,  and  almost  of  Europe.  The  fields  of  com ;  the  yellow  green  of  the 
mulberry  plantations,  the  pale  hue  of  the  olive ;  the  woods,  villages,  and  convents,  thickly 
scattered  over  this  great  expanse,  with  numberless  slender  steeples,  present,  when  united, 
an  inimitable  landscape.  The  country  is  finely  watered  by  tlie  Xucar,  the  Guadalaviar,  and 
other  rivers,  numerous  tliougii  not  of  long  course.  A  great  extent  of  artificial  navigation 
was  formed  bv  the  Moors,  and  is  still  kept  up,  though  not  in  a  very  complete  state.  The 
orovince  yields,  in  abundance,  the  usual  products,  com,  wine,  oil,  silk ;  with  rice  enough  to 
supply  the  greater  part  of  Spain,  and  barilla  for  exportatiui.  The  Valencians  are  very  indua* 


Hontwrrat 


PAmTin 

luccas.  The 
Jiouf^h  not  of 
0  Dominicans 
creed  by  the 
le  demons,  in 
trong,  but  its 
is  considered 
t  the  cloHO  of 
ick,  a  terrible 
ists,  studontH, 
808,  obtained 
n ;  but  in  the 

nrrnffona,  the 

and  has  but 

:e8  of  Roman 

educt.   More 

in  the  war  of 

linst  Marshal 

.    Tortosa  is 

ro  broad  and 

iofly  throuffh 

instituted  by 

0  trade ;  and 

ntains  16,000 

half  century, 

,  particularly 

of  Barcelona. 

1.    It  is  well 

mitted  eflforts 

linsular  war. 

fiber.    In  the 

s  a  large  and 

A  consider- 

Mequinenza, 

Cervera,  the 

supportfid  by 

icr  reaturo  in 

.).    It  con* 

8  piled  over 

rails  of  white 

no  clifis,  the 

with  evcr- 

>lant8.  The 

ent  and  re- 

a  cleft  at 

ire  space  is 

vhile  iar  be- 

imerous  her- 

precipices, 

)CK,  increase 

pearance  of 

gnable  mili- 

and  rich  in 

leing  almost 

ensive  coast 
nin  ranks  as 
;reen  of  the 
nts,  thickly 
hen  united, 
alaviar,  and 
navigation 
itate.  The 
enough  to 
very  indu*> 


BooeI. 


■  I  I  ■(.?•« 


SPAIN. 


i''ii,,»'  y: 


triouB,  and  of  a  gay  dispoiition.    Colonies  firom  the  south  of  Franco,  introduced  oy  the  flrst 
Christian  conqueror,  brought  with  them  a  portion  of  the  spirit  of  that  nation. 

Valencia,  ot  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalavinr,  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  nourishing  towns 
of  the  kingdom.  It  is  of  Roman  origin,  but  its  fame  diitns  from  the  clovonlh  century,  when 
it  was  conqui^rcd  by  the  Cid  from  the  Moors,  and  ruled  as  a  fief  by  that  greatest  of  the  Spanish 
heroes.  It  was  the  scene,  however,  of  a  long-continued  contest ;  ond  its  final  annexation  to 
Christian  Spain  did  not  take  place  imtil  a  century  and  a  half  later.  The  IntVy  walls  and 
towers  of  Valencia  aro  now  nearly  demolished,  and  in  the  war  of  liberty  neither  it  nor  the 
province  made  any  very  conspicuous  figure.  The  nilk  manufacture  is  one  of  the  most  exten- 
sive in  Spain,  though  cneckca  by  an  absurd  prohibition  against  the  exportation  of  its  produce. 
In  a  levy  during  the  late  war,  exemption  was  granted  to  upwards  of  3000  silk-weavers,  that 
the  tra(te  might  not  be  interrupted.  There  aro  also  manufhctures  of  woollens  and  paper. 
The  Grau,  or  port  of  Valencia,  is  only  an  indifTorent  roadstead,  and  the  commerce  not  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  Alicant.  The  city,  though  large  and  rich,  is  not  handsome ;  the  streets 
bebg  narrow  and  winding,  and  bordered  oy  high  old  houses.  The  churches  and  convents 
are  of  course  numeroiis,  and  many  of  them  ricnly  ornamented,  but  none  very  prominent  in 
architectural  beauty.  They  are  adorned,  however,  with  numerous  pictures  by  some  of  the 
most  eminent  Spanish  painters,  natives  of  Valencia;  Juanes,  Ribalta,  and  others,  whose 
works  are  unknown  in  this  country,  but  are  admired  by  those  who  have  visited  Spain.  The 
religious  festivals  of  Valencia  are  celebrated  with  a  childish  pomp,  in  some  degree  disused 
in  other  ports  oven  of  this  country.  On  these  occasions,  all  the  most  memorable  events  and 
most  illustrious  characters  in  scripture  history  arc  represented  either  by  figures  in  wicker- 
work,  or  by  citizens  fantastically  attired.  The  exhibitions  of  this  kind,  amounting  annually 
to  a  hundred  and  fifty,  give  great  occasion  to  idleness  and  dissipation ;  yet  the  attempts  to 
reduce  their  number  have  been  hitherto  unsuccessful.    Population  66,000. 

Alicant,  situated  at  the  bottom  of  a  bay  on  the  southern  frontier,  ranks  high  as  an  indus- 
trious and  commercial  town.  Its  prosperity  is  modern,  chiefly  owing  to  the  reftige  which 
its  lofty  castle  afforded  from  the  dreadful  irruptions  of  the  Barbary  corsairs.  Even  since  this 
danger  ceased,  Alicant  has  continued  to  be  a  fortified  town ;  and  none  of  the  invading  armiec 
in  the  late  war  were  able  to  obtain  possession  of  it.  About  1000  vessels  annually  enter  its 
port,  and  are  laden  with  barilla,  raisins,  and  a  small  quantity  of  wine  and  brandy.  The 
import  from  England  consists  chiefly  of  salt-fish,  the  great  article  of  consumption  in  Catholic 
countries.  The  herring  and  other  fisheries  are  carried  on  with  considerable  activity  on  this 
coast.  They  aro  encouraged  by  the  government,  but  with  an  absurd  limitation  to  a  body  of 
enrolled  fishermen,  amounting  to  about  16,000.     Population  25,000. 

Among  other  important  towns  may  be  mentioned  Elche  and  Orihuela,  large  and  flourishing 
places,  in  the  very  finest  part  of  the  plain  of  Valencia.  Segorbe  and  Liria  are  pleasant 
interior  towno  towards  the  frontier  of  Aragon.  San  Felipe,  under  the  name  of  Xativa,  made 
a  distinguished  figure  in  the  war  of  the  succession ;  when,  after  being  demolished,  it  waa 
rebuilt  by  Philip  V,  under  its  present  name.  Donia  and  Crandia  in  the  south,  and  Pefliscola 
in  the  north,  arc  sea-ports  on  a  smaller  scale.  But  all  thesie  places  yield  in  ancient  fiimo  to 
Murvicdro,  occupying  the  rocky  site  of  the  ancient  Saguntum,  the  siege  of  which  formed 
the  commencement  of  the  career  of  Hannibal.  The  long  resistance  of  this  powerful  and 
unfortunate  city  forms  the  first  of  the  many  remarkable  sieges  which  have  distinguished  the 
Spanish  annals,  ancient  or  modern.  The  Romans  restored  and  made  it  a  great  colony,  and 
the  Moors  erected  a  range  of  fortifications  on  the  summit  of  the  hill ;  so  that  its  mountain 
site  is  now  covered  with  ruins  of  various  dates  and  descriptions.  Half-way  up  the  eminence, 
the  outline  of  a  theatre  capable  of  containing  9000  persons  may  still  be  traced;  and  a  lew 
ropemnkers  plying  their  trade  alone  break  the  silence  of  this  august  ruin.  Murvicdro  is  a 
small  town  still  fortified,  though  the  resistance  made  by  it  in  the  last  war  was  not  formidable. 

Murcia  is  a  small  province,  partly  bounded  on  the  south-east  by  the  coast,  which  here 
changes  its  direction  from  southerly  to  westerly.  Its  vale  is  almost  without  a  rival  for 
beauty  and  fertility,  even  in  southern  Europe,  Its  natural  fruitfulness  is  greatly  aided  by 
the  numerous  canals  of  irrigation  which  the  Moors  drew  from  the  river  Segura.  These 
advantages  are  little  improved  by  the  present  inhabitants,  who  are  noted  as  exhibiting,  in  a 
peculiar  degree,  all  the  blemishes  of  the  Spanish  character ;  its  pride,  its  bigotrv,  and  its 
laziness.  Even  the  song  and  the  dance  do  not  inspire  gaiety  in  its  vales,  as  in  all  the  rest 
of  Spain ;  almost  the  whole  time  of  the  people  being  spent  in  eating,  sleeping,  and  making 
cigars.  A  sullen  and  vindictive  spirit  is  said  to  lurk  under  this  outward  apathy.  Few 
Murcians  have  made  a  figure  in  literature,  in  the  arts,  or  in  public  ife. 

The  cities  of  Murcia,  if  we  except  its  port  of  Carthagena,  do  not  merit  particular  notice 
The  capital,  bearing  i*i  name,  is  an  irregular,  ill-bi'ilt,  ill-paved  large  town,  with  36,000 
inhabitants.  Th  •  ecclesiastical  edifices,  however,  are  very  costly,  and  the  front  of  the 
cathedral,  according  to  Mr.  Townshend,  produces  a  splendid  efifect  Tvith  its  sixteen  Corinthian 
columns  of  marble,  and  thirty-two  images  as  large  as  life.  The  interior  does  not  possess 
equal  elegance,  but  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  proportion  of  gold,  silver,  and  jewels,  not 


bSI 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  in 


to  mention  the  relics,  which  are  accounted  by  Uio  faithful  as  of  much  suporior  value.   Lorca 
J  a  large  town,  built  with  some  eleg^ance,  and  Hurruunded  by  fine  promonadcH.    Popu>ation 

814  4(M)0().    It  hod  extonoive  fabrics  of  silk  and 

aaltpetro,  which  woro  reviving,  when  a  8in« 
gular  accident  nrrosted  their  progress.  A 
speculative  individual  had  collected  all  the 
waters  of  the  neighbourhood  into  an  immense 
reservoir,  whence  ho  supplied  tliom  to  the 
cultivators  for  purposes  ot  irrigation ;  but  thii 
receptacle,  not  being  ftilly  secured,  burst 
at  one  point,  destroyed  part  of  the  suburbs 

_.     ^^^ ,^  IK,, Ml  of  Lorca,  desolated  a  great  extent  of  country, 

*-^^i^fcS*ajip!:S.'*<*^^ '" '  '■■ "  and  reached  even  Murcio.    Totana,  a  popu- 

""""■  lous  village,  is  enriched  by  the  copious  pro- 

duction of  barilla  in  its  neighbourhood.    The  castle  of  Almanza  {fig.  314.),  picturesquely 
seated  on  a  height,  is  noted  as  tlie  spot  near  which,  in  1707,  was  fought  tlie  celebrated  battle 
which  decided  the  Spanish  succession  in  favour  of  the  house  of  Bourbon. 
Carthagena,  situated  in  Murcia,  though  sca-cely  belonging  to  it,  forms  one  of  the  few 

freat  Spanish  emporia,  and  contains  87,000  inhabitants.  This  celebrated  capital  of  ancient 
pain  was  foundeid  by  Asdrubal ;  and  when  captured  by  Scipio,  in  the  year  of  Rome  550, 
was  considered  one  of  the  most  opulent  cities  in  the  world.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the 
Vandals,  but  was  restored  by  Philip  II.,  and  has  ever  since  continued  to  ffonrish.  It  enjoys 
one  of  the  finest  ports  in  Europe,  consisting  of  a  bay  sheltered  by  high  mountains  from  almost 
every  wind.  The  staples  are  the  same  as  at  Alicant.  The  revenue,  raised  by  a  small  though 
impolitic  duty  on  the  export  of  barilla,  amounts  to  25,000/.  The  fishery  is  also  considerable. 
There  are  few  Murcian  residents,  and  the  trade  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  English,  French, 
and  Italian  houses.  The  streets  are  wide,  and  the  houses  agreeable,  with  terraced  roofs, 
commandinGf  a  view  of  the  sea ;  but  neither  hero  nor  at  Alicant  are  there  any  structures, 
even  ecclesiastical,  at  all  worthy  of  nolice, 

Andalusia,  taken  in  its  most  comprehensive  sense,  is  the  largest  of  the  Spanish  provinces, 
and,  we  may  add,  the  finest  and  most  remarkable,  both  as  to  nature  and  art.  The  Guadal< 
quivir,  with  numerous  and  large  tributaries,  waters  its  whole  extent  Its  mountains,  covered 
in  many  places  with  perpetual  snow,  are  tiie  loflbcst,  its  valleys  the  most  fruitful,  in  Spain. 
Andalusia,  indeed,  comprises  four  Celebrated  kingdoms;  Granada,  Seville,  Cordova,  and 
Jaen,  and  contains  great  capitals  founded  by  the  conquering  Moors,  which  were  the  eeata 
of  science  and  splendour,  when  the  greater  part  of  Europe  was  plunged  in  rudeness  and 
barbarism. 

Granada,  which  is  sometimes  called  Upper  Andalusiti,  was  the  central  seat  of  Moorish 
power  and  magnificence.  Even  amid  the  general  decline  of  that  power  in  Spain,  Granada 
was  still  supported  by  the  multitudes  who  resorted  thither  from  the  subdued  provinces.  Its 
fall,  in  1492,  was  considered  the  most  deadly  blow  which  hlamism  ever  received ;  and  in 
all  the  mosques  prayers  are  put  up  every  Friday  for  its  restoration.  Granada  presents  a 
wonderful  combination  of  all  that  is  most  wild  and  sublime,  witli  what  is  most  sod  and 
beautiful  in  natural  scenery.  South  from  the  capital  rises  the  Sierra  Nevada,  covered,  as 
its  name  imports,  with  perpetual  snow  to  a  great  depth.  Mulhacen,  the  most  elevated  peak, 
is  11,660  feet  above  the  sea ;  while  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  begins  at  about  10,000  feet. 
The  Alpujarras,  a  lower  range,  are  cultivated  with  considerable  diligence,  by  descendants 
of  the  Moors,  a  remnant  of  whom  found  refuge  here,  amid  the  general  proscription  of  their 
race  and  nation.  The  Vega  or  plain  of  Granada,  watered  by  numerous  streams  descending 
from  the  high  regions,  displays  nature  in  her  utmost  pomp  and  beauty. 

The  city  of  Granada  is  la  th»  heart  of  the  Vega,  beneath  the  lofliest  heiglits  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  This  city  ^till  displays  ample  monuments  to  attest  the  period  when  it  was  the 
great  western  capital  of  the  Moslem  world.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of  its  approach. 
"  The  rich  and  populous  country  well  supplied  with  trees,  the  clear  rivulets  descending  from 
the  mountains,  and  artificially  contrived  to  intersect  it  in  every  part;  the  splendid  city 
extending  in  a  half^moon  from  the  river,  on  the  gradual  ascent  of  a  hill ;  the  streets  rising 
above  each  other;  the  profusion  of  turrets  and  gilded  cupolas;  the  summit  crowned  with  the 
Alhambra ;  the  background  composed  of  the  majestic  Sierra  Nevada,  with  its  summit  covered 
with  snow ;  complete  a  scene  to  which  no  description  can  do  justice."  Mr.  Jacob,  who  thus 
describes  the  scene,  considers  it  not  too  much  to  have  travelled  two  hundred  miles  of  bad 
road  to  see  it.  The  interior,  as  in  most  Spanish  and  especially  Mohammedan  cities,  does  not 
correspond  to  the  approach.    The  streets  are  narrow,  the  walls  high  and  gloomy ;  many 

Quarters  are  no'.v  deserted ;  and  marks  of  decay  and  splendid  poverty  are  evervwlere  visible, 
to  population,  once  comprising  400,000  souls,  is  now  reduced  to  80,000.    But  the  eye  <tf 


Book  I. 


/•  " 


SPAIN. 


seb 


the  curious  traveller  ia  Non  attracted  towards  the  Alhambra  (^g,  315.),  the  ancient  palace 
^YCt  And  fortress  of  the  kings  of  Granada.    It  is 

the  noblest  specimen  existing  of  Moorish 
architecture;  and  notliing  perhaps  in  Eu< 
rope,  out  of  Italy  and  tircecc,  can  come  into 
competition  with  it  Tho  site  is  tine,  re- 
sembling that  of  Windsor,  on  a  hill  above 
the  river.  Its  exterior  structure,  iiowovor, 
is  the  reverse  of  beautiful :  a  huge  heap  of 
ugly  buildings  huddled  together,  without 
tiie  least  seeming  intention  of  tunning  one 
habitation ;  tho  walls  only  gravel  and  peb- 
bles daubed  over  with  plaster.  On  entering 
the  threshold,  however,  tho  visiter  seems 
transported  into  a  fairy  scene.  He  passes 
through  a  range  of  apartments ;  tho  baths, 

the  Court  of  the  Lions ;  the  Hall  of  the  Abencerrages  {^g.  316.) ;  the  Golden  Saloon,  or 


The  Alhimbri. 


316 


Hall  of  tha  Abencenatn.  Gate  of  the  Baoetooir  of  the  Koran. 

Boll  of  the  Amba88a4lor8;  the  Gate  of  tiie  Sanctuary  of  the  Koran  {Jig.  317.) ;  the  ToffW 

818 


^^SS 

1^ 

^^^B 

^m^# 

^^ 

^^^s 

^^S 

m 

^^^K 

H^ 

i 

TO 

Wk 

«m9w 

Mowx  FaTement. 


Voul. 


3Y 


IM 


DK8CRIPTIVE  GKOdRAPHV. 


Paiit  ni. 


of  till  Twn  SMen;  with  otlinrn,  in  which  tho  vnrinut  roMiiroaii  of  Oriental  pomp  nni  ilia. 
plnyiHl,  III  niJ  wifh  "H  thnt  can  retVoih  tho  oyn  or  tho  wmino  in  a  lultry  cliiniito.  'I'lip  cdiiru 
nri'  all  (xivod  with  m.irhlc,  and  mirrnuniloil  with  iniirhio  miinni,  in  r  piini  nml  l)oniitirul  tnHtu; 
and  tho  wallH  nml  |mv<' ««iit  nro  prolUwly  orniiinontou  with  f^ildcd  uraboM|tio  uiul  moMaic 
(Jin.  'Ml"*.),  tho  I'oldurN  vhirh,  liy  nn  nrt  which  McrmH  to  havo  bo<;ri  'i«t  with  tho  M(Hirn, 
arc  as  hniliiint  an  whon  thoy  .mto  tiriit  Inid  on,  Avo  hundred  yitrt  ag\t.  VViitor  ii  rnado  to 
ap'  »it  into  tho  air,  or.  in  ninixith  Nheot!*  lN)rd(<roti  with  tlowurii,  reii  i  i:)ioii  tho  interior  of  tho  apart* 
mciii  Atlor  (ho  oxpiiUion  of  tho  Moont,  Charloii  V,  built  on  purt  of  ita  aitu  a  now  palnro, 
tho  cxtcriml  aroliir»cturo  of  which  waa  much  miporior;  but  it  waa  never  fini»ho«l.  Tim 
Gonemlifi!  ix  anotji  Mooriah  pnlacn,  in  a  moro  olovatod  and  flnor  situation;  but  ita  interior 
apicndotir,  tiiouffh  ^rent,  is  quite  ecli|wod  hy  that  of  ita  neif^hbour.  Tho  cathodral,  though 
it  muat  yiold  to  thcao  Mcmriali  atructurea,  io  vet  of  conaidorablo  extent  and  beauty.  Grana<ia 
ia  tho  arut  of  ono  of  tho  two  high  courta  of  cliancery,  and  of  other  tribuuala  of  hi|fh  Jurv  ilic> 
tion.  It  rctaina  n  rortain  proportion  of  ita  former  immenao  ailk  manufocturca,  with  '^  >•  <  T 
Woollen  mid  loiitlior;  and  a  conaidorablo  nuinbor  of  nontona  are  employed  in  oxtr^L'tn  t  rj 
nitre  with  which  the  noij^hbourinjj  soil  ia  copioualy  improjynatod. 

Maliijrn  haa  in  modnrn  tinioa  attained  a  ffroator  inuMrtanco,  and  ia  rockoi  oil  i  ui  thnt)  port 
in  tho  kinpdoni,  rimkiujf  next  to  those  dfCyodiz  and  Ilnrcclono.  Tho  chiff  foi;  '  \t  *  ita 
trade  \»  tho  fine  wino  cnllod  Mal(i{^  or  niminlain,  pnxlucod  in  the  nun  Tcia  hilla  htin  nd  it. 
It  ia  rnisod  at  very  jfrcnt  oxpcnao,  and  only  upon  tno  declivitiob  whir'i  li'u  •  an  cxpoaurn  to 
tho  8un.  Tho  country  producra  also  vory  fine  raiaina  and  other  fhi'.j' ;  a  1  iinchoviea,  caught 
and  curod  on  the  coaat,  have  been  aold  to  tho  annual  extent  of  20,(X)0  (|uintala.  M'^la^a  is 
the  only  ;rrcat  Spanish  port  of  which  the  exports  have  alwaya  exceeded  tho  imimrta.  Malaf^ 
haa  a  vorv  aecuro  thouj^h  not  oxtcntiivo  hnrbour,  fonned  by  artificial  moloa.  It  liea  in  a  deep 
bay  on  a  little  plain  overhung;  by  lofty  and  craf^r^fy  clifft,  which  at  a  diatance  appear  quite 
naked,  but  on  approachin(f,  every  crevice  ia  found  to  be  filled  with  vines.  This  situation 
renders  tho  huat  very  severe,  and  has  aided  in  expoeingf  the  inhabitants  to  tho  destructive 
ravages  of  pestilential  fever.  The  atreeta  are  cloae,  narrow,  and  diriy ;  hut  the  cathedral  is 
a  very  noble  pile,  and  containH  paintin^TR  ))y  great  Spanish  masters.     Population  &2,000. 

Other  very  considerable  towns  occur  in  Granada.  Five  leagues  to  tho  cast  of  Malaga  is 
Velez-Malaga,  most  delightfully  situated  in  a  plain  diversified  by  numerous  gentle  nills, 
clothed  to  the  summit  wiUi  vines,  while  the  plains  below  wave  with  luxuriant  harvests  of 
grain.  Fartiier  eai>t  are  the  small  ports  of  Motril  and  Almcria;  the  latter  ancient,  andccic* 
bratcd  in  the  h\r\  •y  of  tho  Moors,  under  whom  it  was  highly  prosperous  and  flourishing. 
Near  it  is  the  roc',  jf  Filabrea,  2000  feet  high,  composed  of  a  single  mock  of  white  marble; 
and  beyond  it  sivetchen  into  the  sea  the  bold  and  huge  promontory  of  Cabo  de  Gata.  Guadix, 
Baza,  nnd  Piuchena,  are  considerable  interior  towns,  in  tho  eastern  part  of  this  province, 
seated  in  valleys  enclosed  by  the  numerous  ranges  of  hills  which  intersect  it.  Santa  Fe, 
two  leagues  west  of  Granada,  ia  remarkably  exposed  to  earthquakes,  which  have  split  ita 
cathedral  in  two,  and  laid  open  tho  cells  of  ono  of  the  convents;  yet  tho  citizens  still  inhabit 
and  keep  it  in  repair.  Alhnma  is  strikingly  situated  amid  a  circuit  of  ])recipitous  rocks, 
through  which  dashes  a  rapid  stream.  It  la  frequented  for  the  salubrity  of  its  air,  and  for 
ita  medicinal  springs  and  baths.  Antcquora  is  very  ancient;  filled  with  Roman  and  Moorish 
monuments,  and  still  large ;  tho  adjacent  country  is  very  fertile,  and  distinguished  for  tho 
variety  both  of  ita  vegetable  and  mineral  productions.  Population  20,000.  Ronda,  (fy.  319.) 

capital  of  a  wide  mountain  district,  is  sin- 
gularly situated  on  o  rock  with  pcrpcndicu- 
!ir  ''Ii<ft  nnd  broken  crags,  through  a  deep 
.;.srv.  o  "u  which  tho  rivor  flow,  ^^ad  sur- 
Tru  1  '  city  on  th  .des.  It  is  crossed 
OIL  udous  bridge  llOfeet  indiameter, 
ana  280  feet  in  height.  Stairs  of  350  step? 
lead  down  to  the  river,  and  gardens  have 
been  formed  on  some  level  projecting  points 
of  the  precipice.  The  mountaineers  of 
Ronda  are  an  honest,  active,  hardy  race; 
and  so  healthy  os  to  make  it  a  proverb,  that  "  at  Ronda  a  man  is  a  boy  at  eighty."  The 
vic-nity  of  Gibraltar  gives  them  great  opportunities  for  smuggling,  which  they  carry  on  in 
)'i  ,,e  bands,  and  in  open  resistance  to  government,  without,  However,  incurring  any  impu* 
♦fttion  on  theii  general  loyalty. 

The  kins:  om  of  Seville,  west  of  Granada,  is  a  atill  finer  region,  and  perhaps  superior  to 
any  other  :v  the  Peninsula.  Ita  plains  are  the  moat  productive  in  wine,  oil,  and  fruits;  the 
noble  river  Guadalquivir  conveys  its  products  to  the  sea;  and  Seville  uid  Cadiz  are,  in  sonn 
respects,  superior  to  all  oUier  Spanish  citjee. 


Ronda. 


Part  HI. 

I  pomp  nm  iliii. 
i\  'I'lio  ''(iiirli 
Ixfnutithl  tnHtn; 
|ti<i  oiiil  iDOMaic 
vitli  the  Moom, 
itor  ia  inaili)  to 
ior  of  the  npurU 
!  a  now  palnco, 
tiniHiml.  TliH 
but  iu  intoriiir 
tlicdrni,  tliuu)r|i 
niit^.  Granada 
f  high  Jurv  die* 
I,  with  V  .!<  ((' 

CXlr..C».ll;'     I  '1 

lt!itf  third  port 

iri'lU'i'i  f  iu 
liillM  hbii  nd  it 
an  cxpoeurn  to 
;hovio8,  cttiijjht 
lid.  Mila;:ii  is 
iix)rt8.  Malaga 
t  licH  in  a  deep 
0  appear  quite 
This  situation 
tho  destructive 
he  cathedral  is 
on  62,000. 
t  of  Malaffa  is 
18  gentle  liills, 
int  harvests  of 
cient,  and  ccle- 
nd  flourishing, 
white  marble; 
Giita.  Guadix, 
this  province, 
it.  Santa  Fe, 
have  split  its 
ns  still  mhabit 
cipitous  rocks, 
ts  air,  and  for 
n  and  Moorish 
fuished  for  tho 
ah,  (Jig.  319.) 
istrict,  is  Bin> 
th  pcrpcndicu" 
hrougn  a  deep 
ow,  u^.id  sur- 

It  is  crossed 
}t  in  diameter, 
8  of  350  Btepe 
gardens  have 
jecting  points 
untaincers  of 

hardy  race ; 
ighty.'^  The 
jy  carry  on  in 
ng  any  impu* 

>s  superior  to 
id  fhiits ;  the 
I  are,  in  whim 


BooiL 


'.)' 


SPAIN. 


8K7 


■•vlll*. 


HeviUo  (Jig.2S0.)  is  •ituat<^  in  tho  midat  of  a  fertile  and  d(>lightl\il  plain,  and  n<<ir  the 
nn<v  muuth  of  ttio  (iuiuiaiquivir,  whicli  (or> 

**■■  mcrly  admitted  vexwiia  of  lorjjo  n\w :  it 
won  n  ({riiut  city  tVom  th«  oailitiit  pwiod, 
Jiy  the  Riirnuns  it  waa  oelelirttti'l  iiridnr 
tlio  appellation  ut  Iliiipulia:  itji  fotindit. 
tiuu  waH  oMritwd  to  ll<<rculoM ;  and,  with 

T'*Mi^^^^^B^v>7-^^^^^-'-'<4^^^f>       ^'"'   "•'*hbouring  col  ny  of  Ftnlicu,  it 
^k^SJI^H^HH^C^H^^^^^^HBfe      formed  lr*«  capital  of  IJaitica.  Under  th«i 

Moon  It  became  an  indopomlcnl  k'wr- 
dom;  and  if  it  be  true  thnt,  on  its  im^ 
tiire  by  Ferdii\and  the  Cutholie, KHMHW 
Muors  iiiarcl'i-d  out  ut  one  of  its  (^:itrH, 
It  muat  indeed  have  boon  an  immense  city.  Notwithstanding  the  de|N)pulation  thiiH  o<  <:a- 
■ionod  by  bigotry  and  treachery,  it  soon  became  more  aplendid  tlwn  ever,  in  roiiMcqutttec  at 
becoming  tho  emiwrium  of  tho  wealth  which  llowcd  in  frotn  the  western  homlMp^iere.  It* 
manufUcturing  induitrv  was  tlicn  also  very  flouriMhing.  By  a  return  iniide  to  government  in 
1001,  Hovillo  was  said  to  contain  10,000  silk  Iwms,  giving  employment  to  1<')(),IMM)  work- 
men. It  flrcquontly  received  an  increase  of  splendour  by  becoming  a  roval  reHidence.  Hinco 
tho  above  period,  Heville  has  not  only  declined  with  the  graduul  declino  of  H|)ain,  I  has 
auflbr.'d  by  tho  filling  up  of  the  channel  of  tho  Gua(l&l(|uivir,  which  has  rendered  it  i  viga- 
bio  only  fur  small  ships,  and  has  transferred  to  Cadix  tho  uommercf-  of  America.  8f\  ilhi  ia 
now  a  solemn,  inert,  gloomy  city,  with  01,(K)0  iiiliabitantri.  Like  odier  Hpanish  placcH,  |Ktr« 
ticularly  those  of  Moorish  origin,  its  streets  are  narrow,  vvirKiing,  and  dirty ;  but  it  contains 
■ome  splendid  public  edifices.  Foremost  stands  tho  eutlu  ul,  tho  largest  ecclesiahtical 
■tructuro  in  tho  Peninsula,  4!20  feet  long  within,  and  1)7:3  br>  ul ;  but  tlio  moat  striking  fea- 
ture is  ita  tower,  originally  erected  bvtho  learned  GcImt  or  d  lover,  and  used  as  an  obiierva- 
tory,  but  raised  by  tlio  Christiana  to  tne  height  of  BTiO  fcoU  Mmiy  of  tho  convents  also  am 
very  splendid,  a^d  previous  to  tho  late  invasion  by  tho  French  >  mtainod  numerous  works  of 
the  greatest  Bpanisn  artists,  of  whom  Seville  was  tho  chief  nut  •<.  There  wa.s,  ubovo  all,  a 
splendid  collection  of  tho  works  of  Murillo,  the  prince  of  thot-  artists,  aii>I  a  native  of 
Seville.  Of  these  treasures  tho  city  has  been  in  a  great  mcasn  e  despoiled  by  the  ravages 
of  tho  invader ;  Marslial  Soult,  in  particular,  had  in  his  collcctii  n  numerous  mastorpi>K:es 
of  Murillo,  by  which  tho  convents  of  Seville  were  formerly  adorn  d.  Hevillo  has  still  'J."»00 
■ilk  looms ;  and  government  maintains  a  cannon  foundery  and  a  tut^occo  marmfactory.  The 
F<xchango  and  the  Marine  Academy  are  also  handsome  edifices. 
Cadiz  {Jig.  Sil.)  is,  in  an  equal  degree  with  Seville,  tho  boast  ot  Spain.  In  tho  commor- 
nni  cial  annals  ul  the  world  no  city  is  of 

higher  antiq  ity.  Tartessus,  occu* 
pying  a  site  in  its  vicinity,  was  one 
of  tho  earliest  and  most  flourishing 
Phoenician  col<  lies.  Afterwards  Ga- 
deira,  or  Gadi;  .  was  recognised  by 
the  Greeks  ami  Romans  as  one  of  tho 
chief  European  inporia.  In  modern 
times,  wlien  coi  iierco  did  not  form 
part  of  the  Eur  joan  syBtem,  Cadiz 
declined  into  a  condary  rank ;  and 
the  intercourse  with  America  was  at  first  nearly  monopolised  b^  Seville  The  circumstances 
which  transferred  it  from  that  city  to  Cadiz  took  place  early  in  tho  lo»-  century,  when  tho 
latter  rose  to  be  tlie  chief  theatre  of  Spanish  commerce.  It  enjoyed  for  s  mo  time  the  entire 
monopoly '  f  the  American  trade;  and  even  when,  in  1778,  it  was  throwr^  open  to  the  whole 
kingdom,  it  had  taken  such  deep  root  in  Cadiz  as  to  fhistrate  all  competiljon.  In  1784,  when 
the  ciitiro  imports  from  America  were  12,030,0C0{.  that  city,  for  its  rfiarc,  had  11,280,000/. ; 
ami  of  tho  whole  exports,  amounting  to  4,300,0001.,  it  had  3,000,000/.  Notwithstanding 
severe  shocks,  in  consequence  of  political  revolutions,  and  the  war  with  J  ngland,  it  always 
revived,  and  derived  a  temporary  greatness  from  becoming  the  capital  of  le  constitutional 
government  It  received,  however,  its  mortal  blow  by  the  separation  of  th  colonies.  Tho 
merclmiits,  deprived  thus  of  almost  their  only  employment,  have  been  redi,  ed  to  the  funds 
already  accumulated,  and  have  in  a  great  measure  retired  from  the  contiied  situation  of 
Cadiz  to  the  pleasant  sites  and  villages  which  are  scattered  round  the  bay.  The  city  is 
situated  on  a  small  neck  of  land,  at  the  point  of  the  long  Isle  of  Leon.  It  does  not  boast  any 
remojrkable  structures,  but  tho  whole  is  elegantly  built  in  regular  squares,  and  streeta  with  t 
square  court  in  tlio  centre  and  an  awning  over  it    Population  53,060. 


Cidii. 


668 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pari  IH. 


OibralliT. 


Gibraltar  (Jig.  822.)<  though  no  longer  Spanish,  forms  also  a  striking  and  important  fea- 
qon  tnre  in  tliis  province.    This  rock  is 

celebrated  from  the  oarlioat  anti<iui!y  as 
one  of  the  two  "  Pillurs  of  Hercules," 
which  guarded  the  entrance  into  the 
Mediterranean;  though  Mount  Calpe, 
on  the  opposite  side,  ia  conHideralily 
lotlior.  In  1704,  Sir  George  Rooko  and 
Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  carried  this  for- 
tress by  a  coup  de  main ;  since  which 
time  Spain  has  vainly  attempted  to  re* 
gain  possession  of  it  Her  grand  effort 
was  towards  the  close  of  the  American 
war,  when  the  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  rode  masters  of  the  sea.  A  combined  attack  was 
made  on  tlie  13th  of  Soptonibor,  1782,  by  the  two  powers,  with  fifty  sail  of  the  lino,  80,000 
troops,  and  ten  mighty  floating  batteries,  which  were  expected  to  demolish  ail  oppsed  to 
them.  They  kept  up  a  tremendous  fire  from  ten  in  the  morning  till  midnight,  at  whicli  time 
smoke  and  fire  were  seen  rising  from  the  batteries  which  before  next  morning  were  reduced 
to  ashes,  witli  a  dreadfiil  destruction  of  the  assailants.  No  subsequent  attempt  has  been 
made ;  nature,  in  fact,  has  rendered  Gibraltar  almost  impregnable.  The  rock  is  precipitous 
on  all  sides,  and  is  connected  with  tiie  continent  only  by  a  narrow  neck  of  marshy  ground. 
Cho  western  front  alone  towards  tiie  sea  is  in  any  degree  accessible ;  and  tiiis  is  defended 
l»y  batteries  cut  in  tiio  solid  rock,  and  by  other  works  so  extensive  and  so  well  planned  as  to 
bid  defiance  to  any  future  eflbrt.  Gibraltar  has  one  handsome  street,  the  houses  of  which 
are  built  in  tlie  English  style,  with  trees  and  flowers  skilfully  planted  in  scanty  fragments  of 
soil.  The  rest  of  the  town  is  close,  crowded,  and  dirty,  inhabited  by  about  20,0()0  people, 
chiefly  Moors  and  Jews,  the  latter  of  wiiom  havo  sought  refugo  hero  in  great  numbers  from 
Spanish  bigotry,  and  have  four  synagogues.  The  expense  of  maintaining  Gibraltar  is  con- 
siderable :  but  it  forms  an  important  naval  station,  a  dep6t  for  the  commerce  of  the  IMediter- 
ranean,  and  a  channel  for  introducing  into  Spain  great  quantities  of  goods,  declared  contra- 
band by  the  jealous  policy  of  that  country. 

Among  other  places  ot  some  importance  is  Tarifii,  the  most  southern  point  of  Spain,  and 
even  of  Europe,  and  the  probable  place  of  the  landing  of  Tarik,  with  the  Saracen  army  destined 
for  tJie  conquest  of  that  country.  Seated  on  an  almost  insulated  rock,  it  is  still  a  fortress  of 
come  strength.  Algesiras,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  has  grown  up  as  a  small  rival  to 
Gibraltar;  its  population  consists  ciiicfly  of  smugglers  and  adventurers.  In  the  interior  is 
the  flourisiiing  and  populous  town  of  Xeres,  situated  in  a  wide  region  of  vineyards,  prcducing 
the  wine  called  Siierry,  tlie  consumption  of  which  is  so  general  in  this  country.  Mr.  Jacob 
supposes  the  entire  produce  to  be  40,000  pipes,  of  which  15,000  are  exported,  one  half  to 
Britain.  Ecija,  a  large  town,  was  famous  as  a  scene  of  contest  between  the  Christians  and 
Saracens,  and  afterwards  as  the  head  quarters  of  a  most  formidable  band  of  robbers ;  but  its 
walls  are  now  in  ruin.  Lebrija  and  Cormona  are  ancient  towns,  containing  Roman  monu- 
ments of  considerable  grandeur.  The  districts  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  Guadalquivir 
are  mountainous  and  rugged ;  though  Huelva  and  Moguer,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tinto,  and 
Ayamonte,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadiana,  derive  some  importance  from  their  situation,  and 
carry  on  a  little  fishery. 
Cordova  (^g.  323.},  on  the  upper  part  of  the  couwe  of  the  Guadalquivir,  is  another  king- 
dom of  Andalusia,  deriving  its 
823  chief  interest  from  the  celebrated 

capital  of  the  same  name.  Cor- 
dubo,  founded  by  the  Romanc,  waf 
not  only  a  provincial  capital,  but 
the  seat  of  an  university,  which 
could  boast  the  great  names  of  Se- 
neca and  Lucan.  It  displayed, 
however,  a  far  higher  pomp,  when, 
after  the  Saracen  conquest,  it  be- 
came the  first  capital  of  the  Mo 
hammedan  empire  in  Spain.  Under  Abdelrahman  and  Almansor,  it  is  represented  as  con 
taining  1600  mosques,  and  nearly  1,000,000  people.  Admitting  a  certain  exoggeration,  its 
past  greatness  is  clearly  attested  by  the  vast  and  now  almost  empty  circuit  enclosed  by  its 
walls,  in  a  great  measure  filled  with  palm  trees  and  gardens,  and  by  the  astonishing  remains 
of  its-mosque.  This  vast  edifice  presents  nothing  very  striking  in  its  exterior,  which  is  in  a 
great  measure  hid  by  the  surrou 


Cordova. 


Dunding  streets.     But  when  the  stranger  enters  any  one  of  its 
J  and  bewildered  by  the  endless  iabvrinih  of  columns  which 


nineteen  gates,  lie  is  astonislied  and  bewildered  by  the  endless  iabyrinlh 

stretch  before  him  in  every  direction  (Jig.  324.).    These  columns  have  almost  defied  the  atr 

teinots  to  number  them ;  by  one  writer  they  have  been  estimated  at  1400,  but  are  general)  v 


Past  III. 

1  important  fca- 
This  rock  is 
lost  antii|ui!y  aa 
I  of  Hercules," 
riinco  into  tlie 
Mount  Calpo, 
is  con.siderabiy 
)rgo  Rooko  and 
arricd  this  for- 
!,"  since  wliicli 
ttemptcd  to  re- 
fer grand  effort 
'  the  American 
ned  attiick  was 
he  lino,  30,000 
all  opimsed  to 
at  which  time 
f  were  reduced 
mpt  has  been 
c  is  precipitous 
larsliy  {rrouiul. 
Ills  is  defended 
;  plonned  as  to 
uses  of  which 
y  fragments  of 
20,0(H)  people, 
numbers  from 
ibraltar  is  con- 
f  the  Meditor- 
sclared  contn- 

of  Spain,  and 
army  destined 
1  a  fortress  of 
small  rival  to 
the  interior  is 
rds,  prcducing 
f.  Mr.  Jacob 
d,  one  half  to 
Jhristians  and 
bbers ;  but  its 
loman  menu- 
Guadalquivir 
he  Tinto,  and 
situation,  and 

mother  king- 
deriving  its 
be  celebrated 
name.  Cor- 
Romanc,  wae 
1  capital,  but 
jrsity,  which 
names  of  Se- 
tt displayed, 
pomp,  when, 
nqucst,  it  be- 
.1  of  the  Mo 
mted  as  con 
^gcration,  its 
icloscd  by  its 
ling  remains 
ivhicii  is  in  a 
ny  one  of  its 
umna  which 
lefied  the  afr- 
re  generally 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


689 


Interior  orMoique  at  Cordova. 


Stated  as  exceeding  400,  dividing  tho  mosque  into  nineteen  aisles,  and  producing  a  perpetual 
and  surprising  change  of  scene  to  tlio  visitor.    The  edifice,  however,  tliough  it  astonishes  by  itx 

immensity,  does  not  equal  in  elegance  those  erected  during 
that  more  refined  age  when  Granada  became  the  capital. 
The  Christians  have  converted  it  into  a  church,  ond  ercctcil 
in  tho  centre  a  choir  of  great  beauty,  but  quite  out  of  har- 
mony witli  the  Sarocenic  part  of  tlie  structure.  Cordova, 
though  its  days  of  splendour  are  long  departed,  still  enjoys 
deli^itfiil  environs,  producing  a  breed  of  horses  tho  finest  in 
Spam,  of  which  a  splendid  stud  was  lately  kept  by  the  go- 
vernment. Tlicre  is  alwj  some  remnant  of  its  once  exten- 
sive manufactures,  particularly  of  that  fine  species  of  leather 
called  fi-om  it  Cordovan.    The  population  is  57,000. 

Jaen  ranks  as  a  fourth  kingdom,  though  it  cannot  enter 
into  any  rivalry  with  those  already  described.  Its  capital,  of 
tho  same  name,  however,  though  little  known,  from  its  de 
tached  situation,  is  still  a  large  city,  tiic  see  of  a  bishop. 
Andujar  is  a  considerable  place,  with  a  very  ancient  castle, 
at  the  entrance  of  tho  defiles  of  the  Sierra  Morena ;  and  to 
the  north  of  it  is  Baylcn,  where  the  Spaniards  gained  that 
signal  victory  which  caused  the  surrender  of  Dupont  and  his 
army.  In  tlio  upper  part  of  this  tract  are  the  settlements  of 
La  Carolina,  where  an  expanse  of  rudo  mountain  waste  has, 
by  German  and  other  colonists,  been  converted  into  a  pro- 
ductive territory. 

The  Balearic  Islands,  Majorca,  Minorca,'  and  Ivi^a,  with  the  minor  ones  of  Cabrera  and 
Fomientera,  form  an  appendage  to  Spain  of  some  importance  and  celebrity.  The  Bulearian 
elingers  are  celebrated  in  the  military  annals  of  antiquity ;  but  the  islands  in  general  fol- 
lowed the  political  fate  of  Spain.  Majorca,  the  largest,  about  forty  miles  in  length,  and 
thirty  in  breadth,  possesses  very  considerable  natural  advantages.  Several  mountain  chains, 
varymg  from  1500  to  4500  feet  high,  penetrate  its  centre,  and  defend  it  both  from  the  excess 
of  the  heat  and  the  violent  action  of  the  sea-breezes.  Its  summits  are  somewhat  arid,  but 
the  intervening  valleys  arc  thickly  clothed  with  olive  trees;  and  corn  and  the  vine  grow 
luxuriantly,  tliough  with  imperfect  culture,  on  tlio  plains  below.  Oranges  and  citrons 
flourish  80  abundantly  in  the  northern  diKtrict,  that  20,000  mule-loads  of  tiiem  are  exported 
to  France  and  Catalonia.  M.  Cambassedes  values  the  entire  produce  of  the  isle,  in  1820,  at 
53,000,000  reals,  about  $(:],000,()00.  Of  this,  about  34,000,000  arc  in  grain  and  pulse, 
5,000,(M)0  in  oil,  and  2,500,000  in  wine,  1,500,000  in  fruits,  3,000,000  in  hops,  and  2,000,000 
in  sheep.  Palma,  the  capital  of  Majorca,  is  a  considerable  town,  slightly  fortified,  inhabited 
chiefly  by  the  nobles,  who  possess  the  greater  part  of  iho  isle,  and  have  rarely  sufficient 
activity  or  curiosity  to  visit  their  estates.  In  no  Spanish  city  are  indolence  and  superstition 
more  prevalent.  There  are  thirty  convents,  some  of  which  enjoy  a  revenue  of  $10,000  a 
year.  Processions  and  religious  festivals,  celebrated  often  with  great  tumult,  form  the  chief 
amusements.  In  these  it  is  customary  to  deck  up  figures  of  Judas,  with  tablets  containing 
tho  enumeration  of  his  criipes,  among  which  that  of  being  "  chief  of  the  liberals"  was 
lately  included !    Population  34,000. 

Minorca  is  a  much  smaller  island,  more  barren,  covered  with  bare  and  rocky  mountains, 
and  destitute  of  any  trees  at  all  lofty,  the  growth  being  prevented  by  the  violent  winds  from 
the  sea.  But  it  is  distinguished  for  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  Europe,  Port  Mahon,  which 
being  strongly  fortified,  has  been  a  subject  of  eager  contest  to  the  maritime  nations.  Having 
been  tiken  by  England  in  the  Succession  War,  it  was  recovered  by  the  French  in  1756, 
notwithstanding  Byng's  attempt  to  relieve  it.  After  several  other  vicissitudes,  it  remained 
with  Spain,  The  harbour  is  extensive,  possesses  deep  water,  and  is  sheltered  by  hills  on 
each  side  from  every  wind.  The  town  has  nothing  of  a  Spanish  aspect ;  the  streets  being 
broad,  the  houses  small  but  neat,  the  people  a  stirring  and  active  race,  who  scarcely  allow 
themselves  to  be  called  Spaniards.  During  the  late  French  war,  being  protected  by  the 
English  navy,  they  made  considerable  wealth  by  privateering.  Ciuidadella,  though  of  smaller 
extent,  is  the  nominal  capital,  and  the  residence  of  the  nobility.  Ivi^a,  or  Iviza,  is  a  small 
isle,  of  rugged  surface,  which  forms  one  immense  mountain,  shooting  up  into  a  variety  of 
summits.  The  island  is  thus  refreshed  by  cool  breezes  and  numerous  streams,  and  yields 
readily  all  the  productions  of  this  climate,  particularly  figs.  In  the  quarter  called  Las  Sa- 
linas, salt  is  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  exported  to  the  extent  of  15,000  tons. 

[Sect.  VIII. — Republic  of  Andorra. 

This  little  republic,  with  a  territory  of  hardly  200  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about 
15,000  souls,  has  been  overlooked  by  the  author  of  this  work.  It  occupies  a  valley  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  situated  between  the  Maladctta  and  the  Moncal,  and  lying 

Vol.  I.  50 


I 


500 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIII 


Book 


betw  -en  Foix  in  France  and  Urgel  in  Spain.  Beside  Andorra,  the  capital,  a  town  of  2,000 
inhaljilants,  it  contains  five  villages,  which  export  iron  and  timber.  It  is  governed  by  a 
Syndic,  who  presides  over  the  council  of  the  valley,  and  by  two  Viguiers,  appointed  the  one 
by  the  king  of  France,  and  the  other  by  the  bishop  of  UrgeL — Ah.  Ed.] 


,,'. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PORTUGAL. 


VoRTVoKh  has  by  political  causes  alone  been  separated  from  Spain.  There  is  no  physical 
peculiarity  by  wh»jh  tlie  two  kingdoms  are  distinguished.  On  the  contrary,  all  the  grand 
natural  features  of  Spain  are  prolonged  into  Portugal,  and  become  Portuguese. 

Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect.  '     '    "''" 

The  boundaries  of  Portugal  are  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west  tliroughout  its  whole 
extent,  and  also  on  the  south;  on  the  north  the  Spanish  kingdom  of  Galicia;  and  on  the 
east  those  of  Estremadura  and  Leon.  The  greatest  dimension  is  from  north  to  south,  or 
from  37°  to  42°  10'  north  latitude,  and  it  extends  from  6°  15'  to  9°  30'  west  longitude.  Ita 
surface  is  38,800  square  miles. 

The  mountains  of  Portugal  may  be  considered  as  prolongations  of  those  of  Spain,  chiefly 
of  the  chains  of  Guadarrama  and  Toledo,  and  those  in  the  north  of  Galicia.  Those  ranges, 
seldom  rising  to  the  first  magnitude,  cover  almost  the  whole  country,  leaving  between  them 
many  picturesque  and  fertile  valleys.  There  are  only  two  extensive  plains,  one  on  tiie  south 
of  the  Tagus,  and  tlie  other  between  the  Mondego  and  the  Douro. 

The  rivers  of  Portugal  consist  chiefly  of  the  spacious  terminations  of  the  greatest  streams 
of  Spain  in  their  progress  to  the  ocean.  The  Douro  forms  the  great  maritime  emporium  of 
Oporto,  and  tiie  Tagus  that  of  Lisbon.  The  Guodiana,  also,  in  its  lower  course,  flows 
along  the  eastern  frontier  of  Portugal.  The  Minho,  a  much  smaller  stream,  comes  down 
from  Giilicin  ;  and  the  Mondego,  alone,  is  entirely  Portuguese,  flowing  nearly  across  tlie 
breadth  of  tiie  kingdom. 

■  Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Geology, 

This  kingdom  has  the  same  general  geognostical  structure  and  composition  as  Spain.  The 
mountainous  parts  of  the  country  are  generally  of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  other  Neptunian 
primitive  strata,  occasionally  intermingled  witii  Plutonian  rocks  of  granite  and  porphyry. 
Secondary  formations  of  limestone  occur  in  the  Sierra  d'Estrclla,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape 
St.  Vincent,  and  all  around  Lisbon  and  at  Cape  St.  Vincent  the  strata  are  of  rocks  of  the 
tertiary  class,  more  or  less  intermingled  with  trap  rocks. 

Mines.  It  appears  that  the  Carthaginians  wrought  tin  mines  in  this  part  of  the  Penin- 
sula. It  is  asserted  that  there  were  formerly  mines  of  tin  stone  in  the  granitic  mountams 
of  the  neighbourhood  of  Viseu,  in  tiie  province  of  Beira,  at  the  place  called  Burraco  de  Stanno. 
Lead  ores  were  worked  in  the  last  century,  not  far  from  Mogadouro,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Sabour,  in  the  province  of  Tras  os  Monies,  and  near  Longroiva,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio 
Prisco.  Near  Mogadouro,  mines  of  graphite  or  plumbago  occur.  Iron  mines  also  occur  in 
tlie  same  country,  near  Felguiera  and  Torre  de  Moncorvo.  They  supply  the  iron  forge  of 
Chapacunha.  Two  very  old  establishments  of  the  same  kind  occur  in  Portuguese  Estre- 
madura, one  in  the  district  of  Thornar,  the  other  in  tiiat  of  Figuoro  dos  Vinhos.  They  are 
supplied  by  mines  of  red  oxide  of  iron,  situated  in  the  frontier  of  tliat  province  and  of  the 
province  of  Beira.  There  is  a  deposit  of  cinnabar  at  Couna.  The  mountains  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Oporto  everywhere  present  indications  of  copper  and  of  other  ores.  In  Portu- 
gal, as  in  Spain,  the  sands  of  rivers  were  washed  for  the  gold  they  contain;  and  it  is  said  in 
this  way  large  quantities  of  tl-e  precious  metal  were  collected.  At  present  tiiore  is  but  one 
gold  mine  in  Portugal,  at  a  place  called  Adissa,  in  the  district  of  St.Ubes.  Its  annual  pro- 
duce is  trifling :  in  the  year  1815  it  was  41  lbs.  of  pure  gold ;  1816,  18  lbs. ;  1817,  11  lbs. ; 
1818, 12  lbs. ;  1819, 13  lbs. ;  1820, 12  lbs. ;  and  in  1821, 18  lbs.  Beds  of  coal  occur  at  Vialonga, 
to  the  N.  N.  E.  of  Oporto ;  and  there  is  a  mme  of  coal  at  Cabo  de  Buarcos  in  the  province 
of  Beira. 

SuBSECT.  2,-  ^Botany. 

The  botany  of  Portugal  is  included  under  that  of  Spam. 

SvBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 
The  zoology  cannot  be  very  different  from  that  of  Spain ;  but  no  documents  have  appeared 
to  illustrate  either  the  one  or  the  other.    The  horses  are  rather  small,  and  altogether  info 


Thd 
as  a 

xrholel 
succes 
Th^ 
iwelfll 
the  du 
rescue 


PabtIII 

iwn  of  2,000 
jverned  by  a 
Jited  the  one 


3  no  physical 
ill  the  grand 


lut  its  whole 

;  and  on  the 

to  south,  or 

igitude.    Its 

Ipain,  chiefly 
hose  ranges, 
jtween  them 
on  the  south 

itest  streams 
emporium  of 
ourse,  flows 
comes  down 
[y  across  the 


Spain.  The 

Neptunian 

porphyry. 

lity  of  Cape 

ocks  of  the 

the  Penin- 
mountams 
de  Stanno. 
nks  of  the 
of  the  Rio 
so  occur  in 
m  forge  of 
icse  Estre- 
They  are 
and  of  the 
the  neigh- 
In  Portu- 
t  is  said  in 
is  but  one 
nnual  pro- 
7,  11  lbs. ; 
Vialonga, 
province 


■  "  r.y-"/^'':  -y/ffMrf- 


» appeared 
ther  info 


Book  I. 


PORTUGAL 


591 


rior ;  but  the  mules  are  fine,  and  nearly  equal  to  those  of  Spain.  Improvement,  however, 
is  neglected ;  nor  have  the  indolent  Portuguese  profited  by  crossing  their  sheep  from  the 
merinos  of  Spain.  A  long-legged  race  of  swine  is  common  to  both  kingdoms,  and  furnishes 
excellent  hams. 

i    ;•  Sbct.  m. — Historical  Oeography  :   ,, 

The  Carthaginians  and  Romans  who  occupied  the  Peninsula,  did  nat  recognise  Portugal 
as  a  distinct  country.  Their  Lusitania  included  a  part  of  Spain,  and  did  not  comprise  the 
Khole  of  Portugal ;  Merida,  in  Estremadura,  was  its  capital.  Portiigal,  like  Spain,  l  ubmitted 
successively  to  the  formidable  irruptions  of  the  Goths  and  of  the  Moors. 

The  existence  of  Portugal  as  a  distinct  kingdom  dates  from  the  commencement  of  the 
iwelflh  century.  At  that  time,  Henry,  duke  of  Burgundy,  having  married  tlic  daughter  of 
the  duke  of  Castile,  obtained  as  lier  dowry  the  northern  part  of  Portugal,  which  had  been 
rescued  from  the  Moors.  The  capital,  at  that  time,  was  Porto  or  Oporto,  whence  the  modem 
name  of  the  kingdom  appears  to  be  derived.  His  successors  gained  a  series  of  conquests, 
and  obtained  possession  of  Lisbon  and  the  southern  provinces,  carrying  their  conquests  to  the 
frontier  of  Seville. 

The  fifleenth  century,  and  the  reigns  of  John  and  Emanuel,  formed  the  true  era  of  the 
greatness  of  Portugal,  when  it  outshone  all  the  other  kingdoms  of  Europe.  Confined  on 
the  land  side  within  narrow  limits,  it  opened  for  itself  a  vast  career  of  maritime  discovery 
and  conquest.  Spain,  indeed,  shared  this  pursuit ;  but  her  first  acquisitions  were  made  by 
private  individuals,  partly  foreign,  with  only  faint  assistance  from  the  government;  while 
the  Portuguese  expeditions  were  planned,  fitted  out,  and  all  the  resources  for  them  sup- 
plied by  the  government.  Their  flag,  at  one  time,  floated  victorious  over  all  the  eastern 
seo^ ;  while  in  tiio  west,  by  the  possession  of  Brazil,  they  came  into  some  competition  with 
Spain. 

A  disastrous  eclipse  of  the  Portiiguese  monarchy  took  place  in  the  sixteenth  century,  in 
consequence  of  the  rash  and  romantic  expedition  undertaken  by  king  Sebastian  into  Morocco, 
where  ho  himself  and  the  flower  of  his  troops  were  cut  off.  Hereupon  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
a  powerful  and  ambitious  prince,  raised  a  claim  to  the  succession,  which  the  superiority  of 
his  arms  enabled  him  to  secure.  Portugal,  with  all  her  eastern  and  western  possessions, 
then  became  an  appanage  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  The  connection  was  every  way 
unfortunate.  Not  only  did  she  lose  her  political  and  civil  liberty,  but  many  of  her  finest 
foreign  possessions  were  wrested  from  her  by  the  Dutch,  the  spirited  and  active  enemies  of 
Philip. 

The  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  in  1640,  was  still  more  sudden  than  its  fall.  The  deep- 
rooted  indignation  of  the  people  was  combined  into  an  extensive  conspiracy,  which,  having 
been  concealed  to  the  last  moment,  burst  forth  at  once :  the  Spaniards  were  driven  out,  and 
the  duke  of  Bragonza  raised  to  the  throne,  under  tiie  title  of  John  IV.  Yet  Portugal  did  not 
thus  achieve  any  revival  of  her  ancient  glory.  The  new  monarch  soon  re-established  absolute 
power:  a  sluggish  and  indolent  cliaracter  pervaded  all  the  departments  of  government:  its 
foreign  possessions  were  lost  or  neglected ;  and  Portugal  continued  a  stranger  to  all  the 
improvements  and  energies  whicii  raised  Britain  and  France  to  the  first  place  in  the  system 
of  Europe.  Yet,  during  this  period,  the  elevation  of  the  Bourbons  to  the  Spanish  throne,  led 
to  a  very  intimate  alliance  between  England  and  Portugal,  the  natural  foe  of  Spain.  It  was 
cemented  in  1803,  by  a  commercial  treaty,  in  which  Portugal  secured  an  exclusive  market 
for  her  wines,  wliile  Britain  obtained  a  market  for  her  woollens,  and  an  arrangement  by  which 
the  gold  of  Brazil  might  find  its  way  into  her  ports. 

The  recent  convulsions  of  the  Peninsula  have  been  very  amply  shared  by  Portugal. 
Regardless  of  the  neutrality  which  she  had  strictly  maintained,  Bonaparte,  by  a  most  unpro- 
voked aggression,  sent  Junr.i,  in  1807,  to  take  possession  of  Lisbon.  The  king  did  not 
attempt  a  vain  resistance,  but  sailed  for  Brazil,  and  established  his  court  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
The  British  arms,  and  the  glorious  achievements  of  Wellington,  drove  the  French  out  of  this 
part  of  tlie  Peninsula,  and  finally  out  of  the  whole.  Afterwards  Portugal  imitated  the  example 
of  Spain  in  compelling  her  monarch  to  grant  a  representative  constitution ;  but  again,  by  a 
counter-revolution,  she  re-established  an  absolute  monarchy.  More  recently,  on  the  death 
of  the  late  king,  Don  Pedro  proclaimed  the  separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal,  reserving  the 
former  to  liimself,  but  granting  to  the  latter  a  charter,  the  observance  of  which  was  made  the 
condition  of  liolding  the  throne. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Orography. 

Portugal,  aft«r  the  downfall  of  the  feudal  system,  and  especially  after  her  subjection  to 
Philip  II.  became  ont  of  the  most  absolute  of  European  governments.  The  Marquis  of  Pom- 
bal  and  one  or  two  more  enlightened  men  found  their  way  into  the  ministry ;  but,  in  general, 
measures  were  as  ill  conducted  as  possible,  and  corruption  prevailed  in  every  department  of 
the  state.  The  course  of  justice  was  equally  polluted ;  and,  no  adequate  salaries  being 
allowed  to  the  judges,  they  were  under  an  almost  irresistible  temptation  to  accept  briber 


tm 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  ttl 


The  pride  of  the  nobles  wiw  nearly  as  great  as  in  Spain,  without  being  accompanied  by  tie 
same  lofty  sentiments.  They  are  divided  into  two  branches,  the  titulados  and  the  hidalgos, 
and  have  lield  the  peasantry  in  a  subjection  little  short  of  slavery. 

The  army  of  Portugal,  prior  to  the  revolution,  though  composed  nominally  of  30,000  men, 
was  in  a  most  incfliciont  state,  not  through  want  of  physical  courage  or  discipline  in  the 
men,  but  from  the  incapacity  of  the  officers,  and  the  general  defects  of  the  military  systuui. 
When  the  French,  however,  had  been  driven  out  of  Portugal,  an  army  of  40,0<X)  men  was 
levied,  and  disciplined  by  British  officers,  under  the  superintendence  of  Lord  Beresford ;  and 
thus  prepared,  the  Portuguese  acted,  during  the  eventful  war  which  followed,  in  a  manner 
that  would  not  have  disgraced  any  troops  in  Europe.  The  army  is  still  maintained  ;  and 
tliough  the  new  government  will  not  brook  British  command,  yet,  under  its  influence,  Por- 
tuguese officers  of  merit  have  been  formed. 

The  navy,  which  was  never  considerable,  waa  carried  out  with  the  royal  family  to  Brazil, 
and  baa  never' been  restored. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

The  industry  and  commerce  of  Portugal,  which  presented  so  brilliant  an  aspect  during  her 
era  of  prosperity,  have  sunk  lower  than  those  of  almost  any  other  European  nation. 

Agriculture  did  not,  until  very  lately,  experience  any  of  the  improvements  which  have  be- 
come general  in  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  plough  is  composed  of  three  pieces  of  wood 
awkwardly  put  together,  and  imperfectly  aided  by  the  clumsy  machinery  of  wheels.  Though 
generally  very  fertile,  this  country  did  not  produce  a  third  of  the  grain  necessary  for  the 
supply  of  its  mhabitants.  Of  late  some  improvement  has  taken  place,  especially  by  the  in- 
troduction of  potatoes;  and  the  dependence  upon  foreign  supply  has  been  considerably 
diminished.  The  chief  object  of  attention  is  the  vine,  which,  with  the  olive  and  other  fruit 
trees,  is  cultivated  with  the  utmost  diligence  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  sides  of  the  hills,  in 
the  elevated  province  of  Entre  Douro  e  Minho.  Here  is  produced  abundantly  the  port 
wine,  which  forms  the  main  basis  of  Portuguese  trade,  and  finds  so  copious  a  market  in 
Britain.  The  entire  produce  is  estimated  at  80,000  pipes.  Of  white  wine  Portugal  pro<luce!> 
about  60,000  pipes ;  but  this  is  of  inferior  quality,  and  chiefly  consumed  at  home.  Sheep 
are  bred  on  the  hills,  to  a  pretty  large  extent;  but  not  so  abundantly  as  in. Spain,  neither 
is  their  wool  so  fine. 

The  manufactures  of  Portugal  scarcely  deserve  to  be  named.  Little  is  known  beyond  the 
working  of  their  wool  for  domestic  use  by  each  family  or  neighbourhood ;  all  their  finer 
fabrics  are  imported.  According  to  a  late  observant  traveller,  ignorance,  or  at  least  an  im- 
perfect knowledge  of  the  commonest  arts,  is  conspicuous  among  the  Portuguese.  Their 
carpenters  are  the  most  awkward  and  clumsy  artisans  that  can  bo  imagined,  spoiling  every 
thing  they  attempt ;  the  wood-work  even  of  good  houses  being  finished  in  a  manner  that 
would  scarcely  be  tolerated  in  the  rudest  ages.  Their  carriages  of  all  kinds,  their  agricul- 
tural implements,  locks,  keys,  &c.  are  ludicrously  bad.  Working  in  gold  and  silver  plate 
forms  almost  the  only  exception ;  cambrics  also  are  well  made  in  some  places ;  and  a  few 
other  local  objects  might  be  enumerated. 

Of  mines  and  fisheries,  the  former  is  not  at  all  cultivated,  though  great  materials  for  it 
are  said  to  exist ;  but  in  the  absence  of  trial  this  may  be  only  conjecture.  Fish  of  the  finest 
kinds,  particularly  tunny  and  sardinias,  are  caught  in  considerable  quantity  for  immediate 
consumption ;  but  the  salt  which  the  kingdom  so  abundantly  produces  is  not  used  for  pre- 
serving them ;  and  a  large  import  of  salted  fish  is  still  necessary  to  meet  the  wants  of  a 
population  so  rigidly  Catholic. 

The  commerce,  which  formed  the  greatness  of  Portugal,  when  her  ports  interchanged  the 
products  of  the  East  and  the  West,  is  now  a  mere  .?hadow.  The  loss  of  her  Indian  posses- 
sions, and  the  separation  of  Brazil,  have  reduced  her  to  the  common  routine  of  expon  and 
import.  The  staple  of  the  former  is  port  wine,  for  which  the  market  of  England  was 
secured  first  by  fiivouring  duties,  and  now  seemingly  by  an  established  predilection.  The 
wine  is  raised  almost  solely  for  the  English  market,  and  all  of  the  best  quality  is  bought  up 
by  English  merchants  residing  at  Oporto. 

Another  staple  export  of  Portugal  is  salt,  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  the  bay 
of  St.  Ubes,  or  Setubal,  which  seems  as  if  expressly  fovnied  for  that  purpose.  It  is  carried 
off  chiefly,  by  the  English,  to  be  employed  in  curing  fish  destined  for  the  Portuguese  market: 
the  annual  amount  is  estimated  at  100,000  tons.  There  is  also  a  considerable  surplus  of 
wool,  of  which  1,000,000  lbs.  weight  have  been  imported  into  England  in  one  year;  but  as 
it  is  not  so  fine  as  that  of  Spain,  the  duty  imposed  by  the  British  landholders  has  greatly 
checked  the  importation.  In  return,  Portugal  takes  grain,  salt-fish,  and  a  variety  of  manu- 
fiicture.a,  chiefly  from  Britain ;  but  as  her  imports  cannot  much  exceed  the  exports,  she  can- 
not afford  a  very  copious  market 

The  internal  communications  of  Portugal  consist  of  the  jeveral  noble  rivers  which  tra* 
verse  her  territory,  and  which  are  navigable  throughout.  The  interconrro  by  land  is  reii' 
dored  very  difficult  by  chains  of  mountains  extending  in  the  same  direction.    Nothing  hM 


bee 
def 


to! 
moi 
mil 
exc 
met 
red 


Part  (II 

ipanied  by  tic 
i  the  hidalgos, 

)f  30,000  men, 
cipline  in  the 
ilitnry  systuui. 
,000  men  was 
Beresford ;  and 
1,  in  a  niiinner 
lintained ;  and 
influence,  Por- 

imily  to  Brazil, 


lect  during  her 
ation. 

wiiich  have  be- 
pieces  of  wood 
heels.  ThoujTh 
;cessary  for  the 
ially  by  the  in- 
n  considerably 
and  other  fruit 
of  the  hills,  in 
:kntly  the  port 
lus  a  market  in 
rtugal  produces, 
home.  Slieep 
I.Spain,  neither 

3wn  beyond  the 
all  their  finer 
at  least  an  im- 
guese.     Their 

[,  spoiling  every 

a  manner  that 

,  their  agricul- 

id  silver  plate 

es;  and  a  few 

materials  for  it 

Ish  of  the  finest 

for  immediate 

used  for  prc- 

Ithe  wants  of  a 

jterchanged  the 
Indian  posses- 

I  of  export  and 
England  was 

lilection.    The 

|y  is  bought  up 

|un  in  the  bay 

It  is  carried 

guese  market : 

pe  surplus  of 

I  year ;  but  as 

has  greatly 

liety  of  manu- 

orts,  she  can- 

ers  which  tra- 
ly  land  is  ren' 
Nothing  hM 


BooeL 


PORTUGAL 


m 


Portufuefe  FeUBDtry. 


been  attempted  on  any  important  scale,  either  to  improve  these  advantages,  or  to  amend  the 
defects;  so  that  travelling  is  worse  in  Portugal  than  in  any  other  European  country. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  Portugal,  according  to  the  lost  census,  which  was  taken  in  1708,  amounts 
to  3,683,000 ;  calculatmg  at  the  somewhat  high  estimate  of  five  to  a  family.  According  to 
more  probable  estimates  it  now  amounts  to  3,530,000.  Upon  a  surface  of  38,800  square 
miles,  this  gives  a  density  of  about  ninety-one  to  the  square  mile,  which  is  remarkable,  as 
exceeding  that  of  Spain  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  two.  The  exemption  from  the 
mesta,  and  the  high  cultivation  of  the  province  of  Entre  Douro  e  Minho,  appear  to  be  the 
redeeming  circumstances  in  her  case. 

No  nation,  as  to  character,  owes  less  to  the  opinion  of  the  world,  than  the  Portuguese. 
They  are  described  as  indolent,  dissembling,  cowardly,  destitute  of  public  spirit,  and  at  the 
same  time  fierce  and  deeply  revengeful.    In  Spain  it  is  said,  strip  a  Spaniard  of  his  virtues, 
and  he  becomes  a  good  Portuguese.    From  a  late  minute  inspection,  however,  the  peasantry 
225  (.fig-  325.)  have  been  pronounced  to  be  a  fine  peo- 

ple ;  and,  on  repeated  occasions  during  the  late  war, 
they  displayed  energies  not  unworthy  of  their  an- 
cestors, in  an  age  when  their  glory  resounded 
throughout  both  hemispheres.  Almost  all,  however, 
that  floats  on  the  surface  is  base  and  degenerate. 
There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  this  may  be  greatly 
ascribed  to  priestcraft,  to  the  stupifying  influence  of  a 
sluggish  and  tyrannical  government,  and  to  the 
general  corruption  which  has  pervaded  all  the 
branches  of  administration. 

The  established  and  exclusive  religion  is  the 
Catholic,  in  its  extreme  and  most  degrading  excess; 
and  the  body  of  the  people  are  almost  entirely  under  the  thraldom  of  the  priesthood.  The 
burling  of  Jews  continued  till  within  the  last  half-century.  The  physiognomy  of  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  people  shows  their  descent  from  this  hated,  race,  whose  tenets  many,  it  is  pro- 
bable, still  cherish  in  secret.  There  are,  in  Portugal, 
about  550  religious  houses,  of  which  150  are  nunnerie^ 
(fig,  326.).  The  number  of  two  archbishops  and  thir- 
teen bishops  is  not  so  disproportionate. 

The  literature  of  Portugal,  during  the  period  of  its 
glory,  was  by  no  means  contemptible.  The  genius  and 
fate  of  Camoens  spread  his  name  throughout  Europe,  and 
entitled  him  to  rank  among  the  few  modem  epic  poeta 
By  the  students  of  Portuguese  literature,  however,  Saa 
Miranda  and  Antonio  Ferreyra  are  reckoned  scarcely 
second  to  him;  and  Rodriguez  Lobo  held  the  nation  long 
enchanted  by  the  sweetness  of  his  pastorals.  At  the 
same  time  Di  Barros,  Castanheda,  and  Faria  y  Sousa, 
recorded,  in  magnificent  though  somewhat  inflated  historical  narrative,  the  mighty  exploits 
of  their  countrymen  in  the  Afirican  and  Indian  seas.  The  subjection  to  Spain  gradually 
divested  Portuguese  literature  of  its  manly  and  energetic  character.  The  muse  of  history 
was  silent ;  poetry  assumed  the  form  only  of  the  sonnet,  and  Gongora  infected  it  wholly  with 
a  strain  of  false  and  meretricious  ornament.  The  house  of  Braganza  for  some  time  did 
little  for  knowledge ;  but  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  the  Conde  de  Ericeyra  intro- 
duced the  French  literature,  and  founded  a  royal  academy.  In  the  course  of  the  century, 
Barros  Pereyra,  Antonio  da  Lima,  Manuel  da  Costa,  a  Brazilian,  Correa  Garcas,  and  Paulino 
Cabral,  a  bishop,  made  not  unsuccessful  eflibrts  to  revive  the  ancient  Portuguese  poetry,  and 
to  introduce  that  of  Italy.  Portugal  has  two  universitiea  That  of  Coimbra,  founded  at 
Lisbon  in  1290,  was  transferred  to  Coimbra  in  1308.  It  enjoys  some  celebrity,  is  divided 
into  eighteen  colleges,  and  is  still  attended  by  several  hundred  students ;  but  the  course  of 
study  is  of  that  obsolete  description  which  prevailed  during  the  middle  ages.  A  smaller 
tmiversity  was  founded  at  Evora  in  1578. 

For  the  minor  particulars  of  amusement,  dress,  food,  &c.,  reference  may  be  made  to  Spain, 
as  Portugal  has  no  peculiarities  that  are  more  than  provincial. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

Portugal  is  divided  into  the  following  six  provinces,  several  of  which,  like  those  of  Spain, 
in  reference  to  events  in  their  past  history,  are  sometimes  called  kingdoms : — 


^^^ 


Fiiii  and  Nun. 


Vol..  I. 


*  [The  religioui  houiei,  monaiteviei,  and  nunneries,  were  iupprened  in  1834.— Am.  Ed.] 


50" 


8Z 


«M 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paet  m. 


B^Wiikaa.  tapMkn.  MMlpd  TmM,  wAh  Owlr  Psptftlloa. 

btremadura 5,*S0fiaa 896,860 Llibon,  900,000;  ftitubol,  13,000;  8«nUrem,6,0W. 

Alemtejo 5,848,390 380.480 Elvai,10,000 ;  Evora,  8,000 

Alcarve 1,536,000 197,61.1.'. Faro,  8,000 ;  Tavira,  tl,0U0. 

Beira 4,904,600 1,191,505 Coimbra,  15,000;  Lamefto,  0,000;  ViMU,  0,000. 

BntreDouroeMinho  1,097.040 007,065 Oporto,  70,000 ;  Braga,  14,000 ;  Viana,  8,000. 

Traa on  Montea.... 3,007,760 318,065 Braganaa, 4,000. 

Eatremadura  occupies  a  great  extent  of  coast,  both  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  Taguu, 
without  ever  penetrating  very  deep  into  the  interior.    It  presents  a  rocky,  varied,  and  pic* 
tures^ue  sur&ce.    It  is  chiefly  important,  however,  as  containing  Lisbon,  Uie  capital. 
Lisoon  (Jig.  S27.)  is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  which  may  here  be  almost 
Qvj  considered  an  arm  of  the  sea,  since  not 

only  the  tide  flows  up,  but  the  water  ia 
salt,  and  the  swell  often  tempestuous. 
The  approach  to  it  presents  a  moro 
magnificent  spectacle  than  that  of  per- 
haps any  other  city  of  Europe.  Lisbon 
rises  direct  from  the  water,  crowning 
the  sides  and  summits  of  several  hills ; 
which,  according  to  the  Portuguese,  are 
LUbon.  seven  in  number,  like  those  of  Rome. 

The  palaces,  convents,  and  churches, 
which  crown  this  amphitheatre  of  buildings;  the  dazzling  whiteness  of  the  houses;  the 
light  appearance  of  the  windows  and  balconies ;  the  tastefiil  arrangement  of  plants,  shrubs, 
and  flowers  on  their  roofs  and  terraces ;  the  golden  orange  groves  which  adorn  the  suburbs, 
and  the  stately  specimens  of  Indian  or  American  botany  which  are  scattered  through  the 
scene,  produce  an  effect  that  cannot  be  described.  The  noble  harbour,  also,  crowd^  with 
vessels ;  the  numerous  pilot  and  flshing-boats,  with  their  large,  handsome  lateen  sails,  as> 
cending  or  descending  the  river ;  and,  nearer  the  shore,  hundreds  of  small  neat  boats,  with 
white  or  painted  awningn,  finely  vary  the  scene.  The  moment,  however,  that  the  stranger 
lands,  and  enters  the  place,  he  finds  that  he  has  been  imposed  upon  by  a  brilliant  illusion ; 
and  the  gav  and  glittering  city  is  found  to  resemble  a  painted  sepulchre.  The  streets  are 
narrow  and  ill  paved ;  the  houses  gloomy,  with  here  and  there  a  latticed  window ;  filth  and 
nuisances  assault  him  at  every  turn.  Lisbon  does,  indeed,  appear  to  be  the  dirtiest  and  most 
noisome  city  on  the  face  of  the  earthl  In  passing  through  the  streets,  a  stranger  encounters 
t  every  turn  the  most  disgusting  effluvia.  Every  species  of  vermin  destined  to  punish  in- 
dolence and  slovenliness,  the  mosquito,  the  scolopendra,  and  a  species  of  red  ant,  multiply 
to  an  extraordinary  degree.  Nor  is  Lisbon  found,  on  inspection,  to  exhibit  that  architectural 
beauty  which  it  promises  on  a  distant  view.  It  might  have  been  expected,  among  forty 
churches  and  seventy-five  convents,  built  by  a  superstitious  people,  that  there  would  have 
been  some  signal  display  of  this  kmd ;  but  this  is  not  found  even  in  the  cathedral.  The 
defect  seems  partly  owing  to  the  mean  taste  of  the  Marquis  of  Pombal,  who  ordered  them 
to  be  all  built  on  a  line  with  the  street,  to  preserve  a  dull  uniformity.  Two  handsome 
squares,  however,  have  been  fbrmed,  the  Commercial  and  the  Roscio,  which  are  connected 
by  well-built  streets ;  but  the  absence  of  trees,  or  even  shrubs,  and  the  blinding  sand  that 
drifts  through  them,  combine  to  produce  a  disagreeable  effect  Lisbon  derives  an  awful 
interest  from  the  ruins  still  left  of  the  great  earthquake  of  1755,  the  most  dreadful  catas- 
trophe which  ever  befell  a  modem  European  city.  Six  thousand  houses  were  thrown  down, 
30,000  inhabitants  killed ;  and  a  conffagration  kindled  which  spread  a  still  wider  destructioa 
The  ruins  are  the  more  dismal,  as  they  portend  similar  disasters,  which  the  earth,  still 
heaving  from  time  to  time,  perpetually  threatens.  Meantime,  Lisbon  displays  one  very  grand 
feature ;  the  aqueduct,  to  the  construction  of  which,  though  it  conveys  the  water  only  half  a 
mile,  peculiar  obstacles  were  presented.  It  is  carried  in  one  place  through  a  tunnel,  and  in 
another  over  a  defile  230  feet  deep,  by  arches,  which  are  said  to  be  the  highest  in  the  world. 
The  width  of  the  centre  arch  is  107  feet.  It  was  built  in  1738,  by  Manuel  de  Maya ;  and 
is  of  such  solidity  that  it  withstood  the  shock  of  the  great  earthquake,  which  only  caused  the 
Keystone  to  sink  a  few  inches. 

The  vicinitjr  of  Lisbon  presents  some  beautifiil  sites  and  palaces.  Cintra  is  the  most 
striking,  consisting  of  an  immense  mountain,  partly  covered  with  scanty  herbage,  partly 
with  broken,  huge,  and  varied  piles  of  rock,  elsewhere  presenting  thick  groves  of  cork,  elm, 
oak,  hazel,  and  other  trees.  It  includes  many  lovely  and  fimtastic  spots ;  but  the  view  Srom 
it  is  naked  and  dreary.  The  town,  at  the  bottom,  with  its  old  palace,  has  nothing  remark- 
able ;  but  th  a  sides  are  covered  with  delightful  villas,  one  of  which  is  notorious  for  the  sig- 
nature of  th  e  unhappy  convention  of  Cintra.  Mafra  is  a  royal  convent  built  by  John  V.,  m 
emulation  cf  the  Escurial ;  but  tliough  a  stupendous  pile,  700  feet  square,  and  containing 
numberless  luites  of  ill-fiirnished  apartments,  it  ranks  far  below  its  model.  Only  five  milfls 
below  Lisbon,  of  which  it  is  considered  a  suburb,  is  Belemi  the  site  cf  a  palace  and  a  veiy 


Pakt  id. 


Icntuem,  e,OM. 

riseu,  0.000. 
una,  8,000. 

[>f  the  Tagujj, 
Liicd,  and  pic* 
apital. 

;re  be  almoet 
sea,  since  not 
t  the  water  is 
tempestuous, 
sents  a  mora 
n  that  of  per- 
irope.  Lisbon 
ter,  crownin^f 
several  hills ; 
ortuguese,  are 
lose  of  Rome, 
md  churches, 
)  houses;  the 
tlants,  shrubs, 
n  the  suburbs, 
i  through  the 
crowd^  with 
teen  sails,  as- 
at  boats,  with 
t  the  stranger 
liant  illusion ; 
he  streets  are 
low ;  filth  and 
tiest  and  most 
rer  encounters 
[  to  punish  in* 
I  ant,  multiply 
architectural 

among  forty 

would  have 
hedral.  The 
ordered  them 
wo  handsome 
ire  connected 
ing  sand  that 
vea  an  awful 
readful  catas- 
hrown  down, 

destructicia 
e  earth,  still 
B  very  grand 
!r  only  half  a 
unnel,  and  in 
in  the  world. 

Maya;  and 
ly  caused  the 

u  the  most 
bage,  partly 
of  cork,  elm, 
le  view  fix)m 
ling  remark- 
3  for  the  sig- 
'  John  v.,  1ft 
containing 
ly  five  milfis 
i  and  a  veiy 


Book  L  PORTUGAL  ^  IM 

magnificent  monastery,  founded  by  Emanuel,  and  in  which  many  of  the  royal  family  have 
been  interred. 

There  are  several  other  towns  of  some  note  in  Portuguese  Estremadura.  St.  Ubes  or 
Retubal  lies  sixteen  miles  finm  Lisbon,  on  the  coast  south  of  the  Tagus,  on  a  long  interior 
bay,  the  waters  of  which,  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  leave  the  excellent  bay-salt, 
one  of  the  national  staples.  The  town  is  considerable,  having  been  well  rebuilt  since  the 
earthquake  of  1755,  when  it  was  almost  totally  overthrown.  The  mountain  of  Ursabida, 
here  extending  into  the  sea,  forms  a  bold  and  striking  promontory,  covered  with  trees  and 
various  vegetation.  Ascending  the  Tagus,  we  come  to  Santarem,  a  considerable  and  ancient 
town,  the  Presidium  Julium  of  the  Romans.  It  has  an  academy  of  history,  established  in 
1747.  Here  the  great  French  army,  under  Massena,  remained  long  posted,  unable  to  pene- 
trate to  Lisbon.  Abrantes,  higher  up,  is  an  important  military  position,  situated  on  a  height 
whence  it  commands  the  passage  of  the  Tagus.  Leiria,  to  the  north,  is  an  ancient  town,  in 
a  most  productive  territory,  and  where  a  great  annual  fair  is  held  for  the  supply  of  the 
peasantiy  of  the  neig^hbouring  country  round.  At  Batalha,  is  a  church  (fig.  32B.),  and 
monaste^,  which,  united,  form  the  finest  structures  in  all  Portugal  It  is  541  feet  by  416, 
and  is  considered  by  Mr.  Murphy  to  be  one  of  the  noblest  existing  specunens  of  the  Nuncan 


328 


1 1 . 1 


Cbureb  of  Batalba. 


Mittwleum  of  Kinc  Jobo. 


Gothic.  It  is  constructed  entirely  of  marble,  and  the  fi-ont  appeared  to  him  almost  unri* 
Tailed  in  chaste  and  delicate  ornament.  Among  the  difibrent  parts,  the  mausoleum  erected 
in  honour  of  King  John,  is  pre-eminently  beautiful  (fig.  329.).  Vimiero  is  only  a  village, 
but  celebrated  for  the  signal  victory  gained  by  the  British  over  the  army  of  Junot  Three 
miles  distant  is  Torres  Vedras,  a  tolerable  old  town,  but  chiefly  noted  as  the  centre  of  the 
grand  fortified  lines  formed  by  Wellington  in  1810,  which  so  completely  baffled  all  the  ma- 
noeuvres by  which  the  French  had  hoped  to  reconquer  Portugal. 

Alemtejo  is  an  extensive  province,  comprising  the  greater  part  of  Portugal  south  of  the 
Tagus.  The  interior  presents  an  extensive  plain ;  but  the  frontier  towards  Spain  is  finely 
diversified  with  hills,  wooded  mountains,  and  deep  valleys  extremely  well  watered,  and  very 
fertile.  It  contains  some  large  towns.  Evora  is  situated  on  an  eminence  in  a  fine  country, 
and  is  of  great  antiquity.  Its  origin  has  even  been  dated  seven  centuries  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  It  is  more  clearly  ascertained  that  the  Romans  made  it  a  municipal  town,  and 
adorned  it  with  some  of  their  finest  structures.  There  is  a  noble  aqueduct,  of  which  the 
piers  are  nine  feet  broad,  and  suppoUed  by  buttresses ;  also  a  Temple  of  Diana  built  by 
Sertorius,  ui  which  great  elegance  is  displayed.  Elvas,  on  the  Spanish  firontier,  unme- 
diately  facing  Badajos,  is  the  strongest  fortress  in  Portugal,  and  designed  as  the  barrier  of 
the  kingdom.  The  works  were  constructed  under  the  directions  of  the  celebrated  Count 
Schaumburg-Lippe ;  and  the  fort,  bearing  his  name,  is  considered  a  masterpiece  of  the  art 
In  this  neighbourhood  are  also  Villa  Vi^iosa,  a  pleasant  town,  and  a  fiivourite  country  resi- 
dence of  the  Portuguese  monarchs,  who  have  here  a  handsome  huntmg-park ;  and  Portar 
legre,  a  handsome  little  town  in  a  delightful  country,  with  a  good  cathedral.  Southward, 
in  the  interior,  is  Beja,  a  Roman  colonv,  and  subsequently  a  strong  Moorish  fortress.  After 
being  nearly  demolished,  it  was  rebuilt  by  Alfonso  Ul.,  and  fortified  by  King  Diniz,  and  is 
Btill  a  considerable  town. 

Algarve  forms  the  extreme  south  of  Portugal ;  and  is  a  maritime  province,  bearing  in  au 
especial  sense,  the  appellation  of  kingdom,  since  it  long  remained  independenr,  nna  was  a 
celebrated  theatre  of  war  between  the  Moors  and  the  Christians.  It  is  tolerably  fertile  in 
wine,  firuits,  and  oil.    Faro,  the  largest  town,  is  also  the  principal  seat  of  trade,  and  haa  » 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHY. 


PaktIH 


Coimbii. 


regular  packet  to  Gibraltar.  Laffoa  and  Silvea  are  alao  old  little  towni,  the  former  on  the 
■ea-coast,  with  Bome  shipplnff.  Cape  St.  Vincent,  the  extreme  point  of  Algarve,  and  the 
most  south-westerly  of  the  Peninaula,  is  celebrated  for  the  signal  victory  gained  by  the 
British  fleet  over  the  Spanish,  on  the  14th  of  February,  1797. 

Boira  is  a  very  extensive  province  or  kingdom,  tilling  nearly  the  whole  centre  of  Portu> 
gal,  between  the  Tagus  and  the  Douro.  Its  surface  presents  considerable  variety ;  the  in- 
terior part  has  the  usual  mountainous  character  of  Portugal,  being  traversed  by  Uie  great 
chain  called  the  Sierra  d'EHtrellu.  On  the  sea-coast,  however,  there  are  plains  of  consider- 
able extent  The  province  produces  plenty  of  wine,  oil,  and  chestnuts,  and  has  extensive 
pastures ;  but  the  grain  is  not  sufficient  for  its  consumption. 
Coimbra  {fig.  2aO.\  the  capital,  is  beautiiUUy  situated  on  the  declivitv  of  a  hill,  which 

rises  above  the  Mondego;  but  the 
streets,  as  in  other  old  Portueuese 
towns,  are  crowded,  durty,  ana  very 
steep.  In  former  times  a  residence 
of  the  kings  of  Portugal,  it  was 
strongly  fortified,  and  has  stood  ob- 
stinate sieges;  but  the  remains  of 
its  walls  and  towers  are  no  longer 
sufficient  to  constitute  it  a  fortress. 
It  has  been  called  the  Athens  of  Por- 
tugal, from  its  extensive  university, 
containiiuf  eighteen  colleges,  with 
forty  professors,  and  about  eight  hun- 
dred students.  Attached  to  it  is  a  library  of  nearly  40,000  volumes,  including  numerous 
MSS. ;  but  the  actual  value  both  of  these  and  the  p"mted  works  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
fblly  investigated. 

Beira  has  other  towns  of  some  importance.  Among  these  is  Almeida,  the  northern  barrier 
of  the  kingdom  and  a  fortress  of  consequence,  thouffh  not  possessing  the  great  strength  of 
Elvas.  It  was  twice  taken  in  the  last  war,  first  by  me  French  under  Mossena,  and  then  by 
the  British  under  Wellington.  Castello  Branco,  on  the  southern  frontier,  notwithstanding 
its  commanding  situation,  retains  little  importance.  Lamego,  near  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Douro,  is  an  ancient  city,  and  the  cradle  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy.  Here,  in  1143,  the 
■tatos-geyeral  for  the  first  time  met,  recognised  the  fundamental  laws,  and  acknowledged 
the  sovereignty  of  Alfonso.  Viseu,  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  is,  like  Lamego,  an  epis- 
eopai  titiO,  and  has  ihe  greatest  annual  fair  in  Portugal. 

Entre  Douro  e  Minho  forms  the  maritime  part  of  Portugal,  north  of  the  Douro.  Though 
the  smallest,  it  is  considered  the  most  valuable,  populous,  and  productive  of  all  the  provinces. 
Its  peasantry  have  done  much  to  redeem  the  reproach  of  torpor  and  sluggishness  generally 
urged  against  their  countrymen.  This  district  is  entirely  covered  with  mountains,  partly 
rugged  and  barren,  but  generally  separated  by  fertile  and  well-watered  vallevs,  cultivated 
to  the  utmost  possible  extent ;  and  which,  besides  oil,  fruit,  and  flax,  are  made  to  produce 
most  copiously  the  wine  called  port,  for  which  so  ample  a  market  exists  in  England. 

Oporto,  or  Porto  {fig.  331.),  the  ancient  capital,  and  still  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom, 
is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Douro  on  the  northern  bank,  thougli  on  the  southern  ore 
two  extensive  suburbs,  supposed  to  have  constituted  the  ancient  city.    The  modem  town  is 

331 


Oporto. 


well  built,  especially  when  compared  with  most  others  in  the  peninsula.  The  river  aifinda 
a  tolerably  secure  harbour,  without  any  artificial  aid,  except  an  elevated  and  walled  quay,  to 
which  the  ships'  cables  may  be  fastened  during  the  uoous.  These  often  come  down  with 
such  force,  that,  without  such  a  support,  the  vessels  would  be  inevitably  carried  out  into  the 


Booi 

■ea. 
amid  I 
regull 


PamtTO. 

inner  on  ths 
ve,  and  th« 
ined  by  the 


BookL 


PORTUGAL 


807 


re  of  Portu- 
oty ;  the  in- 
by  the  f^eaX 
of  consider- 
18  extensive 

I  hill,  which 
;o;  but  the 

Portuffuese 
ty,  ana  very 
I  a  residence 
gal,  it  was 
as  stood  ob> 

remains  of 
e  no  longer 
t  a  fortress, 
;hen8  of  Por- 
e  university, 
lieges,  with 
t  eight  hun< 
g  numerous 
to  have  been 

hem  barrier 
strength  of 
and  then  by 
vithstanding 
bank  of  the 
in  1143,  the 
knowledged 
go,  an  epis- 

Though 
e  provinces. 
!9  generally 
ains,  partly 
cultivated 
to  produce 
nd. 

e  kingdom, 
)uthem  are 
em  town  13 


aea.  The  chief  dependence  of  Oporto  is  its  trade  with  Englai.  Uch  remains  unimjpaired 
amid  the  general  duninution  of  that  wiUi  America.  There  are  »jout  thirty  English  houses 
regularly  setUed  here,  besides  a  number  of  merchants  who  pay  frequent  visits  to  the  place. 
The  exportation  of  port  wme,  however,  on  which  its  trade  rests,  is  generally  cramiwd  by 
the  absurd  policy  of  placing  it  entirely  in  the  hands  of  an  exclusive  company,*  who  have 
adopted  the  pemicious  practice  of  diluting  the  produce  of  the  best  vineyards  with  wme  of 
those  of  an  inferior  quality,  by  which  the  character  of  the  genuine  port  grievously  suffers. 

Briga,  ikrther  north,  ranks  as  the  capital  of  the  province ;  and,  though  now  far  outstripped 
by  Oporto,  is  of  much  more  ancient  ikme.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  the  metropolis  of  an 
extensive  district,  and  its  former  greatness  is  still  attested  by  numerous  antiquities.  It  has 
made  a  distinguished  figure  in  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Portugal,  and  is  the  see  of  an 
archbishop,  who  is  primate  of  the  kingdom.  Braga  is  a  handsome  town ;  well  built,  well 
paved,  the  streets  spacious  and  clean.  There  is  some  industry,  particularly  a  manufacture 
of  small  beaver  hats,  which  supplies  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  adjacent  country  is 
hilly,  but  populous  and  pleasant  Valcnqa  is  a  small  town,  agreeably  situated  on  the  Minho, 
which  separates  it  from  Galicia. 

Troa  08  Montes,  or  the  province  beyond  the  mountains,  is  of  ^at  extent,  occupying  the 
whole  interior  of  Portugal  north  of  the  Douro.  The  Cantabrian  chain,  after  traversing 
Asturias  and  Galicia,  throws  out  branches  which  not  only  separate  the  territory  flrom  the 
rest  of  Portugal,  but  cover  almost  its  whole  surface.  They  leave  only  deep  valleys,  through 
which  considerable  rivers,  too  rapid  however  to  be  navigable,  pour  down  into  the  Donra 
It  is  much  inferior  to  Entre  Douro  e  Minho,  both  in  populouaness  and  cultivation ;  yet  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  port  wine  produced  ^ws  on  the  sides  of  its  hills.  The  inhabitants 
are  a  race  of  active,  hardy,  and  brave  mountameers.  They  rose  in  great  force  against  the 
French,  and  have  since  somewhat  less  happily  distinguished  themselves  by  the  araour  with 
which  ihey  fought  in  the  cause  of  absolute  power,  and  in  resistance  to  every  form  of  consti- 
tutional government 

The  towns  are  small,  and  not  re^larly  fortified ;  though,  firom  the  nature  of  the  country, 
they  form  defensible  military  positions.  Braganza  is  a  city  of  ancient  note,  and  gave  the 
title  of  Duke  to  the  first  nobleman  in  tiie  kingdom,  even  before  he  was  raised  to  the  throne, 
fc^  the  appellation  of  John  IV.  The  kmgs  of  Portugal  still  retain  the  title  of  Dukes  of 
Braganza.  Chaves,  the  Aquee  Flaviee  of  the  Romans,  still  exhibits  two  baths  and  a  magni- 
ficent bridge  constructed  by  that  people.  Chaves  gives  the  title  of  Marquis  to  a  family,  one 
of  whom  was  the  most  active  opponent  of  the  French  during  their  invasion ;  while  another 
has  lately  been  at  the  head  of  the  anti-constitutional  army,  of  which  the  head-quarters  were 
always  in  Tras  os  Montes. 

*  [The  Oporto  wine  company,  which  enjojred  thii  monopoly,  wu  aboliihed  in  1834.— Ah.  Ed.] 


I 


END  OF  THE  FmST  VOLUME 


veraffiirda 
d  quay,  to 
lown  with 
it  into  the 


